cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Diels–Alder reaction (DA) is a chemical reaction between organic compounds. The reaction causes the compounds to form a new six-sided compound. This is called a cyclohexene. A conjugated diene joins with an alkene to make the cyclohexene. This compound looks like a ring.

This reaction was discovered by Otto Diels and Kurt Alder in 1928. In 1950, they were given the Nobel Prize in Chemistry for their work on this reaction. The DA reaction is very useful as it means cyclohexenes can be made with very little energy. Cyclohexenes are used to make complex organic molecules. One of the first uses of the DA reaction was to make insecticides.

The DA reaction makes a new hexagonal ring-shaped compound. A compound with two double bonds which are one carbon atom apart from each other is joined to another compound with at least one double bond. A DA reaction can also happen if some of the atoms in the newly formed ring are not carbon. Some of the DA reactions are reversible. The reaction caused during this breaking up of the cyclic system is called the retro-Diels–Alder. These retro-Diels–Alder compounds are often seen when they are analyzed by mass spectrometry.

Some chemists call the Diels–Alder reaction the 'Mona Lisa' of organic reactions. Like the simple smile on the painting, the reaction may be far more complex than chemists have so far discovered.

Lewis acids (AlCl3, ZnCl2, and others) act as catalysts to the reaction.

References

Other websites
 Asymmetric Hetero-Diels–Alder Reactions
 Semi-empirical calculations of the Diels–Alder reaction.
 Endo Addition Rule 

Organic reactions
Dagestan is a federal subject of the Russian Federation in the Caucasus region. The name comes from two Persian words, dag which means mountain, and stan which means land. Dagestan has a population of nearly 3 million, and its people are known as Dagestani. Its capital city is Makhachkala.

People 
Dagestan has the status of "republic" in Russia and has its own constitution and official languages. Republics in Russia are the home of its ethnic minorities (those who are not Russians), and usually one or two nationalities have a majority of the population in each republic. But in Dagestan, there are over 30 different nationalities (the largest of which are the Avar, Lak, Dargwa, Lezgian, and Tabasaran), and none of these form a majority. This is because the mountains in the region make it hard for people to move around. These people speak 30 different languages, but use Russian as their lingua franca to communicate between each other.

Most people of Dagestan are Muslims and belong to the Shafi`i school of Sunni Islam.

Famous people 
 Rasul Gamzatov
 Imam Shamil
 Shaykh Said afandi al-Chirkawi

Sources 
 Islam in Dagestan
 Official website of Dagestani government

References

Caucasus
Republics of Russia
Federal subjects of Russia
MESSENGER, MErcury Surface, Space ENvironment, GEochemistry and Ranging, was an unmanned NASA and APL spacecraft. It was orbiting and studying the planet Mercury.  Its mission lasted 10 years, 8 months and 28 days.

It was launched on August 3, 2004 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station. It was aboard a Boeing Delta II rocket. After launch, the probe did several fly-bys and deep space manoeuvres to gain the right trajectory and speed. 

It completed 30% mapping of Mercury on January 14, 2008. MESSENGER made one more pass by Mercury in 2009, and on March 18, 2011 began to orbit Mercury. 100% mapping was completed in March 2013 and the probe continued its studies. On April 30, 2015, it crashed into Mercury. It crashed near the crater Janáček.

References

NASA spacecraft
In psychology, compensation is a way people hide something that they cannot do well, by doing something else really well. They may not even be aware that they are doing it. Compensation can hide real or imagined problems and personal or physical inferiority. However it does not really solve the cause of the problem. Positive compensations may help a person overcome difficulties. But negative compensations do not, and can even make the problems worse.
 
There are two kinds of negative compensation:
Overcompensation, where a person has a goal to gain superiority. This leads to wanting power, dominance, self-esteem and self-devaluation.
Under compensation which includes a demand for help, leads to a lack of courage and a fear for life.

A well-known example of failing overcompensation, can be seen in people going through a mid life crisis. Approaching midlife many people (especially men) lack the energy to maintain their psychological defenses, including their compensatory acts.

Origin
Alfred Adler, founder of individual psychology, used the word compensation in relation inferiority feelings. In his book Study of Organ Inferiority and Its Physical Compensation (1907) he wrote if a person feels inferior (weak) then they will (usually) try to compensate for it somewhere else.

Adler's reason to explore this was from his own experience. He was shy and yet he pushed himself to give lectures.

Adler also "transferred" this idea of compensation to psychic training.

Cultural implications
Narcissistic people, by compensation theory, hide their feelings of low self-esteem by:
 talking "highly"
 contacting "highly admired" persons

Narcissistic children try to compensate for their jealousy and anger by fantasizing about:
 power
 beauty
 wealth

Christopher Lasch, an American historian and social critic wrote in his book The Culture of Narcissism (1979) that North American society in the 1970s was narcissistic. The narcissistic society:
 worships consumption
 fears dependency, aging, and death. 
Therefore, it is "fascinated" with fame.

Consumption can be an example of compensation (see study by Allison J. Pugh: From compensation to ‘childhood wonder’). Examples:
 use of goods to convey human relationships. 
 parents make up for "bad" conditions (poverty, abuse ...) they lived in
 parents make up for "bad" conditions (divorce, ...) they caused to children

References
 Claude S. Fisher: Comment On “Anxiety”: Compensation In Social History 
 Christopher Lasch (1979). The Culture of Narcissism: American Life in an Age of Diminishing Expectations. New York: Norton.
 Allison J. Pugh: ‘From compensation to ‘childhood wonder’: Why parents buy. 
 http://www.infinityinst.com/articles/alfred_adler.htm
 http://everything2.com/index.pl?node_id=535671

Psychology
A shingle beach (or pebble beach) is a beach made of pebbles, not sand. The stones may be from  diameter. These beaches strongly resist erosion by waves.

This beach landform is quite common in Western Europe, because the pebbles come from the lines of flint in the chalk. Chesil Bank is an example. When the chalk erodes, the tough flint stays as pebbles.

Other examples are found in Bahrain, North America and in a number of other places. On the east coast of New Zealand's South Island, there are mixed shingle and sand fans in the braided rivers.

References 

Geography of England
An eponym is a person's name that is used to name something else. This is common in science, such as asteroid, politics and medicine.

Names
In mathematics, the range is a concept which has various meanings in different topics:

 The range of a function , also written as  or , is the set of elements that the function outputs. 
 In statistics, the range is the difference between the lowest and highest values. For example. in {4, 6, 9, 3, 7}, the lowest value is 3, and the highest is 9, so the range is 9-3 = 6. 
 In some occasions, the term "range" can also refer to the mathematical concept of interval.

Related pages 
 Surjective function

References 

Functions and mappings
Mathematics
Shikasta is a 1979 science fiction novel. The full title is Re: Colonised Planet 5, Shikasta. British Nobel Prize in Literature-winner Doris Lessing wrote it as the first book in her five-book Canopus in Argos series. Alfred A. Knopf published it first in the United States in October 1979. Jonathan Cape published the book in the United Kingdom in November 1979. Shikasta is also the name of the fictional planet featured in the novel.

The book has a subtitle, "Personal, psychological, historical documents relating to visit by Johor (George Sherban) Emissary (Grade 9) 87th of the Period of the Last Days". 'The novel is the history of the planet Shikasta under the influence of three galactic empires: Canopus, Sirius, and their shared enemy, Puttiora. The book is a series of reports by Canopean visitors to Shikasta. They record what happens on the planet which is very similar to Earth. The novel shows the Earth's prehistory, how things became worse, the "Century of Destruction" (the 20th-century), and the Apocalypse (World War III).

Shikasta uses stories and images from the Old Testament and is influenced by spiritual and mystical themes in Sufism. Lessing had become interested in this Islamic belief system in the mid-1960s. The book was a major shift of focus in Lessing's writing, from realism to science fiction. Many of her readers were unhappy with the change. Critics gave the book both good and bad reviews. Some were impressed by the way the book showed a wide view of humanity and the universe. One reviewer called it a brave "and disturbing work from one of the world's great living writers". Others reviewers disliked the novel because it was depressing and humanity had no free will. People's lives were controlled by galactic empires.

The story of Shikasta is retold in the third book of the Canopus series, The Sirian Experiments (1980). In that book, the story is told from the point of view of Sirius. Shikasta appears again in the fourth book in the series, The Making of the Representative for Planet 8 (1982). The Zones that are briefly mentioned in Shikasta are the subject of the second book in the series, The Marriages Between Zones Three, Four and Five (1980).

References

Science fiction books
1979 books
HOMO stands for highest occupied molecular orbital. LUMO stands for lowest unoccupied molecular orbital. The energy difference between the HOMO and LUMO is termed the HOMO-LUMO gap. HOMO and LUMO are sometimes referred to as frontier orbitals.

Each molecular orbital has a calculated energy level. Chemists sort the molecular orbitals (MOs) by energy levels. Chemists assume that the electrons will occupy the lowest energy level MOs first. For example, if a molecule has enough electrons to fill 15 MOs, the 15 MOs with the lowest energy levels will be occupied. The 15th MO on the list would be called the "highest occupied molecular orbital" (HOMO) and the 16th MO on the list would be the "lowest unoccupied molecular orbital" (LUMO). The difference in the HOMO's energy level and the LUMO's energy level is called the band gap. The band gap can sometimes serve as a measure of the excitability of the molecule: the smaller the energy, the more easily a molecule's electrons will be excited. For example, this can help predict whether a substance will have luminescence.

SOMO
A SOMO is a singly occupied molecular orbital such as half-filled HOMO of a radical.

Related pages
 Diels–Alder reaction
 Electron configuration
 Ligand
 Organic semiconductor

References

Physical chemistry
Roald Hoffmann (born July 18, 1937) is a Polish-born American theoretical chemist of Jewish descent. He won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry. He currently teaches at Cornell University in Ithaca, New York.

He was born in Zloczov, Poland (now Ukraine)

Hoffmann survived The Holocaust and moved to the United States in 1949.

References 

1937 births
Living people
American chemists
American Nobel Prize winners
Columbia University alumni
Harvard University alumni
Holocaust survivors
Jewish American academics
Jewish American scientists
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Polish Jews
Polish Nobel Prize winners
Ukrainian Jews
Ukrainian Nobel Prize winners
In organic chemistry and biochemistry, substituent is the name for a single atom or for a group of atoms that take the position of another atom in a molecule. They replace this atom. This reaction is called a substitution reaction. The atom or group of atoms that gets replaced is called the leaving group.
 
The terms substituent, side chain, group, branch, or pendant group are used in the same way to describe branches from a parent structure. These terms have different meanings in polymer chemistry.  In polymers, side chains extend from a backbone structure, while they are attached to the alpha carbon atoms of the amino acid backbone in proteins. 

Organic chemistry has rules for naming compounds with substituent groups. The substituent group is listed first with a suffix to describe how it is attached to the main carbon chain. The suffix -yl is used when naming organic compounds that contain a single bond replacing one hydrogen. -ylidene and -ylidyne are used for double bonds and triple bonds respectively. When naming hydrocarbons that contain a substituent, position numbers may be used. These number will indicate which carbon atom the substituent is attached to. One case where this information is needed is that of isomers.

The phrases most-substituted and least-substituted are often used to describe molecules and predict their products. For example:

  Markovnikov's rule predicts that the hydrogen adds to the carbon of the alkene functional group that has the greater number of hydrogen substituents.
  Zaitsev's rule predicts that the major reaction product is the alkene with the more highly substituted (more stable) double bond.

Structures 
In a structural diagram or formula, the letters R or X are used to represent a substituent group. An organic substituent such as methyl, ethyl, aryl can be written as R (or R1, R2, etc.)  This is a generic placeholder. The R derived from radical or rest. The R can represent as many atoms as the author wants. The first to use this symbol was Charles Frédéric Gerhardt in 1844.

The symbol X can represent electronegative substituents such as the halides.

Related pages 
Side chain
 Functional groups are a subset of substituents

References

Organic chemistry
Chemical nomenclature

fr:Compresseur (audio)#Side-chain (commande extérieure)
The greater rhea, Rhea americana, is a flightless bird found in South America. The greater rhea is also known as grey, common rhea, or the American rhea. The species, first described by Carl Linnaeus in 1758, is found in Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Paraguay, and Uruguay.

The greater rhea takes its scientific name from the Greek goddess Rhea and the Latin word for "America".

It has a length of  and a wingspan of . Weighing , the greater rhea is the largest bird in South America.

References

Birds of South America
Flightless birds
Struthioniformes

ja:レア (鳥類)#アメリカ・レア
Petr Kalandra (March 10, 1950 – September 7, 1995) was a Czech musician, guitarist, harmonica player, vocalist and songwriter. He was member of A.S.P.M., Blues Session and Marsyas. He died in September 1995. In 2006 he was inducted into the Beatová síň slávy (Beat Hall of Fame).

References 

Blues musicians
1995 deaths
1950 births
Czech musicians
Till Eulenspiegel's Merry Pranks (German: Till Eulenspiegels lustige Streiche) is a very well-known piece of music for orchestra by Richard Strauss.  It is a tone poem (a piece of music which tells some kind of story).  In this work, Richard Strauss describes the adventures of Till Eulenspiegel who was the character in a series of stories written in Germany many years ago.  Till Eulenspiegel was a kind of folk hero.  He was a naughty boy who got up to all kinds of tricks.  The music is very humorous and describes his adventures.

The music is played by a large orchestra.  There is a small clarinet (normally an E flat clarinet, although in Strauss's day he used a D clarinet) that describes the character of Till.  Till is also represented by a French horn.

The music
The music starts with the main theme, which is like saying: 'Once upon a time'.  The horn plays one of Till's themes and this is taken up by the orchestra.  The small clarinet is then heard, sounding like Till laughing.  He rides his horse through the market and knocks lots of things off the stalls, then flirts with the girls (the first violin plays a theme which suggests love).

Till gets on his horse again.  Then suddenly there is a funeral march.  Till has been caught and he is sentenced to death.  Till pleads to be let free and tries to joke his way out of his troubles, but the executioner takes no notice.  Till is taken to the gallows (small clarinet), the flutes rattle as he reaches the top.  The small clarinet describes his death scream, and then he is executed (strings playing pizzicato.  There is a short silence, then the music returns to the opening 'Once upon a Time' theme, but the music finishes with a little joke, as if saying that someone like Till can never be destroyed.

Compositions by Richard Strauss
Orchestral works
Beatová síň slávy (Beat Hall of Fame or shortly BSS) is something like the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame. Czech Radio Beat honors the greatest legends of Czech rock music.

Categories 
 Musician
 Dead Musician
 Band

Induction

Multiple inductees

References

Other websites 
 Beatová síň slávy 

Czech music
The Thomson's gazelle (Gazella thomsonii) is the most common gazelle in East Africa. It is a kind of small antelope. It is named after explorer Joseph Thomson and, as a result, is sometimes referred to as a "tommie". They can be found on ranches and farmland throughout East Africa, and survive long after other species have been killed off or migrated away.

Description 
Thomson's gazelles are commonly referred to as "tommies". Tommies stand at about half a meter (22-26 inches) tall and weigh in between 15 and 25 kilograms (35-55 pounds). Although very similar in appearance to the Grant's gazelle, they have some distinguishing features.

Predators 
The tommy has adapted to drier life on the open grass plains of East Africa, mainly southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. Although tommies have many predators, including cheetahs, lions, leopards, crocodiles and hyenas, they are frequently the last animals left on an abandoned ranch or farmland. 

Their major predators are cheetahs, which can run faster, but gazelles can outlast them in long chases and are able to make turns more speedily. This small antelope-gazelle can run extremely fast, from , to 96 km/h (60 mph) and zigzag, a peculiarity which often saves it from predators. 

Sometimes they are also chased by leopards, lions and hyenas, but the gazelles are faster and more agile; these predators attack especially the young or infirm individuals. They can also be devoured by crocodiles and pythons, and their fawns are sometimes the prey of eagles, jackals, and baboons. A noticeable behaviour of Thomson's gazelles is their bounding leap, known as stotting or pronking, used to startle predators and display strength.

References

Mammals of Africa
Bovids
Matthew MacKenzie Robinson (July 18, 1914 – March 12, 2000) was an American track athlete. He was the older brother of professional baseball player Jackie Robinson.  Robinson was born in Cairo, Georgia.  He moved to Pasadena, California when he was young and lived there most of his life.  He ran track in high school and college.  While at Pasadena City College, he set junior college records in several events.   He won a silver medal at the 1936 Summer Olympics.  He came in second to Jesse Owens in the 200m.  Robinson later ran for the University of Oregon.  While there, he won National Collegiate Athletic Association and Amateur Athletic Union titles.  He is a member of the Oregon Sports Hall of Fame.  Robinson spent his later years working for the city of Pasadena as a garbage collector and mailman.  He tried to stop crime in the black neighborhoods of Pasadena.  Robinson died in Pasadena in 2000.  Several landmarks in Pasadena honor both Jackie and Mack Robinson, including the stadium at PCC.

References

1914 births
2000 deaths
African-American track and field athletes
Sportspeople from Georgia (U.S. state)
Sportspeople from California
People from Cairo, Georgia
In organic chemistry, a diene ( ) or diolefin ( ) is a hydrocarbon that contains two carbon pi bonds. 
Conjugated dienes are functional groups, with a general formula of CnH2n-2. Dienes and alkynes are functional isomers. Dienes occur occasionally in nature but are widely used in the polymer industry.

Classes

Dienes can be divided into three classes, depending on the relative location of the double bonds: 
Cumulated dienes have the double bonds sharing a common atom as in a group of compounds called allenes.
Conjugated dienes have conjugated double bonds separated by one single bond.
Unconjugated dienes have the double bonds separated by two or more single bonds. They are usually less stable than isomeric conjugated dienes. 

Compounds that contain more than two double bonds are called polyenes. Polyenes and dienes, share many of their properties.

Cycloadditions
An important reaction for conjugated dienes is the Diels–Alder reaction.  Many specialized dienes have been developed to exploit this reactivity for the synthesis of natural products, e.g. Danishefsky’s diene.

Other websites
IUPACs Gold Book definition of dienes dienes PDF 

Hydrocarbons
In chemistry, a conjugated system is a system of continuous and parallel p-orbitals with delocalized electrons. Conjugated systems are created by several multiple bonds, each separated by single bonds. In general, conjugated systems may lower the overall energy of the molecule and increase how steady it is. They can contain lone pairs, radicals or carbonium ions. The compound may be cyclic, acyclic, linear or mixed. In most cases, the atoms in a molecule are held together by single bonds (where orbitals from adjacent atoms overlap).  Molecules which have a conjugated system have unique properties different from normal compounds created by the sharing of the delocalized electrons among many atoms.

Conjugation is the overlap of one p-orbital with another across a sigma bond (or single bond) that is in between. (The d-orbitals of larger atoms can also contribute to a conjugated system).

A conjugated system has a region of overlapping p-orbitals, bridging the single bonds that are between. They allow a delocalization of pi electrons across all the adjacent aligned p-orbitals.
The pi electrons do not belong to a single bond or atom, but rather to a group of atoms.

The largest conjugated systems (with the greatest number of shared electrons) are in graphite, conductive polymers, and carbon nanotubes.

Mechanism

Different types of molecular structures can result in conjugation. For conjugation, all the neighboring atoms in a chain must have an available p-orbital. In many cases, conjugated systems are a series of a single bonds each followed by a double bond. Other systems exist. For example, furan (see picture) is a five-membered ring with two alternating double bonds and an oxygen in position 1. The Oxygen in furan has two lone pairs, one of which fills a p-orbital on that position. The lone pair electron makes conjugation possible on a five-membered ring. The presence of a nitrogen in the ring can be a source of pi orbitals needed for conjugation. Also, pi orbitals needed for conjugation can come from substituent groups α to the ring like: a carbonyl group (C=O), an imine group (C=N), a vinyl group (C=C), or an anion.

Chromophores
Conjugated systems are the main things that make up chromophores. Chromophores are light-absorbing parts of a molecule that can cause a compound to have a visible color. Chromophores are often present in various organic compounds and sometimes present in polymers that are colored or glow in the dark. Chromophores often consist of a series of conjugated bonds and/or ring systems, which can include C-C, C=C, C=O, or N=N bonds. Many times, chromophores have aromatic rings.

Common examples
Diene
Vitamin D
Vitamin A
Benzene
Conjugated linoleic acid

Related pages
Resonance (chemistry)
Hyperconjugation
Cross-conjugation
Polyene

References

Organic chemistry
Prince Semien Fielder (born May 9, 1984 in Ontario, California) is an American Major League Baseball player. He currently plays for the Texas Rangers. He debuted in the MLB for the Milwaukee Brewers on June 13, 2005 when he was called up from the minor league Nashville Sounds. He was sent back down but was called up again on August 17, 2005 where he finished the season with the Brewers and was used as a pinch-hitter. Fielder is a 3-time All Star and is also one of 26 players in the 50 home run club.

Other websites 

 Prince Fielder's MLB player profile

1984 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Los Angeles
National League All-Stars
Texas Rangers players
American League All-Stars
Kurt Alder (July 10, 1902 – June 20, 1958) was a German chemist and Nobel laureate.

Biography
Alder was born in the industrial area of Königshütte, Silesia (modern day Chorzów, Upper Silesia, Poland). He received his early schooling there. Alder left the area for political reasons when Königshütte became part of Poland in 1922. He studied chemistry at the University of Berlin from 1922, and later at the University of Kiel where his earned a PhD in 1926 for work supervised by Diels.

In 1930 Alder was appointed reader for chemistry at Kiel, and promoted to lecturer in 1934. In 1936 he left Kiel to join I G Farben Industrie at Leverkusen, where he worked on synthetic rubber. In 1940, he was appointed Professor of Experimental Chemistry and Chemical Technology at the  University of Cologne and Director of the Institute of Chemistry there. Throughout this time and despite the many obstacles to original research in Europe at the time, he continued a systematic program of investigations of his particular interests in the synthesis of organic compounds. In all he published more than 151 papers in this field.   

Alder received several honorary degrees and other awards, most famously the 1950 Nobel Prize in Chemistry which he shared with his teacher Diels for their work on what is now known as the Diels–Alder reaction. The lunar crater Alder is named in his honour. The insecticide aldrin, created through a Diels–Alder reaction, is also named for him.

References

Other websites
Nobel Prize biography 

1902 births
1958 deaths
German academics
German chemists
German Nobel Prize winners
People from former German territories
Kenichi Fukui (October 4, 1918–January 9, 1998) was a Japanese chemist. He won the 1981 Nobel Prize in Chemistry.

Early life
Fukui was the oldest of three sons of Ryokichi Fukui, who was a merchant. He was born in Nara, Japan. 

He graduated from Kyoto Imperial University in 1941.

Career
Fukui worked at the Army Fuel Laboratory of Japan during World War II.{  

In 1943, he was appointed a lecturer in fuel chemistry at Kyoto Imperial University. 

He was professor of physical chemistry at Kyoto University from 1951 to 1982.

He was president of the Kyoto Institute of Technology between 1982 and 1988. 

Fukui shared the 1981 Nobel Prize with Roald Hoffmann.  Fukui and Hoffmann worked separately on the mechanisms of chemical reactions.  Fukui explained in his Nobel lecture that, 
"It is only after the remarkable appearance of the brilliant work by Woodward and Hoffmann that I have become fully aware that not only the density distribution but also the nodal property of the particular orbitals have significance in such a wide variety of chemical reactions."

Honors
 Japan Academy Medal, 1962 
 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1981 
 Order of Culture, 1981 
 Order of the Rising Sun, Grand Cordon, 1988 
 Royal Society (UK), foreign member, 1989

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country

References

1918 births
1998 deaths
Japanese chemists
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
People from Nara Prefecture
Japanese Nobel Prize winners
Kyoto University alumni
Kyoto University faculty
Woodward's rules are a set of rules about how organic chemical compounds absorb ultraviolet light.

They give information about the wavelength of the absorption maximum (symbol λmax ) in an ultraviolet-visible (UV) spectrum of a compound.  The rules are named after Robert Burns Woodward. He was a Harvard University professor who won the 1965 Nobel Prize in chemistry. The rules are sometimes called the Woodward-Fieser rules, to also honor Louis Fieser. 

The rules build the prediction on the type of chromophores present, the substituents on the chromophores, and changes due to the solvent. Examples are conjugated carbonyl compounds, conjugated dienes, and polyenes.

Implementation
One set of Woodward-Fieser rules for dienes is shown in table one. A diene is either homoannular with both double bonds contained in one ring or heteroannular with two double bonds distributed between two rings.

These rules predict the UV absorption maximum of compounds. Here are two examples:

In the compound on the left the base value is 214 nm (a heteroannular diene). This diene group has 4 alkyl substituents (labeled 1,2,3,4) and the double bond in one ring is exocyclic to the other (adding 5 nm for an exocyclic double bond). In the compound on the right, the diene is homoannular with 4 alkyl substituents. Both double bonds in the central B ring are exocyclic with respect to rings A and C.

References

Organic chemistry
The Plastic People of the Universe (or shortly PPU) is a rock band from Prague, Czechoslovakia (Today Czech Republic). In 60s and 70s was frontman bass player Milan "Mejla" Hlavsa (*1951-†2001) and current frontman is saxophonist Vratislav Brabenec (*1943). On his "debut" album Egon Bondy's Happy Hearts Club Banned, the group set to music poems by Egon Bondy. The band became famous when it was put in prison by the communist government.

Selected discography
Muž bez uší (live recordings 1969-72)
Vožralej jak slíva (live recordings 1973-75)
Egon Bondy's Happy Hearts Club Banned (1974)
Ach to státu hanobení (live recordings 1976-77)
Pašijové hry velikonoční (1978)
Jak bude po smrti (1979)
Co znamená vésti koně (1981)
Kolejnice duní (1977–82)
Hovězí porážka (1983–84)
Půlnoční myš (1985–86)
Líně s tebou spím - Lazy Love / In Memoriam Mejla Hlavsa (2001)
Pašijové hry / Passion Play (with Agon Orchestra) (2004)
Maska za maskou (The Mask Behind the Mask)(2009)

References

Other websites

Plastic People official site

Article from Prague Life
Interview with Paul Wilson
Interview/profile from the Washington Post's Express 

Czech musical groups
Nico (born Christa Päffgen; 16 October 1938 – 18 July 1988) was a German singer, songwriter, actress, and Warhol Superstar. She is featured on the first album by the New York rock band The Velvet Underground, The Velvet Underground & Nico.

She was born in Cologne. She grew up in Brandenburg and Berlin.

She made seven studio albums.

She died on holiday in the Spanish island of Ibiza, of a cerebral hemorrhage while riding her bicycle.

Nico was born Christa Päffgen. When she was 16 the photographer Herbert Tobias gave her the name Nico. Nico moved to Paris and began working for Vogue, Tempo, Vie Nuove, Mascotte Spettacolo, Camera, Elle, and other fashion magazines.

References

1938 births
1988 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Spain
Contraltos
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Entertainers from Berlin
Entertainers from North Rhine-Westphalia
German singers
People from Brandenburg
People from Cologne
Rock singers
Karel Kryl (April 12, 1944 Kroměříž, Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia, today Czech Republic – March 3, 1994 Passau, Germany) was a Czech singer-songwriter and poet. Kryl is sometimes called a "Básník s kytarou" (poet with a guitar).

Other websites

Karel Kryl official website

1944 births
1994 deaths
Czech poets
Czech musicians
Singer-songwriters
U.S. Route 40 is a federal highway from Park City, Utah to Atlantic City, New Jersey.  It is 2,286 miles long and passes through twelve states.  It used to go from Park City to Reno, Nevada and San Francisco, California, but that route is now part of Interstate 80.  Much of the eastern part of U.S. Route 40, from Vandalia, Illinois to Cumberland, Maryland (or from St. Louis, Missouri to Baltimore) was part of the National Road.  This part has been around since 1839.  Part of U.S. Route 40 was also called the "Lincoln Highway".

U.S. Route 40 passes or passed through many cities.  Some of these are:

The current capitals are Denver, Topeka, Indianapolis, and Columbus. Vandalia was a former capital of Illinois, Zanesville was a former capital of Ohio, and Wheeling was a former capital of West Virginia.

Cities

Current
Park City, Utah
Vernal, Utah
Craig, Colorado
Denver, Colorado
Oakley, Kansas
Hays, Kansas
Salina, Kansas
Topeka, Kansas
Lawrence, Kansas
Kansas City, Kansas
Kansas City, Missouri
Warrensburg, Missouri
Columbia, Missouri
St. Louis, Missouri
Vandalia, Illinois
Effingham, Illinois
Terre Haute, Indiana
Indianapolis, Indiana
Richmond, Indiana
Dayton, Ohio
Springfield, Ohio
Columbus, Ohio
Zanesville, Ohio
Wheeling, West Virginia
Washington, Pennsylvania
Cumberland, Maryland
Hagerstown, Maryland
Baltimore, Maryland
Wilmington, Delaware
Atlantic City, New Jersey

Former
San Francisco, California
Oakland, California
Sacramento, California
Reno, Nevada
Winnemucca, Nevada
Elko, Nevada
Salt Lake City, Utah

References

40
Ozone is a gas that is present in the ozone layer in the stratosphere of the Earth. There, it will absorb almost all ultraviolet light which is harmful to many organisms. The term Ozone depletion can refer to a number of distinct, but related phenomena:
 Since about the 1970s, there has been a decrease in total volume of the Ozone in the ozone layer, of about 4%, per decade.
 There are seasonal variations in the ozone layers; in springtime, there is less ozone in the ozone layer over the polar regions, esp. the south pole. This is generally known as ozone hole.
 In addition to these well-known stratospheric phenomena, there are also springtime polar tropospheric ozone depletion events.

The details of polar ozone hole formation differ from that of mid-latitude thinning, but the most important process in both is catalytic destruction of ozone by atomic halogens. The main source of these halogen atoms in the stratosphere is photodissociation of man-made halocarbon refrigerants (CFCs, freons, halons.) These compounds are transported into the stratosphere after being emitted at the surface.
Both types of ozone depletion were observed to increase as emissions of Halocarbons increased.

CFCs and other substances contributing to this effect are referred to as ozone-depleting substances (ODS). Since the ozone layer prevents most harmful UVB wavelengths (280–315 nm) of ultraviolet light (UV light) from passing through the Earth's atmosphere, observed and projected decreases in ozone have generated worldwide concern. As a result, the Montreal Protocol  has been adopted. The treaty bans the production of CFCs, halons as and other ozone-depleting chemicals such as carbon tetrachloride and trichloroethane. The biological consequences  of this change in ozone levels may include an increases in skin cancer, cataracts, damage to plants, and the reduction of plankton populations in the ocean.

Estimates of how quickly the ozone layer will regenerate vary by about two decades. NASA estimated in 2006, that it wil take to 2068 for the ozone layer in Antarctica to recover to the level before human-induced thinning.  According to the World Meteorological Organization, the state of the ozone layer over Antarctica will not change noticeably in the next twenty years. The state before 1980 will be reached between 2060 and 2075, 25 years later than predicted in 2002. Over the Arctic, there will be bigger losses in ozone over the next fifteen years, esp. in cold winters. For the Arctic regions, the state before 1980 will be reached around 2050.

References

Atmosphere
Photodissociation, photolysis, or photodecomposition is a chemical reaction in which a chemical compound is broken down by photons. One or more photons interact with the target molecule.

Photodissociation is not limited to visible light.  Any photon with sufficient energy can affect the chemical bonds of a chemical compound.  Since a photon's energy is inversely proportional to its wavelength, electromagnetic waves with the energy of visible light or higher, such as ultraviolet light, x-rays and gamma rays are usually involved in such reactions.

One example where this is used is the Light-dependent reaction of photosynthesis. Far more enegetic photons of ultraviolet light (240 nm and shorter) can break the bonds of oxygen molecules. The newly independent oxygen atoms create ozone in the ozone layer.

Chemistry
The 2008 UEFA European Football Championship (or the Euro 2008) was the 13th UEFA European Championships. It was hosted by Austria and Switzerland during June 7 and June 29, 2008. The winners were Spain, defeating Germany 1-0. Spain was also the first team since Germany in 1996, to win undefeated.

Greece, the UEFA Euro 2004 champions, recorded the worst finish in the UEFA Euro 2008. They got the least amount of money, and no points for the Group Stage.

Qualifying groups

Teams highlighted in green qualified for the finals.

Group A

Group B

Group C

Group E

Group G

Qualified Teams 

The teams that qualified were:

Austria
Switzerland
Poland
Portugal
Italy
France
Greece
Turkey
Czech Republic
Germany
Croatia
Russia
Spain
Sweden
Romania
Netherlands

Final

Final rankings 

Rankings are based on performance, not team skill. Also, these rankings are unofficial and are not based on head-to-head record.

2008 in association football
UEFA European Championship tournaments
Football in Austria
Football in Switzerland
2008 in Europe
21st century in Austria
2000s in Switzerland
Juan Esteban Aristizábal Vásquez (born 9 August 1972), known as Juanes, is a one-time Grammy Award-winning and nineteen-time Latin Grammy Award-winning Colombian singer, songwriter, instrumentalist, record producer. He was a member of heavy metal band Ekhymosis and is now a solo artist. Juanes has sold more than 15 million albums worldwide.

Raised in Medellín, Colombia, Juanes began playing guitar at age seven.

Discography
Studio albums
 Fíjate Bien (2000)
 Un Día Normal (2002)
 Mi Sangre (2004)
 La Vida... Es un Ratico (2007)
 P.A.R.C.E. (2010)

Live albums
 Juanes MTV Unplugged (2012)

References

Other websites 

Official website 
English version
Juanes to Twitter in Cuba Despite Exiles By Alfredo Prieto, Havana Times, August 26, 2009
Official Universal Music Latino Website 
Mi Sangre Foundation website 

Juanes Interview
Juanes Interview on CorrienteLatina.com 
English version

Colombian singers
Grammy Award winners
Songwriters
1972 births
Living people
Latin singers
Latin Grammy Award winners
A vector field is a function that assigns to every point in space a vector. It can be imagined as a collection of arrows, each one attached to a different point in space. For example, the wind (the velocity of air) can be represented by a vector field. This is because in every point one can write an arrow showing the direction of the wind and its strength. 

Vector calculus is the study of vector fields.

Physical examples 
In everyday life, gravity is the force that makes objects fall down. More generally, it is the force that pulls objects towards each other. If we describe for each point in space the direction and strength of the earth's pull, we will get a gravity vector field for the Earth.  

The theory dealing with electricity and magnetism in physics is called electromagnetism. One of the basic assumptions is that there are two vector fields in all space which govern electric and magnetic forces. One is the electric field, which is often written as  and the second is the magnetic field, which is often written as .

Atmospheric circulation can be represented by a vector field. The more precisely the vector field describes the actual flow, the better the resulting weather forecast.

Linear algebra
Vectors
In calculus, multivariable calculus is the extension of regular, one-dimensional calculus to more than one dimension. Most of the concepts from calculus, such as continuity and chain rule, still work in more than one dimension, though sometimes with greater complexity and counter-intuitive result. 

Special multivariable uses include partial derivatives, or differentiation with only one dimension at a time, and multiple integration, or integrating over more than one dimension. The gradient operator , defined in terms of partial derivatives, is used to defined higher concepts such as Laplace operator, divergence and curl. By integrating a multivariable function over several variables, one can define an integral over an area, surface or volume as well.

Related pages 

 Vector calculus

References 

Calculus
PFC CSKA Moscow (Russian: Профессиональный футбольный клуб - ЦСКА, or English: Professional Football Club — Central Sports Club of Army [Moscow]) is a Russian football club from the capital city of Moscow. The team was more successful during the Soviet Union. Their biggest rival is Spartak Moscow. But PFC CSKA Moscow has the most fans. PFC CSKA Moscow was also the first Russian team to win the UEFA Cup (UEFA Europa League).

Past Names of the Club 
1911-1922 - Общество Любителей Лыжного Спорта (English: Amateur Society of Skiing Sports)

1923 - Russian: Опытно-Показательная Площадка Всеобуча) (English: Experimental & Demonstrational Playground of Military Education Association)

1924-1927 - Опытно-Показательная Площадка Военведа (English: Experimental & Demonstrational Playground of Military Administration)

1928-1950 - Спортивный Клуб Центрального Дома Красной Армии (English: Sports Club of Central House of the Red Army)

1951-1956 - Спортивный Клуб Центрального Дома Советской Армии (English: Sports Club of Central House of the Soviet Army)

1957-1959 - Центральный Спортивный Клуб Министерства Обороны (English: Central Sports Club of the Ministry of Defense)

1960–Present — Центральный Спортивный Клуб Армии (English: Central Sports Club of Army)

Titles

Related pages

2011–12 PFC CSKA Moscow season

Russian football clubs
PFC CSKA Moscow
1911 establishments
1910s establishments in the Soviet Union
The leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx), also known as the sea leopard, is the second largest species of seal in the Antarctic (after the Southern Elephant Seal). It is most common in the southern hemisphere along the coast of Antarctica and on most sub-Antarctic islands, but can also be found on the coasts of southern Australia, Tasmania, South Africa, New Zealand, Lord Howe Island, Tierra del Fuego, the Cook Islands, and the Atlantic coast of South America. It can live twenty-six years, possibly more. Killer whales, and large sharks are the only natural predators of leopard seals. They eat Crabeater seals, consuming 80% of their young. They are large and strong. They have a dark grey back and a light grey stomach. Its neck is a little bit white with black spots, which is the pattern of a leopard's coat. That is how it got its name. Leopard seals are carnivores. It eats penguins, seagulls, fish, squid, octopuses, krill, shrimps, crabs and even other seals. 

Mammals of Australia
FC Saturn Ramenskoye (, or English: State-Owned Enterprise of the Moscow Region Football Club Saturn Moscow Region) is a Russian football team near the Moscow area of Ramenskoye. It was also known as FC Saturn Moscow Region. In 2006, the club broke the record for the most draws in a Russian Premier League season, 16 draws. The club closed down in 2011, as there were bad financial problems. However, it was revived on the base of their former farm club FC Saturn-2 Moscow Region.

The club's past names were Krylya Sovetov (1946-1957), Trud (1958-1959) and Saturn Ren-Tv (2002-2004).

Titles 

Russian football clubs
1946 establishments in the Soviet Union
The First Professional Football League (), known in short as Parva Liga (), is the top-level league of men's association football in Bulgaria. The league was founded in 1924 as the Bulgarian State Football Championship, and was later known by several other names, most recently Bulgarian A Professional Football Group from 2003 to 2016. The current name was adopted for the 2016–17 season.

The current champions are Ludogorets Razgred, who have won the last seven titles (2012 to 2018).

Results

Bulgarian State Football Championship

Bulgarian Republic Football Championship

A Group

First Professional Football League

Result table

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 League at UEFA
 Bulgaria – List of Champions, RSSSF.com

Football leagues
Football in Bulgaria
The Grand Sports Arena of the Luzhniki Olympic Complex (, also known as the Luzhniki Stadium) is the biggest sports stadium in Russia. The stadium is in Moscow.

Buildings and structures in Moscow
Football stadiums in Europe
Sport in Russia
1956 establishments in Europe
1950s establishments in the Soviet Union
The 2018 FIFA World Cup was the 21st FIFA World Cup, which is a men's football tournament that takes place every four years and is organized by FIFA. The tournament took place in Russia from 14 June to 15 July 2018, after the country was awarded the hosting rights on 2 December 2010. This was the first World Cup taking place in Eastern Europe.

The defending champions were Germany. France won the tournament after defeating Croatia 4–2. This was France's second World Cup title.

Qualified teams 

Russia is the host country, so the Russian team automatically qualified.

Draw
The draw was held in Moscow at 18:00 MSK, on Friday 1 December 2017
The teams were divided into 4 pots, 8 teams each. The number in parenthesis show positions in the FIFA World Rankings prior to the tournament.

Stadiums

Group stage
The top two teams of each group advance to the round of 16. Matches are played on a round-robin basis.

Tiebreakers
The rankings of teams in each group are determined as follows (regulations Article 32.5):

If two or more teams are equal on the basis of the above three criteria, their rankings are determined as follows:

Group A

Group B

Group C

Group D

Group E

Group F

Group G

Group H

Knockout stage

Bracket

Round of 16

cjk

Quarter-finals

Semi-finals

Third place play-off

Final

Statistics

Goalscorers

Discipline

A player is automatically suspended for the next match for the following offences:
 Receiving a red card (red card suspensions may be extended for serious offences)
 Receiving two yellow cards in two different matches; yellow cards expire after the completion of the quarter-finals (yellow card suspensions are not carried forward to any other future international matches)

The following suspensions were served during the tournament:

Awards

Prize money
Prize money amounts were announced in October 2017.

References

Other websites 

FIFA.com 2018 website 
Welcome2018.com

 
2018 in Russia
Football in Russia
June 2018 events
FIFA World Cup tournaments