cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Temerin is a town and municipality in South Bačka District, Vojvodina, Serbia. The municipality of Temerin includes the towns of Temerin and Bački Jarak, and villages Sirig and Kamendin. In the 2002 census, the town of Temerin had a population of 19,143, and the municipality had a population of 28,201. Most of its inhabitants are Serbs, while the largest minority in the town and municipality are Hungarians.

Geography 
Temerin is located in Pannonian plain, about 20 km north of Novi Sad, the seat of the district. It is first mentioned in 1332 in the receipt by the pope Then Temerin was part of Kingdom of Hungary. Ottomans conquered it 1526, after Battle of Mohacz. Temerin stayed in Ottoman possession until Great Turkish War at the end of 17th century, when it became part of Austrian Empire. After World War I Temerin became part of Yugoslavian state.

References

Settlements in Serbia
Sea slug is an informal name for a group of gastropods which look similar, but are not monophyletic. Their similar shape and life styles is an example of convergent evolution. The group includes:

Heterobranchia
Nudibranchs: a clade with bilateral symmetry
Sacoglossa, a clade of Heterobranch sea slugs and snails which go in for kleptoplasty ('stealing' plastids). They eat algae and keep the chloroplasts for their own use.
Opisthobranchs: a long-used term now just an informal label. Polyphyletic.
Sea angels, or cliones, are opisthobranch gastropod molluscs of the clade Gymnosomata.
Sea hares are medium to large size marine Gastropod molluscs. They belong to two families of the Opisthobranchia.
Cephalaspidea: a sub-order of Opisthobranch gastropod molluscs. They usually possess a reduced internal shell.
Onchidiidae: a family of air-breathing sea slugs.
Sea butterflies: a group of pelagic sea snails sometimes called pteropods. They belong to the clade Thecosomata.

It would seem that their similar growth pattern, with the loss of torsion, bilateral symmetry, reduction of the Gastropod shell, and somewhat similar life styles, evolved a number of times in the Gastropods.

Gastropods
Hurricane David was the strongest and deadliest hurricane of the 1979 Atlantic hurricane season, but not the costliest. This hurricane caused a lot of damage as it slammed into Dominican Republic as a category 5 hurricane and was it struck Florida as a category 2 hurricane. Hurricane David killed 2,068 and caused over $1.5 billion in damage.

Retirement

Because it killed so many people in Dominican Republic, the name David was retired. This was the first male name retired in the Atlantic Ocean. Meaning, David will never be used as a name of a storm in the Atlantic Ocean. The name Danny replaced it in 1985, 1991, 1997, 2003, and 2009. The name Danny is also on the list in 2015. Hurricane David was a very strong hurricane killing many. 

David
David
Deadly storms
20th centuy in Haiti
20th century in the Dominican Republic
20th century in Puerto Rico
1970s in Cuba
20th century in the Bahamas
1970s in Florida
20th century in Georgia (U.S. state)
1979 in North America
Hurricanes in the Dominican Republic
Michael Polakovs, known in America as Coco the Clown, (born Riga, Latvia 23 February 1923; died USA, 6 December 2009) was a famous clown.  His father was known as Coco the Clown in Britain.  Michael played the part of Coco the Clown in America.  He was also known for being Ronald McDonald, the clown who publicized McDonald’s fast food chain.

Life
Michael Polakovs was born in Riga.  His parents Nikolai and Valentina were both circus artists.  Nikolai was known as Coco the Clown.  He was working in Breslau in Germany when Willy Schumann, the circus director, saw him and persuaded him to go to Britain.

The family moved to Britain where his father found work in Bertram Mills circus.  Michael was the eldest of six children.  By the time he was 17 he was working as a clown called “Coconut”.  Then World War II started and he and his father had to work digging roads and laying gas pipes.  They earned £2 16s 6d a week (just over £2.82 in modern money).  Then he became a driver for the government.  He also managed to do some work as a clown in Blackpool Tower Circus and Tom Arnold’s circus.

When Bertram Mills opened his circus again after the war the Polakovs family were all working for him.  He was particularly good at stilt-walking.  One one occasion he saved the life of a lion tamer who was being attacked by a lion.

In 1951 he went with a brother and a sister to work for Billy Smart’s circus.  The brother married Billy Smart’s daughter.

In 1958 Michael decided to go to the United States.  There he became known as Coco the Clown.  He worked for the Ringling Brother’s Barnum & Bailey Circus, known as “The Greatest Show on Earth”.  Later he worked for other circuses.  He started the popularity of the character Ronald McDonald, advertising for the fast food chain.  He designed Ronald’s  clothes and make-up and appeared in the first eight of his television commercials.

Later he settled with his second wife in Kentucky.  He had four children by his first wife and two children by his second wife.

He died aged 86 in 2009.

References
Obituary in The Daily Telegraph, 16 December 2009, p. 33

1923 births
2009 deaths
Clowns
People from Riga
Coco the Clown (or Theo de Kovel) is a clown character who is very famous in Britain and later became famous in America. Coco was not a whiteface clown but an auguste.This type of clown is supposed to be a bit stupid, so he gets teased by another clown who is supposed to be much cleverer.  Coco always gets buckets of water thrown at him or custard pies in his face. 

Theo de Kovel (or Polakovs) (1900–74) made the character of Coco the Clown famous.  Later his son Elwin de Beer (1923-2009) made him famous in the Netherlands

After retiring from the circus, Nicolai Poliakoff toured schools in the UK as Coco promoting road safety. He had a walking stick in the shape of a Bolesha Beacon. For this work he was awarded the OBE by the Queen.

Clowns

118118118118118118118
Joel Norman Quenneville (born September 15, 1958 in Windsor, Ontario) is a retired Canadian ice hockey player. He is the current head coach for the Florida Panthers of the National Hockey League (NHL). He won the Stanley Cup when he was an assistant coach for the Colorado Avalanche in 1996. He became head coach of the Blackhawks in 2008. He replaced Denis Savard.

Career statistics

Coaching record

References

Other websites

Profile at hockeydraftcentral.com

1958 births
American Hockey League players
Canadian ice hockey coaches
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Chicago Blackhawks players
Colorado Rockies (NHL) players
Hartford Whalers players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Jack Adams Award winners
Living people
New Jersey Devils players
Ontario Hockey League players
Stanley Cup champions
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Washington Capitals players
Three Cups of Tea is a book co-written by Greg Mortenson and David Oliver Relin. It follows Mr. Mortenson's journey to founding his organisation, the Central Asia Institute (CAI), which builds schools and other facilities for children, especially girls, in Pakistan and Afghanistan.

References

Autobiographies
Vladimir Aleksandrovich Teplyakov () (November 6, 1925- December 10, 2009) was a Russian physicist who is best known for his work with particle accelerators. He, working with his friend I.M. Kapchinsky, created the Radio Frequency Quadrupole (RFQ) principle, which was very important dealing with the speed of low energy ion beams.

Life
Teplyakov was born in the USSR on November 6, 1925. He was made to join the Red Army in January 1943 and fought in the Second World War on the Ukrainian front. After the war ended, he went to and graduated from the All-Union Correspondence Polytechnic Institute in Moscow. After leaving school, he began work at the Institute of Chemical Physics. From 1959-1966, he worked at Chelyabinsk-70, where he kept up his study of high-current proton . In 1966, he and several of the people that he worked with were moved to the Institute of High Energy Physics in Protvino, Russia.

Civilian honours
Lenin Prize in 1998 for his work on creating the RFQ.
Order of Lenin and the Order of the October Revolution.

Military honours
Order of Glory, 3rd class the 
Order of the Patriotic War, 2nd Class
medal for the Capture of Vienna.

Notes and references
 "Vladimir Alexsandrovich Teplyakov" Translation from Atomnaya Energiya, Vol. 99, pp. 396-397, November 2005. 
 "The Linear Accelerator Structures With Space-Uniform Quadrupole Focusing" June 1979
 "RFQ pioneer celebrates 80th birthday"  November 2, 2005
 "Teplyakov’s Proposal for the IFMIF Accelerator RFQ" Retriever on December 11, 2009
 "Циклы научных работ, выполненные в ГНЦ ИФВЭ и удостоенные высших государственных премий"  Retrieved on December 11, 2009
 "Vladimir Teplyakov" Retrieved on December 12, 2009
 "Wapedia: Lenin Prize" Retriever on December 13, 2009
 "Accelerator Application To Medicine And Technology" Retrieved on December 13, 2009
 "Победа в Великой Отечественной войне" Retriever on December 12, 2009
 "Путь к УРАЛу. История ускорителя и человека." Retrieved on December 11, 2009

Russian physicists

1925 births
2009 deaths
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
"Fall to Pieces" is a song by Canadian singer Avril Lavigne, and was the fifth and last single from her second album, Under My Skin; it was the fourth single in the United States. The song was produced and written by Avril Lavigne and Raine Maida. It was Lavigne's least liked song in the U.S., but was very well liked in Canada. There is no music video for this single, because the shoot for the video was cancelled.

Track listing
USA promo
"Fall to Pieces (Album Version)" - 3:28
"Suggested Call Out Hook" - 0:10
"Fall to Pieces (MP3 Track)" - 3:28

EU promo
"Fall to Pieces (Album Version)" - 3:28

Charts
"Fall to Pieces" was not put out in the United Kingdom, but it made it all the way to number seven on the Canadian BDS Airplay Chart, her third successful single in Canada after "Nobody's Home" and "Don't Tell Me". It made it all the way to number sixteen in South Africa. Lavigne did not advertise the single, and because of this it failed to chart on U.S. Billboard Hot 100; it made it all the way to number six on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart, and at number fifty-five on the Billboard Pop 100; However without video the single played a lot in radios all over US, Canada and Latin America .

1 The same as number 106 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100.

References

Avril Lavigne songs
2005 songs
Africanized honeybees are an artificial man-made hybrid of the European honeybee and African bees.  They are more dangerous and defensive than regular honeybees.  Because of this, some people call them 'killer bees'.

Africanized honeybees are much more protective of their beehive and more likely to sting.  When one of them is surprised or scared, they all attack together and sting the same animal or person with hundreds of stings.   Actually, their sting is the same as a regular honeybee's, but because they sting all together, they are much more dangerous.  They usually chase their target much farther than regular honeybees, and they stay angry and ready to fight for a longer time.  They have many more "guard" bees than regular honeybees.

History
In 1956, scientists brought African and European bees to Brazil, to see if they could mate them.  They wanted to do this to make a bee that would make more honey in a hotter place.  Scientists called these new bees "Africanized honeybees".  These bees, however, were very different from regular honeybees.  They would suddenly leave the colony and build a hive somewhere else.  Scientists found out that the queen would decide to leave after a few months, usually taking half the colony with her.  They could even take over European hives by killing the European queen bee and making their own queen bee the "queen".

Where they travel
Because of the queen's strange behavior of leaving the hive and starting new colonies, Africanized honeybees spread out quickly from Brazil. They have moved towards the north so that they have spread through most of South America, Mexico, and the south parts of Texas, New Mexico, Arizona, and California. Scientists are not sure how far they will spread. Some think they cannot go much more towards the north, because they do not survive well in really cold winters or extremely dry summers. 

Those Africanized bees which have travelled southwards have become much tamer and are well suitable for beekeeping and making honey. The re-domesticated Africanized honeybee is usually the choice of South American beekeepers because it will produce much more honey than the ordinary honeybees. The honey production from a single hive of Africanized honey bees can be 100 kg annually and far exceeds the much smaller 3–5 kg of the various Melipona stingless bee species. Thus economic pressures are forcing beekeepers to switch from the traditional stingless bees of their ancestors to the new reality of the Africanized honey bee.

Related pages
Honeybee
Honey

References

Other websites
U.S. Department of the Interior, Biological Resources Discipline 
Barry Sergeant, keeper of "killer bees" 
AFRICANIZED BEES: They are here to stay. See how these bees spread to Florida. 
Africanized honey bee on the UF / IFAS  Featured Creatures Web site
Texas A&M University Africanized Honey Bee Information Site
CISR: Center for Invasive Species Research Fact Sheet on Africanized Honey Bees 

Bees
Ipatinga is a Brazilian city in the Vale do Aço metropolitan area, state of Minas Gerais. Its population in 2009 was 244.508 inhabitants. Its area is 165.509 km². The city was founded in April 29, 1964.

It's limited with Caratinga, Coronel Fabriciano, Mesquita, Santana do Paraíso and Timóteo.

Images

Other websites 
 Official site of Ipatinga

Cities in Minas Gerais
Vale do Aço metropolitan area
1964 establishments in Brazil
Mammal-like reptile is an old term for the therapsids: those synapsids which gave rise to the true mammals.

The term is both outmoded and a mistake, because mammals did not descend from reptiles. Both groups descended from early amniotes (egg-laying tetrapods), probably in the Lower or Middle Carboniferous. The precursors of reptiles are called sauropsids, and the precursors of mammals are called synapsids. The immediate ancestors of the mammals came from a group of therapsids called the cynodonts.

Mammals and reptiles 
There are a number of characteristics which cannot be seen on fossils, but which are of great importance.

Mammals are distinguished from reptiles by fundamental differences in the development of the blood system. These differences are such that it would be almost impossible for mammals to be derived from reptiles.
" It is clearly quite impossible for the condition found in birds and modern reptiles to have arisen from that found in mammals or vice versa". Kermack.6
This supports the division of amniotes into sauropsida and synapsida.

References 

Paleontology
Taxonomy
Therapsids
Mammals
The mantle is a significant part of the anatomy of molluscs: it is the dorsal body wall which covers the organs of digestion, reproduction and movement. 

In many, but not all, species of molluscs, the epidermis (skin) of the mantle secretes calcium carbonate and conchiolin, and creates a shell.

The word mantle means cloak or cape, and does often resemble a cloak. The edges of the mantle may extend far beyond the main part of the body, forming flaps, double-layered structures adapted for many different uses, including for example, the siphon.

The mantle cavity 
The mantle cavity is a central feature of molluscan biology. This cavity is formed by the mantle skirt, a double fold of mantle which encloses a water space. This space contains the mollusc's gills, anus, and organs for taste, excretion and reproductive organs.

The mantle cavity functions as a respiratory chamber in all molluscs. In bivalves it is usually part of the feeding structure. In some mollusks the mantle cavity is a brood chamber, and in cephalopods and some bivalves such as scallops, it is a locomotory organ.

The mantle is highly muscular. In cephalopods the contraction of the mantle is used to force water through a tubular siphon, and this propels the animal rapidly through the water. In other molluscs, it is used as a kind of "foot" for locomotion.

Molluscs
The Carboniferous was the geological period after the Devonian and before the Permian. It lasted from about 359 to about 299 million years ago. It is the fifth period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon.

In the U.S.A. the Carboniferous is divided into the Mississippian (lower part, 359–323.2 mya) and the Pennsylvanian (upper part, 323.2–299 mya). In Europe the terms lower, middle and upper are used.

Vertebrate evolution 
The early tetrapods split first into two major groups: the amphibians, which laid their eggs in water, and the amniotes, who laid their cleidoic eggs on land. The amniotes gave rise to two groups both of which became dominant at different times. They were the synapsids, which eventually gave rise to the mammals, and the sauropsids, which gave rise to the dinosaurs and other reptiles. These momentous events took place in the lower part of the Carboniferous, the Mississippian.

Coal 
The Carboniferous is named after the coal measures, the remains of peat formed by dense tropical wetland forests. New kinds of vascular plants with thick bark grew in the forests. Much of the coal came from this bark. This biota occurred in the upper part of the period, the Pennsylvanian, from 315 to 300 million years years ago.

These forests were on the equator, and the wetlands, which are always low-lying, stretched across the supercontinent of Laurussia. This included what is now North America in the west, through what is now Europe to China in the east. The river plain which was the heart of the wetland stretched 5000 km from eastern Canada to Ukraine, and was 700 km wide.p6

In the Carboniferous, the great tropical rainforests of Euramerica supported towering lycopodiophyta, and a mix of vegetation, as well as a great diversity of animal life: giant dragonflies, millipedes, cockroaches, amphibians, and the first amniotes.

This kind of climate and geography has no exact parallel today, but the peat swamp forests in Indonesia and Malaysia, the Amazon Basin, the Mississippi River system and the Okefenokee swamp give some idea. The swamps were dominated by giant clubmosses, including Lepidodendron. They were the earliest trees, which later replaced by conifers and flowering plants. Sometimes other plants from the levee got swept down by the river, such as horsetails, ferns and tree-like pteridosperms.

The wetland forests ended when the land level was raised by the pressure of the Gondwana continent against Laurussia. This caused the zone of contact to rise. The end of the coal measures marks the end of the Carboniferous period. China was too far away to be affected. There, the wetland forests continued for another 50 million years, into the Permian.p30

References 

 *
The Mesozoic was the geological era in which dinosaurs lived, as well as the first  mammals. It lasted about 186 million years, starting 252.2 mya (million years ago) with the P/Tr extinction and ending 66 mya with the K/T extinction (the one that killed all dinosaurs except birds).

Dinosaurs appeared around 231 mya (21 million years after the beginning of the Mesozoic). They evolved from the reptiles called archosaurs. Modern birds and crocodiles are part of that group).

Although mammals seem to have originated in the Upper Triassic, their fate was quite different to the dinosaurs. Mammals spent most of the long Jurassic and Cretaceous periods as small nocturnal animals living mainly in forests. They lost their colour vision, and only partly re-evolved it in the Cainozoic era.

The Mesozoic is the middle of the three eras that make up the Phanerozoic eon.  Before the Mesozoic was the Palaeozoic era. The K/T extinction in 66 mya also marks the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the one we live in.

The three Mesozoic periods were:

Triassic (252–201 mya)
Lower Triassic (252–247 mya)
Middle Triassic (247–237 mya)
Upper Triassic (237–201 mya)
Jurassic (201–145 mya)
Lower Jurassic (201–176 mya)
Middle Jurassic (176–161 mya)
Upper Jurassic (161–145 mya)
Cretaceous (145–66 mya)
Lower Cretaceous (145–100 mya)
Upper Cretaceous (100–66 mya)

Ecology 
The ecology of this world was quite different to that of the Pleistocene, the era when humans evolved. For much of human history we lived in a cold world with quite a sharp difference between land and sea. 

The Mesozoic was a much warmer world, with a higher temperature, and a high water stand. There was little or no ice at the poles and the continents had large areas covered with shallow continental seas.

Moreover, the continents were all quite near each other, or actually touching. Many land animals could walk or swim to other continents. Actually, the Mesozoic starts off with all the continents together in Pangaea. They stayed pretty close for the rest of the Mesozoic. 

Textbooks have always described how the Mesozoic was the age of the dinosaurs, which has even more sense now that we know birds descended from land dinosaurs. It was the age, too, of extraordinary marine reptiles. Mammals were mainly small nocturnal animals which scurried around in the night-times of the great forests. We know from their loss of colour vision (which is trichromatic in fish and reptiles) that they lived a nocturnal life.

References 

Mesozoic
The Palaeozoic (or Paleozoic) era is the earliest of the three eras of the Phanerozoic. Its name means early life. It lasted from about 541 to 252 million years ago (mya), and ended with the greatest extinction event, the Permian–Triassic extinction event.

Beginning
The Palaeozoic began with an explosion of life forms. The Cambrian explosion marks the era with thousands of new life forms in the ancient seas. The era saw many important events, including the development of most invertebrate groups, life's conquest of land, the evolution of fish, reptiles, synapsids (the ancestors of mammals), amphibians, insects, and plants, the formation of the supercontinent of Pangea, and at least two distinct ice ages. The earth rotated faster than it does today so days were shorter, and the nearer moon caused stronger tides.

Oxygen and CO2 levels 

At the start of the long Carboniferous period oxygen was low and carbon dioxide was high. The huge growth of trees and other plants during this time reversed these data. The carbon dioxide level dropped throughout the Carboniferous, and the oxygen level rose continuously until it dropped in the Permian. 

Oxygen reached a peak of about 30% about 280 million years ago. That is much higher than today's 21%.

Periods
The six periods of the Palaeozoic are:
Permian
Carboniferous
Pennsylvanian
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian

References
The Phanerozoic eon is the current eon on the geologic timescale. It is the one in which abundant animal life has existed. It covers about 541 million years, and goes back to the time when hard-shelled animals first appeared. It was once thought that life began in the Cambrian, the first period of this eon. 

The time before the Phanerozoic, formerly called the Precambrian, is now divided into the Hadean, Archaean and Proterozoic eons.

Details 

The exact time of the boundary between the Phanerozoic and the Proterozoic is slightly uncertain. In the 19th century, the boundary was set at the first abundant metazoan fossils. But several hundred kinds of Proterozoic metazoa have been discovered in the Ediacaran. Study of the Ediacaran biota started in the 1950s. There are three dividing points at the Proterozoic-Phanerozoic boundary. It might be where the first trilobites and archaeocyatha appear; or at the first appearance of signs of burrowing; or at the first appearance of the 'small shelly fauna'. The three different dividing points are within a few million years of each other.

In the Phanerozoic biodiversity increased hugely: 
the rapid emergence of animal phyla;
the evolution of these phyla into diverse forms; 
the emergence of terrestrial plants; 
the development of complex plants; 
the evolution of fish; 
the emergence of terrestrial animals; and 
the development of modern faunas. 
During the period covered, continents drifted about, eventually collecting into a single landmass known as Pangea and then splitting up into the current continental landmasses.

The Phanerozoic is divided into three eras: the Palaeozoic, Mesozoic, and Cainozoic.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Phanerozoic
The Silurian was the period from the end of the Ordovician, about 443.4 million years ago (mya) to the beginning of the Devonian period, about 419 mya. It is the third period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon and the shortest period in the Paleozoic.

As with other geologic periods, the rock beds that define the period's start and end are well identified, but the exact dates are uncertain by several million years. The base of the Silurian is set at a major extinction when 60% of marine species were wiped out, the End-Ordovician extinction event.

First terrestrial biota 
The Silurian was the first period to see macrofossils of biota on land, in the form of moss forests along lakes and streams as well as millipedes and scorpions colonizing the land later in the period. The fossil record of Sea Scorpions reached its greatest extent in the middle Silurian, about 430 million years ago.
The first fossil records of vascular plants, appeared in the second half of the Silurian period. The earliest known representatives of this group are the Cooksonia (mostly from the northern hemisphere) and Baragwanathia (from Australia). A primitive Silurian land plant with xylem and phloem but no differentiation in root, stem or leaf, was much-branched Psilophyton. This plant reproducied by spores and respired through stomata on every surface, and probably photosynthesized in every tissue exposed to light. 

Some evidence suggests the presence of primitive predatory arachnids and myriapods in later Silurian rocks. Predatory invertebrates would indicate that simple food webs were in place which included non-predatory prey animals.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Palaeozoic
Silurian
The Devonian is the fourth period of the Paleozoic era and the Phanerozoic eon. It lasted from about 419 million years ago (mya) to about 359 mya. It is named after Devonshire, England, where rocks from this period were first studied.

Sea levels were high, and there was a great variety of fish and other marine organisms. The Devonian fish included the Agnatha (jawless fish), the Acanthodii (spiny fish), the Placoderms (armoured fish), the Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish), and the early Osteichthyes (bony fish). The Devonian strata are divided into lower, middle and upper subdivisions.

During the Devonian the evolution of fish into tetrapods occurred. Various terrestrial arthropods also became established. The first seed-bearing plants spread across dry land, forming huge forests.

The supercontinent of Gondwana was to the south, and the continent of Siberia to the north. The early form of the small continent of Euramerica was in between. The supercontinent Pangaea was just starting to form.

By the late Devonian, the land had been colonized by plants and insects. In the oceans, massive reefs were built. Euramerica and Gondwana were beginning to converge into what would become Pangaea.

Period ended with extinctions 
Tectonic and volcanic activity was high. A series of extinction events occurred towards the end of the Devonian, including a major event at the Frasnian-Famennian boundary in the Late Devonian, about 364 mya. 

A major extinction occurred at the start of the last phase of the Devonian period, the Frasnian-Famennian boundary, about 372.2 mya. Almost all the fossil agnathan fishes suddenly disappeared. A second strong extinction closed the Devonian period. The late Devonian extinction was one of five major extinction events in the history of the Earth. The cause or causes are not known.

References 

Palaeozoic
Devonian
The Proterozoic eon comes before the Phanerozoic. It was a period before the first abundant complex life on Earth. The name Proterozoic comes from the Greek "earlier life". The Proterozoic Eon extended from 2500 million years ago (mya) to 541 mya. It is the most recent part of the former Precambrian.

The Proterozoic consists of 3 geologic eras, from oldest to youngest:
 Palaeoproterozoic: 2500 to 1600 million years ago
 Mesoproterozoic: 1600 to 1000 mya
 Neoproterozoic: 1000 to 542 mya

The well-identified events were:
Several glaciations, including the Snowball Earth during the Cryogenian period in the late Neoproterozoic.
Rapid crustal segments collect into continents. Supercontinents Laurentia (Palaeoproterozoic) and Rodinia (Neoproterozoic) form.
Early plate tectonics.
Oxygenation of the atmosphere, the Great Oxygenation Event.
Clean (unchanged by metamorphosis) sand and carbonate deposits occur for the first time.
First eukaryote fossil at 2.1 billion years.p57 
The Ediacaran period (635 to 542mya) which is characterized by the evolution of abundant soft-bodied multicellular organisms.

Study of these rocks shows that the eon featured massive, rapid continental accretion (unique to the Proterozoic), supercontinent cycles, and mountain building.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References
The Cainozoic (Cenozoic) is the current geological era. It began 66 million years ago and continues today. Before it was the Mesozoic.

During the Cainozoic the continents moved into their present positions. The climate started warm, but cooling continued steadily. Finally ice ages occurred. 

The word Cainozoic is derived from Greek kainos = "new", and zoe = "life". 'Cainozoic' may be spelled 'Cenozoic'. It has three periods, and the periods are split into stages. 

 Cainozoic 
 Palaeogene
 Palaeocene
 Eocene
 Oligocene
 Neogene
 Miocene
 Pliocene
 Quaternary
 Pleistocene
 Holocene

Previously, what is now the Cainozoic was divided into two periods, the Tertiary and the Quaternary. The Tertiary corresponded to the Palaeogene+Neogene. Now, the term 'Tertiary' is not used. Officially, it is 'deprecated'.

Biota 
On land, the Cainozoic is the era of mammals, and of birds and flowering plants. Grassland became a major habitat. Aquatic mammals took over the roles of predatory reptiles like the mosasaurs and plesiosaurs. As a result, the ecological landscape of the Cainozoic has become quite different from the Mesozoic.

References
Token passing is a communication protocol used in telecommunications. The system uses a signal called a token to limit when a device can transmit on the network. Only the device with the token can transmit. When that device is done, the token is sent to the next device. With large transmissions, the token may move to the next station before the transmission is finished. The device has to wait until it gets the token back before it can continue to send data. The most well known examples of token passing are token ring and ARCNET.

The rules of the system say how long a device may keep the token, how long it can transmit for and how to create a new token if there is not one in use.

Computing
Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) is a Media Access Control (MAC) protocol.  When transmitting on a medium that is shared by many transmitters, the transmitter first checks to see that nothing else is already transmitting.  Examples of shared transmission medium include an electrical bus, or part of the electromagnetic spectrum.

"Carrier Sense" means that a transmitter uses feedback from a receiver to know if the medium is already in use before trying to send. That is, it tries to find a signal from another station before trying to transmit. If a signal is found, the station waits for that transmission to end before starting its own transmission.

"Multiple Access" means that many stations send and receive on the medium. Transmissions are usually received by all other stations using the medium.

Related pages 
 Carrier sense multiple access with collision detection

Communication
The Archaean (or Archean) eon is the geological period after the Hadean and before the Proterozoic. It is one of the four main time periods (eons) of Earth history. The Archaean lasted from 4,000 million years ago (mya) to 2,500 mya. It contains the first sedimentary rocks, and the first fossil life forms, which were cyanobacteria, and acritarchs.

Most of the rocks which survive are volcanic (igneous) and metamorphic in origin. Volcanic activity was everywhere. When the Archaean began, the Earth's heat flow was nearly three times higher than it is today. It was still twice the current level when the Archaean ended, 2,500 mya. This high level of heat flow may have made plate tectonics more vigorous than today. The question of when plate tectonics began is a major research area. The large supercontinent Vaalbara formed in the Archaean. There were oceans already, before the Archaean.
The atmosphere almost entirely lacked free oxygen, and instead, it was mostly methane and CO2.

Fossil bacterial mats, called stromatolites, are found throughout the Archaean after about 3,500mya. These were formed by cyanobacteria, which used photosynthesis and gave off oxygen as a by-product. Initially, this oxygen was absorbed by combining with iron ions in solution. Not until much later did oxygen build up in the atmosphere.

Fossil raindrop marks have been found in the later Archaean, 2,700 mya. The rocks were discovered in Ventersdorp in the North West Province of South Africa in the 1980s.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References 

Archaean
Line 1, shortened to L1 and known as "Hospital de Bellvitge - Fondo", coloured red and often simply called Línia vermella ("Red Line"), is the second oldest metro line in Barcelona, after L3. It is operated by Transports Metropolitans de Barcelona (TMB).

Chronology

1926 - Bordeta-Catalunya section opened.
1932 - Bordeta-Santa Eulàlia and Catalunya-Arc de Triomf sections opened.
1933 - Arc de Triomf-Marina section opened.
1951 - Marina-Clot section opened.
1952 - Clot-Navas section opened.
1954 - Navas-Fabra i Puig section opened.
1968 - Fabra i Puig-Torras i Bages section opened.
1983 - Torras i Bages-Santa Coloma and Santa Eulàlia-Torrassa sections opened. Bordeta station closed.
1987 - Torrassa-Avinguda Carrilet section opened.
1992 - Santa Coloma-Fondo section opened.

Technical details

Stations

Stations or lines shown in italics are under construction.

Hospital de Bellvitge 
Bellvitge 
Av. Carrilet  (L8)
Rambla Just Oliveras  (RENFE)
Can Serra 
Florida 
Torrassa  (L9, L10) 
Santa Eulàlia 
Mercat Nou 
Plaça de Sants  (L5)
Hostafrancs 
Espanya  (L3, L8)
Rocafort 
Urgell 
Universitat  (L2)
Catalunya  (L3, L6, L7, RENFE)
Urquinaona  (L4)
Arc de Triomf  (RENFE)
Marina  (T4)
Glòries  (T4)
Clot  (L2, RENFE)
Navas 
Sagrera  (L5, L9, L10)
Fabra i Puig  (RENFE)
Sant Andreu  (RENFE)
Torras i Bages 
Trinitat Vella
Baró de Viver 
Santa Coloma 
Fondo  (L9)

Other websites

Trenscat.com

1
The Hadean is the geological eon before the Archaean. It began at the Earth's formation about 4.6 billion years ago, and ended 4 billion years ago. The name "Hadean" comes from Hades, Greek for "Underworld", due to the conditions on the Earth at the time. The geologist Preston Cloud first used the term in 1972. Meteorite bombardment, volcanism and high temperatures were very widespread on the early Earth.

There are no sedimentary rocks from the Hadean at all. The earliest geological objects on Earth are some zircons, dated to about 4,400 million years ago (mya). Oceans would probably have formed as soon as the temperature allowed. It is thought that constant bombardment kept the Earth in a molten state until about the end of the eon. 

Early in Earth history, the Moon was torn out by a massive collision with a proto-planet. The evidence for this giant impact hypothesis is: 

the remarkable similarity between the Earth's crust and the Moon's composition,
the low iron concentration in the Moon's centre, and
the high angular momentum of the Earth-Moon system.

An explanation for the general lack of Hadean rocks (older than 3800 mya) is the large amount of rocky and icy debris present in the early Solar System. After the eight planets formed, large numbers of leftover protoplanets, asteroids, and comets pursued eccentric orbits throughout our system, bombarding the early Earth and the other planets and moons until approximately 3800 mya. This activity may have prevented any large crustal fragments from forming by literally shattering the early protocontinents. A barrage of particularly large impacts known as the Late Heavy Bombardment represents the climax of this violent era. 

No life forms are known from this eon. The early atmosphere contained carbon dioxide, methane and nitrogen, but almost no oxygen.

Related pages 
 Life timeline

References
The Permian is a geological period which started about 299 million years ago (mya), and ended about 252 mya. It is the sixth and last period of the Paleozoic era and the sixth period in the Phanerozoic eon, and ended in the largest mass extinction known to science.

Data 
Oxygen content of atmosphere: 23% (115% of modern level).
Average CO2 content: 900 ppm (3 times pre-industrial level)
Average surface temperature: ~16oC (2oC above modern level)
Sea level: 60 metres above present day level; plummeting during the middle Permian to a constant minus 20 m in the late Permian.

Climate 
The climate in the Permian was quite varied. At the start of the Permian, the Earth was still at the grip of an Ice age from the Carboniferous. Glaciers receded around the mid-Permian period as the climate gradually warmed, drying the continent's interiors.  In the late Permian period, the drying continued although the temperature cycled between warm and cool cycles.

Life 
During the Permian, tetrapod life, (amphibians, Sauropsids and Synapsids) which evolved in the Carboniferous, became widespread and diverse. The first modern trees (conifers, ginkgos and cycads) appeared in the Permian.

Insects 
The Permian was also a period of adaptive radiation in insects. Beetles (Coleoptera) appeared; so did flies (Diptera). 22 out of a total of 36 known orders of insects are known from the Permian. Some became extinct in the end-Permian event, but more radiation followed in the Mesozoic. Insects were probably, by the end of the Permian, the largest phylum, in terms of number of species.

Early relatives of cockroaches (Blattopterans) were the most common insects. and dragonflies ruled the air. True Odonata appeared in the Permian.

Pangaea 
All the major land masses were collected together in the super-continent Pangaea. At the end of the period, the greatest flood basalt lava flows in the Phanerozoic raised world temperatures, and damaged the environment. These formed the extensive Siberian traps. The causes of the Permian/Triassic extinction event are not yet agreed between scientists. Trilobites, once a dominant life-form in the ocean, became extinct, together with 90% of all marine species.

References 

Palaeozoic
Matthew Stajan ( ; born December 19, 1983) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey centre.

Before playing in the NHL, Stajan played 3 seasons with the Belleville Bulls of the Ontario Hockey League (OHL). He was drafted with the 57th overall pick by the Toronto Maple Leafs in the 2002 NHL Entry Draft. On January 31, 2010, the Maple Leafs traded Stajan along with Niklas Hagman, Ian White and Jamal Mayers in exchange for Dion Phaneuf, Fredrik Sjöström and Keith Aulie.

He is married to his wife Katie and they live in Calgary. Their first child named Emerson, died on March 3, 2014 shortly after birth.

References

Other websites 

1983 births
Calgary Flames players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Toronto Maple Leafs players
American Hockey League players
Ontario Hockey League players
Mount Athos is a mountain in the Greek province of Macedonia. It is also commonly referred to as the Self-governed Monastic State of the Holy Mountain, which is an autonomous part of Greece. There are twenty Eastern Orthodox monasteries inside this state.

Spiritually, Mount Athos comes under the direct jurisdiction of the Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople.

The peninsula is the easternmost "leg" of the larger Halkidiki peninsula. It protrudes into the Aegean Sea for some  at a width between 7 and 12 km and covers an area of , with the actual Mount Athos and its steep, densely forested slopes reaching up to . The seas around the end of the peninsula can be dangerous.

The peninsula is only accessible by boat. There is a limit on the number of visitors. People visiting need to get a special permit. Only men are allowed to enter. Monks call Mount Athos the "Garden of the Virgin"-. Orthodox Christians take precedence in the permit issuing procedure. Only males over the age of 18 who are members of an Eastern Orthodox Church are allowed to live on Athos (?). A large number of Albanian Muslims work in the Holy Mountain. There is a small number of unarmed, religious guards (Σερδάρηδες), who are not monks, for keeping order. Police and Coast Guard presence is very discreet. Any other people not monks are required to live in the peninsula's capital, Karyes (?) Most workers live at the place where they work. Small low class hotels exist at Karyes (administrative center) and Dafni (main port). The 2001 Greek national census recorded a population of 2,262 inhabitants.

References 

Mountains of Greece
Line 9 (Línia 9 in Catalan) is the newest line in the Barcelona Metro network, currently under construction, with only five complete stations, all in Santa Coloma de Gramenet. These first five stations opened on 13 December 2009. The complete line is a railway project to build a subway line with two branches spanning a good deal of the metropolitan area of Barcelona through Barcelona, Santa Coloma de Gramenet, Badalona, l'Hospitalet de Llobregat and El Prat de Llobregat. TMB is the company operating the line and handled by the division line in two: Line 9 and Line 10.

List of stations 
(Keep in mind all of them are currently under construction)

El Prat area
 Aeroport-T1 (Barcelona International Airport, RENFE)
 Ciutat Aeroportuària
 Aeroport-T2 (Barcelona International Airport, RENFE)
 Mas Blau
 Sant Cosme
 El Prat
 Estació del Prat (L1, RENFE)
 Centre Direccional
 Verge de Montserrat
 Mercabarna
 Parc Logístic
 Fira 2-Pedrosa (L2)
 Europa-Fira (L8)
Central branch, shared with L10
 Can Tries
 Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
 Collblanc (L5)
 Campus Sud (T1, T2, T3)
 Zona Universitària (L3)
 Campus Nord
 Manuel Girona
 Prat de la Riba
 Sarrià (L6)
 Mandrí
 El Putxet (L7)
 Lesseps (L3)
 Muntanya
 Sanllehy
 Guinardó (L4)
 Maragall
 Sagrera-Meridiana (L1, L4, RENFE)
 Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)
 Onze de Setembre
 Bon Pastor
Besòs area
 Can Peixauet
 Santa Rosa
 Fondo (L1)
 Església Major
 Singuerlín
 Can Zam

References 

9
Line 10 (Zona Franca ZAL - Gorg) is the name of one of the two branches of the Barcelona metro extension line 9, currently under construction and to be operated by TMB.

Overview 
It links the Zona Franca with Badalona, through Barcelona proper, sharing a good deal of the area covered by L9. L9/10 will be the deepest line in the network, and the longest line in Europe. Originally expected to be ready by 2008, ongoing problems with its construction are going to delay its completion until as late as 2013.

List of stations 
(Keep in mind all of them are currently under construction)

Zona Franca area
 Polígon Pratenc
 Zona Franca ZAL
 Zona Franca Port
 Zona Franca Litoral
 Motors
 Foc Cisell (L2)
 Foneria
 Ildefons Cerdà (L8)
 Provençana
Central branch, shared with L9
 Can Tries
 Torrassa (L1, RENFE)
 Collblanc (L5)
 Campus Sud (T1, T2, T3)
 Zona Universitària (L4)
 Campus Nord
 Manuel Girona
 Prat de la Riba
 Sarrià (L6)
 Mandrí
 El Putxet (L7)
 Lesseps (L3)
 Muntanya
 Sanllehy
 Guinardó (L4)
 Maragall
 Sagrera-Meridiana (L1, L4, RENFE)
 Estació de la Sagrera (L4, RENFE-AVE)
 Onze de Setembre
 Bon Pastor
Besòs area
 Llefià
 La Salut
 Gorg (L2, T5, T6)

Other websites 
 Avui article, part 1
 Avui article, part 2

10
Line 2, also known by the names of its termini, currently Paral·lel - Pep Ventura, is a metro line in Barcelona operated by TMB, coloured purple and sometimes simply called línia lila.

Chronology
1995 - Sant Antoni-Sagrada Família section opened.
1996 - Sant Antoni-Paral·lel section opened.
1997 - Sagrada Família-La Pau section opened.
2002 - La Pau-Pep Ventura section moved from L4 to this line.

Technical details
 Colour on map: Purple
 Number of stations: 17
 Type: Conventional metro
 Length: 
 Rolling stock: 2100, 5000 and 9000 series
 Journey time: 24 minutes
 Track gauge: 
 Traction: Electricity
 Power supply: Rigid overhead wire
 Open-air sections: No
 Mobile phone coverage: Partial
 Depots: Verneda (Triangle Ferroviari)
 Operator: TMB

Stations
Station and line names shown in italics are planned or under construction additions.
Terminal D (L9)
Ciutat Aeroportuària (L9)
Terminals A-B-C (L9)
Sant Cosme (L9)
El Prat Centre (L9)
Estació del Prat (L1, L9, RENFE)
Centre Direccional (L1, L9)
Verge de Montserrat (L9)
Mercabarna (L9)
Parc Logístic (L9)
Fira 2-Pedrosa (L9)
Foc Cisell (L10)
INEF
Fira 1
Poble Sec (L3)
Paral·lel  (L3, Funicular de Montjuïc)
Sant Antoni 
Universitat  (L1)
Passeig de Gràcia  (L3, L4, RENFE)
Tetuan 
Monumental 
Sagrada Família  (L5)
Encants 
Clot  (L1, RENFE)
Bac de Roda 
Sant Martí 
La Pau  (L4)
Verneda 
Artigues-Sant Adrià 
Sant Roc (T5)
Gorg  (T5, L10)
Pep Ventura 
Badalona Centre (L1)
Casagemes
Canyadó
Morera (L13)

Other websites
Trenscat.com

2
Sam Cooke (January 22, 1931–December 11, 1964) was an American soul singer and songwriter. He was born Sam Cook but later changed the spelling of his name. He was very important in the beginning of soul music. He had many hit songs in America. Some of his most famous songs were "You Send Me", "A Change Is Gonna Come", "Chain Gang", "Wonderful World", and "Bring It on Home to Me".

Cooke started his own record label and publishing company. He was an important part of the Civil Rights Movement, helping African-American people to get civil rights.

Cooke died in 1964. He was shot and killed by a hotel manageress called Bertha Franklin. She told the police that she shot Cooke in self-defense. He was buried in Glendale, California.

Other websites
Hear Sam Cooke on the Pop Chronicles

References

African American musicians
American guitarists
American singer-songwriters
American soul musicians
American R&B singers
American gospel musicians
American pop musicians
American soul singers
American pop singers
Musicians from Mississippi
1931 births
1964 deaths
American gospel singers