cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Sarcasm is a figure of speech or speech comment which is extremely difficult to define. It is a statement or comment which means the opposite of what it says. It may be made with the intent of humour, or it may be made to be hurtful.

The basic meaning is to be hostile under the cover of friendliness. The word's origin is Greek, sarcasmus, see sarchasaristic (Hobson 2018). However, it usually comes with a cue which helps the receiver to understand it. For example, a mother saying "Oh, that's clever!" when a child makes a mistake always signals her love with her tone of voice. Quite different when a hostile person says "Oh, here comes Mr Clever-clogs!". So a person learns how to decode the message.

Much more difficult it is when someone uses a neutral tone of voice, as in "deadpan" or "dry humor". Psychologists think such cases are basically hostile.

A point to remember is that it does not travel well in writing or translation.

References 

Human communication
Figures of speech
A lie is something that someone says that is not true to make others believe that the lie is the truth.  People can have many reasons for lying, such as to hide something or get something, or white lies. Studies show that people usually start lying at the age of two.  Some people are pathological liars. 

Lying can only be done on purpose. If a person says something that is not true and does not know that it is not true, that person is making a mistake and not lying.

Perjury  
A serious type of lie is perjury. It means telling a lie in a court of law. It can lead to a great injustice. For that reason it is legally and morally wrong.  The Ten Commandments says we should not "bear false witness against our neighbor". Most religious thinkers say this can mean other lying also, but very strongly forbids perjury.

Deception
Tricking someone into believing something with many lies over a long period. "The invasion plan was hidden by deception". Deception need not involve speaking. Hiding one's actions from another is a form of deception. Animals are capable of deception. Some birds pretend to be injured to lead predators from their nest.  White-collar criminals often use deception. They get people to give them money by telling them  it is an 
investment.

Distortion
Getting rid of or adding details to a fact. If a scientist says that "The medicine is safe in small amounts", a drug company can distort it and say "The scientist says the medicine is safe". Distortion is often seen in commercials or political advertising. Extreme examples are called propaganda where news can be distorted simply by choosing to cover one story but not another.

White lie
Telling a small lie to make people feel better or for other reasons which do not harm anybody or anything. Saying that a person likes what another person is wearing, even though they do not, is a white lie. Often the purpose of a white lie is to protect someone from being upset. This might happen when a child or elderly persons hears that someone has died. The opposite choice is sometimes called being "brutally honest". It means that a person tells true things that hurt people instead of hiding the truth.  White lies should not be confused with sarcasm.

Fighting with lies
People hurt each other in war, and one way is to lie. They make the enemy belive they are in one place when they are in another. They pretend they will do one thing when they intend to do another. Spies pretend they are not enemies, in order to get secrets.

Like other ways of fighting, lying can be morally good if done for a good reason. In the Old Testament Bible, Rahab lied about the Israeli spies she had hidden.  The Bible says this was a good thing to do. Usually the term "white lie" refers to small unimportant things.  Justifiable lies could be very big and important, but may still be good. However people should be careful about thinking their lies are good. Other people may see them as bad.

Related pages
 Hypocrisy
 Joke

References
VOA Special English words

Other websites

Terminology
Germ-X is a brand of washless hand sanitizer. It comes in different scents and sizes. There are also pocket-sized Germ-X bottles so children who worry about germs so much would not have to run to the restroom to wash their hands frequently. Germ-X was made by the scientists of Vi-Jon Laboratories. Germ-X is made by the Blue Sun Corporation.

Hygiene
Scratch and sniff refers to paper that produces an odor when it is scratched. Scratch and sniff is mostly used on stickers. Scratch and sniff stickers are frequently given to children as a reward for doing well in school.

Scratch and sniff is created by covering the odor in a covering that breaks easily when it is scratched. Because the odor is covered, it can be kept for a very long time.

Consciousness
Pumpkin pie is a dessert pie with a spiced pumpkin-based custard filling. The pumpkin is a symbol of harvest time. In the United States and Canada, it is usually prepared for Thanksgiving and other occasions when pumpkin is in season.

Pies made from pumpkins use pie pumpkins that are about six-to-eight inches in diameter. Pie pumpkins are mostly smaller than jack-o'lantern pumpkins.

History
The pumpkin is native to North America. The pumpkin was an early export to France. During the 17th century, pumpkin pie recipes could be found in English cookbooks, like Hannah Woolley's The Gentlewoman's Companion (1675). But pumpkin "pies" made by early American colonists back then were more likely to be a savory soup rather than sweet custard in a crust.

It was not until the 19th century that pumpkin pie recipes appeared in American cookbooks. It also was not until that century that they became a part of the Thanksgiving dinner. The Pilgrims brought the pumpkin pie back to New England. The English method of cooking the pumpkin took a different course.

In the United States after the American Civil War, the pumpkin pie was resisted in the Southern United States as a symbol of Yankee culture brought to the South. Instead, the Southern United States prepared sweet potato pie.

In popular culture

 Lydia Marie Child's Thanksgiving poem "Over the River and Through the Wood" refers to pumpkin pie in one of its verses. 

 John Greenleaf Whittier wrote in his poem "The Pumpkin":

Songs
"There's No Place like Home for the Holidays" makes a reference to homemade pumpkin pie from a man who wants to return to Pennsylvania"
"Rockin' Around the Christmas Tree" says: "Later we'll have some pumpkin pie/And we'll do some caroling"
"Sleigh Ride makes reference to a happy feeling "as they pass around the coffee and the pumpkin pie"

References

Pies
Desserts
Santos is a Brazilian city in the state of São Paulo. Its population was 418,316 inhabitants . Its area is .

Other websites 
 Santos City Hall

Cities in São Paulo (state)
São Bernardo do Campo () is a Brazilian city in the ABC Region, state of São Paulo. Its population in 2003 was 745,161 inhabitants. Its area is 406 km².

The city was founded in 1553, one of the first cities in Brazil.
São Bernardo do Campo is very known because of the automobiles industries that came in 1950s, like: Volkswagen, Mercedes-Benz, Daimler Chrysler and Ford.

Other websites 
 Official site of São Bernardo do Campo

Cities in São Paulo (state)
1550s establishments in South America
16th-century establishments in Brazil
1553 establishments
Google Earth is a virtual globe program that was first called Earth Viewer and was created by Keyhole, Inc.  It maps the surface of the earth by combining pictures taken by satellites and airplanes.  There are also three-dimensional maps where you can look at the area from different angles.  It is quite similar to Google Maps.

Google Earth is interactive, and lets the user direct the whole globe, look at satellite imagery with overlays of roads, buildings, geographic features, and more. 

Teachers can use it to evaluate and strengthen students' visual literacy. Students can use it to develop a background for three-dimensional and cultural differences globally.

References

Other websites 
Official Google Earth website
7 Things You Should Know About Google Earth

Earth
Technology
Internet
Google Maps is a mapping website from Google, and also the name for the technology that it works on.  It provides satellite pictures and road maps for anywhere in the world.

Google Maps also shows the locations of many places and businesses (called points of interest). It can provide street addresses, phone numbers, and URLs to their websites. It can generate directions between different places using many ways of transport, such as by car, bike, public transport, and even by air, and show traffic traffic congestion. Maps can be embedded on other websites via the Google Maps Application programming interface. It has a feature called Google Street View, which provides photos of streets in some places so one can see what it is like if they were standing in that area of the Earth in real life.

Google Maps was started on February 8, 2005, and uses JavaScript, XML and AJAX. Its website works in almost any web browser or through mobile applications on platforms like iOS and Android. Google has a "Local Guides" program where anybody can write reviews and upload photos or videos of places, as well as make changes to the maps (such as adding new places or removing closed places). This is much like how a person can contribute to Google Translate or to Wikipedia and other Wikimedia Foundation websites.

Related pages
Google Earth
Google Maps (application)

Other websites
Google Maps

Maps
Google log of Google

Videos is a division of the search engine Google that searches video sharing websites (YouTube, Dailymotion, etc.) for search results. 

It is the successor to Google Video, a Google website that allowed people to upload videos through its servers so that they can be shared online. Google Video discontinued its service in August 2012, because of the high popularity of YouTube, which is a subsidiary of Google.

Other websites 
 Official website

Video
Alexander Zane Reid Lowe (born 7 August 1973) is a New Zealand radio disc jockey in the United Kingdom. He presents an early evening show on the British music radio station BBC Radio 1 on Mondays to Thursdays. Lowe also presented shows on the music television station MTV2.

Other websites
Official website 

1973 births
Living people
Entertainers from North Island
People from Auckland
New Zealand radio personalities
Television presenters
The Islamic Revolution occurred in 1979 in the Muslim-majority country of Iran. Islamist revolutionaries opposed the western secular policies of the authoritarian Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Pahlavi. 

Supporters of Ayatollah Khomeini organized protests against the authoritarian government of the Shah. Khomeini became the new Leader of Iran.  98.2% of the Iranian voters voted "yes" in a referendum for the creation of the Islamic Republic of Iran under the leadership of Ayatollah Khomeini (also known as Imam Khomeini).  It replaced an monarchy with a theocratic republic. The West claims that the republic is authoritarian.  

Shortly after the revolution, Iraq, under the dictatorship of Saddam Hussein, invaded Iran and started a war that ended in 1988, with neither side getting anything. The war is known as the Iran–Iraq War.

Impact 
Many Iranians were forced into exile by the revolution.

Estimates of the number of Iranians who died during the war with Iraq and the riots with the Shah's forces vary from 3,000 to 60,000. The number executed by orders of the Revolutionary Courts is often estimated at 8,000.

During the revolution, 52 Americans were held hostage after being seized at the US embassy.

Related pages 
 Russian Revolution

References

History of Islam
1970s in Iran
Revolutions
Rebellions in Asia
20th century rebellions
1979
Sea anemones are Cnidarian animals that live in the sea. They are polyps, one of the basic forms of the phylum. They are predatory animals, which paralyse their prey with stinging nematocysts. These fire a harpoon-like structure which delivers a dose of neurotoxins. To eat the fish, or crustacean, they move the prey into their stomach, where they are slowly digested. 

Anemones are sessile. This means they like to stay in one area. They can move very slowly along the bottom.  Some types can swim to a new location by using flexing movements. Many species live in rockpools between high tide and low tide, and on rocky shores generally. Anemones can be found in deep oceans as well, and a few are pelagic.

An anemone has an oral disk on the top of its body. The sea anemone’s mouth and gut are in the middle of the oral disk. The tentacles surround the oral disk. The pedal disc is on the bottom of the sea anemone.

Some sea anemones live in symbiosis with other animals. clownfish, Incognito goby, and arrow crabs may shelter among the tentacles of the anemone. Hermit crabs often have sea anemones on the shell they live in. Some anemones have a symbiosis with a type of algae which lives inside them. This is the same thing many corals do. The dinoflagellate algae use sunlight to make food, and the anemone uses some of the food.

The first detailed investigation of sea anemones was a survey of those found on or near the beaches of the British Isles by the naturalist Philip Henry Gosse.

References 

Cnidarians
Polyps are one of two forms of the cnidarians. The other body form is the medusa. Polyps have a vase-shaped body with tentacles around the mouth opening.

Polyps may be sexual or asexual. They can all reproduce asexually by budding. In some species, the polyps can also reproduce sexually.

When medusae mate, the result may be polyps, when polyps replicate, the result may be medusae. The details vary between species. Some species are polyps all the time (such as Hydra, and the whole of the class Anthozoa (corals and anemones). 

In many cases the asexual buds formed do not separate from the parent but remain, thus forming colonies or 'stocks'. These may reach a great size, and contain a vast number of individuals. Slight differences in the method of budding produce great variations in the form of the colonies. The reef-building corals are polyp-colonies, strengthened by the formation of a firm skeleton.

Jellyfish (class Medusozoa) have two distinct life history stages (body forms) during their life cycle. The first is the polyp stage. Often, this polyp is attached to the sea floor, or to another hard surface. A polyp that lives that way is called sessile. 

In the second stage, the tiny polyps asexually produce jellyfish, each of which is known as a medusa. Tiny jellyfish swim away from the polyp and then grow and feed in the plankton. Jellyfish reproduce both sexually and asexually.

References 

Cnidarians
The Dravidian languages are a language family spoken by Dravidian peoples. The languages are mainly spoken in South India,  western Bangladesh, northern Sri Lanka and southern Pakistan. There are about 26 languages in this family. A total of about 215 million people speak Dravidian languages.

Dravidian languages were probably spoken over a larger area of the Indian subcontinent in the past. There are several ethnic groups in India known as "Scheduled Tribes" who still speak their own Dravidian languages. Brahui, with 2,200,000 speakers, is a Dravidian language spoken in the Balochistan region of Pakistan and Afghanistan. Dhangar, which is a dialect of Kurukh, is spoken in parts of Nepal and Bhutan.

Main Dravidian languages 
 Telugu language 85,000,000 speakers
 Tamil language 75,000,000 speakers
 Kannada language 49,000,000 speakers
 Malayalam language 38,000,000 speakers

There are about 30 more Dravidian languages spoken, with far fewer speakers.
examples of Dravidian languages with fewer speakers  include  Tulu language  and the Brahui language (the only Dravidian language not spoken in India)

Related pages 

 Languages of South Asia
East Pakistan was part of Pakistan. Between 1955 and 1971, Pakistan was made of West Pakistan (which is now simply called Pakistan) and East Pakistan, which is now known as Bangladesh. In 1971, there was the Bangladesh Liberation War, where East and West Pakistan fought each other. India also took part in the war, on the side of East Pakistan.

History of Pakistan
History of Bangladesh
History of India
William III and II (4 November 1650 – 8 March 1702) was King of England and Ireland from 13 February 1689 (as William III) and he was king of Scotland from 11 April 1689 (as William II). He remained king until his death on 8 March 1702.

William was born in the Netherlands as Prince William Henry of Orange. His mother was Mary Stuart. Mary was the sister of the King of England, James II, so King James was William's uncle. William married King James's daughter Mary (his own first cousin) on 4 November 1677.

The Protestant majority in  England did not like King James, and he was overthrown in the "Glorious Revolution" of 1688. William landed in England (at Brixham) with a Dutch army.
When William landed, James's support melted away. James was allowed to leave for France, and William became the last person to successfully invade England by force. The events are known as the Glorious Revolution. 

The English Parliament offered the English crown to William and Mary jointly (and when one died the other would be be monarch), making them William III and Mary II. This later came to be known as the reign of William and Mary. Laws were passed which protected Parliament from unreasonable acts of the Sovereign, guaranteed religious toleration to Protestant nonconformists, but restricted the religious liberty of Roman Catholics and non-Christian faiths.

William summoned a Convention of the Estates of Scotland in 1689 and sent them a conciliatory (~friendly) letter, unlike James, who had tried to give them orders.  On 11 April, the day of the English coronation, the Convention finally declared that James was no longer King of Scotland. William and Mary were offered the Scottish crown, and they accepted on 11 May. The Jacobites tried for over 50 years to have James and his heirs reinstalled.

William's enemy was the King of France, Louis XIV, who protected and supported James in his efforts to return. In Ireland, the majority Roman Catholics were reinforced by French forces led by Jacobites. William personally led his army to victory at the Battle of the Boyne in 1690. James fled back to France. 

There was next a Nine Years' War between a coalition led by William, and France. The Anglo-Dutch Alliance did well on sea and defeated a French fleet at La Hogue in 1692. On the other hand, the alliance lost Namur in 1692, and the Battle of Landen on land, in 1693.

Mary died on 12 December 1694 of smallpox, leaving William to rule alone. He was eventually succeeded by his sister-in-law, Queen Anne. One more fact is of great importance. In 1701 an Act of Parliament was passed which settled the succession of the thrones of England and Ireland on Protestants only. Scotland was not part of this arrangement until the parliamentary union of the two kingdoms in 1707.

References

Notes

Other websites 
 William III (Britain) Citizendium

1650 births
1702 deaths
Dutch royalty
House of Orange-Nassau
Kings and Queens of Scotland
Abigail Powers Fillmore (March 13, 1798 – March 30, 1853), was the wife of Millard Fillmore, the 13th President of the United States. She acted as the First Lady of the United States from 1850 to 1853.

She was born in Saratoga County, New York. Her father’s name was Lemuel Powers. Her father died shortly after her birth. After this, her mother moved away westward to less settled area. Abigail Powers had a brother also. Their mother gave them a good education with the help of her husband’s library. 

When Abigail Powers was around 19 years old and a student at an academy at New Hope, New York, she met Millard Fillmore. He was also studying in the same academy. They married in February 1826. In 1828, she had a son, named Millard Powers Fillmore. After few years, Fillmore bought a home in Buffalo, New York where she had a daughter, Mary Abigail. During the next few years, her husband was elected to the U.S. Congress. Her husband became a state comptroller. In 1849, her husband became the Vice President of the United States. The couple moved to the Washington, D.C.. After 16 months, President Zachary Taylor died. Millard Fillmore became the President and they moved into the White House.

During last several years, Abigail Powers had learnt to move in the high society. She did a fine role as the First Lady. 

She had a permanently injured ankle. This made standing difficult to greet guests. But, she still continued to act as the first lady. Later on, due to her bad health, she gave many routine duties of the First Lady to her daughter, "Abby." 

Abigail Powers could get a special sanction of money from the government. With this, she bought many books for the library at the White House. After her husband’s retirement, she attended the inauguration of President Franklin Pierce. She returned to her hotel room. Due to very chill weather, she became sick with pneumonia. On 30th March, 1853, she died of pneumonia. In her respect, the United States Congress adjourned (that is, stopped working) for that day, and government offices remained closed. She was buried at Buffalo. 

After about five years of her death, her husband married a widow named Caroline Fillmore of Buffalo, New York. Millard died on March 8, 1874. 

1798 births
1853 deaths
First Ladies of the United States
Second Ladies of the United States
Millard Fillmore
Keith Richards (born 18 December 1943) is an English guitarist best known as a founder member of the Rolling Stones. He is mostly famous for his rhythm guitar playing, but he can also play lead guitar quite well. He often likes to use a guitar with only 5 strings — the lowest-tuned string is removed. On a small number of Rolling Stones recordings, he plays bass guitar, as well as other instruments. He sings background vocals on most Rolling Stones songs. Occasionally, he also sings lead vocals, on songs like "Happy", "Little T & A", and "The Worst".

Career 
During the late 1960s and most of the 1970s, he had a serious addiction to heroin. However, he recovered and quit using it. Sometimes, in interviews, he talks about taking drugs in a way that seems humorous.

In 2003 he was ranked 10th on Rolling Stone Magazine's "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time".

Richards has co-written and recorded hundreds of songs with his song writing partner Mick Jagger. Fourteen of their songs are listed by Rolling Stone Magazine in their "500 Greatest Songs of All Time" issue.

Discography

The Rolling Stones
Studio albums
 England's Newest Hit Makers (1964)
 12 X 5 (1964)
 The Rolling Stones, Now! (1965)
 Out of Our Heads (1965)
 December's Children (And Everybody's) (1965)
 Aftermath (1966)
 Between the Buttons (1967)
 Their Satanic Majesties Request (1967)
 Beggars Banquet (1968)
 Let It Bleed (1969)
 Stinky Fingers (1971)
 Exile on Main St. (1972)
 Goats Head Soup (1973)
 It's Only Rock 'n Roll (1974)
 Black and Blue (1976)
 Some Girls (1978)
 Emotional Rescue (1980)
 Tattoo You (1981)
 Undercover (1983)
 Dirty Work (1986)
 Steel Wheels (1989)
 Voodoo Lounge (1994)
 Bridges to Babylon (1997)
 A Bigger Bang (2005)
 GRRR! (2012)

Notes 

1943 births
Living people
English rock composers
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
Musicians from Kent
People from Dartford
The Rolling Stones members
Sir Edward William Elgar, 1st Baronet OM GCVO  (2 June 1857 – 23 February 1934) was the most famous English composer of his time. He composed in the late romantic era.

Birth
Elgar was born in Broadheath, Worcestershire. His father owned a music shop. Apart from having violin lessons Elgar taught himself about music, he studied the printed music in his father’s shop and often travelled with him when he went on his rounds to tune pianos. He heard a lot of cathedral music and often practised the organ. He took over his father’s job as church organist and soon became conductor of local orchestras and bands.

Worcester was a small town but the music there was good. The Three Choirs Festival took place there every third year. In 1884 he was playing the violin in the orchestra when the great Czech composer Dvořák was conducting.

Marriage
In 1889 Elgar married. His wife Caroline Alice Roberts came from a family who had more money than the Elgars, and she was 8 years older than he was. Many people did not approve of the marriage, but she was a good wife to him and encouraged him in his efforts to be a successful composer.

Works
In 1899 Elgar wrote an orchestral piece called the Enigma Variations. There is a main tune, and then a series of variations on the tune. Each variation describes one of his friends, but he did not say which friends they were: he only put their initials or nickname at the top of each variation. This is why the piece is an enigma (a “puzzle” or “secret”). People have managed to work out who each friend was, but the meaning of the main tune is still a puzzle. This music made Elgar very famous. 

The next work that he wrote is probably his greatest work: The Dream of Gerontius (1900). It is an oratorio. Gerontius is an old man who is dying and thinking about whether God will punish him for his sins or save him and take him to heaven. Elgar wrote two other oratorios: The Apostles and The Kingdom. He wrote two symphonies, a violin concerto, a cello concerto, Introduction and Allegro for Strings, Sea Pictures (five songs for mezzo soprano and orchestra) and chamber music including a violin sonata, a string quartet and a piano quintet.

Throughout his life his wife helped him by ruling neat manuscript lines on plain paper so that he could write his music. After she died in 1920 Elgar was so sad that he stopped composing. He died of colorectal cancer in Worcester.

Elgar’s most popular piece is the first of his Pomp and Circumstance Marches. It has the tune which is sung to the words “Land of Hope and Glory” and the audience always join in singing it at the Last Night of the Proms.

1857 births
1934 deaths
20th-century English composers
Baronets
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from colorectal cancer
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
Order of Merit
Musicians from Worcestershire
Romantic composers
The printing press is a machine for printing. It makes many copies of identical pages. The printing press today is used to print books and newspapers. It had a great influence on society, especially western society. It was "one of the most potent agents... of western civilization in bringing together the scattered ideas of thinkers".

Woodcut printing has been done for several centuries. That was whole pages cut into wood, words and pictures. In the 15th century Johannes Gutenberg improved the process. He used separate alloy letters screwed into a frame. This way a large set of letters could make almost any page for printing. This process was called typesetting. Each letter was in a block of metal, fixed in a frame. He could then move paper and ink over it, much like a stamp. This method was called letterpress. The letters would leave ink on the paper in the shape of the letters, creating text or illustrations.

Bigger and much faster presses were invented in the industrial revolution. The main improvements were made in the 19th century. Two ideas altered the design of the printing press entirely. First was the use of steam power to run the machinery. Second was the replacement of the printing flatbed with the rotary motion of cylinders. Both were done by the German printer Friedrich Koenig between 1802 and 1818. Having moved to London in 1804, Koenig got financial support for his project in 1807.  In 1810, Koenig patented a steam press "much like a hand press connected to a steam engine".

Soon other inventions were added, such as the making of cheaper paper by using wood pulp instead of rags. Later in the 19th century came machines which speeded up typesetting, which was previously done by hand, letter by letter. A machine for hot metal typesetting was designed by Linotype Inc. It turned molten lead into type ready for printing.

Many further developments in printing happened in the 20th century. Today printing presses are controlled by special-purpose computers, and the material to be printed is prepared on computers. As a consequence of these inventions, the cost of printing has fallen significantly compared to other commodities. Now the price of a book or magazine is less determined by its  production, and more by other factors, such as marketing.

References 

Machines
Communication
Printing
Georges Bizet (25 October 1838 – 3 June 1875) was a French composer of the Romantic period. He is best known for his opera Carmen, which is the best-known of all French operas.

Bizet was born in Paris and died in Bougival.

1838 births
1875 deaths
Disease-related deaths in France
French composers
Musicians from Paris
People with foods named after them
Romantic composers
Old age is when a person is near or beyond the usual life expectancy, usually from the age of 65 onwards.  Old people are usually retired from work and spend their time in other ways like helping take care of small children who are kin to them in some way. Often people of old age have wrinkly skin. They will move slower, and become constantly cold. 

Old people have more health problems than young adults, and many of them take medicine.  The reason for this is that their bodies are slowly deteriorating, so they have more problems, especially with moving. Osteoporosis weakens the bones, and is one of the problems that become more common with age. Others include blindness and deafness. Gerontology is the part of medicine that deals with these things.

Old people are also called "senior citizens" or "elders". Elders are considered to be wise because they have had much experience in their long lives. Many cultures view elders with respect and kindness, and depend upon them to pass down knowledge to the younger generations of people.

Related pages 
 Gerontology

Gerontology
The Crystal Maze is a British game show on Channel 4. It ran from 1990-1995 and was revived in 2016. A team of six players completed challenges to win crystals. It was presented by Richard O'Brien from series 1 to 4 and Ed Tudor-Pole in series 5 and 6. Stephen Merchant presented an episode in 2016. Richard Ayoade presents in 2017.

Game show
It was made by Chatsworth Television as an British version of the French show Fort Boyard. There are four zones in the maze - Medieval, Aztec, Futuristic and Industrial. In each zone, players attempt challenges to earn a crystal. Each crystal gives them five seconds in the Crystal Dome. After a while, the Industrial zone was replaced by an Ocean zone.

Crystal dome
The Crystal Dome is a large glass crystal where the players must go in at the end. Small golden and silver tickets are blown around the dome and they must try and catch as many as they can. For every gold token they put in the box, they get a point. For every silver token they put in the box, they lose  a point.

If the team gets over 100 points, they win a big prize. If they do not win, they get a small crystal to take home with them.

Other websites 

1990 British television series debuts
1990s British television series
2010s British television series
British television game shows
Channel 4 television programmes
English-language television programs
The Counter-Reformation was a movement within the Roman Catholic Church which began in the 1500s. It covered the following five areas:

 Doctrine (ideology)
 Ecclesiastical or Structural Reconfiguration
 Religious orders
 Spiritual Movements
 Political Dimensions

The Counter-Reformation began after Martin Luther's Reformation. In reaction, Catholics  reaffirmed some points of faith that the Protestants' objections had put in danger. These included the validity of the seven sacraments.  The Protestants had reduced the sacraments to only two, Baptism and the Eucharist. Protestants deny the doctrine of transubstantiation, which is seen as making Mass less important. Some reformation era groups had rejected the Mass entirely.   Luther's view was somewhere between that of the more radical reformers and the Catholic view.  Luther wrote that without faith neither Baptism nor the Eucharist is sufficient for salvation.  The Counter-Reformation specifically re-affirmed the Catholic understanding of the mass. 
 
On other issues, Catholics effectively accepted some of the Protestant complaints. Penance  became a private confession and repentance from sin instead of outward actions. This served to correct the corrupt practice of selling forgiveness. This type of forgiveness, called Indulgence was the immediate cause of Luther's protests against abuses in the Catholic church. 

As a result of the Counter Reformation, other abuses, such as Simony were also greatly curtailed. Thus the Protestant movement served not only to create new expressions of the Christian faith, but also to correct problems in the Catholic church which led to its revitalization. 

Catholic missionaries, especially Jesuits went across the world to spread the Catholic faith. The Congregation of the Holy Office of the Inquisition was also created, to revitalize the work of suppressing heresy.

Related pages
 Protestant Reformation
 Council of Trent
 Vatican II

References
Decolonization is when a colony of any country becomes independent. Thus, decolonization is the opposite of colonization. Sometimes, a colony may not get full freedom, but may become part of another country or even the part of the country which colonized it. This is also decolonization. 

In some cases, decolonization may result after non-violent discussion. In a relatively small number of cases, decolonization happens only after armed struggle and revolt. Decolonization is different from the break-up of traditional empires like the Mongol Empire or the Ottoman Empire. Decolonization generally means independence of non-Europeans from European rule. Thus, the break-up of the Union of Sweden and Norway and the independence of Manchukuo from the Empire of Japan were not decolonization. Major decolonization occurred in the 20th century. It began with the independence of Pakistan and India in 1947 from the British Empire. Soon after, many countries of Africa became independent from the rule of many countries of Europe.

Politics
The Meiji Restoration (明治維新) was a time of great change in Japan. In the Japanese language, Meiji-ishin is the term for the Meiji Restoration. The term describes a series of events that changed the shape of Japan’s political and social systems. These changes took place mainly in the three years from 1866 to 1869, at the beginning of the Meiji period.

End of the Shogunate 
In 1866, the Tokugawa Shogunate was ruling Japan. In the year 1866, two domains, the local government at that time, came together under an alliance. The name of this alliance was the Sat-cho Alliance. This was an alliance between the Satsuma Domain and the Chōshū Domain, and a person named Sakamoto Ryoma brought the two domains together. These two domains supported the Emperor Meiji of Japan who, at the time, did not have much power. With their support the emperor could regain much of his power.  

The Tokugawa Shogunate’s rule ended on 9th November 1867, but they still retained some authority and power.  In the Boshin War of 1868, an army from Satsuma Province and Choshu defeated the forces of the Tokugawa Shogunate.  This completely ended the power of the Tokugawa Shogunate.

The Revolution of the country's system 
After defeating the Tokugawa Shogunate, the leaders of the Meiji Restoration started to reform the system of the country. They acted in the name of Japan’s emperor, to restore (that is, to return) the emperor’s powers. But, the leaders also kept to themselves a number of powers. In fact, even after the Meiji Restoration, an oligarchy, a small group, had the real power and ruled in the name of the emperor.  

After the Meiji Restoration started, Japan’s progress was fast. The revolution includes centralizing power, changing the tax system, starting the educational system, constructing factories and railways, etc.

Industrialization developed rapidly and within next three to four decades (by 1905) Japan had become a military power, comparable to others of the time.

Leaders 
 Okubo Toshimichi (1830-1878)
 Kido Takayoshi (1833-1877)
 Saigo Takamori (1827-1877)
 Iwakura Tomomi (1825-1883)
 Ito Hirobumi (1841-1909)
 Kuroda Kiyotaka (1840-1900)
 Matsukata Masayoshi (1835-1924)
 Oyama Iwao (1842-1916)
 Saigo Tsugumichi (1843-1902)
 Yamagata Aritomo (1838-1922)
 Inoue Kaoru (1835-1915)
 Saionji Kinmochi (1849-1940)

History of Japan
1866
1867
1868
1869
1860s in Asia
Countries, which are members of the Council of Europe agreed on certain points written in a document to ensure human rights written in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. These points became the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms. In its shorter form it is European Convention on Human Rights (ECHR). The Convention also established the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), and the sentence of this Court has a force legal power by its Article 46. 

The ECHR was written on 4 November 1950. 

The ECHR has made many protocols, for example: protocol 2nd for right to education, 12th against all discrimination also by public authority and 13th for complete abolition of the death penalty. Protocols are set of rules. All member countries must follow these rules. 

The ECtHR can give decisions on complaints or cases which come to it. If a person thinks that a European country has abused his or her human rights, that person may take the matter to the judges of ECtHR. The judges will listen to the complaint and give their decisions. These decisions must be followed by the governments of the countries.

Related pages
Council of Europe
Universal Declaration of Human Rights
International human rights law
Human rights

Human rights
Human Rights
Treaties and Conventions
Ted Turner (born November 19, 1938 in Cincinnati, Ohio) is an American businessman who is best known for being the founder of the television networks Turner Broadcasting Station (TBS) and Cable News Network (CNN).  These were the first cable TV networks. He is also famous for being the founder of professional wrestling company World Championship Wrestling (WCW), as well as the Captain Planet and the Planeteers.

Career 
He's made several war epics on the Civil War.  Ted Turner is known for saving MGM's film library, though that forced him to sell his company. At one point, Turner gave a billion dollars to the United Nations.

Personal life 
Ted Turner was once married to Jane Fonda. He was raised in Atlanta, Georgia and in Savannah, Georgia. Turner is the largest private landowner in the United States a total of 1.75 million acres.

Turner has bipolar disorder.

Turner's biggest ranch is Vermejo Park Ranch in New Mexico. At , it is the largest privately owned, piece of owned land in the United States. Turner supports the Public forum debate of the National Forensic League.

In a television interview with Piers Morgan on May 3, 2012, Turner said he had four girlfriends. He then said that it was complicated but yet easier than being married.

One of Turner's children, Robert Edward "Teddy" Turner IV, announced on January 23, 2013, that he would run in the South Carolina Republican primary for the open Congressional seat. He lost the primary to former Governor Mark Sanford.

In September 2018, Turner announced that he was diagnosed with Lewy body dementia.

References

Other websites

 
 Turner Foundation
 
 Turner on Oprah Master Class, aired January 29, 2012 

1938 births
Living people
American billionaires
American philanthropists
Businesspeople from Atlanta, Georgia
Chief executives
Businesspeople from Cincinnati, Ohio
People from Savannah, Georgia
People with bipolar disorder
Time People of the Year
Taco Bell is a fast food restaurant that started in the United States in 1958.  There are restaurants now in certain parts of Canada, Asia, Europe, United Kingdom and Australia. It serves Mexican-style food. It was founded by Glen Bell and is a division of Yum! Brands, Inc. Taco Bell's menu has items such as tacos, burritos, soft drinks, chalupas, gorditas, and nachos. There are 5,845 Taco Bells in the United States. Some Taco Bells are merged with KFCs.

Other websites

 Official Taco Bell website

1962 establishments in the United States
American fast food restaurants
Companies based in California
Irvine, California
1960s establishments in California
Żagań is a town in the west part of Poland. 26,665 people lived there in 2004.  It is the main town of part of Poland called Żagań County.  

It is now part of the in the Lubusz Voivodship (a Voivoidship is part of the way Poland is organised into areas), before it was in Zielona Gora Voivodship (1975-1998). There is a castle called Sagan in the middle of an area that is  also called Sagan. The castle belonged to Wallenstein, a soldier and politician of the Thirty Years' War. Later, the castle belonged to the Bohemian family of Lobkowitz.  In 1786, the Sagan area was bought by Peter Biron, duke of Courland. In 1843, it went to his daughter Dorothea, the wife of Edmond de Talleyrand.

An act of the king of Prussia on January 6, 1845 made her  Duchess of Sagan. Napoleon III did the same in France, for her son Louis.  The double title, both Prussian and French, meant that the duc de Sagan was a neutral party in the Second World War. His house (the Château de Valençay) was a safe place to keep pictures and other things from the Louvre when German soldiers were in France. 

In the Second World War, the well-known war prison Stalag Luft III was there.

Other websites
The web page of the town.
A map.
Some pictures. 

Zagan
Palatine Hill (Latin: Palatium) also named the Sun Hill was the hill that Rome was built on. Rome later extended to include the seven hills:

Palatine
Aventine 
Capitoline
Quirinal 
Viminal 
Esquiline 
Caelian

Etymology 
According to Livy (59 BC – 17) the Palatine hill got its name from the Arcadian settlement of Pallantium. The term palace itself stems from Palatium.

Rome
Hills
El Chupacabra (or El Chupacabras) is a cryptid said to live in Puerto Rico, Mexico, Chile, Brazil, Anaheim California. Gilbert Arizona.   Texas to Florida, Michigan, Maine and even Oregon. Its name comes from the Spanish translation of "goat sucker", because of its habit of attacking and drinking the blood of livestock, including goats. The legend was started in 1987 when there was a huge, gruesome massacre of livestock all over. All the animals had two puncture wounds on their neck in which the blood had been drained.

Other websites
 Chupacabra supposedly ate two humans and drained them of their blood.

Cryptozoology
Hydra (animal) are simple invertebrates, with two layers of body cells. They live in fresh water. Their body is radially symmetric. They have a central cavity through which they take in food and expel waste. 

As Cnidaria they have stinging cells on their tentacles. They are hydrozoa, and belong to the same order as other polyps. Most Hydra are microscopic in size. Hydras can be found in almost any unpolluted body of water. Hydras reproduce by budding. In budding, the offspring forms as a lump on the parent and eventually becomes big enough to break off and live by itself. They can move if they need to by a kind of slow somersaulting motion. 

Recent research has found they produce an antimicrobial protein hydramacin, which protects their outer layer from bacterial infection.

References 

Cnidarians
The clownfish is a kind of fish. Clownfish habitat usually is a coral reefs. Clownfish live in the Indian Ocean and the Pacific Ocean, from north west Australia, the coast of South East Asia as far north as Japan. Often, they live in a symbiosis with other animals, for instance the sea anemone. They live in anemones which are like plants under the sea. Anemones eat fish by killing them with their tentacles which are poisonous. Scientists believe that clown fish are protected from the poison because they are coated in a type of mucus.

Some kinds of clown fish can grow up and reach 18 centimeters (7.1 inches). Sometimes clownfish only grow 10 centimeters (3.9 inches). They can be orange, yellow or they may look a little red.

Clownfish eat small invertebrates that are dangerous to the anemones. That helps the anemones and the clownfish. This is called mutualism.

Many people like having clownfish in their aquarium because they are some of the easiest salt water fish to keep and care. They became particularly popular after the film Finding Nemo. There are 28 species of Clownfish. Clownfish are born male but when they grow older some develop into females.

References 

Perciformes
Bruce Lee (November 27, 1940 - July 20, 1973) was a Chinese American, Hong Kong actor, martial artist, martial arts instructor, philosopher, movie director, movie producer, screenwriter, and founder of the Jeet Kune Do martial arts movement.

Lee is famous for making martial arts popular in the United States in the 1970s, when he played in a series of movies. This included the first ever martial arts movie in the United States - called Enter the Dragon. This was the most successful and famous, which was released after Bruce's death. He died in 1973 during the production of a movie called, The Game of Death. The movie was not finished, although some completed section were later released. Almost 20 years later his son, Brandon Lee would also die while making a movie. Lee also taught other people martial arts, including actors Huggo Chairres, Steve McQueen, James Coburn, and basketball player Kareem Abdul-Jabbar. He inspired many other actors who are famous for using martial arts in their movies including Jackie Chan, Jet Li, and Chuck Norris. Jackie Chan had a small part in 'Enter The Dragon' and Chuck Norris co-starred in Way of The Dragon.

Lee starred in five movies, including The Big Boss, Fist of Fury (also known as The Chinese Connection and The Iron Hand), The Way of the Dragon (also known as Return of the Dragon), Enter the Dragon and The Game of Death.

He is noted for his major contributions to both the Hong Kong and American movie industry during the 1970s, his martial arts movement and innovative ideas (including Jeet Kune Do), his philosophy, and his physical fitness ability. He is considered to be a cultural icon and is considered to be one of the most influential martial artists ever by social critics and other martial artists alike.

On the night of July 20, 1973, Lee aged 32, died at his home from cerebral edema, which is a buildup of fluid around the brain. This is believed to have been caused by a reaction to painkillers he was taking for a back injury.

Other websites 

 
 Bruce Lee Foundation
 Bruce Lee talk
Sketchu: Drawn portrait of Bruce Lee
 Circle of Iron: Bruce Lee's Lost Movie
 Bruce Lee quotes

1940 births
1973 deaths
Deaths from cerebral edema
Actors from San Francisco
American movie actors
American television actors
American movie producers