cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The 1908 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the IV Olympiad, were held in London, United Kingdom.

The Olympics were originally scheduled to be held in Rome; however, Mount Vesuvius erupted on 7 April 1906. The natural disaster caused a financial strain on the Italian government. Then the venue was changed to London. The costs of the games were covered by donations.

Participating nations 
A total of 22 nations sent athletes to compete at the London games. They were:

  Argentina
  Australasia
  Austria
  Belgium
  Bohemia
  Canada
  Denmark
  Finland
  France
  German Empire
  Great Britain

  Greece
  Hungary
  Italy
  Netherlands
  Norway
  Russian Empire
  Union of South Africa
  Sweden
  Switzerland
  Ottoman Empire
  United States

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 London 1908 at Olympic.org

Olympics
1900s in the United Kingdom
Sport in London
Summer Olympics in Europe
Guanine is one of the five main nucleobases found in the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.

The others are adenine, cytosine, thymine, and uracil. With the formula C5H5N5O, guanine is a derivative of purine.

Basic principles 
Guanine, along with adenine and cytosine, is present in both DNA and RNA, whereas thymine is usually seen only in DNA and uracil only in RNA.

References 
 Miyakawa, S., Murasawa, K., Kobayashi, K., Sawaoka, AB. "Abiotic synthesis of guanine with high-temperature plasma." Orig Life Evol Biosph. 30(6): 557-66, Dec. 2000.
 Horton, H.R., Moran, L.A., Ochs, R.S., Rawn, J.D., Scrimgeour, K.G. "Principles of Biochemistry." Prentice Hall (New Jersey). 3rd Edition, 2002.
 Lister, J.H. "Part II Purines." The Chemistry of Heterocyclic Compounds. Wiley-Interscience (New York). 1971.

Other websites 
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 
 Good Guanine reference

Biochemistry
The glottalic theory is that Proto-Indo-European had ejective stops instead of voiced stops and so it had p’ t’ k’, not b d g, as the traditional version of the Proto-Indo-European sound system.

The glottalic theory was made in the United States by Paul Hopper and in the Soviet Union by Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vyacheslav V. Ivanov. The earliest theory was made by the Danish linguist Holger Pedersen that did not have glottalized sounds.

Earlier linguists, such as André Martinet and Morris Swadesh, saw the potential of replacing glottalic sounds for the supposed plain voiced stops of Proto-Indo-European. The idea stayed hypothetical until more evidence for it was published in 1973 by Hopper in the journal Glossa and by Gamkrelidze and Ivanov in the journal Phonetica.

Sources
Paul J. Hopper, "Glottalized and murmured occlusives in Indo-European." Glossa 7:2:1973, 141-166.
 Thomas V. Gamkrelidze and Vjacheslav V. Ivanov, Indo-European and the Indo-Europeans, translated by Johanna Nichols, 2 volumes. Berlin and New York: Mouton de Gruyter, 1995. 
 Robert S.P. Beekes, Comparative Indo-European Linguistics. John Benjamins, 1995.
 Anthony Fox, Linguistic Reconstruction. Oxford, 1995.

Pronunciation
Urheimat (German: ur- original, ancient; Heimat home, homeland) is a linguistic term meaning the original homeland of the speakers of a proto-language. Since many peoples tend to wander and spread, there is no exact Urheimat, but there is an Indo-European Urheimat different from the Germanic or Romance Urheimat. Recent studies say the original home of Indo-Europeans was near the Armenian Highlands.

Specific hypotheses:
Kurgan hypothesis
Anatolian hypothesis
Armenian hypothesis
Out of India theory

References
.
.

Other websites 
Linguistics and Ideology in the Study of Language by E. F. K. Koerner, University of Ottawa On linguistics and the  search for the original Indo-European homeland

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
The Anatolian hypothesis of Proto-Indo-European origin is that the speakers of the Proto-Indo-European language lived in Anatolia during the Neolithic era. When the Neolithic Revolution took place in the seventh and sixth millennia BC, the speakers spread over Europe. Those who advocate this hypothesis think that the Indo-European languages originated in Anatolia.  They believe that the Proto-Indo-Europeans then migrated north to the location north of the Caucasus Mountains. There is an another hypothesis, called the Kurgan hypothesis. The people who support it say the Indo-European languages came from the Caucasus. One of the best-known advocates of the Anatolian hypothesis is Colin Renfrew.

Related pages
Indo-Hittite
Armenian hypothesis
Neolithic Europe
Neolithic revolution
Kurgan hypothesis

Other websites 
Russell D. Gray and Quentin D. Atkinson, Language-tree divergence times support the Anatolian theory of Indo-European origin, Nature 426 (27 November 2003) 435-439 

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
Rafayel Avetisi Ishkhanyan (, 9 March 1922 – 6 February 1995) was an Armenian philologist and historian. He was a professor of the Yerevan State University.

Biography 
In 1939, Ishkhanyan entered the department of Armenian language and literature of Yerevan State University. He fought in World War II. After the war, he continued his studies and graduated from Yerevan University in 1949.

His works are generally dedicated to the earliest history of the Armenian people, to the comparative linguistic analysis of ancient languages, and to printing. He is one of the authors of Armenian Soviet encyclopedia.

He was a Deputy to the Supreme Soviet Armenia in 1990-1996.

Publications
Ishkhanyan claims that Armenians "were the aborigines of the Armenian plateau who have been living there continuously since the fourth millennium B.C.E at the latest". Similar claims were promoted in nationalist novels such as those of Sero Khanzatian, published in the 1970s.

Books 
Errord Uzhi Batsarman Orenke: Hodvatsner, Azat khosk,  (5-8079-0250-5)
Girke Khorhrdayin Hayastanum: Matenagitakan Tsank, Hayastani azgayin grapalat,  (99930-50-03-2)
Mer Inknutyan Glkhavor Nshane: (Grakanagitakan Hetazotutyunner), Nairi,  (5-550-00429-1)
Patkerazard Patmutyun Hayots, Book 1, 1989, Arevik,  (5-8077-0057-0)
Rafael Ishkhanian, Hayeri tzagume yev hnaguin patmutiune (The Origins and Most Ancient. History of the Armenians) (Beirut: Altapress 1984))
Questions of origin and earliest history of Armenian people, Yerevan 1988
On the Origin and Earliest History of the Armenian People
Ksiazka Ormianska W Latach 1512 - 1920, Ossolineum

References

Other websites 
Books of Ishkhanyan

1922 births
1996 deaths
Armenian historians
distinguish the Warsaw Pact, which was a defence treaty between Eastern European nations

The Warsaw Convention is an international convention which regulates  for international carriage of persons, luggage or goods performed by aircraft for reward.

It was signed in 1929 in Warsaw, it was amended in 1955 at The Hague and in 1975 in Montreal.

In particular, the Warsaw Convention has the following rules:
carriers issue passenger tickets;
carriers issue baggage checks for checked luggage;
there is a limitation period of 2 years within which a claim must be brought (Article 29); and
a carrier's liability is at least:
 250,000 Francs or 16,600 Special Drawing Rights (SDR) for personal injury;
 17 SDR per kilogram for checked luggage and cargo,
 5,000 Francs or 332 SDR for the hand luggage of a traveller.

On April 1, 2007, the exchange rate was 1.00 SDR = 1.135 EUR or
1.00 SDR = 1.51 USD.

The Montreal Convention, signed in 1999, will replace the Warsaw Convention system, once Montreal has been ratified by all states.

Footnotes

Other websites 

 .
Beginner's guide to the Warsaw Convention 

Aviation
1929 in Europe
20th century in Poland
1955
1950s in the Netherlands
1975
1970s in Canada
20th century in Montreal
1920s treaties
1950s treaties
1970s treaties

pl:Prawo transportowe#Pierwsze konwencje
Coroner was a thrash metal band from Switzerland. The band was formed in 1985.  The band is with Noise record label. The band's most successful albums are No More Color, Mental Vortex and Grin.

References

Other websites 
Coroner at Encyclopaedia Metallum

1980s establishments in Switzerland
1985 establishments in Europe
1996 disestablishments in Europe
2010 establishments in Switzerland
Swiss heavy metal bands
Thrash metal bands
Zürich
Musical groups established in 1985
Musical groups disestablished in 1996
Musical groups established in 2010
Disestablishments in Switzerland
Ritchies is the largest independent supermarket group in the IGA network of Australia. It was started in 1870 by Thomas Ritchie who opened a food store in the tiny country village of Frankston, Victoria.

References

Other websites 
Official Ritchies Web Site

Supermarkets of Australia
The Treaty of Warsaw () is a treaty between West Germany and the People's Republic of Poland. It was signed on December 7, 1970 and ratified by the German Bundestag on May 17, 1972.

In the treaty, both sides committed themselves to nonviolence and accepted the existing border - the Oder-Neisse line. This was a very sensitive topic at the time as Poland was concerned that one day a German government would lay claim to some of the territory Germany lost after World War II. Poland took over this territory to replace eastern Poland, which the Soviet Union had conquered in 1939. A lot of that land was east of the Curzon Line, and Poland kept it after the Polish-Soviet War (1919-1921).

Chancellor Willy Brandt was heavily criticized by the conservative CDU/CSU opposition, which indeed were in favour of such a claim, accusing him of abandoning German interests. The Oder-Neisse line was reaffirmed by a reunited Germany in the German-Polish Border Treaty, signed on 14 November 1990.

In the FRG at the time this treaty was signed it was not seen as the last word on the border, because article IV stated that previous treaties like the Potsdam Agreement were not superseded by this latest agreement, so the provisions of this treaty could be changed by a final peace treaty between Germany and the Allies of World War II as provided for in the Potsdam Agreement.

References

Other websites
 Text of the treaty (PDF file, )

1970
1970s in Germany
20th century in Poland
Warsaw 1970
Scordatura in music is a technique in which players of string instruments tune their strings to different notes from a normal tuning. The word “scordatura” is an Italian word which means “mistuning”. It was used for lutes, guitars, viols and instruments of the violin family.

Using a scordatura tuning made the instrument sound different. For example: a string tuned to a slightly higher note will sound louder and brighter because it is tighter. Care has to be taken not to tune it too high otherwise it will break. Scordatura also made it possible to play unusual chords or combinations of notes in string-crossing (when the bow moves quickly from one string to another).

When a composer writes for an instrument using scordatura tuning he shows at the beginning of the music what notes the strings must be tuned to. The music is then written, not as it sounds, but so that the player can read it as if the instrument were being played normally, e.g. if a G string is tuned up to G# and the composer wants a G# he simply writes a G, but it will sound G#.

Scordatura in the Baroque period 
Scordatura tuning was mainly popular in the Baroque period from 1600-1750. Composers such as Heinrich Biber often used it. He composed a group of sonatas for violin and accompaniment called the "Rosary Sonatas". In each sonata the violin is tuned in a different way. In Sonata XI (called Resurrection) he even asks the violinist to make the two middle strings cross over between the bridge and the tailpiece so that the violin is tuned to two Gs and two Ds.

Scordatura in the Classical Period 

In the classical period a famous example of scordatura is Mozart’s, "Sinfonia Concertante" for Violin, Viola and Orchestra in which he asks the viola to tune all four strings a semitone higher than usual. This makes it sound louder and brighter so that it matches the brightness of the violin, especially as the violin is playing with normal tuning in the key of E flat, which sounds a soft key (because the key of Eflat hardly uses any “open” strings).

Later examples 

In the late 19th century and 20th century there are examples of composers using scordatura. In his Fourth Symphony Mahler asks the violin soloist (the leader of the orchestra) to play on a violin tuned to Gsharp-D-A-Eflat. The music is describing a poor beggar playing a violin. The violin soloist needs a second instrument for this, so that he can swap quickly back to a normal violin.
 
Saint-Saëns asks the solo violin in Danse Macabre to tune the E string to Eflat to make it sound like the devil.

Zoltán Kodály wrote a sonata in B minor for solo cello, for which the cellist has to tune down the two lower strings to F# and B instead of G and C. This helps to make a very dark, rich sound when playing B minor chords.

Musical performance techniques
There are three main hypotheses as to the origins of the Etruscan civilization. Autochthonous development in situ out of the Villanovan culture, as claimed by the Greek historian Dionysius of Halicarnassus who described the Etruscans as indigenous people who had always lived in Etruria. A migration from the Aegean sea, as claimed by a couple of Greek historians: Herodotus, who described them as a group of immigrants from Lydia in Anatolia, and Hellanicus of Lesbos who claimed that the Tyrrhenians were the Pelasgians originally from Thessaly, Greece The third hypotheses is reported by Livy and Pliny the Elder, the  Etruscans as related to Rhaetian people to the north and other populations living in the Alps.

German linguist Helmut Rix proposed the Tyrsenian language family, with Etruscan related to the Rhaetic language spoken in the Alps north of Etruria, and to the Lemnian language spoken in Lemons. In particular the Lemnian language could have arrived in the Aegean Sea during the Late Bronze Age, when Mycenaean rulers recruited groups of mercenaries from Sicily, Sardinia and various parts of the Italian peninsula.

The latest mtDNA study (2013) suggests that the Etruscans appear to fall very close to a Neolithic population from Central Europe and to other Tuscan populations.

References 

Etruscan civilization
The Etruscan language was spoken and written by the Etruscans in the ancient area of Etruria (what is now Tuscany, western Umbria and northern Latium) and in parts of Lombardy, Veneto and Emilia-Romagna (where the Gauls took the place of the Etruscans), in Italy.

Inscriptions have been found in northwestern and west-central Italy in the region that still has a name that came from the Etruscans, Tuscany (from Latin tusc "Etruscans") and in Latium, north of Rome, in Umbria west of the Tiber, around Capua in Campania and in the Po Valley to the north of Etruria. That is probably the area in Italy in which the language was once spoken.

Other websites 
 Etruscan News Online, the Newsletter of the American Section of the Institute for Etruscan and Italic Studies.
Etruscan News back issues , Center for Ancient Studies at New York University.
Etruscology at Its Best, the website of Dr. Dieter H. Steinbauer, in English. Covers origins, vocabulary, grammar and place names.
 Viteliu: The Languages of Ancient Italy at web.archive.org.
 The Etruscan Language, the linguistlist.org site. Links to many other Etruscan language sites.

References

Language isolates
Etruscan civilization
The Trialeti culture was seen around the 2nd millennium B.C. In the late 3rd millennium B.C. settlements of the Kura-Araxes culture began to be replaced by early Trialeti culture sites. The Trialeti culture was the second culture to appear in the Caucasus, after the Kura-Araxes culture. The Trialeti culture shows close ties with the highly-developed cultures of the ancient world, particularly with the Aegean.

Related pages
Artaxiad dynasty of Iberia
Kura-Araxes culture
Shulaveri-Shomu culture

References 

History of Armenia
History of Georgia (country)
The Kura-Araxes culture or the Early trans-Caucasian culture, a people that lived from 3400 BC until about 2000 BC.  The earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain; thence it spread to Georgia by 3000 B.C.

The land they lived in are now Armenia, Georgia , Azerbaijan and the Caucasus.

References

Other websites 
The Chronology of the Caucasus During the Early Metal Age: Observations from Central Transcaucasus  - Giorgi L. Kavtaradze
The Beginnings of Metallurgy  - includes extensive discussion of Kura-Araxes metalworking

History of Georgia (country)
History of Armenia
History of Azerbaijan
Biodiesel is a type of fuel prepared by changing vegetable oil, animal fat, special types of algae and possibly even sewage.  It is considered a type of renewable energy, since it all comes from living plants and animals.  It can be used to power an engine, usually for vehicles, including airplanes.  It replaces diesel that comes from petroleum, a type of fossil fuel.   

Biofuel prepared from biomass is different since it does not start from oil and uses a different chemical process to make the fuel.

Advantages and disadvantages
Biodiesel is much cleaner and has less pollution than diesel fuel made from fossil fuels.  It also acts as a solvent (like soap). In fact, it cleans the engine so much that it might pull out old dirt in the engine and clog up the filters.  After the filters are replaced then it is fine.

In the United States and several other places, new laws say that regular diesel fuel must be low in sulfur.  This gets rid of pollution, especially acid rain, but it also makes the fuel less slippery.  Adding in biodiesel helps keep the fuel slippery and the engine running smoothly. 

Most biodiesel comes from plants.  This means a lot of farmland is used to grow plants for fuel instead of for feeding animals and people.  There are scientists, chemical engineers and agricultural engineers who are studying ways to use algae and saltwater plants to make oil.  This would not take away farmland that is used to grow food.  Also, some biodiesel comes from waste oil and waste animal fat, that would otherwise be thrown away.  NASA is testing biodiesel made from chicken fat to fuel their airplanes. 

All diesel fuel has a problem starting an engine in cold weather, but biodiesel has more of a problem.  This can be solved by mixing biodiesel and regular diesel at the right mixture.  Or by heating the fuel before it is used by the engine.  There might be a heater built into the vehicle for this.

Biodiesel from plants
Most biodiesel is made from oilseed.  Oilseed is any type of seed that has enough oil in it to be useful in making vegetable oil.  

In Brazil, castor beans are the best plants to make biodiesel.
In Germany biodiesel is usually made from rapeseeds.
Soybeans and sunflower seeds are commonly used in the United States.
In Thailand, the raw material will most likely come from palm oil, coconut oil, Jatropha oil, and animal fat.
Jatropha trees also grow in India and Africa.

Some people make their own biodiesel by converting old oil that is used in restaurants to fry foods.  The exhaust smells a bit like french fries.

Biodiesel from algae
Someday algae might be used to make more biodiesel than is made today with vegetable oil.  Algae can be grown in places that food cannot be grown in, so it would not take food away from people.   But right now it is still too expensive, but scientists are looking at ways to make the process better.

References

Biofuels
Nimrod (; ,  an-Namrūd) according to the Bible was the son of Cush, grandson of Ham and a "mighty hunter before the Lord" who built cities at Akkad, Erech (Uruk), and Babel. According to many legends, and as told by the Jewish historian Flavius Josephus, he became an evil tyrant who forced all his subjects to bake bricks for the Tower of Babel.

References

Old Testament people
Julie Deborah Kavner (born September 7, 1950 in Los Angeles, California) is an Emmy Award-winning American actress and comedienne, best known for playing Brenda Morgenstern on Rhoda in the 1970s, as an actress in several Woody Allen-directed films and playing the voice of Marge Simpson on the animated television show The Simpsons. She also voices Marge's sisters Patty and Selma.

Filmography

Film

Television

Video games
The Simpsons (1991) – Marge Simpson
Storybook Weaver (1994) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Cartoon Studio (1996) – Marge Simpson
Virtual Springfield (1997) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
Simpsons Bowling (1999) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons Wrestling (2001) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons: Road Rage (2001) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons Skateboarding (2002) – Marge Simpson
The Simpsons: Hit & Run (2003) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
Storybook Weaver Deluxe (2004) - Mayzie Bird
The Simpsons Game (2007) –– Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier
The Simpsons: Tapped Out (2012) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier

Music video
"Do the Bartman" (1990) – Marge Simpson

Theme park
The Simpsons Ride (2008) – Marge Simpson, Patty and Selma Bouvier

Other websites 
 

1950 births
Living people
American television actors
Actors from Los Angeles
Emmy Award winning actors
For other meanings, see Bridge (disambiguation).

 
A bridge on a string instrument is something that stands on the body of the instrument and supports the strings.  It sends the vibrations of the strings to the main part of the instrument so that the sound can be heard.

The bridge of an instrument in the violin family (violin, viola, cello and double bass) can be seen very clearly.  It is a piece of hardwood which is shaped like a bridge.  The top is like an arch in shape because the player needs to be able to play on one string at a time.  The feet of the bridge have to be shaped to fit on the front of the instrument (the “belly”) which is curved.  The bridge is not fixed to the instrument: it is only held up because of the tension (tightness) of the strings.  The soundpost, a small wooden column inside the body, is also held up by tension of the strings and the bridge.
The part of the string which vibrates and gives the note is the part between the bridge and the top of the fingerboard (or the part between the bridge and where the player puts his finger).  The other end of the string is fixed to a tailpiece.

On a banjo the bridge works in the same way, but on a guitar the bridge is fixed to the instrument and the strings are fixed to the bridge.

There are even instruments with moveable bridges such as the Japanese koto which has a separate bridge for each string.

String instrument construction
Bridge may mean:
 Bridge (structure), a structure built so that a transportation route can cross above an obstacle.
 The Bridge (documentary movie), a movie about suicides on the Golden Gate Bridge.
 Bridge (dentistry), a fixed prosthesis used to replace missing teeth.
 Bridge (exercise), most commonly the balancing of the body on the head and feet.
 Bridge (graph theory), an edge whose removal disconnects a graph.
 Bridge (grappling), a move intended to dislodge an opponent in top control.
 Bridge (prosody), a point in a line of poetry where a break in a word-unit cannot occur.
 Bridge (ship), the area from which a ship is commanded.
 Main Bridge (Star Trek), the control center of Starfleet vessels in the Star Trek universe.
 Contract bridge, a card game.
 Bridge loan, a short-term loan to cover a gap in time until a new long-term financing is realised.
 Adobe Bridge, a program included with the Adobe Creative Suite to link the other programs together
 Hashiwokakero, meaning "build bridges", a Japanese puzzle.
 "bridge the gap": a phrase meaning to connect different things or ideas
 Bridge cameras combine some of the advantages of large and small cameras 
 Bridge Records, Inc., a record label
In chemistry:
 Bridge (chemical), an unbranched chain of atoms or an atom or a covalent bond connecting two bridgeheads in a polycyclic compound.
 A Salt bridge, in chemistry, is a laboratory device used to connect the oxidation and reduction half-cells of a galvanic cell (electrochemical cell)
 Salt bridge (protein) (or salt bond), in protein chemistry, is the term used to denote chemical bonds between positively and negatively charged side-chains of proteins.
In electronics:
 Bridge rectifier, an electronic circuit for converting alternating current to direct current.
 Wheatstone bridge, an electronic circuit for comparing resistors, capacitors or inductors to high standards of accuracy. 
In music:
 Bridge (instrument), the device that anchors the strings to or holds the strings above the body of a string instrument, such as a violin or guitar.
 Bridge (music), an interlude that connects two parts of song.
In computers:
 Bridge pattern, a computer science design used to separate an abstraction and its actual implementation.
 Network bridge, an electronic device used to connect two computer or telephone network segments.

People 
 Frank Bridge, composer

Places with the name Bridge 
 Bridge, Kent, a place in Kent, England.
 Scotland has many place names in the style of Bridge of Allan.

Related pages
 Bridge the gap
Chav (male) and chavette (female) are mainly negative, unkind slang words used in the United Kingdom for a subcultural stereotype of young underclass white people. Chav: "a young working class person who dresses in casual sports clothing or a baseball cap".

They may wear fashion based on American hip-hop such as fake gold jewellery and designer clothing, combined with elements of working class British street fashion. Many are either school age or late teens/early twenties and may come from a family culture of social security claimants ("SS claimants"). The term first appeared in dictionaries in 2005.  They tend to listen to R&B, hip hop, UK garage, grime and reggae and drum & bass music.

"Chav" has started to mean a variety of things. Most chavs do not wear Burberry – this happened mostly in the '90s and early '00s. Chavs are stereotypically narrow-minded and more often than not, below average intelligence. Chavs also tend to use slang language to appear "cooler" and more "edgy".

Chavs may be associated with criminality, including: assault, mugging, robbery, burglary and car crime. Anti-social behaviour orders (Asbos) were introduced to tackle such persistent offending.

“Chavette” is a term used to describe female chavs.

Pop culture
In 2011, Owen Jones published his first book, Chavs: The Demonization of the Working Class. Jones says in it that 'chav' is a word used to make working-class people seem less human. In 2014, The Guardian Suzanne Moore wrote an article calling R&B singer and songwriter Tulisa a chav.

References

British culture
Pejoratives
Slang
The council house is a form of public housing found in Ireland and the United Kingdom, sometimes called social housing in modern times. Council houses were built and operated by local councils to help the local population. As of 2005, approximately 20% of the country's housing is owned by local councils or by housing associations.  The largest council estate in the country (and one of the largest in the world) is Becontree, Dagenham, with a population of over 100,000. Building started in the 1920s and took nearly 20 years to finish.

The Republic of Ireland has a similar public housing system, Local Authority Accommodation.

References 

Public services in the United Kingdom
Houses
Barvas or Barabhas is a village on the Isle of Lewis. It is said to have the biggest percentage of Gaelic speakers in Scotland, (74.7% here speak Gaelic.)

Villages in Scotland
Lewis is the northern part of Lewis and Harris, the largest island in the Western Isles (or Outer Hebrides) of Scotland. 

Its biggest town is called Stornoway, which has a population of over 5000. Most people on the island speak Gaelic. On the island, there is a town called Barvas, which is the place which has the biggest percentage of Gaelic speakers (74.7% of the people speak Gaelic).

Related pages 
Callanish stones

Inner and Outer Hebrides
Stornoway is the biggest town in the Outer Hebrides. It is on the Isle of Lewis, and over 5,000 people live there. It has nearby the Stornoway Airport, an old RAF airbase which now acts a link between the island and the Scottish mainland.

Towns in Scotland
Skye is the largest and most northerly island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland. More than 9000 people live there, and half of the people speak Gaelic. The main settlement is Portree, known for its picturesque harbour.

The island has been occupied since the mesolithic period and has a colourful history. It was rule by the Norse for 400 years, then dominated by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald. The Highland Clearances of the 19th century caused a decline in the population from over 20,000 to around 9,200 in the early 21st century. The population has risen 4% from the census of 1991. The main industries are tourism, agriculture, fishing and whisky-distilling.

Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area and is now linked to the mainland by a road bridge. The island is renowned for its spectacular scenery, vibrant culture and heritage, and its abundant wildlife, including the Golden Eagle, Red Deer and Atlantic Salmon.

The Clans 
Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from the clans, especially castles. Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century. It may have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland.

The 18th century Armadale Castle, once home of Clan Donald was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre. Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds, Knock Castle, and Dunscaith Castle, the legendary home of Queen Scáthach.

Geography 
At 1,656 square kilometres (639 sq mi), Skye is the second-largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris.

The Black Cuilin 

The Black Cuillin, low mountains mainly composed of basalt and gabbro, include 12 peaks the Scots call 'Munros'. This is some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland. The ascent of Sgùrr a' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit. A full crossing of the Cuillin ridge may take 15–20 hours to complete.

References 

Inner and Outer Hebrides
The 2022 Winter Olympics, formally called the  XXIV Olympic Winter Games, is the 24th Games of the Winter Olympics. It is an international winter sports event that will be held from February 4 to February 20, 2022. The winning bid was announced in the summer of 2015 and Beijing was chosen, and since it hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics, it will be the first city ever to host both the Summer and the Winter Olympics.

Candidate Cities
 Beijing, China (chosen)
 Almaty, Kazakhstan 
 Oslo, Norway

Bids

Asia
  Harbin, China: Li Zhanshu, governor of Heilongjiang, has said that "If we fail again for the 2018 Games, we are determined to win the 2022 Winter Games." Harbin bid for the 2010 Winter Olympics, but did not make the short list. 
 Kazakhstan: Kazakhstan considers to bid for the 2022 games, either in Almaty, the former capital, largest city, and financial centre, or divided between Almaty and Nur-Sultan, the capital.  The Almaty alternative gives higher chance of winning, but the divided alternative is preferred by the government because of lower cost, since more arenas and hotels exist already. Kazakhstan hosted the 2011 Asian Winter Games, which can be seen as preparation for hosting the Winter Olympic Games in 2022. The Asian Winter Games were divided between Astana and Almaty. On November 29, 2011, Almaty was chosen to host the 2017 Winter Universiade.

Europe
  Lviv, Ukraine
  Prahova Valley, Romania -  Romanian Prime Minister Călin Popescu Tăriceanu said on June 14 2007 that the country is thinking about a bid for the Games to be held there.
  Zurich, Switzerland

North America
  Quebec City, Canada
  Salt Lake City, Utah, United States: Salt Lake City considered a bid for either the 2018 Games or the 2022 Games. The city hosted the 2002 Winter Olympics.
  Montreal, Quebec, Canada – Lake Placid, New York, USA: Officials from Quebec and the state of New York have met to talk about the possibility of a bid together. With Vancouver hosting the 2010 Winter Olympics, the earliest that Canada hoped to host the Olympics was 2022. Montreal, Canada hosted the 1976 Summer Games and Lake Placid hosted the 1932 and 1980 Winter Games.

South America
  Santiago, Chile

References

Olympics
Winter Olympics in Asia
2020s in China
2022 in Asia
February 2022 events
Sport in Beijing
Guarneri is the name of a family of famous violin makers from Cremona in Italy in the 17th and 18th centuries.  Together with the families Amati and Stradivari they made some of the best violins the world has known.  

Andrea Guarneri (c. 1626 - 7 December  1698) was a pupil in the workshop of Nicolo Amati from 1641 to 1646 and returned to make violins for Amati from 1650 to 1654.  He married a rich lady and they were able to buy a large house which became known as the “Casa Guarneri”.  They had seven children.  Two of his sons: Pietro Giovanni and Giuseppe Giovanni, became violin makers. Andrea Guarneri produced some fine violas, one of which was played by William Primrose in the early 20th century.

Pietro Giovanni Guarneri (18 February  1655 - 26 March  1720), known as Peter of Mantua (Pietro da Mantova) to distinguish him from his nephew Pietro Guarneri. He worked in his father's workshop from around 1670 until his marriage in 1677. He had settled in Mantua by 1683, where he worked both as a musician and a violin maker. His instruments are generally better than his father's.  However, he did not make so many instruments because he spent a lot of his time playing them.  None of his children became violin makers.  Joseph Szigeti played one of his instruments.

Andrea's younger son, Giuseppe Giovanni Battista Guarneri (25 November  1666 - 1739 or 1740), known as filius Andreae, joined his father's business in Cremona.  He inherited it in 1698. He is one of the great violin makers.

Giuseppe Giovanni Battista was father to two other instrument makers:  Pietro Guerneri who settled in Venice and Bartolomeo.

Pietro Guarneri (Peter of Venice or Pietro da Venezia) (14 April  1695 - 7 April, 1762) made some instruments that are as great as those of his father.  One of his cellos was played by Beatrice Harrison. 

Bartolomeo Giuseppe Guarneri (del Gesù), also known as Joseph (21 August   1698 - 17 October   1744), has been called the finest violin maker of the Amati line (Amati and his pupils). Giuseppe is known as del Gesù because his labels always have the characters I.H.S. (iota-eta-sigma) and a Roman cross. His instruments are different from the others made by his family.  They are thought of as the greatest violins with the exception of those by Stradivari. The famous violin virtuoso Niccolò Paganini’s favorite instrument was a Guarneri del Gesù violin of 1743. The "Lord Wilton" Guarneri del Gesù violin made in 1742 was owned by Yehudi Menuhin and other Twentieth-century 'del Gesù' players have included, Arthur Grumiaux, Jascha Heifetz, Isaac Stern and Henryk Szeryng.

References
http://www.grovemusic.com/Grove Music Online

Other websites
Guarneri family web page, violins, violin labels
Guarneri web site
The Violin Site - Violin Making 
Casa Guarneri Auctioneers of fine musical instruments 

Musical instrument makers
People from Cremona
Amati is the name of a family of Italian violin makers. They made violins between about 1549 and 1740. They worked in Cremona in Italy, the town which is famous for violin making.

Andrea Amati: the founder of the family 

The most famous member of the family was Andrea Amati who was born some time before 1511 and died in Cremona on 24 December 1577. He can be thought of as the inventor of the violin in its modern form. He made violins, violas and cellos. A small number of his instruments are still in existence. They are dated between 1564 and 1574 and they have the coat of arms of Charles IX of France on the back.

His sons Antonio and Girolamo Amati 

Andrea Amati’s two sons were Antonio Amati who was born about 1540 in Cremona and died there on 14 February 1607 and Girolamo Amati who was born about 1561 in Cremona and died of the plague there on 21 October 1630. They are known as "The Brothers Amati", but they did not work much together. However, they both produced some great instruments. They made the shape of the f holes perfect and gave their instruments more strength. They also made some large violas and cellos. They had an enormous influence on all other violin makers.

Nicolò Amati 
Nicolò Amati was the son of Girolamo Amati. He is now the most famous member of the family. He was born on 3 December 1596 and died on 12 April 1684) He was the most eminent of the family. He had become a very skilled violin maker by 1630 when his father died. During the next few years there was a lot of suffering because of the plague and not many people could afford to buy instruments. Then, after 1640, there was more demand again and Nicolò made many great instruments. Those that have survived are among the most sought-after and expensive violins today. He made instruments that were slightly wider and were known as the “Grand Pattern”. Many other violin makers learned from him. These pupils include Andrea Guarneri and possibly also Antonio Stradivari.

Girolamo Amati 
The last maker of the family was Nicolo's son, Girolamo Amati, known as Hieronymus II. He was born on 26 February and died on 21 February, 1740. Although he made some improvements to his father's instruments, they are not as good. Antonio Stradivari became the greatest violin maker at this time.

Related pages
Stradivarius
Guarneri

References 
http://www.grovemusic.com/Grove Music Online

Other websites 
The Violin Site - Violin Making 

Musical instrument makers
Italian families
The Guardians of Scotland were appointed to act as King during the two interregnums of 1290-1292 and 1296-1302.

An interregum is a time when a monarchy has no king.  It is from the Latin for "between reigns".

History of Scotland

1292 establishments
Establishments in Scotland
14th-century disestablishments in Europe
1292 disestablishments
1295 establishments
1302 disestablishments
1290s establishments in Europe
Alvin Burke, Jr. (born October 28, 1973) is an American professional wrestler and rapper. He is better known by the ring name Montel Vontavious Porter (MVP). He is currently signed to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA). He has also worked with World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) and New Japan Pro Wrestling (NJPW). He is a former one time WWE Tag Team Champion with Matt Hardy and a former two time WWE United States Champion.

He spent six months in a juvenile detention center after a robbery and later completed 9½ years of an 18½ year prison sentence for armed robbery and kidnapping which at the time he started it he was sixteen. He has a rare heart condition called Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome. He converted to Islam while in prison but has since described himself as a nonbeliever.

References

Other websites 
 Official website
 TNA profile 
 WWE profile

1973 births
African-American wrestlers
American agnostics
American burglars
American kidnappers
American professional wrestlers
Rap musicians from Florida
American robbers
Converts to Islam
Living people
Former WWE wrestlers
Sportspeople from Miami, Florida
TNA wrestlers
Shoplifting is theft by stealing goods or money from a retail store. Shoplifting is punishable by law enforcement.

Theft

no:Shoplifter (sang)
A portrait is a painting or a photograph of a person's face and its expression. The purpose of a portrait is to show the likeness, personality, and even the mood of the person. For this reason, in photography, a portrait is actually not a snapshot, but a calm image of a person in a still position. A portrait normally shows a person looking directly at the painter or photographer.

Gallery

Other websites 

 National Portrait Gallery of the Smithsonian Institution
 National Portrait Gallery London
 Painting The Century 101 Portrait Masterpieces
 Jeanne Ivy's Self-Portrait Page - What Artists Find When They Search in the Mirror.
 Portrait Detectives - Fun interactive introduction to the analysis of portraiture.
 Reportret - A gallery of reconstructions of missing portraits from world history.

Art
Graceland is a 13.8 acre estate and large white-colored mansion that was owned by Elvis Presley. It is located in Memphis, Tennessee, USA.

Further reading
Engel, Matthew. "Still stuck on Elvis, fans exalt the King". The Guardian (London), August 17, 2002, p. 1.
Harris, John. "Talking about Graceland". The Guardian (London), March 27, 2006.

Other websites 
Official website
O.T.I.S. Odd Things I've Seen
National Historic Landmark news release 
Elvis Information Network History of the building

Memphis, Tennessee
Elvis Presley
Buildings and structures in Tennessee
Harry Julius Shearer (born December 23, 1943, in Los Angeles, California) is an American comedic actor, voice actor, comedian, writer, musician, author, radio host, director and producer. Shearer is famous for playing the voices of several minor characters for The Simpsons (1989 to present).

Shearer was a child actor.  He acted on the Jack Benny radio program.

Shearer was a member of the Credibility Gap comedy group.  The radio stations KRLA and later KPPC broadcast the Credibility Gap.  He performed on the Pop Chronicles music documentary.

Shearer portrayed Derek Smalls in the 1984 comedy movie This is Spinal Tap. Rob Reiner directed this movie. 

Shearer speaks the voices for many characters on The Simpsons cartoon.  Some of the characters he plays are  Mr. Burns, Waylon Smithers, and Ned Flanders.

Filmography

Film

Television

Music video

Video games

Other websites
 Harry Shearer's official site
 archived Harry Shearer site
 Harry Shearer's blog at the Huffington Post
 Harry Shearer  at Voice Chasers 
 Harry Shearer 'takes aim' with "Not Enough Indians"  (video of an appearance at Cody's Books, Berkeley, CA Nov 26, 2006)
 Harry Shearer on The Hour
 Scene Missing Magazine Interviews Harry Shearer

References 

American television actors
American voice actors
Comedians from Los Angeles
Actors from Los Angeles
HuffPost writers and columnists
1943 births
Living people
Daniel Schneidermann (born April 5, 1958 in Paris) is a French journalist. He mainly reports about televised media. He is most active in weekly columns. Schneidermann has written in Le Monde and is presently in Libération. He also can be seen on the television program Arrêt sur images (Freeze-frame), broadcast by the public television channel France 5.

1958 births
Living people
French writers
French journalists
A pound (usually abbreviated as lb, plural lbs) is a unit used to measure the mass of something. It is used in the imperial system and the United States customary system. There are a number of different definitions. The most commonly used definitions band  today is the international avoirdupois pound. This is equal to , and is divided into 16 avoirdupois ounces.

Avoirdupois pound 
The avoirdupois pound (abbreviation lb., plural lbs.) is the most common unit. This type is used for all purposes except the uses of the troy pound. Most people from the United States, United Kingdom, Ireland, Canada, Liberia and Burma use this as their standard measure of their personal mass.

Troy pound 

The troy pound (abbreviation t lb., plural t lbs.) is generally not used anymore. It was used in England by apothecaries and jewellers. A troy pound contains 12 troy ounces. The troy ounce is still used to measure the mass of precious metals and gems.

Metric pound 
In some European countries, a metric pound is an informal term for half a kilogram (500 grams). In the Netherlands, however, the metric pound () is equal to one kilogram.

Comparison

References 

Imperial units
Units of mass
Western Armenia (), also referred to as Byzantine Armenia, later Turkish Armenia, or Ottoman Armenia is a term coined following the division of Greater Armenia between Byzantine Empire (Western Armenia) and Persia (Eastern Armenia) in 387 AC.

History
After the death of Armenian king Arshak III, in 390 AC, the Western Armenia was governed by Greek generals. In the 7th century Western Armenia was one of the centers of Pavlikian Christian popular sect. Since 9th century the most part of Western Armenia included Vaspurakan and Taron was under the rule of Bagratid dynasty of Armenia. Then the Zakarid Armenia of 13-14th centuries included some parts of Western Armenia.
 
After Turkish-Persian wars of 1602-1639 Western Armenia became part of Ottoman Empire. Since Russo-Turkish War, 1828-1829 that term is referred to the Armenian-populated historical regions of the Ottoman Empire that remained under Ottoman rule after the eastern part was ceded to the Russian Empire.

Western (Ottoman) Armenia was composed of six vilayets (vilâyat-ı sitte), the vilayets of Erzurum, Van, Bitlis, Diyarbekir, Kharput, and Sivas. After the collapse of Ottoman Empire Western Armenia remained under Turkish rule, and in 1894–96 and 1915 Turkey perpetrated systematic massacres and forced deportations of Armenians.

After the Armenian genocide the distinct Western Armenian dialect of the Armenian language (recognized as one of the major dialects of Armenian  ) is spoken primarily in Istanbul, Lebanon, Egypt, other parts of Armenian diaspora, and formerly in eastern Turkey. It differs orthographically from Eastern Armenian, there are also phonological differences. In some parts of the diaspora, the Armenian schools, such as L'École Arménienne Sourp Hagop and the Armenian Sisters Academy instruct Western Armenian to the students, instead of Eastern Armenian, the official dialect of the Republic of Armenia.

Modern period
The fate of Western Armenia — commonly referred to as "The Armenian Question" — is considered as a key issue in the modern history of the Armenian people. The first and second congresses of Western Armenians took place in Yerevan in 1917 and 1919. Since 2000, an organizing committee of congress of heirs of Western Armenians who survived the Armenian Genocide is active in diasporan communities.

Publications
Dr Arman Kirakosian, English Policy towards Western Armenia and Public Opinion in Great Britain (1890-1900), Yerevan, 1981, 26 p. (in Armenian and Russian).

Related pages
Kingdom of Armenia
Armenian Highland
Wilsonian Armenia
Armenian Empire

References

Other websites
Disappearance of Western Armenia after World War 1 
Video: Provinces of Western Armenia

History of Armenia
The Kingdom of Poland of the Jagiellons lasted from 1385 to 1569. It was created by the accession of Wladislaus II Jagiełło, Grand Duke of Lithuania, to the Polish throne in 1386. The Union of Krewo united Poland and Lithuania into one monarchy. The union was confirmed but also transformed by the Union of Lublin in 1569, which was shortly followed by the end of the Jagiellon dynasty that had ruled Poland for two centuries.

Related pages
 History of Poland 

History of Poland
The Jagiellons were a royal dynasty that came from Lithuania and reigned in some Central European countries (present day Lithuania, Belarus, Poland, Ukraine, Latvia, Estonia, Kaliningrad, parts of Russia, Hungary, Czech Republic, Slovakia) between the 14th and 16th century. 

Members of the dynasty were grand dukes of Lithuania 1377–1392 and 1440–1572, kings of Poland 1386–1572, kings of Hungary 1440–1444 and 1490–1526, and kings of Bohemia 1471–1526. The family was a branch of the Lithuanian Gediminaičių dynasty.

The name (other variations used in English include: Jagiellonians, Jagiellos, Jogailos, Jagiellas) comes from Jogaila (pol.: Jagiełło), the first Polish king of that dynasty.

Jagiellon rulers 
Jagiellons were hereditary rulers of Poland and Lithuania.

The Jagiellon rulers of Poland–Lithuania (with dates of ruling in brackets) were:

 Ladislaus (Jogaila) (in Lithuania 1377–1401; in Poland 1386–1434). (also known as Władysław II Jagiełło)
 Ladislaus III (1434–44)
 Casimir (1447–92)
 John Albert (1492–1501)
 Alexander (1501–05)
 Sigismund (1506–48)
 Sigismund Augustus (1548–72) (also known as Sigismund II)

Footnotes

Other websites 
 Pages and Forums on Lithuanian history
 Jagiellonian Observatory

History of Poland
Royal dynasties