cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
An institution is a social structure in which people cooperate and which influences the behavior of people and the way they live.

An institution has a purpose. Institutions are permanent, which means that they do not end when one person is gone. An institution has rules and can enforce rules of human behavior. The word "institution" can be used in two ways. It can mean a very broad idea, or a very "specific" (narrow) one. For example: 
 Government is an institution in the broad sense. Westminster Parliament is an institution in the specific sense. 
 Education is an institution in the broad sense. Harvard University is an institution in the specific sense.

Institutions, in the broad sense, are found in every society. The way that each institution works is different in different cultures. Some important institutions are: 
 Marriage- This is how society protects itself by controlling the way people live together, have children and care for them. 
 Education- A society controls how young ones are prepared to be useful adult members of society. 
 Kinship- Society controls how people who are related, or not related, should act to each other. This includes inheritance. 
 Religion- Societies have ways in which people's religious beliefs are celebrated.
 Law- Societies decide what is right and wrong, and what punishments there are for doing wrong. 
 Trade- Societies have ways of controlling the way food and other goods pass from one person to another. 
 Defence- Societies set up institutions to protect themselves against attack.

Some societies have many institutions in the "specific" sense. These societies have an organised government, schools, hospitals, churches, clubs, armies, markets, courts and places for entertainment. Some societies have very few of these things, but this does not mean that there are no "institutions". The way in which the people relate to each other may have just as many "controls" as in a society with schools, markets and a government. An example of a society that has lots of "specific" institutions is Western Europe. 
 
Historians look at institutions to find differences between eras or periods. They sometimes judge political and military events by the effect that they had on institutions.

Sources 

 Berger, P. L. and T. Luckmann (1966), The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Anchor Books, Garden City, NY.
 Greif, Avner (2006), Institutions and the Path to the Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade , Cambridge University Press.
 North, D. (1990), Institutions, Institutional Change and Economic Performance. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.
 Schotter, A. (1981), The Economic Theory of Social Institutions. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Related pages 
 State
 Establishment

Other websites 
 International Society for New Institutional Economics
 Institutional reform

References 

Social sciences
In biology, races are distinct populations within the same species with relatively small morphological and genetic differences. 

The populations are ecological races if they arise from adaptation to different local habitats or geographic races when they are geographically isolated. 

If sufficiently different, two or more races may be described as subspecies, which is an official biological taxonomy unit below 'species'. 

If not, they are called races, which means that a formal rank should not be given to the group, or taxonomists are unsure whether or not a formal rank should be given. 

According to Ernst Mayr, "a subspecies is a geographic race that is sufficiently different taxonomically to be worthy of a separate name"

Example
The key lime is a shrub that grows to a size of about 5 metres in height. It has many thorns. It produces a fruit that is yellow when it is ripe. This fruit is preferred by bartenders to mix cocktails. They prefer this lime, rather than the Persian lime. 

The lime plant originally came from southeast Asia, where it is native. It was taken to the Middle East, and Crusaders took it to Europe and North Africa. Spanish explorers took it to the West Indies and the Florida Keys. In 1926, a hurricane destroyed most of the commercially-grown limes in the region. The Persian lime was reintroduced then.

Some of the original shrubs grew wild in the Florida Keys.  It became clear that the originally introduced shrubs (now known as Mexican limes) had modified their fruits. These were darker green than the original Persian limes, they also had a thicker skin.

More detail 
In biological taxonomy, race is an informal rank below the level of subspecies. It may be used as a higher rank than "strain". There are various definitions. Races may be genetically distinct populations in the same species, or they may be defined in other ways, e.g. geographically, or physiologically. Genetic isolation between races is not complete (some interbreeding takes place between the groups).
However, the genetic differences are not (yet) enough to put the groups into separate species. The term race is recognized by some, but is not governed by any of the formal codes of biological classification.

Human beings 

In former times, scientists often divided human beings into races. For example, they called people with a dark skin  "Negroid" or "black race". But, human gene sequences are very similar compared to many other animals. This is one reason why modern biology says that there is only one human race.

References 

Taxonomy
The phenotype of an organism is the whole set of characters (or traits) of that organism.

It does not mean just 'what you can see on the surface'. Rather, it means anything which can be made visible by suitable means. For example, blood groups are definitely a part of the phenotype. However, they are not visible just by looking at a person.

In biology, the phenotype is distinguished from the genotype. This was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm (gametes or their stem cells) and somatic cells (the body).

The phenotype is important because it is exposed to natural selection:
"From Darwin to the present day most evolutionists have considered the individual organism to be the principal object of selection. Actually, it is the phenotype which is the part of the individual that is “visible” to selection". Ernst Mayr 

Phenotypes are determined mainly by genes and are influenced by environmental factors. So, knowing the genome of an organism does not give an exact prediction of its phenotype.

Traits vary greatly in how much they owe to heredity (nature vs nurture). The interaction between genotype and phenotype has often been conceptualized by the following relationship:

genotype + environment → phenotype

Extensions 
The term 'phenotype' must include characteristics that can be made visible by some technical procedure (such as blood types). Another extension adds behaviour to the phenotype since behaviours are also affected by both genotypic and environmental factors.

The idea of the extended phenotype has been developed by Richard Dawkins to mean all the effects a gene has on the outside world that may influence its chances of being inherited. These can be effects on the organism carrying the trait, the environment, or other organisms. For instance, a beaver dam might be considered a phenotype of beaver genes, the same way beavers' powerful incisor teeth are phenotype expressions of their genes. Dawkins also cites the effect of an organism on the behaviour of another organism (such as the devoted nurturing of a cuckoo by a parent clearly of a different species) as an example of the extended phenotype.

Related pages 
Nature versus nurture

References

Classical genetics
Developmental biology

he:גן (ביולוגיה)#מושגים בסיסיים
The Key lime is a citrus fruit. Its Latin name is  Citrus aurantiifolia (often, less correctly: C. aurantifolia), or Citrus x aurantiifolia (Christm.) Swingle. It is also known as the Mexican lime, West Indian lime or Bartender's lime. It is a shrub that grows to about 5m in height. 

Its fruit is 2.5-5 cm in diameter (1-2 in). The fruit is yellow when ripe but usually it is picked green. It is smaller, seedier, has a higher acidity, a stronger aroma, and a thinner rind than that of the more common Persian lime. It is valued for its unique flavor compared to other lime.  The Key lime usually has a more tart and bitter flavor. It is perhaps most distinguished as an ingredient in the Key lime pie. 

C. aurantiifolia is a shrubby tree, that grows to 5 m (16 ft), with many thorns. Dwarf varieties are popular with home growers and can be grown indoors in winter in colder climates. The trunk rarely grows straight, with many branches that often originate quite far down on the trunk. The leaves are ovate 2.5–9 cm (1–3.5 in) long. They resemble orange leaves (the scientific name aurantiifolia refers to the leaves' resemblance). The flowers are 2.5 cm (1 in) in diameter. They are yellowish white with a light purple tinge on the margins. Flowers and fruit appear throughout the year but are most abundant from May to September  .

C. aurantiifolia originally came from  Southeast Asia.  It was introduced through the Middle East to North Africa and Europe during the Crusades. Spanish explorers then took it to the West Indies (at some point including the Florida Keys) contemporaneously with Columbus, then tropical and sub-tropical North America including Mexico, Florida, and later California .  The English name "lime" was derived from the Persian name لیمو Limu in this course.  "Key" would seem to have been added some time after the Persian lime cultivar became more important commercially in the United States. This was after the hurricane of 1926. The hurricane destroyed most U.S. C. aurantiifolia plants.  Some plants growing in the wild in the Keys survived the hurricane.  Since the North American Free Trade Agreement came into effect, many Key limes are grown in Mexico and Central America. They are also grown in Texas and California.

Footnotes
  Alphabetical List of Plant Families with Insecticidal and Fungicidal Properties
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle
  Citrus aurantiifolia Swingle

Other websites 
 Link to main Wikipedia article on Key_lime
 Link to Fruits: Limes on tonytantillo.com (may not work)

Citrus
Persian Lime (Citrus x latifolia), also known as Tahiti lime or Bearss lime is a kind of citrus fruit. It is the primary citrus fruit grown commercially in the U.S. It is sold simply as a "lime". The fruit is about 6 cm in diameter. Very often, it has slightly nippled ends. It is usually sold quite green, although it yellows as it reaches full ripeness. It is larger, thicker-skinned, and less aromatic than the key lime. The key lime is grown more often worldwide. The Persian lime is bigger than the key lime, and has fewer seeds. The plant is also hardier, and has no thorns on the bushes. The fruit also has a longer shelf life. 

Persian limes are less acidic than key limes and do not have the bitterness that lends to the key lime's unique flavour. Persian limes are sold primarily in six sizes, known as 110's, 150's, 175's, 200's, 230's and 250's. They are grown primarily in Florida in the U.S. The Persian lime became more important when key lime orchards were wiped out by a hurricane in 1926. Persian lime orchards themselves were devastated by Hurricane Andrew in 1992. Large numbers of Persian limes are grown, processed and exported every year primarily from Martínez de la Torre, Veracruz, Mexico, to the American, European and Asian markets. U.S. Persian lime imports from Mexico are handled mostly through McAllen, Texas.

References 
 Tahiti lime botany, agriculture, and history
 history and use of limes 
 history and varieties of limes 
 Key limes and others

Citrus

ss
The Kaffir lime (Citrus hystrix DC., Rutaceae), also known as kieffer lime, makrut or magrood, is a citrus fruit native to Indonesia. It is widely grown worldwide as a garden shrub. It is usually grown it for its fruit, the lime. The leaves are used for cooking. Vegetable oil obtained from the leaves is used to make perfumes.

The plant
The plant is a  very thorny bush with aromatic leaves. The oil obtained from the rind of the fruit can be used as an insecticide. The plant is well suited to being grown in a container. The green fruits are different from other limes because of their bumpy and rough exterior. They are also quite small, about 4 centimetres across. The leaves are shaped like an hourglass. The leaves and the leaf-shaped stem are widely used in the cuisine of Cambodia, Thailand and Laos.

Citrus x hystrix leaves are also popular in Cambodia but less so in Vietnam. Malay, Burmese and Indonesian (especially Balinese and Javanese; see also Indonesian bay leaf) cuisines use them sporadically with chicken and fish.

The leaves can be used fresh or dried and can be stored frozen.

Although the most common product of the Citrus x hystrix tree is its leaves (which give a sharp Lime/neroli flavour to Cambodian base paste known as Krueng, Thai dishes such as tom yum and Indonesian food such as sayur assam - literally sour vegetables), the juice and rind of the small, dark-green gnarled fruit (known as jeruk obat - literally medicine citrus) are used in traditional Indonesian medicine.

The zest is widely used in Creole cuisine and to impart flavour to "arranged" rums on Réunion and Madagascar.

Other names
Other names for Citrus x hystrix:
 Burma: shauk-nu, shauk-waing
 Cambodia: krauch soeuch
 China: fatt-fung-kam
 Malaysia: limau purut
 Indonesia: jeruk purut, jeruk sambal
 Philippines: swangi
 Sri Lanka: kahpiri dehi, odu dehi, kudala-dehi
 Thailand: makrut, som makrut

Terminology
The Oxford Companion to Food () recommends that the name kaffir lime should be avoided in favour of makrut lime because Kaffir is an offensive term in certain cultures and also has no clear reason for being attached to this plant. However kaffir lime appears to be much more common.

Image Gallery

Citrus
Herbs
Spices
Medina (; ,  , "the radiant city"; or ,  (), "the city"), also transliterated as Madīnah, is a city in the Hejaz, and the capital of the Al Madinah Region of Saudi Arabia. The city contains al-Masjid al-Nabawi ("the Prophet's Mosque"), which is the burial place of the Islamic prophet Muhammad, and is the second-holiest city in Islam after Mecca.

Medina was Muhammad's destination after his Hijrah from Mecca, and became the capital of a rapidly increasing Muslim Empire, first under Muhammad's leadership, and then under the first four Rashidun caliphs, Abu Bakr, Umar, Uthman, and Ali. It served as the power base of Islam in its first century where the early Muslim community developed. Medina is home to the three oldest mosques, namely the Quba Mosque, al-Masjid an-Nabawi, and Masjid al-Qiblatayn ("the mosque of the two qiblas"). Muslims believe that the chronologically final surahs of the Quran were revealed to Muhammad in Medina, and are called Medinan surahs in contrast to the earlier Meccan surahs.

Similar to Mecca, non-Muslims are forbidden from entering the sacred core of Medina or the center of the city.

Overview 
Medina currently has a population of  more than 1,300,000 people (2006). The city was originally known as Yathrib, but later its name was changed to Madīnat al-Nabī (مدينة ﺍﻟﻨﺒﻲ  "city of the prophet") or Al Madīnah al Munawwarah ("the enlightened city" or "the radiant city"). The short form Madīnah simply means "city". Madina is the second holiest city of Islam, after Mecca (Makkah).

Medina's religious significance in Islam 
Medina is very important to Muslims. This is because the Prophet Muhammad is buried in a mosque known as 'Masjid-e-Nabawi' or 'The Mosque of The Prophet'. The Mosque was built on a site next to Muhammad's home. Muslims believe  that Prophets must be buried at the very same place that they die. Accordingly, Muhammad was buried in his house. The tomb later became part of the mosque when it was expanded by the Umayyad Caliph Al-Walid I. The first mosque of Islam is also in Medina. It is known as Masjid Quba, (the Quba Mosque).

Like Mecca, the city of Medina only permits Muslims to enter. The haram (area closed to non-Muslims) of Medina is much smaller than that of Mecca, though.  Many facilities on the outskirts of Medina are open to non-Muslims. In Mecca the area closed to non-Muslims extends well beyond the limits of the built-up area. Both cities' numerous mosques are the destination for large numbers of Muslims on their annual pilgrimage. Hundreds of thousands of Muslims come to Medina each year to visit the 'Tomb of Prophet' and to worship at mosques in a unified celebration. Muslims believe that praying once in the Mosque of the Prophet is equal to praying at least 1000 times in any other mosque.

References

Other websites 

 Beautiful Masajids Of Madina Munawara, Details And Pictures  

 Satellite map of Medina - Google
 Pictures of Medina Munawwara 

 

hu:Medina
Doctrine (Latin: doctrina) is a code of beliefs or "a body of teachings".

Doctrine often means several religious dogmas that a church teaches. 
But it can also mean a principle of law, in the common law traditions, established through a history of past decisions, such as the doctrine of self-defense, or the principle of fair use.

In matters of foreign policy, a doctrine, also known as dogma, is group of fundamental rules for a nation's foreign policy. Examples include the Monroe Doctrine, the Stimson Doctrine, the Truman Doctrine, the Eisenhower Doctrine, the Nixon Doctrine, the Brezhnev Doctrine, the Kirkpatrick doctrine, and the Bush Doctrine.

Religious usage 

Examples of religious doctrines include:
 Christian Trinity and Virgin birth of Jesus
 Roman Catholic transubstantiation and immaculate conception
 Pentecostal Jesus-Only doctrine
 Calvinist predestination
 Methodist Prevenient Grace

One department of the Roman Curia is called the Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith.

Military usage 

The term also applies to the concept of an established procedure to a complex operation in warfare. The typical example is tactical doctrine in which a standard set of maneuvers, kinds of troops and weapons are employed as a default approach to a kind of attack.

Examples of military doctrines include:
 Blitzkrieg of World War II
 Hit-and-run tactics
 Shock and Awe
 Guerre de course
 Mahanian of late 19th up to mid-20th Century

Christian genres
Politics
Christian theology
Citric acid is a weak organic acid. It can be found in citrus fruits ( like oranges). It is used by organisms for Krebs cycle. It acts like a preservative when added to food. It is also used to add a sour (acidic) taste to foods and soft drinks. In the European Union it is known as E 330, as a food additive.

Carl Wilhelm Scheele was the first who could extract citric acid from lemons, in 1782. The substance was probably known to alchemists, perhaps with a different name. The Arabian alchemist Geber is said to have discovered citric acid in the 9th century. Citric Acid contains 6 Carbon atoms, 8 Hydrogen atoms and 7 Oxygen atoms. Its chemical formula is C6H8O7.

Main uses 
 As a water softener
 It is often used in detergents, to avoid the smell of acid, esp. Acetic acid
 As a preserving agent
 Citric acid and its salts prevent blood clotting. Blood donations are kept liquid using citric acid.

References

Other websites 
 Citric acid analysis - free spreadsheet for titration of acids and pH calculation

Acids
Citrus
Jābir ibn Ḥayyān (; ; died between 806 and 816), is the name for the writer of a great number of writings in Arabic. The writings together have the name Jabirian corpus. The most important subjects of these writings are: alchemy, cosmology, numerology, astrology, medicine, magic, mysticism, and philosophy.

Jabir's writings have in them the oldest known list of chemical substances. For the first time, the writings gave an explanation of how to produce an inorganic substance (ammonium chloride) from organic substances (such as plants, blood, and hair).

Modern scholars doubt the historical existence of Jabir. It is probable that one person did not write all of the writings in the Jabirian corpus. Instead, scholars see Jabir ibn Hayyan as a pseudonym that a group of writers used.

Translations into Latin of some of Jabir's Arabic writings (like the "Book of Mercy", and the "Book of Seventy") came into existence in the Middle Ages. In Latin, Jabir had the name "Geber", a transliteration of "Jabir".

In 13th-century Europe an anonymous writer, called pseudo-Geber, started to produce new writings about alchemy under the name Geber. People still read the  in the 17th century. The  was one of the writings that pseudo-Geber produced in the 13th century. It was an influence on early modern chemists like Robert Boyle (1627–1691).

References

Works cited 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

Chemists
Muslims
Philosophers
Physicians
Physicists
Pharmacists
Micheline Calmy-Rey (born 8 July 1945) is a Swiss politician. She was Switzerland's foreign minister as head of the Federal Department of Foreign Affairs. She was also a member of the Swiss Federal Council from 2003. She was President of the Confederation in 2007 and again in 2011. She resigned her office as member of the Federal Council on 31 December 2011.

Other websites

Official website

|-

|-

|-

|-

|-

1945 births
Living people
Presidents of the Swiss Confederation
The term “piano trio” can also be used in jazz. This article is about the piano trio in classical music.

A piano trio is a group of three instruments including a piano. Usually it is a piano, a violin and a cello. This combination of instruments has been a very popular form of chamber music from the Classical music period onwards. A piano trio can also mean a piece of music written for a piano trio to play.

Other combinations of piano with two instruments are often called by the featuring wind instrument. For example: Mozart wrote a trio for piano, clarinet and viola which is usually called a “clarinet trio”. Brahms wrote a trio for piano, violin and French horn which is usually called a “horn trio”.

Music for three people to play at one piano is called music for piano six hands.

Famous music for piano trio 

Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote several piano trios for the traditional combination of piano, violin and cello. Beethoven’s last piano trio has the nickname Archduke because it was written for the Archduke Rudolph. Franz Schubert wrote two beautiful piano trios.

In the Romantic period some of the best piano trios were written by Felix Mendelssohn, Antonín Dvořák, César Franck and Pyotr Tchaikovsky.

In the 20th century Maurice Ravel and Dmitri Shostakovich each wrote a famous piano trio.

Famous piano trios 

Alfred Cortot, Jacques Thibaud and Pablo Casals were world famous musicians who played and recorded piano trios in the early 20th century.
During the second half of the 20th century the Beaux Arts Trio were the best known group. Today there are many young musicians who play piano trios, including three Japanese sisters called the Fujita Piano Trio who play a lot of their music all from memory.

Musical groups
Piano
Pastry is the dough from which some baked products are made. Pastry dough is rolled out thinly and used as a base for baked products. It is made from ingredients such as flour, sugar, milk, butter, shortening, baking powder, and/or eggs. Common pastry dishes include pies, tarts, quiches and pasties.

Pastry is also the name given to various kinds of baked products. Small cakes, tarts and other sweet or savoury baked products are called "pastries." 

Greek food such as Spanakopita are made from pastries.

Related pages 
Cookie

References 

Foods
Johann Georg Albrechtsberger (born 3 February 1736 in Klosterneuburg near Vienna; died 7 March 1809 in Vienna) was an Austrian composer, organist, music theorist and music teacher.  He is most known today because he was Beethoven’s teacher for a time.

Life
From the age of seven, Albrechtsberger was a choirboy.  He had lessons in organ and music theory.  As an adult, he had several jobs in churches in small towns.  He became Kapellmeister at St Stephen’s Church, Vienna in 1793.  This was the best job for a church musician in the empire.

Writing music
Albrechtsberger wrote hundreds of compositions. He wrote most of them before he got the job in Vienna.  He wrote in a classical style. Albrechsberger enjoyed doing things with music which were not normally done. He would ask string players to tune their strings in different ways (called “scordatura”). He would also write slow movements with muted strings.  As well as classical sonatas he wrote lots of fugues.  Several people, including Mozart, thought of him as the greatest organist in the world.

Teaching
Albrechtsberger was a very important music teacher.  Joseph Haydn thought he was the best teacher in Vienna.  He was very interested in contrapuntal music of the Baroque period. He copied many fugues by Bach and other composers.

When Beethoven was a young man, he had some composition lessons from Joseph Haydn.  When Haydn was going to travel to England for several months, he asked Albrechtsberger to teach Beethoven while he was gone. These lessons took place from 1793 to 1795.  A few years later, Albrechtsberger said about Beethoven that “he learned absolutely nothing and will never accomplish anything decent”.  Beethoven said that Albrechtsberger was a “musical pedant”.  However, Beethoven still studied Albrechtsberger’s books on music theory.  The string quartets which Beethoven wrote near the end of his life show the influence of Albrechtsberger.

References 

1736 births
1809 deaths
Austrian composers
Classical era composers
Music theorists
Organists
People from Lower Austria
"Für Elise" (German for For Elise) is the common name of the "Bagatelle in A minor", written by Ludwig van Beethoven in 1810. The song is thought to be written for Therese, a woman that Beethoven wanted to marry in 1810, however his handwriting was misspelt undergoing transcription, allowing the piece to be known as Fur Elise rather the Fur Therese. Therese did not want to marry him.

The piece of music, which was written for the piano, was not published until 1865, a long time after Beethoven’s death. It is one of the most well-known pieces of piano music in the world.

Form 
The piece is in rondo form. There is a main section (A) which appears three times. Between these three sections there are two other sections (B and C), so the form of the piece can be described as: A B A C A.

The main section has a time signature of 3/8. It is based on arpeggios which flow from one hand to the other. This is the section that many beginner pianists want to play. The two middle sections are harder to play at the correct speed. They have fast scales, arpeggios and left hand demisemiquavers (32nd notes).

References
 Woodstra, Chris. et al. 2005. All Music Guide to Classical Music. All Media Guide, LLC. p. 104. 
https://www.classicfm.com/composers/beethoven/fur-elise-meaning-who-is-elise/

Other websites 
Für Elise - and other Beethoven resources (includes the free sheet music)

Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven
Solo piano pieces
Teplice  (German name: Teplitz) is a city in Bohemia, the western area of the Czech Republic.  Teplice (pronounced in Czech: “Tep-li-tse”) is a famous spa town where, in earlier times, lots of famous people went for holidays to improve their health.  Goethe, Beethoven, Chopin, Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner all stayed there.

Teplice lies between Prague and Dresden in a mountain area called Krušné hory (Iron Mountains).  In the year 762 hot springs were found there.  The waters from these springs helped people who were ill to get better so it became a spa town.

Since 1990 many buildings have been restored.  The Krušnohorské divadlo (Krušnohorské theatre) is now being refurbished.  The North Bohemia Philharmonic Orchestra give concerts there in the open air.  There is a museum and many restaurants, wine bars and cafés.  In the winter the mountain slopes are good for skiing.

Other websites 
Official website

Spa towns in the Czech Republic
Cities in the Czech Republic
Symphony No. 9 in D minor op 125 (Choral Symphony) by Ludwig van Beethoven is one of the most famous pieces of music ever written.

A symphony is a piece of music for orchestra. Beethoven wrote nine symphonies. This one, the last one he wrote, is very unusual because the last movement also has singing in it: there are four soloists (soprano, alto, tenor and bass) and a choir. This is why it is known as the “choral” symphony (“choral” means: “for choir”). It is a very long work, lasting more than an hour. This, too, was unusual.

This symphony has four movements. The first movement is in sonata form. The second and third movements come the other way round from the usual order: the second movement is the scherzo and the third movement is the slow movement. It is a theme and variations. The last movement sets the words of a poem by Friedrich Schiller, a famous poet who had only recently died. The poem was called Ode an die Freude (in English: Ode to Joy). The poem has a strong message to all mankind: it is about living in peace and harmony together. It was written at the time of the French Revolution when these ideas were becoming very important in Europe.

The main tune of the last movement (sung to the words: “Freude, schöne Götterfunken, Tochter aus Elysium”) is one of the best known tunes in the world. Many children like to play it on instruments because the first part of the tune only uses five notes (it can be played on C, D, E, F, G). When the tune comes the first time in the symphony it is played by the cellos and double basses.

The Ode to Joy was adopted as Europe's “National anthem” in 1972, with an official arrangement for orchestra written by Herbert von Karajan.

Beethoven had been interested in Schiller’s famous poem since he was young. In 1817 he started to write the first two movements of the symphony. In 1822 he decided to use Schiller’s poem in the symphony. Most of the rest of the symphony was written in 1823 and he finished it in 1824. It was first performed in May of that year. Beethoven conducted the performance. The story is told that he wondered why the audience were not applauding when it had finished. They were applauding, but Beethoven was deaf so he could not hear. Someone made him turn round, and he saw that people were applauding enthusiastically.

Compositions by Ludwig van Beethoven
Beethoven No 9
In mathematics, a Mersenne number is a number that is one less than a power of two.

Mn = 2n − 1.

A Mersenne prime is a Mersenne number that is a prime number. This however, is not sufficient. Many mathematicians prefer the definition of a Mersenne number where exponent n has to be a prime number.

For example, 31 = 25 − 1, and 5 is a prime number, so 31 is a Mersenne number; and 31 is also a Mersenne prime because it is a prime number. But the Mersenne number 2047 = 211 − 1 is not a prime because it is divisible by 89 and 23. And 24 − 1 = 15 can be shown to be composite because 4 is not prime.

Throughout modern times, the largest known prime number has very often been a Mersenne prime. Most sources restrict the term Mersenne number to where n is prime, as all Mersenne primes must be of this form as seen below.

Mersenne primes have a close connection to perfect numbers, which are numbers equal to the sum of their proper divisors. Historically, the study of Mersenne primes was motivated by this connection; in the 4th century BC Euclid demonstrated that if M is a Mersenne prime then M(M+1)/2 is a perfect number. In the 18th century, Leonhard Euler proved that all even perfect numbers have this form. No odd perfect numbers are known, and it is suspected that none exist (If it exist, it would have to be greater than 101500).

It is currently unknown if there is an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Most mathematicians who have studied the question think there are an infinite number of Mersenne primes. Carl Pomerance, Samuel S. Wagstaff Jr. and Hendrik Lenstra developed a formula which they think should say about how many Mersenne primes there are under a given number.

The binary representation of 2n - 1 is n repetitions of the digit 1.

For example, 25 - 1 = 11111 in binary.

The first four Mersenne primes were known by the Ancient Greeks. They are 3, 7, 31 and 127. The next, 8191, was discovered in 1456. Some people like trying to find big primes. Since there are tricks and algorithms to finding Mersenne primes quickly, the largest known primes are also Mersenne primes.

As of December 21, 2018, 51 Mersenne primes have been found. The largest known prime is a Mersenne prime, .

References

Classes of prime numbers
The Settlers II is a real-time strategy (RTS) computer video game. It was released by Blue Byte Software in 1996.

1996 video games
Real-time strategy video games
de:Die Siedler#Die Siedler II – Veni, Vidi, Vici
In cell biology, a granule can be any structure barely visible by light microscopy. The term is most often used to describe a secretory vesicle.

Leukocytes
A group of leukocytes called granulocytes contain granules and play an important role in the immune system. The granules of certain cells, such as Natural killer cells, contain components which can lead to the lysis of neighboring cells.

Platelets
The granules of platelets are classified as dense granules and alpha granules.

Cell biology
The cytosol (also known as intracellular fluid (ICF) or cytoplasmic matrix, or groundplasm) is the internal fluid of the cell, and a part of cell metabolism occurs here.

Proteins within the cytosol play an important role in signal transduction pathways and glycolysis.

Cytosol mostly consists of water, dissolved ions, small molecules, and large water-soluble molecules (such as protein). It contains about 20% to 30% protein.

Normal human cytosolic pH is (roughly) 7.0 (i.e. neutral), whereas the pH of the extracellular fluid is 7.4.

The texture of cytosol being described as granular can be attributed to the fact that in order to study the texture, an electron microsope must be used, which requires a process of dehydration prior to study.

References
Life: the science of biology. Purves, Sadava, Orians, Heller. Sunderland, MA. Sinauer Associates, Inc. 2004.  (ILM USA)

Biochemistry
For the toy, see marbles
Marble is a metamorphic rock that developed from limestone. Most of the material is calcite (a crystalline form of calcium carbonate, CaCO3) and dolomite. It is often used for sculpture, as a building material, and for many other purposes.

The word 'marble' is also used for other stones that can be polished well and for ball shaped objects used for child games. 

'Faux marble' is a wall painting technique that imitates the color patterns of real marble (not to be confused with paper marbling). Marble dust can be combined with cement or synthetic resins to make reconstituted or cultured marble.

Marble has been used in construction for thousands of years. It was widely used by Greek and Roman sculptors and architects. Places named after the stone include Marble Arch, London; the Sea of Marmara; India's Marble Rocks; and the towns of Marble, Minnesota; Marble, Colorado; and Marble Hill, Manhattan, New York. The Elgin Marbles are marble sculptures from the Parthenon that are on display in the British Museum.  They were brought to Britain by the Earl of Elgin.

Construction marble 

In the construction trade, the term "marble" is used for any massive, crystalline calcitic rock (and some non-calcitic rocks) useful as building stone.

Examples 
Purbeck marble is a fossiliferous limestone found in the Isle of Purbeck, a peninsula in south-east Dorset, England. It has been quarried since at least Roman times as a decorative building stone. The industry is no longer active.

Tennessee marble is really a massive, highly fossiliferous gray to pink to maroon Ordovician dolostone, known as the Holston Formation by geologists.  "Tennessee marble" is not true marble.  Its crystalline nature gives it a resemblance to marble, especially when polished. 

Carrara marble is a genuine marble. It is white or blue-grey and of high quality, popular for use in sculpture and building decor. It is quarried at the city of Carrara in the Lunigiana, the northernmost tip of modern-day Tuscany, Italy. The illustration shows the Pietà, which is a masterpiece of Renaissance sculpture by Michelangelo. It is in St. Peter's Basilica, Vatican City, and is the only piece Michelangelo ever signed.

Industrial use of marble 
Colorless marbles are a very pure source of calcium carbonate, which is used in a wide variety of industries.  Finely ground marble powder is a component in paint, toothpaste, and plastics; calcium carbonate can also be reduced under high heat to calcium oxide (also known as "quicklime"), which has many uses including being a primary component of most cements.

Related pages
list of minerals
limestone
granite
sandstone

Other websites

Inlaid marble  
Tips for cleaning marble 
Learning to carve by Marc Levoy.

References

Metamorphic rocks
Building materials
Carbonate rocks
Fan fiction or fanfiction (also known as fanfic) is a name for fiction created by fans instead of the original author.

Fanfiction writers take fictional characters and settings from fictional (or sometimes historical) stories that were created by other people, and write original stories about them. People write fan fiction for many different book, television series, and movie fandoms.

When fanfiction first began, it was often only published in fan magazines. Today fanfiction, like many fandom activities, can be usually found on the internet. This has created many fanfiction communities. People in these communities post their fanfiction and receive feedback (reviews) from other community members.

There is also fan art (also called fanart), which is often drawings or other visual art based on a fandom.

Related pages
Fandom
Fictional universe

Other websites 

Fanfiction.net

Fiction
Fandom
The Three Laws of Robotics are three rules which Isaac Asimov thought should be programmed into robots. The rules assume that robots will be human-type machines, able to walk about and do things. Asimov called these robots positronic robots. The laws are presented in his 'Robot' series of short stories and novels.

The first mention of the laws is in Asimov's short story Runaround (written in 1942). 
 A robot may not injure a human being or, by failing to act, allow a human being to come to harm.
 A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where carrying out those orders would break the First Law.
 A robot must protect its own existence, as long as the things it does to protect itself do not break the First or Second Law.

Later, Asimov added the Zeroth Law: "A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm"; the rest of the laws are changed one by one so that there can be no reason for a robot to break the Zeroth Law. .

According to the Oxford English Dictionary, the passage in Asimov's short story "Liar!" (1941) that mentions the First Law is the earliest recorded use of the word robotics. Asimov was not aware of this at the time; he assumed the word already existed by analogy with mechanics, hydraulics, and other similar terms denoting branches of applied knowledge.

The Three Laws form a theme in his Robot series and the other stories linked to it, as well as his Lucky Starr series of science fiction for children.  Other authors working in Asimov's fictional universe have adopted them, and references (often parodic) appear in science fiction and other genres. Technologists in the field of artificial intelligence have speculated upon the role the Laws might have in the future.

References

Other websites 
 Worley, Gordon.  "Robot Oppression: Unethicality of the Three Laws".
 "Frequently Asked Questions about Isaac Asimov", AsimovOnline 27 September 2004.
 Ethical Considerations for Humanoid Robots: Why Asimov's Three Laws are not enough.

Science fiction
Isaac Asimov
Nathuram Vinayak Godse (, May 19, 1910 – November 15, 1949) was the man who assassinated Mahatma Gandhi.

Nathuram Godse was born at Baramati, Pune District, British India. His father was Vinayak Vaman Rao Godse, his mother was Lakshmi (Godavari before marriage). His father was a fifteen-rupee-a-month employee of the post office.

Godse's political career 
Godse dropped out of high school and became an activist with the Hindu Mahasabha. 
The Hindu Mahasabha had initially backed Gandhi's campaigns of civil disobedience against the British government.
But Godse and his mentors later rejected Gandhi. They felt that Gandhi was sacrificing Hindu interests in an effort to please Muslim groups. They blamed Gandhi for the Partition of India, which killed hundreds of thousands of people.

Assassination of Mahatma Gandhi

Motive 
The immediate motive for the assassination is usually ascribed to Gandhi's January 13, 1948 decision to fast to the death unless the Indian central government reversed a decision to withhold the transfer of 55 crore (550 million) rupees to the government of Pakistan. The transfer had been specified in the partition agreement, but the Indian government had refused to complete it, complaining of continued Pakistani rebel occupation of disputed parts of Kashmir.

The Indian government immediately reversed its decision to withhold the funds, which infuriated Godse and his fellow Hindu nationals.

The decision to assassinate Gandhi was taken by Godse alone. The Mahasabha resolutely denied all complicity, and Godse took full responsibility. 

Godse assassinated Gandhi on January 30, 1948, approaching him during the evening prayer, bowing, and shot him three times at close range. Godse was convicted of murdering Gandhi, for which he was executed by hanging.

Other websites 
 Godse's deposition in court 
 A pro-Godse site  with interviews and links
 Time Magazine's Feb 2000 interview of Gopal Godse 
 Rediff's Jan 1998 interview of Gopal Godse
 Article discussing pro-Godse play
 Eyewitness to Gandhi assassination 
 Eyewitness gives VIDEO account of Gandhi Assassination

1910 births
1949 deaths
Assassins
Indian Hindus
Indian criminals
Indian activists
People executed by hanging
Political activists
Cradle of Filth is an extreme metal band from England. Some people say the band’s musical style is black metal, others say that it is gothic metal, extreme metal, or many other different styles. Cradle of Filth had many different members. It was founded by Dani Filth in 1991. He is still the leader of the band. Cradle of Filth is very well known and has enjoyed success on TV and the radio.

Albums 
 The Principle of Evil Made Flesh - (1994)
 Dusk and Her Embrace - (1997)
 Cruelty and the Beast - (1998)
 Midian - (2000)
 Damnation and a Day - (2003)
 Nymphetamine - (2004)
 Thornography - (2006)
 Godspeed on the Devil's Thunder (2008)
 Darkly, Darkly, Venus Aversa (2010)
 The Manticore and Other Horrors (2012)
 Hammer of the Witches (2015)
 Cryptoriana - The Seductiveness of Decay (2017)

Members 
 Dani Filth - Vocals
 Paul Allender - Guitar
 Charles Hedger - Guitar
 Dave Pybus - Bass
 Martin Skaroupka - Drums
 Sarah Jezebel Deva - Backing Vocals
 Rosie Smith - Live Keyboards

English heavy metal bands
Efficiency could mean:

 Energy efficiency, useful work per quantity of energy
 Energy conversion efficiency, desired energy output per energy input
 Energy conservation, reducing the use of energy
 Electrical efficiency, useful power output per electrical power consumed
 Fuel efficiency, converting energy in fuel to kinetic energy or work
 Specific impulse, in propulsion systems, a measure of fuel-efficiency
 Volumetric efficiency, in internal combustion engine design
 Lighting efficiency, visible light from a light source per unit of power, in lumens per watt
 Mechanical efficiency, the effectiveness of a simple machine, mechanical advantage over ideal mechanical advantage
 Thermodynamic efficiency, useful work per change in heat
 Exergy efficiency, measure of 2nd-law themodynamic loss
 Thermal efficiency, useful work per the higher heating value of the fuel
 Radiation efficiency, ratio of radiated power to power absorbed at the terminals of an antenna
 Efficiency (aerodynamics), for fixed wing aircraft the Lift-to-drag ratio
 Efficiency (economics), a general term, to capture the amount of waste or other undesirable features
 Pareto efficiency, making one individual better off, without making any other individual worse off
 Kaldor-Hicks efficiency, like a less stringent Pareto efficiency
 Allocative efficiency, an optimal distribution of goods
 The optimisation of a social welfare function
 Efficiency wages, paying workers more than the market rate for increased productivity
 Efficiency (statistics), a measure of desirability of an estimator
 Efficiency ratio, expenses as a percentage of revenue, etc.
 Efficiency Movement, of the Progressive Era 1890-1932, advocated efficiency in the economy, society and government
 Material efficiency, compares material requirements between construction projects or physical processes
 Textual efficiency, density of a message
 Algorithmic efficiency, the speed and space requirements of a computer program
 Quantum efficiency, a measure of sensitivity of a photosensitive device: the percentage of photons hitting the photoreactive surface that will produce an electron–hole pair
is a Japanese manga book.

References

Related pages
The Truth about Nanjing

Manga
Korea
History of Japan
Donkey Kong is a Nintendo video game character. He was first seen in a video game in 1981. He is a large gorilla who lives deep in the jungles of his very own island. Since 1994 he has worn a red necktie with his initials "DK" in yellow, his only piece of clothing. He appears as both the hero and villain of the Donkey Kong games.

Appearances in video games
 Donkey Kong
 Mario Kart 64
 Super Smash Bros.
 Mario Kart: Double Dash!!
 Mario Power Tennis
 Super Mario Strikers
 Super Smash Bros. Melee
 Mario Strikers Charged
 Donkey Kong Country
 Super Smash Bros. Brawl
 Donkey Konga
 Donkey Kong Jungle Beat

Fictional animals
Fictional characters introduced in 1981
Mario series characters
Donkey Kong
Multiculturalism is a word that describes a society where many different cultures live together. It is the simple fact of cultural diversity.

In a multicultural society, there is not an official (decided by the people in charge) culture that every person must be a part of. Instead, all cultures are respected as much as each other.

A multicultural society can result when people from many different countries migrate to one place, or an empire conquers many countries. Tolerance is a big help for multiculturalism. Xenophobia makes it difficult. 

A multicultural society would be composed of people from different ethnic backgrounds and cultures living and working together. In society when people from different backgrounds link with each other's culture shows the acceptance of each other's culture and background.

Related pages 
Multiculturalism in Canada
Multilingualism
Toleration

Sociology
Comfort women were women and girls forced into sexual slavery. These women, mostly Korean, were forced by the Imperial Japanese Army in occupied territories before and during World War II. Estimates of the number of these "comfort women" range up to 20,000 while two-fifths of them were Japanese. Some Chinese scholars claim it to be as much as 410,000.

References

Military of Japan
World War II
Prostitution
Sexuality