cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
In October 1937, Dominican dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina ordered the execution of the Haitian population living within the borderlands with Haiti. The violence resulted in the killing of 17,000 to 35,000 Haitian civilians over a span of approximately five days. This would later become known as the Parsley Massacre.

Events
Trujillo had made his actions for the Haitian community clear in a short speech given at a dance held in his honor on October 2, 1937 in Dajabón, stating:

Endnotes

20th century in the Dominican Republic
Massacres
20th centuy in Haiti
1937 in North America
A heat pump is a machine that moves heat from a cold place to a hot place. Examples include:

 Refrigerator. It moves heat from the inside to the outside. This keeps the food inside cold, so it will not spoil.
 Air conditioner. It moves heat from the inside of a building to the outside.
 Peltier device. It moves heat from one side to the other by means of an electric current.
 Some buildings are heated with heat pumps, also. In the winter, the heat pump moves heat from the outside to the inside. Sometimes this works better than heating with a radiator.

How it works 

Usually, heat flows from a hot place to a cold place, according to the second law of thermodynamics. Heat will not move from a cold place to a warmer place by itself. Because of this, a heat pump must use extra energy to move the heat. This is sort of like pumping water uphill.

Most heat pumps use electric motors to provide energy. Some heat pumps use heat energy, supplied by a flame or an electric heater.

Most heat pumps have a refrigeration cycle using a compressor. A refrigeration cycle uses a fluid which moves through tubes and carries the heat. The fluid is called a refrigerant. During the refrigeration cycle, the refrigerant changes from a liquid to a gas and back to a liquid.

When the refrigerant changes from a (compressed) liquid to a gas, it absorbs heat energy from the environment. When the refrigerant changes from a gas back to a liquid, it loses heat energy.

The heat pump is set up so that the refrigerant gains heat from one place that will be cooled, and moves it to another place that will be warmed.

A heat pump forces the refrigerant to change from a gas to a liquid. It uses a compressor to do this. Often, an electric motor drives the compressor. The compressor compresses the refrigerant, and this makes it change from a gas to a liquid. Compressing will heat up the liquid extensively.

At the other end of the cycle, the refrigerant boils again, absorbing heat from its surroundings, it cools them down. So where the refrigerant is changing from a liquid to a gas, it feels cooler.

This is the complete cycle, from the cooling side to the heating side:
On the cooling side, heat is taken up to boil the refrigerant from a liquid to a gas. Then the fluid moves to the heating side.There, the compressor forces the refrigerant back to a liquid again. This makes it give up its heat. So heat has moved from the cooling side to the heating side. Then, the cycle repeats.

If the cooling side is the inside of a refrigerator, it gets cold.

If the cooling side is the inside of a building, and the warming side is the outside of the building, the inside of the building gets cold. This is how an air conditioner works.

If the cooling side is the outside of the building, and the warming side is the inside of the building, this is how a heat pump can heat a building during the winter.

Other websites 

Heating and Cooling with a Heat pump (PDF)
Heat pumps Long Awaited Way out of the Global Warming (PDF) - Information from Heat Pump & Thermal Storage Technology Center of Japan

Engineering
The second law of thermodynamics says that when energy changes from one form to another form, or matter moves freely, entropy (disorder) in a closed system increases.

Differences in temperature, pressure, and density tend to even out horizontally after a while. Due to the force of gravity, density and pressure do not even out vertically. Density and pressure on the bottom will be more than at the top.

Entropy is a measure of spread of matter and energy to everywhere they have access.

The most common wording for the second law of thermodynamics is essentially due to Rudolf Clausius:

In other words, everything tries to maintain the same temperature over time.

There are many statements of the second law which use different terms, but all mean the same thing.   Another statement by Clausius is:

Heat cannot of itself pass from a colder to a hotter body.
An equivalent statement by Lord Kelvin is:

A transformation whose only final result is to convert heat, extracted from a source at constant temperature, into work, is impossible. 

The second law only applies to large systems. The second law is about the likely behavior of a system where no energy or matter gets in or out. The bigger the system is, the more likely the second law will be true.

Overview 
In a general sense, the second law says that temperature differences between systems in contact with each other tend to even out and that work can be obtained from these non-equilibrium differences, but that loss of thermal energy occurs, when work is done and entropy increases. Pressure, density and temperature differences in an isolated system, all tend to equalize if given the opportunity; density and pressure, but not temperature, are affected by gravity.  A heat engine is a mechanical device that provides useful work from the difference in temperature of two bodies.

Quotes 

--Sir Arthur Stanley Eddington, The Nature of the Physical World (1927)

--Greg Hill and Kerry Thornley, Principia Discordia (1965)

--Philosopher / Physicist P.W. Bridgman, (1941)

Miscellaneous 
 Flanders and Swann produced a setting of a statement of the Second Law of Thermodynamics to music, called "First and Second Law.
 The economist Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen showed the significance of the Entropy Law in the field of economics (see his work The Entropy Law and the Economic Process (1971), Harvard University Press).

 References 

 

 Further reading 

 Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction, a bit less technical than this entry.
 Maxwell's demon 2 : entropy, classical and quantum information, computing. Edited by Harvey S. Leff and Andrew F. Rex. Bristol; Philadelphia : Institute of Physics, 2003

 Other websites 
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics." by Lawrence Sklar.
 The evolution of Carnot's principle, by E.T. Jaynes, in G. J. Erickson and C. R. Smith (eds.) Maximum-Entropy and Bayesian Methods in Science and Engineering'' vol. 1, p. 267 (1988).
 The Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Thermodynamics
Laws of physics
A branch is a part of a tree.

Branch or branching could also mean:

Computing
 Branch (computer science), a point in a computer program where program-flow may change depending on a condition.
Branch predictor, the part of a processor that determines whether a conditional branch in the instruction flow of a program is likely to be taken or not.
Branch table, a term used to describe an efficient method of transferring program control (branching) to another part of a program using a table of branch instructions.
 Indirect branch, a type of program control instruction.
 Branching (software), a way of duplicating an object under revision control.

Geography
 Branch, Arkansas, United States
 Branch, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada

Mathematics
 Branch (graph theory), a concept in mathematical logic
 Branch point, a point at which a multiple-valued function changes values
 Principal branch, a function which selects one branch of a multi-valued function

Religion
 Branch (Christ), the Branch Davidian new name of Christ
 Branch (Latter Day Saints), the Latter Day Saint equivalent of a congregation

Other
 Arthur Branch, a fictional character on the TV crime drama Law & Order
 Branch (academia), an academic sub-discipline
 Branch (banking), a retail location
 Branch (bridle), a crooked piece of iron in a bit shank
 Branch line, a relatively minor railway line
 Branching (chemistry), a concept in polymer chemistry
 Branching (linguistics), the general tendency towards a given order of words within sentences and smaller grammatical units within sentences
 Cadet branch, a family line of nobility not descending from the first born son
 Earthly Branches, one Chinese system for reckoning time
 Executive branch, the branch of government responsible for the day-to-day management of the state
 Olive branch, a gesture of peace
 Post office branch, a type of postal facility that is not a main post office

People named Branch
 Branch, Christopher (circa 1600-1682), early American colonist
 Branch, Cliff (1948–2019), retired American football player
 Branch, David (born 1948), Commissioner of the Ontario Hockey League
 Branch, Emmett Forrest (1874-1932), governor of the U.S. state of Indiana
 Branch, Frank (born 1944), Canadian politician 
 Branch, John, Jr. (1782–1863), U.S. Senator, Secretary of the Navy, governor of North Carolina, and  territorial governor of Florida
 Branch, Lawrence O'Bryan (1820-1862), Confederate General and Representative from North Carolina
 Branch, Michael (born 1978), English professional footballer
 Branch, Michelle (born 1983), American singer, songwriter and guitarist
 Branch, Vanessa (born 1973), British actress and model
 McCracken, Branch (1908–1970), college men's basketball coach

Related pages
 Branch County
 Branch Township
 East Branch
 Fort Branch
 Long Branch
 North Branch
 South Branch
 West Branch
 USS Branch
The first law of thermodynamics states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed; it can change only from one form to another. The law forms the basis of the principle of conservation of energy. This means that anything that uses energy is changing the energy from one kind of energy to another. For example, exercising changes energy from food into kinetic (motion) energy.  Another example:  In the Sun (or any star), nuclear fusion changes mass into heat and light (electromagnetic radiation), which travels to Earth and is used by plants to create food (chemical energy) via photosynthesis, which can be eaten by animals allowing them to move (kinetic energy).  Energy only ever changes its form; it is neither created nor destroyed. This is why perpetual motion machines do not exist and could never exist; it would break a fundamental law of physics.

People can use the changes to do work that is useful. Examples of forms of energy in classical mechanics include heat, light, kinetic (movement) or potential energy. However, in modern physics it is considered that there are only two types of energy - mass and kinetic energy, although this may not be helpful to those not familiar with more complex physics.

The law means that the total energy of the universe (or any Closed system) is a constant. However, energy can be transferred from one part of the universe to another.

The most common wording of the first law of thermodynamics used by scientists is:

History
James Prescott Joule was the first person who found out by experiments that heat and work are convertible.

The first explicit statement of the first law of thermodynamics was given by Rudolf Clausius in 1850: "There is a state function E, called 'energy', whose differential equals the work exchanged with the surroundings during an adiabatic process."

Thermodynamics and Engineering 
In thermodynamics and engineering, it is natural to think of the system as a heat engine which does work on the surroundings, and to state that the total energy added by heating is equal to the sum of the increase in internal energy plus the work done by the system. Hence  is the amount of energy lost by the system due to work done by the system on its surroundings. During the portion of the thermodynamic cycle where the engine is doing work,  is positive, but there will always be a portion of the cycle where  is negative, e.g., when the working gas is being compressed. When  represents the work done by the system, the first law is written:

People disagree whether energy is a positive or a negative number. So that  is the flow of heat out of the system, and  is the work into the system:

Because of this ambiguity, it is very important in any discussion involving the first law to explicitly establish the sign convention in use.

dU = the change in internal energy

Q = heat

W = work

Related pages
 Second law of thermodynamics

References

 Goldstein, Martin, and Inge F., 1993. The Refrigerator and the Universe. Harvard Univ. Press. A gentle introduction.

Thermodynamics
Laws of physics
Monophyly means common descent from a single ancestor.
Biologists have introduced  a kind of taxonomy called cladistics. The aim of this is to make biological classification fit what we know about the way organisms evolved.

If there is a group made of a common ancestor, and all its descendants, that group is monophyletic.  (Greek: "of one race").

A group which contains organisms, without their common ancestor, is called polyphyletic. Convergent evolution is a usual cause of such groups. If a group contains the common ancestor, but leaves out some of its descendants, it is called paraphyletic. All living things on this planet are thought, on the basis of DNA analysis, to be monophyletic, that is, to have one origin, not many.

Example: all species in the genus Homo have come from the same ancestral form in the family Hominidae, and no other descendants are known. Thus the genus Homo is monophyletic.

If, on the other hand, it were discovered that Homo habilis had developed from a different ancestor from Homo sapiens, and this ancestor were not included in the genus, then the genus would be polyphyletic. Since biologists by and large tend to prefer monophyletic groups, in this case, they would likely either split the genus or broaden it to include the additional forms.

Example of polyphyletic group: Sea slugs.

Polyploidy 
Sometimes taxonomists are frustrated fitting plant species into a monophyletic group because of polyploidy. There is clear evidence that some polyploid plant species are of multiple origins (the species has arisen more than once). For example, Salsify, the hybrid goat's-beard, (Tragopogon miscellus) has formed as many as 20 times in eastern Washington.

Also, it can happen that hybrids between two close plant species undergo polyploidy, and the polyploids continue as a new and distinct species. Situations like this are outside the normal rules of descent, and are dealt with by special decisions, guided by the International Commission of Botanical Nomenclature (ICBN).

References

Cladistics
The order Lepidoptera is the second biggest order of  insects. It includes the moths and butterflies including the  skippers. There is no common word for the group: ordinary people talk of "butterflies and moths". 

The order has more than 180,000 species in 128 families and 47 superfamilies. They are 10% of all the described species of living organisms. The Coleoptera (the beetles) is the only order that has more species.

The name, Lepidoptera, comes from the Ancient Greek words λεπίδος (scale) and πτερόν (wing).

The earliest discovered fossils date to 200 mya or earlier. This early origin was long before flowering plants evolved. Earlier butterflies must have been adapted to a habitat of cycads and conifers, something which had not previously been suspected.

Characteristics of Lepidoptera 
Lepidopterans go through complete metamorphosis. This means that they have a four parts to their lives. The first part is the egg. The second part is the caterpillar or larva. The third part is the pupa. The last part is the adult or imago.

Larva 
The larvae have a tough head and a soft body. They have mouths that are made to chew. Some larvae are covered with hairs, or other body extensions. The larvae have three pairs of small legs on the thorax. These legs are called true legs. There are up to five pairs of bigger legs on the abdomen. These legs are called prolegs. Lepidopteran larvae can be confused with the larvae of sawflies. The difference between Lepidopteran larvae and sawfly larvae is that Lepidopteran larvae have tiny hooks on their prolegs. These hooks are called crochets. Most larvae are herbivores, but a few are carnivores and detritivores.

Adult 
Adults have two pairs of wings. They are covered by small scales. In some species, the adults have very small wings or no wings at all. This is more common in females. Adults have antennae. Some moths have antennae that look like feathers. These feather-like antennae are larger in males than females. Adults have a mouthpart called a proboscis. It  sucks nectar from flowers. Some adults do not have mouths and cannot feed. Others have different mouths that are made to pierce and suck blood or fruit juices.

Images

Related pages
 Differences between butterflies and moths

References

Other websites 

 Forum Lepidoptera
 Lepidopterology.com
 Lepidoptera  in online insect museum 
 Historic Moth illustrations
The skippers are a family of butterflies, the Hesperiidae. They are named after their quick, darting flight. 

Skippers used to be classified in their own superfamily, Hesperioidea, because they have their antennae clubs hooked backward like a crochet while the other butterflies have club-like tips to their antennae. Skippers also have generally stockier bodies than regular butterflies, with stronger wing muscles.

Subfamilies 
There are about 3500 species of skippers.  They are usually classified in the following subfamilies:
 Coeliadinae: awls, awlets and policeman (butterfly) (about 75 species)
 Hesperiinae: grass skippers (over 2000 species)
 Heteropterinae: skipperlings (about 150 species)
 Megathyminae: giant skippers (about 100 species)
 Pyrginae: spread-winged skippers (about 1000 species)
 Pyrrhopyginae: firetips (about 150 species)
 Trapezitinae: Australian skippers (about 60 species)

Many species of skippers look frustratingly alike. For example, some species in the genera Erynnis, Hesperia, and Amblyscirtes cannot currently be distinguished in the field even by experts. The only reliable method of telling them apart involving dissection and examination of the genitalia.

Examples
Examples include:
Aaron's skipper - Poanes aaroni
Chequered skipper - Carterocephalus palaemon
Small skipper - Thymelicus sylvestris
Essex skipper - Thymelicus lineola
Lulworth skipper - Thymelicus acteon
Silver-spotted skipper - Hesperia comma
Large skipper - Ochlodes venata
Dingy skipper - Erynnis tages
Grizzled skipper - Pyrgus malvae
Dakota skipper - Hesperia dacotae

References

Other websites
Skippers of North America: Large format diagnostic photographs Cirrus Digital Imaging
 Tree of Life Hesperiidae
The dew point is the temperature where water vapor condenses into liquid water.

All air holds different amounts of water vapor. The dew point shows the amount of moisture in the air. The higher the dew point is, the higher the level of moisture in the air at a given temperature. The dew point of humid air will be higher than the dew point of dry air.

Condensation of water vapor starts when the temperature of air is lowered to its dew point and beyond. The dew point, like other measures of humidity, can be found from measurement taken by a hygrometer.

Related pages
 Relative humidity

Other websites 
 What is the dew point? 
 NOAA Dew point
 dew point formula 
 Windows program for Heat Index, Dew Point, etc
 Dew point evaporates on KPRC newscast ("The dew point is absolutely worthless information")
 Often Needed Answers about Temp, Humidity & Dew Point from the sci.geo.meteorology Usenet newsgroup

Weather
Weather measurements
Hemer is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. About 35,000 people live there.

References

Other websites

Märkischer Rural District
Heating is making something warm. It could mean:
HVAC: Heating, ventilation and air-conditioning.
HVACR "R" stand for Refrigeration

Heating devices, or systems:
Block heater, or headbolt heater, an electric heater that heats the engine of a car to ease starting in cold weather
Boiler
Cathode heater, a coil or filament used to heat the cathode in a vacuum tube or cathode ray tube
Central heating, method of providing warmth from one point to multiple rooms or apartments of a building
Convector heater, a heater which operates by air convection currents circulating through the body of the appliance
Dielectric heating, the phenomenon in which radiowave or microwave electromagnetic radiation heats a dielectric material
District heating, a system for distributing heat generated in a centralized location for residential and commercial heating requirements
Fan heater, a heater that works by using a fan to pass air over a heating element
Feedwater heater, a power plant component used to pre-heat water delivered to the boiler
Fireplace, an architectural element consisting of a space designed to contain a fire for heating or cooking
Gas heater, a heater that burns natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas
Geothermal heat pump, a heat pump that uses the thermal mass of the Earth to regulate indoor temperatures
Geothermal heating a method of heating using geothermal heat
Heating pad, a pad used for warming of parts of the body
Hydronics, the use of water as the heat-transfer medium in heating and cooling systems
Induction heating, the process of heating a metal object by electromagnetic induction
Radiant heating, a heating system which heats a building through radiant heat rather than convection or forced-air heating
Radiator, a heat exchanger designed to transfer thermal energy from one medium to another for the purpose of cooling and heating
Radioisotope heater unit, small heaters that provide heat through radioactive decay
Salamander heater, a portable forced-air or convection heater, often kerosene-fueled, used in ventilated areas for worksite comfort
Solar furnace a structure used to harness the sun's rays to produce very high temperatures
Solar heating, the usage of solar energy to provide process, space or water heating
Storage heater, an electrical appliance which stores heat at a time when base load electricity is available at a low price
Water heating, the heating of water for residential, commercial or industrial use
A thermodynamic cycle is a series of thermodynamic processes which returns a system to its initial state. Properties depend only on the thermodynamic state and thus do not change over a cycle. Variables such as heat and work are not zero over a cycle, but rather depend on the process. The first law of thermodynamics dictates that the net heat input is equal to the net work output over any cycle. The repeating nature of the process path allows for continuous operation, making the cycle an important concept in thermodynamics. 

If the cyclic process moves clockwise around the loop, then it represents a heat engine, and W will be positive.  If it moves counterclockwise then it represents a heat pump, and W will be negative.

Classes
Two primary classes of thermodynamic cycles are power cycles and heat pump cycles. Power cycles are cycles which convert some heat input into a mechanical work output, while heat pump cycles transfer heat from low to high temperatures using mechanical work input.

Thermodynamic power cycles

Thermodynamic power cycles are the basis for the operation of heat engines, which supply most of the world's electric power and run almost all motor vehicles. Power cycles can be divided according to the type of heat engine they seek to model. The most common cycles that model internal combustion engines are the Otto cycle, which models gasoline engines and the Diesel cycle, which models diesel engines. Cycles that model external combustion engines include the Brayton cycle, which models gas turbines, and the Rankine cycle, which models steam turbines.

Related pages
 Entropy
 Heat engine

References
 Halliday, Resnick & Walker. Fundamentals of Physics, 5th edition. John Wiley & Sons, 1997.  Chapter 21, Entropy and the Second Law of Thermodynamics.

Other websites

Educational software links:
Thermodynamic Cycle Simulation Software

Thermodynamics
Christoph Metzelder (born 5 November 1980 in Haltern, Germany) is a German football player. He plays for Real Madrid In the Germany national team he has played in 47 matches and scored no goal.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1999/00||Preußen Münster||Regionalliga||32||4||||||||||32||4
|-
|2000/01||rowspan="7"|Borussia Dortmund||rowspan="7"|Bundesliga||19||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||21||0
|-
|2001/02||25||0||1||0||11||0||37||0
|-
|2002/03||24||0||1||0||10||0||35||0
|-
|2003/04||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2004/05||16||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||0
|-
|2005/06||23||2||1||0||colspan="2"|-||24||2
|-
|2006/07||19||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||19||0

|-
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Real Madrid||rowspan="3"|La Liga||9||0||1||0||3||0||13||0
|-
|2008/09||12||0||2||0||1||0||15||0
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||
158||6||5||0||21||0||184||6
21||0||3||0||4||0||28||0
179||6||8||0||25||0||212||6
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2001||1||0
|-
|2002||14||0
|-
|2003||1||0
|-
|2004||0||0
|-
|2005||1||0
|-
|2006||11||0
|-
|2007||11||0
|-
|2008||8||0
|-
!Total||47||0
|}

Other websites 
Official Website  
FootballDatabase provides Christoph Metzelder's profile and stats

References 

1980 births
Living people
German footballers
Sportspeople from North Rhine-Westphalia
In general, a piston is a lubricated sliding shaft that fits tightly inside the opening of a cylinder. Its purpose is to change the volume enclosed by the cylinder, to exert a force on a fluid inside the cylinder, to cover and uncover ports, or some combination of these.  A rubber seal is sometimes used to keep the lubricate within the shaft. Due to the constant motion of the machine this seal wears quickly and should be replaced with every servicing. If the seal should break during usage there can be disastrous long lasting consequences for the machine.

Creating force
There are two ways that a piston engine can transform combustion into motive power. These are two-stroke and four-stroke.

A single cylinder two-stroke engine produces power every crankshaft revolution, while a single cylinder four-stroke engine produces power once every two revolutions. Older designs of small two-stroke engines produced more pollution than four stroke engines. However, modern two-stroke designs, like the Vespa ET2 Injection use fuel-injection and are as clean as four-strokes. Large diesel two-stroke engines, as used in ships and locomotives, have always used fuel injection and produce low emissions. One of the biggest internal combustion engines in the world, the Wärtsilä-Sulzer RTA96-C is a two-stroke; it is bigger than most two-story houses, has pistons nearly 1 metre in diameter and is one of the most efficient mobile engines in existence. In theory, a four stroke engine has to be larger than a two stroke engine to produce an equivalent amount of power. Two stroke engines are becoming less common in developed countries these days, mainly due to manufacturer reluctance to invest in reducing two-stroke emissions. Traditionally, two stroke engines were reputed to need more maintenance. Even though the simplest two stroke engines have fewer moving parts, they could wear out faster than four stroke engines. However fuel-injected two-strokes achieve better engine lubrication, and cooling and reliability should improve considerably.

External combustion engine
A steam engine is another type of piston engine. In most steam engines, the pistons are double acting: steam is alternately admitted to either end of the cylinder, so that every piston stroke produces power.

Gallery

Related pages

 Wankel engine (an internal combustion engine with a rotary 'piston')

Auto parts
Pinyin is the Mandarin word for "spelling", writing letters showing the sound of a word in place of a Chinese character. Today, it almost always has the sense of Hanyu Pinyin, the way of writing Mandarin sounds which has been used by the People's Republic of China from the 1950s. Other countries like the United States and Taiwan used other ways of spelling Chinese (such as the Wade-Giles way) for a long time, but in the late 20th century started to use Hanyu Pinyin as well. It is the standard of China as well as the United Nations. It is the most common romanization system for Chinese.

Pinyin uses Roman letters in a special way for certain Chinese sounds. For example, the pinyin letter C is pronounced as /ts/ as in the English word "cats" or the Japanese word "tsunami", and does not sound at all like /k/ or /s/ by itself. Pinyin uses special marks to show the four Chinese tones, which are very important to using Mandarin clearly.

Consonants 
b p m f w

d t n l

g k ng h

j q x y

z c s

Vowels 
a e i o u ü

Basic combinations of vowel and consonant 
ai ei ao ou

an en ang eng ong

Tones 
There are five kinds of tone in Pinyin:

ā, á, ǎ, à, a

Syllable-dividing mark (geyin fuhao) 
Geyin fuhao is used after the syllables starting with vowels "a, o, e", for example: pi'ao.

Orthography 
We should divide Pinyin text by words and write syllables connectedly, such as "I am a foreigner" should be written as "Wo shi waiguoren" in Pinyin.

Pinyin reading matters 

Pinyin reading matters from Wikibooks

Pinyin reading matters from Wikimedia

Other websites 
New Edition Hanyu Pinyin Syllable Table￼￼
 Rules for Hanyu Pinyin
 Convert Chinese to Pinyin
 Little Pinyin App 1.0 online 

Chinese language
The Qajar dynasty (,  - or دودمان قاجار - Qâjâr) was a ruling Azerbaijani dynasty of Iran from 1781 to 1925.

Soltan Ahmad Shah Qajar (1909-1925) was the last ruling Shah.  Among many other members of the Qajar family are
Mohammad Mosaddegh 19 May 1882 – 5 March 1967), the Prime Minister who nationalised Iran's oil industry
Aga Khan III, Ismaili leader
Aga Khan IV, Ismaili leader

History of Iran
History of Azerbaijan
Azerbaijani dynasties
Royal dynasties
1781 establishments
1925 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
1920s disestablishments in Asia
1780s establishments in Asia
Zenwalk (formerly Minislack), or Zenwalk Linux, is a Linux distribution started by Jean-Philippe Guillemin. It was at first based on Slackware. Since its creation, the distribution has become very different from Slackware while still still being able to use its binary packages. Zenwalk aims to be a Linux distribution with many uses by focusing on Internet applications, multimedia and programming tools.

Aims 
The Zenwalk Project aims to create a Linux operating system that can be used on old and slow computers through the use of the latest software available for a stable release, optimization for a specific processor architecture to increase execution speed, and introduces a very powerful package management system with dependency resolution.

Project versions 
There are four main versions of Zenwalk:

Zenwalk (full version ~ 420 MB iso download) is a distribution aimed at mainstream desktop use.  Designed to be a stand-alone operating system, it installs to the hard drive by way of a ncurses-based installer.  It includes all of the officially released software packages that are deemed most useful for their tasks.  This collection may change with every release.

Zenwalk Core (~ 230 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built with customization in mind.  Released with no X Window System binaries, its aim is to allow a skilled user to build a system fit for his or her needs.  The project's lead developer is Emmanuel Bailleul.

ZenLive (~ 476 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk system built on a Live CD design.  ZenLive follows the progress made by the full Zenwalk system closely, thus mirroring the version number, and attempts to stay true to the original distribution's goals.  In addition, it includes all of the necessary libraries and applications to develop and compile software, a particularly rare feature in Live CD distributions.  Project members include Pierrick Le Brun, creator, Mauricio Tricoli, project lead, and Michael Verret, artwork.

Zenserver (~ 263 MB iso download) is a Zenwalk Core-derived system specifically designed for servers.  The main goals are to create a secure, reliable, easy to use, easy to configure, expandable and dependable server operating system, in the best Zenwalk tradition. The distribution development team is led by Teran McKinney.

Distributions based on Zenwalk 
There are currently four Zenwalk-based distributions:
SaxenOS, a distribution built primarily to support older hardware (SaxenOS 2008 is not as lightweight anymore as the former versions)
Arudius, a Linux Live CD distribution for information assurance with tools for penetration testing and vulnerability analysis
Zencafe , a distribution designed  for Internet cafes
Zeee Zenwalk for the ASUS Eee PC

Related pages
List of Linux distributions
Arudius
Slackware

References

Other websites 
Official site

Zenwalk 4.8 Review at Tech Source from Bohol

Linux distributions
In thermodynamics, thermodynamic potentials are parameters associated with a thermodynamic system and have the dimensions of energy. They are called "potentials" because in a sense, they describe the amount of potential energy in a thermodynamic system when it is subjected to certain constraints. The different potentials correspond to different constraints to which the system may be subjected. The four most common thermodynamic potentials are:

where T = temperature, S = entropy, p = pressure, V = volume. The Helmholtz free energy is often denoted by the symbol F, but the use of A is preferred by IUPAC (See Alberty, 2001).  is the number of particles of type i in the system. For the sake of completeness, the set of all  are also included as natural variables, although they are sometimes ignored.

Description and interpretation 

Thermodynamic potentials are very useful when calculating the equilibrium results of a chemical reaction, or when measuring the properties of materials in a chemical reaction. The chemical reactions usually take place under some simple constraints such as constant pressure and temperature, or constant entropy and volume, and when this is true, there is a corresponding thermodynamic potential which comes into play. Just as in mechanics, the system will tend towards lower values of potential and at equilibrium, under these constraints, the potential will take on an unchanging minimum value. The thermodynamic potentials can also be used to estimate the total amount of energy available from a thermodynamic system under the appropriate constraint.

References

Other websites
Thermodynamic Potentials - Georgia State University
Chemical Potential Energy: The 'Characteristic' vs the Concentration-Dependent Kind

Thermodynamics
A thermodynamic state is the macroscopic condition of a thermodynamic system as described by its particular thermodynamic parameters. The state of any thermodynamic system can be described by a set of thermodynamic parameters, such as temperature, pressure, density, composition,  independently of its surroundings or history.

The parameters required to specify the state depend on the characteristics of the system. There is an optimal ensemble of parameters that uniquely specify the state, and all other parameters can be derived from these.  The state postulate says that the state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent, intensive properties.

Related pages
 Thermodynamic system
 Thermodynamics

References 
 Black W. & Hartley, J. (1996). Thermodynamics, 3rd Ed. (textbook). New York: Harper Collins.
 Cengel, Yunus, A. (2002). Thermodynamics – an Engineering Approach, 4th Ed. (textbook). New York: McGraw Hill.
 Perrot, Pierre. (1998). A to Z of Thermodynamics (dictionary). New York: Oxford University Press.

Thermodynamics
Thermal physics is the combined study of thermodynamics, statistical mechanics, and kinetic theory.  This umbrella-subject is typically designed for physics students and functions to provide a general introduction to each of three core heat-related subjects.  Other authors, however, define thermal physics loosely as a summation of only thermodynamics and statistical mechanics.

Overview
Thermal physics, generally speaking, is the study of the statistical nature of physical systems from an energetic perspective.  Starting with the basics of heat and temperature, thermal physics analyzes the first law of thermodynamics and second law of thermodynamics from the statistical perspective, in terms of the number of microstates corresponding to a given macrostate.  In addition, the concept of entropy is studied via quantum theory.

A central topic in thermal physics is the canonical probability distribution.  The electromagnetic nature of photons and phonons are studied which show that the oscillations of electromagnetic fields and of crystal lattices have much in common.  Waves form a basis for both, provided one incorporates quantum theory.

Other topics studied in thermal physics include: chemical potential, the quantum nature of an ideal gas, i.e. in terms of fermions and bosons, Bose-Einstein condensation, Gibbs free energy, Helmholtz free energy, chemical equilibrium, phase equilibrium, the equipartition theorem, entropy at absolute zero, and transport processes as mean free path, viscosity, and conduction.

Thermodynamic instruments

There are two types of thermodynamic instruments, the meter and the reservoir. A thermodynamic meter is any device which measures any parameter of a thermodynamic system. In some cases, the thermodynamic parameter is actually defined in terms of an idealized measuring instrument. For example, the zeroth law states that if two bodies are in thermodynamic equilibrium with a third body, they are also in thermodynamic equilibrium with each other. This principle, as noted by James Maxwell in 1872, asserts that it is possible to measure temperature. An idealized thermometer is a sample of an ideal gas at constant pressure.

A thermodynamic reservoir is a system which is so large that it does not appreciably alter its state parameters when brought into contact with the test system.

It is important that these two types of instruments are distinct. A meter does not perform its task accurately if it behaves like a reservoir of the state variable it is trying to measure. If, for example, a thermometer, were to act as a temperature reservoir it would alter the temperature of the system being measured, and the reading would be incorrect. Ideal meters have no effect on the state variables of the system they are measuring.

Related pages
Thermodynamics

Sources

Other websites
Thermal Physics Links on the Web

Thermodynamics
Statistical mechanics is the application of probability theory, which includes mathematical tools for dealing with large populations, to the field of mechanics, which is concerned with the motion of particles or objects when subjected to a force.

It provides a framework for relating the microscopic properties of individual atoms and molecules to the macroscopic or bulk properties of materials that can be observed in everyday life, therefore explaining thermodynamics as a natural result of statistics and mechanics (classical and quantum) at the microscopic level.  In particular, it can be used to calculate the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual molecules.

This ability to make macroscopic predictions based on microscopic properties is the main asset of statistical mechanics over thermodynamics. Both theories are governed by the second law of thermodynamics through the medium of entropy. However, entropy in thermodynamics can only be known empirically, whereas in statistical mechanics, it is a function of the distribution of the system on its micro-states.

References

Other websites 
 Philosophy of Statistical Mechanics article by Lawrence Sklar for the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

Mechanics
Thermodynamics
Kinetic theory or kinetic theory of gases attempts to explain overall properties of gases, such as pressure, temperature, or volume, by considering their molecular composition and motion. The theory basically states that pressure is not caused by molecules pushing each other away, like earlier scientists thought. Instead, pressure is caused by the molecules colliding with each other and their container. Kinetic theory is also known as kinetic-molecular theory or collision theory.

There are three main components to kinetic theory:

 No energy is gained or lost when molecules collide
 The molecules in a gas take up a negligible (able to be ignored) amount of space in relation to the container they occupy
 The molecules are in constant, linear motion.

References 

The Mathematical Theory of Non-uniform Gases : An Account of the Kinetic Theory of Viscosity, Thermal Conduction and Diffusion in Gases, Sydney Chapman, T. G. Cowling
The main postulate of this theory are--
1.The particles attract each other with a force. This force is called      cohesive force if the particles are of same kind and adhesive force when particles are of different kinds.
2. All matter is composed of small particles called molecules. (Atoms or ions as the situation demands).
3. The particles are in a state of unending motion (continuous motion) and as such have kinetic energy.
4. with the supply of heat energy (thermal energy) to matter, the kinetic energy of a particle increase, i.e., they start moving more vigorously. Reverse happens if the matter is cooled.i.e., heat energy is taken out of it.
5. The force of attraction between the particles decreases, if the distance between them increases and vice versa.

Last updated Sat,16 May 2020
9:00 pm
By Rachit Vishwakarma
..................................

Other websites 
 Early Theories of Gases
 Thermodynamics - a chapter from an online textbook
 Temperature and Pressure of an Ideal Gas: The Equation of State on Project PHYSNET.
 Introduction  to the kinetic molecular theory of gases, from The Upper Canada District School Board
 Java animation  illustrating the kinetic theory from University of Arkansas
 Flowchart linking together kinetic theory concepts, from HyperPhysics
 Interactive Java Applets  allowing high school students to experiment and discover how various factors affect rates of chemical reactions.

Thermodynamics
Yeghishe Charents (born Yeghishe Soghomonian, ) (13 March 1897, Kars - 29 November 1937, Yerevan) was an Armenian poet killed in Stalin's purges.

From 1904 to 1912 Yeghishe Soghomonian he was at school in Kars. Amid the upheavals of the First World War and the Armenian Genocide in the Ottoman Empire, he volunteered in 1915 for the Caucasian Front. In 1917-1918 he was in Karin Erzurum during the bitter fighting. Some of his experiences would later appear in his poetry.

Yeghishe Charents (Soghomonian), one of the nation's favourite poets - a famous philanderer who apparently sought the USSR Kremlin's favours - produced a now famous poem called "The Message". Its praise of Uncle Joe might grind the average set of teeth down to the gum; it included the following: "A new light shone on the world... It is only this sunlight/Which for centuries will stay alive." And more of the same.

Undiscovered by the USSR Kremlin's censors for many months, however, Charents (1897 - 1937) had used the first letter of each line to frame a quite different "message", which read: "O Armenian people, your only salvation is in the power of your unity." Whoops! Like the distant Mount Ararat, it was a brave, hopeless symbol, as doomed as it was impressive. Yeghishe Charents was "disappeared" by the NKVD (KGB) in 1937 after being denounced by the architect Alexsandr Tamanyan - now hard at work building Yerevan's new Stalinist opera house - the moment Yeghishe Charents' schoolboy prank was spotted. Then Alexsandr Tamanyan fell from the roof of his still unfinished opera house, and even today Armenians - with their Arab-like desire to believe in "заговор" the plot - ask the obvious questions.

Works
"Three songs to the sad and pale girl", poems (1914)
"Blue-eyed Homeland", poem (1915)
"Soma", poem (1918) Yerevan
"Charents-Name", poem (1922)
"Uncle Lenin", poem (1924)
"Country of Nayiri" (Yerkir Nayiri) (1926)
"Epical Sunrise", poems (1930)
"Book of the Way", poems (1934)

Film
 1987: Charents - Known and Unknown Sides (Yeghishe Charents)Armenfilm,35mm, script by Levon Mkrtchyan, narration by Sos Sargsyan, director Levon Mkrtchyan

Related pages
 Armenian Genocide

1987 births
1937 deaths
Armenian poets
Kars (, ) is a city in northeast Turkey and is the capital of the Kars Province, before at the head of a sanjak in the Turkish vilayet of Erzurum. Population: 8,672 (1878); 20,891 (1897); 54,000 (1970); 142,145 (1990);  130,361 (2000).

History 
The early history of Kars is little known, beyond that it had its own dynasty of Armenian rulers and was the capital of a region known as Vanand. At some point in the 9th century (at least by 888) it became part of the territory of the Armenian Bagratids. From 928 to 961 Kars became the capital of their kingdom. It was during this period that the Cathedral, later known as the Church of the Apostles, was built.

References 

Cities in Turkey
Kars is a province of Turkey. It is in the northeastern part of the country. It shares part of its border with the Republic of Armenia. 

From 1878 until 1917 most of the present-day Turkish province of Kars was part of the Russian oblast of Kars. 

In 1919 and 1920 the province came under the control of the Democratic Republic of Armenia as the Vanand province (with the city of Kars as its capital). Its territory was ceded to Turkey by the Soviet Union in the Treaty of Kars.

Districts 
Kars province is divided into 8 districts (ilçe), each named after the administrative center of the district:
Akyaka
Arpaçay
Digor
Kağızman
Kars
Sarıkamış
Selim
Susuz

There are 383 villages in Kars.

Other websites 
 Pictures of the capital of this province and of nearby Ani

Provinces of Turkey
Manvel Gamburyan (was born in 1981) is a mixed martial artist with a history in judo. Manvel was chosen as a participant on the reality show The Ultimate Fighter 5. He fights on Jens Pulver's team. Manny defeated Noah Thomas in the preliminary round.

Life 
In May, 1991, Manvel's family relocated from Armenia to United States.  Shortly after his arrival, Manvel began training in judo at Gokor Chivichyan's Hayastan MMA Academy and quickly became one of the top judokas in the country, winning junior nationals less than two years later.  He went on to win junior nationals eight times, the junior Olympics once, and was a member of the 2000 judo junior world team.

Other websites 
Manny Gamburyan at ArmeniaPedia

Armenian sportspeople
Living people
1981 births
Martial artists