cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
William Tecumseh Sherman (February 8, 1820 – February 14, 1891) was an American soldier, businessman, educator, and author.  Before the Civil War, he fought in the Mexican-American War and was the head of Louisiana State University. He served as a General in the Union Army during the American Civil War (1861–65). While general, he led the Atlanta Campaign and burned the city. Sherman's March to the Sea later devastated Georgia and burned Savannah.  After the Civil War, he was in charge of all the Union Armies.  He was urged several times to run for President of the United States, but declined to run each time.

Other websites 

 U.S. Army Center of Military History
 William T. Sherman Family papers from the University of Notre Dame
 William Tecumseh Sherman, from the Virtual Museum of the City of San Francisco, concentrates on Sherman's time in California
 California military history Sherman's time in California, more info concentrates on Sherman's time in Georgia
 Sherman House Museum , at Sherman's birthplace in Lancaster, Ohio
 Sherman Thackara Collection at the Digital Library @ Villanova University
 
 New York Times obituary
 New York Times report on St. Louis funeral proceedings
 Eulogy by brother, Senator John Sherman
  Retrieved on 2007-12-13
 City of San Francisco
 William Tecumseh Sherman Collection at Missouri History Museum Archives

1820 births
1891 deaths

American Civil War generals
People from Ohio
American Roman Catholics
The Hershey–Chase experiments were a series of experiments started in 1952 by Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase. 

These experiments were to confirm that DNA was the genetic material in living things, which had previously been discovered by the Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in his experiments on white blood cells, or leukocytes, between 1868 and 69. Hershey shared the 1969 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for his “discoveries concerning the genetic structure of viruses.”

Method 
Hershey and Chase used T2 phage, a bacteriophage. The phage infects a bacterium by attaching to it and injecting its genetic material into it. 

They labeled the phage DNA with radioactive Phosphorus-32. They then followed the phages while they infected E. coli.  They found that the radioactive element left on the phage's DNA was only in the bacterium, and not in the phage, meaning that the DNA had entered the bacterium.

In a second experiment, Hershey and Chase put labels on the phage protein with radioactive Sulfur-35.  After the phage was attached to the bacterium, the radioactive element was found in the phage, but not in the bacterium. This means that the phage's proteins stayed on the outside of the bacterium. These results showed Hershey and Chase that the genetic material that infects the bacteria is DNA.

References 
Hershey A.D. and Chase M. (1952) Independent functions of viral protein and nucleic acid in growth of bacteriophage. J Gen Physiol. 36:39-56.

Genetics experiments
Bacteria
Viruses
Molecular biology
Antlion are a family of insects in the order Neuroptera with the scientific name Myrmeleontidae. The most well-known genus is Myrmeleo. There are about 2,000 species.

Description 
Most people know this insect because of the funnel-shaped pit, up to 2 inches in diameter and depth, produced by the larval stages of this insect to trap ants. Larvae have globular abdomens and narrower, flattened heads bearing sickle-shaped jaws. Adults superficially resemble drab-colored, 1 ½ inch long damselflies with four long, narrow, net-veined wings roof-like held over a long, skinny abdomen when at rest. Unlike damselflies, however, ant-lion antennae are prominent and clubbed at the end.

Digestion

Antlions burrow in the ground, forming a pit for prey to fall into. The pit is angled so that the sides of the pit crumble when the victim tries to climb out. After being swallowed by the antlion, the victim is kept alive and slowly digested over 1,000 years, where they will fund a new definition of pain and suffering. The prey is restrained by tentacles in the stomach to prevent it from escaping.  

Neuroptera
Body image refers to the perceptions of a human's own physical appearance. It can also refer to  the internal sense of having a body which is interpreted by the brain.

A 2007 report by the American Psychological Association found that a culture-wide sexualization of girls (and women) was contributing to increased female anxiety associated with body image. The study found that women are more worried about their body image than men, though the last pioneered the culture of bodybuilding.

Related pages
 Beauty
 Physical attractiveness

Footnotes

Physiques
Humans
Act has several meanings:
An act is a deed or thing done.  For example, 'Patting the dog is a kind act'
An act can also mean a law passed by a government
Act (drama), part of a piece written to be performed in a theatre
In the military, acting is when someone temporarily holds a higher rank
the language code for Achterhooks, a Dutch dialect

Basic English 850 words
Tuskegee is a city in Macon County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 11,846 and is designated a Micropolitan Statistical Area. It has been the site of major African-American achievements for more than 100 years. It is where, in 1881, Lewis Adams founded the Tuskegee Normal School for Colored Teachers, which later became Tuskegee Institute and then Tuskegee University, with the mission of educating a newly freed people for self-sufficiency, and was the birthplace of Rosa Louise Parks in 1913. Today it remains a center for African-American education and became a part of the National Parks System in 1974. One of the most famous teachers at Tuskegee was  George Washington Carver, whose name is linked to new forms of research into Southern farming method and crops. Tuskegee and Tuskegee Institute were also home to the famed Tuskegee Airmen, the first squadron of African-American pilots in the U.S. Military. The city is the county seat of Macon County, and is known as the home of Tuskegee University "The Pride of the Swift Growing South".

Notable residents
Andre Thornton, born in Tuskegee, major league baseball player
Lionel Richie, born & raised in Tuskegee, then graduated from Tuskegee University,R&B singer, songwriter, composer, producer and occasional actor.
 The Tuskegee Airmen
Lt Gen Russell C. Davis former Commanding General of the District of Columbia National Guard.
Rimp Lanier, former Major League Baseball player.
Tom Joyner, nationally syndicated Radio DJ
Eric Motley, former US State Department official and director of the Aspen Institute
Evander McIvor Law, American Civil War general

References 

Cities in Alabama
County seats in Alabama
Tuscumbia is a city in and the county seat of Colbert County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census, the population was 7,856 and is included in The Shoals MSA. Tuscumbia is the hometown of Helen Keller and the location of the Alabama Music Hall of Fame.

Notable residents 
 Helen Keller Born in Tuscumbia, June 27, 1880. Died June 1, 1968.
 Mike Cooley, guitarist for the alt-country/rock band, Drive-By Truckers. Born in Tuscumbia on September 14, 1966.
 Heinie Manush, born in Tuscumbia, member of the Baseball Hall of Fame
 Home of Howell Thomas Heflin, former U.S. Senator from Alabama (1979-97), former Alabama Supreme Court Chief Justice (1971-77). Died March 25, 2005.
 Birthplace of Mitch McConnell, U.S. Senator from Kentucky and the current Senate Minority Leader.  Born February 20, 1942.

References

Cities in Alabama
County seats in Alabama
Tuscaloosa County is a county of the U.S. state of Alabama. It was named in honor of the Choctaw chief Tuskaloosa.  In 2007, the population was recorded as 171,159. 
In 2000, 164,875 people lived there.

References 

1818 establishments in Alabama Territory
Trussville is a city and suburb of Birmingham in Jefferson and St. Clair Counties in the U.S. state of Alabama. At the 2000 census, the population was 12,924, though the 2006 estimate puts the population at 17,796.

Famous residents
 Justin Wood—Winner of I Survived a Japanese Game Show.

Other websites 
 

Cities in Alabama
Thomasville is a city in Clarke County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 4,649. It is notable as the childhood hometown of author and storyteller Kathryn Tucker Windham, who refers to it often in her storytelling.

References

Cities in Alabama
Tarrant is a city in Jefferson County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 7,022.

Cities in Alabama
Tallassee is a city in the U.S. state of Alabama. It is in both
Elmore County and Tallapoosa County. At the 2000 census, the population was 4,934. It is home to a major hydroelectric power plant at Thurlow Dam operated by Alabama Power Company.

References

Cities in Alabama
1835 establishments in the United States
1830s establishments in Alabama
Talladega (locally, ) is a city in Talladega County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 15,143. The city is the county seat of Talladega County.  Talladega is about  east of Birmingham, Alabama.

References

Cities in Alabama
County seats in Alabama
Troy is a city in Pike County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 13,935.  A new census estimate documented in the July 18, 2008, edition of the Dothan Eagle newspaper, lists Troy's population as 14,482. The city is the county seat of Pike County. It is home to Troy University (formerly Troy State University).

Notable residents
Pine Top Smith- boogie woogie pianist.
Brian Meadows - Major League Baseball player.
Bobby Jon Drinkard - contestant on Survivor: Palau and Survivor: Guatemala and We Are Marshall.
Hank Williams Jr - country singer.
John Lewis (politician) - American Civil Rights leader and United States congressman.
John Rhodes -  (American Senior Pastor Of Messenger Worship Centre A Pentecostal Church of God In Fenton, Missouri
Patricia Barnes - Founder of Sister Schubert's bakery
Larry Hicks - Retired Marine who performed daring underwater rescue that saved the life of well-known NASCAR team owner, Jack Roush.

References 

Cities in Alabama
County seats in Alabama
Dadeville is a city in Tallapoosa County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 3,212. The city is the county seat of Tallapoosa County.

Cities in Alabama
County seats in Alabama
Daleville is a city in Dale County of Alabama in the United States. At the 2000 census, 4,653 people lived there. It is part of the Enterprise–Ozark Micropolitan Statistical Area.  The city's nickname is "Gateway to Fort Rucker", as this U.S. Army post is just north of town. Cairns Army Airfield is to the south of Daleville on the road to nearly Clayhatchee.

Notable residents of Daleville
Mickey Andrews – College football coach
Tony Richardson – NFL player
Robert W. Smith – Composer
Shawn Stuckey – NFL player and attorney

Cities in Alabama
Daphne is a city in Baldwin County, Alabama, USA on the eastern shoreline of Mobile Bay. The city is located just off I-10, 11 miles east of Mobile, Alabama and 150 miles southwest of Montgomery the State Capital. The 2000 census lists the population of the city as 16,581 making Daphne the most populous city in Baldwin County.

References

Cities in Alabama
Dora is a city in Walker County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 2,413. According to the U.S. Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 7.5 square miles (19.5 km²), all of it land.

Cities in Alabama
Demopolis is the largest city in Marengo County, Alabama, United States. At the 2000 census the population was 7,540.

Cities in Alabama
Don McLean (born October 2, 1945) is an American singer and songwriter. He is most well known for the songs "American Pie" and "Vincent".

In his early career, Don McLean mainly played folk music. He sang folk songs and played simple chords with acoustic guitar and harmonica. In 1969, Don Mclean joined folk singer Pete Seeger in the environment campaign. They gave talks and playing concerts to help people know some of the problems with the environment. Also in the same year, Don McLean released his first album Tapestry. This album was not very successful. McLean continued to perform in many small places.

In 1971, Don Mclean released an eight minute long song named "American Pie". The song was dedicated to Don McLean’s music hero Buddy Holly. Much of the song was about the deaths of Holly, Ritchie Valens and The Big Bopper (J.P. Richardson) in 1959. It also dealt with many important events in American history. Quickly "American Pie" became the number 1 song in the United States. Don McLean became a superstar and drew many audiences to his concerts. In 2005, American Pie was voted 5th in the "365 songs of the century" list. His second single "Vincent", featuring Vincent Van Gogh's masterpiece "Starry Night", also topped the UK and US charts in 1971. The song is played in Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam every day.

In the later 1970s, Don McLean tried other styles of songs. He was not as popular with these other styles. Bad sales of albums caused him to change recording companies from one to another. Finally, in 1980, Don McLean regained his popularity by playing "Crying", a song first sang by Roy Orbison. The song reached the first place in UK chart. 

Don McLean is not as popular today as he was before. He is still writing and singing his own songs and performing in concerts.

The famous guitar player, Eric Clapton, spoke highly of Don McLean’s guitar playing skill after listening to his guitar performance. Also, Don McLean’s performance on stage once inspired Lori Lieberman to write the 1974 Grammy-winning song "Killing me softly with his song". Most of the successive folk singers entitled him with "US legend"

1945 births
Living people
American composers
American folk musicians
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
Singer-songwriters from New York
Singers from New York
Ah (A, a) is the first letter of the Cyrillic alphabet.

It came from the Greek alpha. A long time ago, it was called azǔ and stood for the number 1. It looks exactly the same as the Roman A.

All languages that use the Cyrillic alphabet say it as [ah].

Related pages
 A
 Alpha (letter)

Vowel letters
Beh (Б, б) is the second letter in the Cyrillic alphabet.

It came from the Greek beta, along with the Cyrillic veh. Its old name was buky. It stands for the Roman B.

The uppercase Б looks like a B with the top curve missing and the lowercase one looks like the number 6.

People say it as [b].

Related pages
 B
 Beta (letter)
The bare-faced curassow (Crax fasciolata) Spanish "muitu" is a species of bird in the Cracidae family, the chachalacas, guans, curassows, etc.
It is found in eastern-central and southern Brazil, Paraguay, and eastern Bolivia, extreme northeast Argentina, and Amazon Basin.

Other websites 
video
http://individual.utoronto.ca/sergiolp/pdf/SB2002.pdf 

Galliformes
Birds of South America
Everything as a service(EaaS, XaaS,  *aaS) is a concept of being able to call up re-usable, fine-grained software components across a network. It is a subset of cloud computing. The most common and successful example is software as a service (SaaS), but the term as a service has been associated and used with many core components of cloud computing including communication, infrastructure, data and platforms.

A number of vendors including Google, Microsoft, Hewlett Packard and Amido have been associated with the "everything as a service" trend.

Key characteristics
Offerings tagged with the as a service suffix have a number of common attributes, including:
 Low barriers to entry is a common method of offerings, with services typically being available to or targeting consumers and small businesses.
 Little or no capital expenditure as infrastructure is owned by the provider.
 Massive scalability is also common, though this is not an absolute requirement and many of the offerings have yet to achieve large scale.
 Multitenancy enables resources (and costs) to be shared among many users.
 Device independence enables users to access systems regardless of what device they are using (e.g. PC, mobile,...etc.).
 Location independence allows users remote access to systems.

Sub-categories 
This kind of services can be divided into more specific types:

 Software as a Service (SaaS)
 Platform as a Service (PaaS)
 Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS)

Related pages
 Cloud computing

References

Other websites

 SAAS Business Model and How Does It Work

Computer science
Internet
Computer networking
Lorraine Kelly CBE (born 30 November 1959, Gorbals, Glasgow) is a British television presenter and journalist. She is known for presenting the television programme on GMTV, Lorraine.

Kelly helped start GMTV in January 1993.  She presented a range of programmes, including the main breakfast show with Eamonn Holmes. Kelly writes weekly columns for The Sun and The Sunday Post.

Kelly was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2012 New Year Honours for services to charity and the armed forces.

Personal life
Kelly lives in Dundee. She is a Dundee United fan and attends most games.

Kelly was unable to present her show Lorraine due to a horse accident on 21 February 2012. Guest presenters then presented her show instead. After recovering she returned on 16 April 2012.

She is married to Steve Smith and has a daughter, Rosie.

Filmography

Bibliography
 Lorraine Kelly's Nutrition Made Easy (Virgin Books, due January 2009)
 Lorraine Kelly's Junk-Free Children's Eating Plan (Virgin Books, 2007)
 Lorraine Kelly's Baby and Toddler Eating Plan (Virgin Books, 2002/2004/2006)

References

Other websites 

1959 births
Living people
British journalists
Entertainers from Glasgow
Scottish television presenters
Television personalities from Glasgow
Frederick "Fred" Jones, also known as Freddie, is a fictional character from Scooby-Doo. He is the official leader of Mystery Incorporated.

Portrayals
He has been voiced by Frank Welker ever since the character's first appearance in 1969.

Fictional characters introduced in 1969
Scooby-Doo characters
Standard Chinese or Standard Mandarin, is the official modern Chinese spoken language used in mainland China and Taiwan and is one of the four official languages of Singapore. It is based off the Mandarin dialect and should not be confused with other varieties of Chinese.

Common phrases 

 Related pages 
Mandarin Chinese

References

 Norman, J., Chinese, Cambridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1988.
 Ramsey, R.S.(1987). The Languages of China. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. 
 San Duanmu (2000) The Phonology of Standard Chinese''

Other websites 

General Introduction of Chinese Language
Stroke order for Chinese character Official website of the Ministry of Education
Introductory Course for Mandarin Chinese
 New Asia--Yale-in-China Chinese Language Center of the Chinese University of Hong Kong

Chinese language
There are many languages in Singapore. The reason is that Singapore has a multi-ethnic society. The Singapore government recognises four official languages: English, Malay, Mandarin, and Tamil. Due to the Singapore's history, the symbolic national language is Malay. The local patois spoken on the streets is a creole called Singlish amongst the locals. It is known by academics as 'Singapore Colloquial English'.

Working language 
English was introduced to Singapore by the British in 1819. The British established a port, later a colony, on the island. English had been the administrative language of the colonial government, and when Singapore gained self-government in 1959 and independence in 1965, the local government decided to keep English as the working language. It is not against the law to speak mother tongue during working hours. It is against the law to forbid people speaking their mother tongue anywhere at work as long as it does not harm the business and/or compromise safety at work.
The use of English as a common language serves to bridge the gap between the diverse ethnic groups in Singapore.

Bilingualism 

In schools, students are also required to take a Mother Tongue class, where they are either taught Mandarin Chinese, Malay or Tamil. 

As a result, most Singaporeans have at least conversational ability and basic literacy in a minimum of two languages: English, and the language that is used at home. Many more are conversant in three or more languages.

Other languages 
About 60% of Singapore's Indian population speaks Tamil as their native language. Other Indian languages include Malayalam and Hindi.

There are around 5,000 Peranakans living on the island, and they still use the Hokkien-influenced Malay dialect called Baba Malay.

A handful of Portuguese Eurasians still speak a Portuguese-creole known as Papia Kristang. The most fluent speakers however, come from the pre-war generation.

Related pages
English Language
Malay Language
Mandarin Chinese
Singlish
Tamil Language

References
Stratovarius is a Finnish power metal band that formed in 1983.  Their material contains elements of symphonic metal, progressive metal and NWOBHM.

Albums

Studio albums 
 Fright Night (1989)
 Twilight Time (1992)
 Dreamspace (1994)
 Fourth Dimension (1995)
 Episode (1996)
 Visions (1997)
 Destiny (1998)
 Infinite (2000)
 Elements, Pt. 1 (2002)
 Elements, Pt. 2 (2003)
 Stratovarius (2005)
 King of Nothing (2009)
 Polaris (2009)
 Elysium (2011)
 Nemesis (2013)
 Eternal (2015)

Live albums

DVD

Compilation albums

Songs

Music videos 
 Future Shock (1989)
 Against The Wind (1995)
 Black Diamond (1997)
 The Kiss Of Judas (1997)
 S.O.S (1998)
 A Million Lightyears Away (2000)
 Hunting High And Low (2001)
 Eagleheart (2003)
 I Walk To My Own Song (2003)
 Maniac Dance (2005)
 Deep Unknown (2009)
 Under Flaming Skies (2011)
 Halcyon Days (2013)
 Unbreakable (2013)
 If the Story Is Over" (2014)
 My Eternal Dream (2015)
 Shine in the Dark (2015)
 Until the End of Days (2016)
 My Eternal Dream (live) (2017)
 Unbreakable (orchestral version)'' (2018)

Other websites 

 Official Stratovarius website
 The Stratovarius Network

1984 establishments in Europe
Finnish heavy metal bands
Power metal bands
Musical groups from Helsinki
20th-century establishments in Finland
The Sino-Tibetan or Trans-Himalayan languages, form a language family. This includes Chinese and the Tibeto-Burman languages and some 250 languages of East Asia. Kra-Dai languages and Hmong–Mien languages are also sometimes included. 

The largest language within this family are the Chinese languages by far with over 1.3 billion native speakers. It is also the one with the oldest writing (hanzi) going back to the Jiahu symbols in 6600 BC.

All these languages descend from a single proto-language. People are still working on what this sounded like.

Where did it come from? 
Some researchers think the Sino-Tibetan languages very likely came from the Huanghe in North-Central China (Zhongyuan). Others think they came from much further west, in southwest China or even Northeast India.

Zhang et al. (2019) did a study of 109 Sino-Tibetan languages to suggest a Sino-Tibetan homeland in northern China near the Huanghe basin. He found there was a split between Sinitic languages and the Tibeto-Burman languages approximately 4,200-7,800 years ago (with an average of 5,900 years ago). This is connected with the expansion of the Yangshao culture and Majiayao culture. Others agree by using different data; they say it came from around 7,200 years ago, around the Cishan and early Yangshao culture.

Example languages 

 Qiang language is spoken in Gansu. It is agglutinative like other Altaic languages.
 Meitei language (Manipuri language) is the most widely spoken Sino Tibetan language in India. Various other Sino-Tibetan languages are also spoken in Northeast India. 
 Tibetan is spoken by around 6 million people. 
 Burmese is the language of Myanmar and is spoken by around 33 million.

Evolution of language 
Proto-Chinese and Proto-Tibeto-Burman had many different prefixes and suffixes. Proto-Chinese changed to Old Chinese around the Shang Dynasty. This is shown in the Book of songs. Nouns, verbs, and modifiers were all dependent on affixes (beginning of words) such as *s-, *p-, *-k. After the Warring State Period in China, Old Chinese started using tones. The suffix (end of words) *-s was also used.

The typical word order in Sino-Tibetan languages is object-verb. Modern Chinese, Bai, Karenic, and Mruic are exceptions. 

SOV is likely the original word order. Over time Chinese became subject–verb–object. However, Chinese differs from almost all other VO languages in the world in placing relative clauses before the nouns they modify.

Relation to other language families 
Sino-Tibetan may be related to the Altaic languages. Mang Mulin, a Mongolian linguistics professor at the Inner Mongolia Normal University, began studying the origin of Mongolian words in the late 1970s.

There are links between Sino-Tibetan, Austroasiatic (from South China), and Austronesian (from Taiwan) languages.

There may even be connections between Chinese and the native languages of the Americas (Na-Dene) and Western Eurasia (Yeniseian).

Related pages 
Chinese language

References
Jens Johansson (born November 2, 1963 in Stockholm) is a world-renowned Swedish power metal keyboardist and pianist. He is noted as one of the first and most influential "shred" keyboardists, for his high-speed neoclassical and fusion style.

Studio albums

Related links 
 Jens Johansson's Homepage
 Heptagon Records
 Stratovarius Homepage

References 

  Jens interview in 2001.

Some text taken from the 'Heavy Machinery' album booklet and Jens Homepage.

1963 births
Living people
Keyboardists
Swedish musicians
Jörg Michael (born 27 March 1963) is a German drummer. 
Most of the bands Michael has played with are in the power metal genre. He is one of the most notable drummers of that style. Michael has played an important part in shaping the drumming characteristics of this genre. The first album he recorded was Prayers of Steel with the band Avenger (the band would later change their name to Rage). By the middle of the 1980s, he no longer worked with just one band, but worked as a studio session drummer. Because of this, he has been a part of many different bands and albums.

1963 births
Living people
German musicians
Drummers
Lauri Porra (born December 13, 1977) is a Finnish bass guitarist. He is best known for his work in Stratovarius and Sinergy.

1977 births
Living people
Finnish musicians
Heavy metal guitarists
Velma Dinkley is a fictional character in the cartoon series Scooby-Doo. She was voiced by Mindy Cohn in 2002-2015, 2016-2020.

Fictional characters introduced in 1969
Scooby-Doo characters
Gino Lucetti (31 August 1900 – 17 September 1943) was an Italian anarchist. He was born in Carrara, Italy. He fought in World War I. Later he went to France, from where he returned to try to kill the Italian dictator Benito Mussolini. On September 11 1926, in the Porta Pia square in Rome, he threw a bomb against Mussolini's car, but without effect. Arrested, Lucetti was condemned to spend his life in prison. In 1943, Lucetti escaped from prison with the help of others, but died shortly during a bombing of Ischia.

Related pages
 List of anarchists

References
 
 
 Marina Marini, Gino Lucetti. Lettere dal carcere dell'attentatore di Mussolini (1930-1943), Galzerano Editore, Salerno 2010.

1900 births
1943 deaths
Italian anarchists
The Tibeto-Burman family of languages (often considered a sub-group of the Sino-Tibetan language family) is spoken in various central and south Asian countries, including Myanmar (Burma), Tibet, northern Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, parts of central China (Guizhou, Hunan), northern parts of Nepal, north-eastern parts of Bangladesh, Bhutan, western Pakistan (Baltistan), and various regions of India (Himachal Pradesh, Uttarakhand, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram, Tripura, and both the Ladakh and Kargil regions of Jammu and Kashmir).

The subfamily includes approximately 350 languages; Burmese has the most speakers (approximately 32 million). Approximately 8 million Tibetans and related peoples speak one of several related Tibetan dialects or languages.

Bibliography 

 Benedict, Paul K. (1972). Sino-Tibetan: A conspectus. J. A. Matisoff (Ed.). Cambridge: The University Press. .
 Bradley, David. (1997). Tibeto-Burman languages and classification. In D. Bradley (Ed.), Papers in South East Asian linguistics: Tibeto-Burman languages of the Himalayas (No. 14, pp. 1–71). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
 Shafer, Robert. (1966). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 1). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1967). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 2). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1968). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 3). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1970). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 4). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
 Shafer, Robert. (1974). Introduction to Sino-Tibetan (Part 5). Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
Huang-di, (黃帝/黄帝 huángdì) or the Yellow Emperor, is a legendary Chinese sovereign and cultural hero who is thought to be the ancestor of all Han Chinese. One of the legendary Five Emperors, it was written in the Shiji by historian Sima Qian (145 BC-90 BC) that Huangdi reigned from 2497 BC to 2398 BC. His personal name was said to be Gongsun Xuanyuan (公孙轩辕). He became the chief deity of Taoism during the Han Dynasty (202 BC-220 AD).

References 
 The Terracotta Warriors- <Cotterell, Maurice. The Terracotta Warriors. Rochester, Vermont: Bear and Company, 2004.>

Other websites 
 Huang Clan Genealogy from the Yellow Emperor 

Emperors and Empresses of China
Taoism
The hermit crab is a type of crab that does not have a hard shell. They use old shells for protection. They especially like old whelk shells. When the hermit crab grows in size, it finds a larger shell.

Description 
The hermit crab is a crustacean, but it is very different from other crustaceans. While most crustaceans are covered from head to tail with a hard exoskeleton, the hermit crab is missing part of its exoskeleton. The back part where its abdomen is located, is soft and squishy. Thus, the minute a hermit crab molts into an adult, it sets out to find a shell in which to live.

To get into the shell, the hermit crab squeezes in backwards, using its four back legs to enter the shell. The back legs have hooks that anchor the hermit crab into the shell without difficulty. The next four legs are used for walking, while the front two are its chelipeds. The chelipeds are not equal in size: one is big and other is small. The larger one is used for grabbing prey and guarding the entrance to its shell. All together, hermit crabs have a total of ten legs, including the chelipeds and the rear legs used to anchor to the shell.

There are about 500 different species of hermit crabs around the world, and they have different colors, often with patterns like stripes and dots on their bodies. Most hermit crab species live on the ocean floor, but many live on land. Female terrestrial (land based) hermit crabs must return to the sea to breed.

Diet 
Hermit crabs are omnivores (eating plants and animals) and scavengers (eating dead animals that they find). They eat worms, plankton, lime chips, and organic debris.

Fossil Record 
Hermit crabs first appeared in the Cretaceous period, before the Dinosaurs became extinct (died out). Fossils have been found where they have used Ammonite shells.

Reproduction 

The reproductive (sexual) organs of hermit crabs are located near and just below the animal's heart and open to the outside at the base of the last pair of walking legs in the male. In the female, they are located at the base of the middle pair of walking legs. Female hermit crabs usually lay their eggs shortly after copulating (mating) but they can also store sperm (male sexual cells) for many months. The eggs are fertilised as they are laid by passing through the chamber holding the sperm. The eggs are carried and hatched in a mass attached to the abdomen inside the shell. The number of eggs is usually large, but depends on the animal's size.

As pets 
Basic needs to keep pet Hermit Crabs: 
 Humidity gauges (humidity: 75- relative)
 Temperature gauges (temperature: 70-75 °F) 
 Substrate: sand, coconut fiber (must be deep and soft enough to dig in so that crabs can molt) 
 Minimum of a 5 gallon tank for one crab; and 10 gallon tank for about 20 crabs 
 Shells (shells are changed during growth)
 Separate molting tank[dubious – discuss] 
 Fresh water dish 
 Salt water pool for submerging (aquarium salt)

References 

Crabs
Alexander Elliot Anderson "Alex" Salmond (surname pronounced SAM-MOND; born 31 December 1954 in Linlithgow, Scotland) is a Scottish politician who is a former First Minister of Scotland and former leader of the Scottish National Party (SNP) which is a political party that wants Scotland to become an independent country from the United Kingdom. He is also the longest-serving First Minister of Scotland, with over seven-and-a-half years in office.

Alex Salmond studied at the University of St Andrews and became an economist at the Royal Bank of Scotland. Salmond became a Member of Parliament (MP) for the constituency of Banff and Buchan at the 1987 General Election. In 1990, Alex Salmond became the leader of the Scottish National Party. He became a Member of the Scottish Parliament (MSP) for Banff and Buchan at the 1999 Scottish Parliament Election and resigned as SNP leader in 2000.

Salmond became the party leader again in 2004 and stood in the 2007 Scottish Parliament election for the constituency of Gordon. At this election, the SNP received the highest number of seats and the highest share of the vote in Scotland, but did not have enough seats to form a majority government. The SNP then formed a minority government with Alex Salmond as First Minister.

Alex Salmond was against the 2003 invasion of Iraq and was one of several MPs who called for Prime Minister Tony Blair to be impeached. At the 2010 General Election, Alex Salmond stood down as a Member of Parliament but argued against the BBC's decision not to allow the SNP on the televised Prime Ministerial Debates.

On 19 September 2014, following the results of the independence referendum which confirmed a majority of the Scottish people had voted to remain as part of the United Kingdom, Salmond announced that he would be resigning as First Minister in November 2014. Salmond formally resigned as First Minister on 18 November 2014, with his deputy, Nicola Sturgeon taking office two days later.

References

1954 births
Living people
Calvinists
Former members of the British House of Commons for Scottish constituencies
Scottish Parliament Members
First Ministers of Scotland
First Minister of Scotland is the chief executive of the government of Scotland. The current First Minister of Scotland is Nicola Sturgeon of the Scottish National Party, since 20 November 2014 after Alex Salmond resigned following the defeat of the pro-independence campaign in the Scottish independence referendum. The first was Donald Dewar, who died in office in 2000. Alex Salmond was the longest-serving First Minister with over seven-and-a-half years in office. The official residence of First Minister is Bute House in Edinburgh, Scotland.

List of First Ministers of Scotland 
 Donald Dewar (Scottish Labour Party) - 13 May 1999 - 11 October 2000 (died in office)
 Henry McLeish (Labour Party) - 26 October 2000 - 8 November 2001 (resigned)
 Jack McConnell (Labour Party) - 22 November 2001 - 16 May 2007
 Alex Salmond (Scottish National Party) - 16 May 2007 - 19 November 2014 (longest-serving First Minister)
 Nicola Sturgeon (Scottish National Party) - 20 November 2014 - present

Caretaker First Ministers of Scotland 
 Jim Wallace (Scottish Liberal Democrats) - 11 October 2000 - 27 October 2000
 Jim Wallace (Liberal Democrats) - 8 November 2001 - 27 November 2001

Deputy First Ministers of Scotland 
 Jim Wallace (Scottish Liberal Democrats) - 19 May 1999 - 23 June 2005
 Nicol Stephen (Scottish Liberal Democrats) - 27 June 2005 - 17 May 2007
 Nicola Sturgeon (Scottish National Party) - 17 May 2007 - 19 November 2014
 John Swinney (Scottish National Party) - 21 November 2014 - present

 
1999 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990s establishments in Scotland
The People's Alliance for Democracy (PAD) is a political pressure group in Thailand. It was originally a coalition of protestors against the government of Thaksin Shinawatra. It called for the resignation of Shinawatra and two later prime ministers, Samak Sundaravej and Somchai Wongsawat. It is also called the National Liberation Alliance or the Yellow Shirts after the colour of the clothes they wear. It started from accusations of fraud against Shinawatra's business deals.

In November 2008, the PAD seized Donmuang and Suvarnabhumi Airports to force Prime Minister Somchai Wongsawa to resign. The airports had to close. In 2011 they camped outside Government House for almost 200 days to protest about government policy.

Supporters wear yellow shirts with a hat that has a Latin message liberate (). They wear a blue scarf and they use tools that to make the sound like clapping hands ().

References

Political parties in Asia
Politics of Thailand
King Naresuan The Great. (also known as Phra-Ong-Dam or Naret). He was born in the year of the Rabbit (Refer to Chinese Zodiac Year), B.E. 2098 (A.D 1555) at Jan Palace, Phitsanulok. His father was King Mahathammaracha and his mother was Queen Wisutkhasat. King Narasuan had one older sister named Princess Suphan Thewi (Supankanlaya) and one brother named King Ekathotsarot (Phra-Ong-Khao).

The Burmese King Bayinnong moved his troops to attack Ayutthaya, and he conquered it. So, he asked for King Naresuan as his adopted child while Naresuan was 9 years old. When Naresuan was 16, King Mahathammaracha wanted Naresuan to come back to be a viceroy of Phitsanulok and gave Princess Suphan Kanla Ya instead as the captive from Phitsanulok.

Major events in the life of King Naresuan

B.E. 2113 He fought with Khmer's troop and he won. 

B.E. 2114 He was established (set up) to be a governor of Phitsanulok when he was 16.

B.E. 2117 He fought at Viengjan, and he has a smallpox. So he came back to Phitsanulok.

B.E. 2121 He fought for driving out Phaya Jeen Jan Tu from Ayutthaya. 

B.E. 2127 He proclaimed peace at Krang province.

B.E. 2127-2130  Burman sent armies to attack Thai but Burman lost.

B.E. 2133 He reigned Ayutthaya when he was 35 years old.

B.E. 2135 Made war with Mang Ka Yoe Cha Wa.

B.E. 2138 and 2141 He fought with Hong Sa Wa Dee. 

B.E. 2148  He died at Tung Keaw, Hang luang when he was 50 years old.

References

1555 births
1605 deaths
Kings and queens
Thai nobility
The insurgency in Southern Thailand is a violent rebellion that is taking place in three southern provinces of Thailand. There are Naratiwat Pattani, and Yala. Most of the people that live in these provinces are not related to Thai people. They are Muslim Malays.

Background 
The rebellion started in the 19th century, when the British and the King of Siam agreed on the border between Siam and Malaya. The British took Kedah and Kelantan, and Pattani became part of Siam. The sultan of Pattani was removed and his kingdom was split into three provinces. Ever since then, the Malay people of this region have wanted to get their independence back, or to join Malaysia as a state.

Recent history 
The unrest in the southern provinces is one of the biggest problems in Thailand. There is an armed struggle against the government. There are many severe attacks on civilians too, mostly considered terrorism. Since it has happened, some Thai families had to move out from the site because the problems changed their lives. They were also scared of what would happen with them.

20th century in Thailand
20th century rebellions
Rebellions in Asia
Insurgencies
20th-century conflicts
Suvarnabhumi Airport (; IATA: BKK, ICAO: VTBS), also unofficially known as Bangkok Airport, is the main international airport of Bangkok, Thailand. It is located in Bangchoung, Rachatawa, Noungprue and Bangphli district Samutprakarn province. The area of the airport is about . It is six times bigger than Don Mueang International Airport, the other international airport serving Greater Bangkok.

Budget
The Thai government gave a budget of about 150,000 million baht (US$4.9 billion or 3.7 billion euro) to build this international airport. This included investment of Government service and State Enterprises of 137,000 million baht ($4.46 billion), and private company about 13,000 million baht ($423 million). The airport could support the passengers more than 45 million people. It was designed by Helmut Jahn.

International airlines
International airlines included of 102 airways and 142 cities. There are:

 Aeroflot
 Air Astana
 Air Austral
 Air China
 Air France
 Air India
 Air Koryo
 Air Macau
 Air Madagascar
 All Nippon Airways
 Asiana Airlines
 Austrian Airlines
 Biman Bangladesh Airlines
 British Airways
 Cathay Pacific
 Cebu Pacific
 China Airlines
 China Eastern Airlines
 China Southern Airlines
 Condor
 Delta Air Lines
 EgyptAir
 El Al Israel Airlines
 Emirates

 Ethiopian Airlines
 Etihad Airways
 EVA Air
 Finnair
 Garuda Indonesia
 Gulf Air
 Hainan Airlines
 Hong Kong Airlines
 IndiGo
 Japan Airlines
 Jeju Air
 Jet Airways
 Jetstar Airways
 Jetstar Pacific
 Juneyao Airlines
 Kenya Airways
 KLM Royal Dutch Airlines
 Korean Air
 Kuwait Airways
 Lao Airlines
 Lufthansa
 Mahan Air
 Malaysia Airlines
 MIAT Mongolian Airlines

 Myanmar Airways International
 Okay Airways
 Philippine Airlines
 Qantas Airways
 Qatar Airways
 Qeshm Airlines
 Royal Brunei Airlines
 Royal Jordanian
 S7 Airlines
 Shanghai Airlines
 Shenzhen Airlines
 Singapore Airlines
 SpiceJet
 Spring Airlines
 SriLankan Airlines
 Swiss International Air Lines
 Tigerair
 Transaero
 Turkish Airline
 T'way Airlines
 U Airlines
 UTair Aviation
 Uzbekistan Airways
 VietJet Air
 Vietnam Airlines
 Xiamen Airlines

Domestic airlines
Most domestic airlines fly from Don Mueang Airport, but the following airlines fly from Suvarnabhumi:

 Asia Atlantic Airlines (hub)
 Bangkok Airways (hub)
 Business Air
 Jetstar Asia (hub)
 Orient Thai Airlines (hub)
 Thai Airways (hub)
 Thai Smile (hub)

References

Airports in Asia
Buildings and structures in Thailand
Sanam Luang is a big field in front of Wat Phra Kaew and the Grand Palace in Bangkok, Thailand. Sanam Luang has another name, Tung Pra Me'ru (meaning cremation field). It was used for cremation of the King and his royal relatives. In 1855, King Rama IV changed the field's name to Sanam luang, announcing that the old name was thought unlucky. 

King Rama I used Sanam Luang to officiate ceremonies. Then in King Rama V's era, Sanam Luang was extended and the buildings around it were destroyed. The people used Sanam Luang to perform ceremonies instead of growing rice.  

In King Rama VI's era, Sanam Luang was used for horse racing and part of the field was turned into a golf couse. 

At present, the Thai people still use Sanam Luang to officiate royal ceremonies for the King, princes and princesses. Sanam Luang is an important national site.

References

Bangkok
Town squares
Baltistan (), also known as بلتیول (Baltiyul) in the Balti language, is a region in northern Pakistan. It borders Xinjiang Autonomous Region of China.  It lies in the Karakoram mountains just to the south of K2, the world's second highest mountain.  It is an extremely mountainous region, with an average altitude of over 3,350 m (11,000 ft). It is inhabited principally by Balti Shi'a Muslims of Tibetan descent who converted from Tibetan Buddhism before the 16th century.

Baltistan was an independent state but was occupied by the Raja (King) of Kashmir in the nineteenth century.  In 1947 when India and Pakistan gained independence, it was still part of Kashmir. Now the region is divided between Pakistan and India.  

The elections on 12 November 2009 brought about a major change and upheaval in the Baltistan region, which had been once an area ruled by a feudal Raja and then an area under Pakistani military control. It is believed that democracy in the region will also help to bring about more economic development and public empowerment.

Related pages 
 Ladakh

Other websites 

 The Changing Northern Areas 
 Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma
 Tourism Northeran Areas
 Pakistan's Northern Areas 

Regions of Pakistan
Gilgit-Baltistan
Balti (بلتی) is a language spoken in Baltistan, in the Gilgit Baltistan of Pakistan and neighbouring parts of the disputed territory of Indian-administered Kashmir. Before 1948 Baltistan  was part of Ladakh province. The language is a sub-dialect of Ladakhi and an archaic dialect of the Tibetan language, but many of the consonants that are silent in most modern Tibetan dialects are pronounced in Balti.

Balti 
All people of different races, living in Baltistan are called Balti. Greeks used the word Byaltae instead of Bal-ti, which in Tibetan means water gorge. The historian Ptolemy who was also a general in the army of Alexander the Great had named the region (Byaltae) in his book. Baltistan is the Persian translation of Baltiyul, “The Homeland of Balti”. The people belonging to Balti nationality are settled on both banks of the river Indus from Kargil (in the east) to Haramosh (in the west) and from Karakoram range (in the north) to Deosai plains (in the south). In this nationality the majority comes from Tibetan origin. However people migrated to this area in different periods of ancient times, on account of different reasons and after merging in the prevailing Tibetan society, gave birth to a new civilisation. All these multi-racial groups speak Balti language, which is a branch of the ancient Tibetan language. However, in some rural areas, the Sheen people still speak Shina language.

The Balti are a very forbearing, cheerful,brave and hospitable people. But during the Rmakpon reign (from 12th century to 1840 A.D.) they invaded Ladakh and Tibet many times.

There are several Balti communities in Pakistan's urban areas farther south, that is in Lahore, Islamabad, in Karachi and other places.But they are living as non Pakistani in Pakistan because Gilgit Baltistan is considered as disputed region.

Evolution 

The Balti language has kept many honorific words like all the Tibetan dialects and many other languages. Below are a few examples:

References 

 Everson, Michael. ISO/IEC JTC1/SC2/WG2 N2985: Proposal to add four Tibetan characters for Balti to the BMP of the UCS. 2005-09-05
 Hussainabadi, Mohamad Yusuf.  Balti Zaban. 1990.
 Read, A.F.C. Balti grammar.London:The Royal Asiatic society, 1934.

Other websites 
 Unicode
 Koshur: The Balti Language
 Tibetan script makes a comeback in Pakistan 
 Proposal to add four Tibetan characters for Balti to the BMP of the UCS
 Tibetan Extensions 2 : Balti 
 Pakistan's Northern Areas dilemma
 Northern Areas Development Gateway 
 Pakistan's Northern Areas 

Languages of Northern Areas (Pakistan)
Languages of Pakistan
A Raja ( (rājā), also spelled Rajah) is a monarch, or princely ruler of the Kshatriya varna.

The title has a long history in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia, as it is found in the Rigveda. It can also be used as a name for non-royal Indians.
In Pakistan, Raja is still used by many Muslim Rajput clans as  titles. Raja is also used as a name by Hindus and Sikhs.

Rajas in the Malay world 
 The ruler of the state of Perlis, Malaysia is titled the Raja of Perlis. Most of the other state rulers are titled Sultans. But the Raja has equal status with the other rulers and is one of the electors who designate one of their number as the Yang di-Pertuan Agong every five years.

Related pages
 Maharaja
 Kshatriya
 Rajput
 Shah

Notes

Other websites 
 Indian Princely States, the most comprehensive, specialised site on (princely) (e)states in British India
 RoyalArk (more elaborate, on a smaller number of dynasties)- here India
 WorldStatesmen- Indian princely states, here K-Z

Heads of state
Titles
History of Pakistan
History of India