cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A swan (Cygnini) is a kind of water bird, from the genera Cygnus and Coscoroba. They are in the subfamily Anserinae, in the family Anatidae, which also includes geese and ducks.

Many swans live in colder places, such as northern Europe, Asia and North America. They live on water. They swim on top of the water and eat plants off the bottom of ponds, lakes, or oceans. They also eat insects and other small animals. A baby swan is called a cygnet.

Swans are tough, strong birds who will stand no nonsense from dogs or cats. They may open their wings as a warning, but from then on a person is advised to keep clear. Swans are highly protective of their nests. They will attack anything they see as a threat to their chicks, including humans.

Description 
The swans are some of the largest flying birds. They are large in size and have large feet and long necks. The males are usually bigger and heavier than females. The mute swan, trumpeter swan, and whooper swan are the largest swans. They can be over 1.5m (60 inches) long. They can weigh over 15kg (33 pounds). Their wingspans (this means the length of both wings) can be almost 3m (10 ft). 

Most swans are white. They are found in the Northern Hemisphere. This means they are found in Europe, Asia and North America. However, the black swan is black with a red beak. It lives in Australia.  The black necked swan has white flight feathers, and black outer feathers. It lives in South America. They also have a small area of skin between the eyes and beak that has no feathers. This area can be different colors, such as yellow (for example, on a Bewick's swan) or orange (for example, on a mute swan).

Wild swans migrate.  They spend the cold part of the year eating and getting fat in one place and move to a warmer place to lay eggs and raise chicks, called cygnets.

The coscoroba swan is different to the other swans. Some scientists think it is more like a duck or a goose. It is the smaller than the other swans. This swan lives in South America.

Climate change

Bewick's swans used to spend a lot of time in Ireland and Britain and the Netherlands, but scientists say they have been moving east into Germany.  They spend less time in their winter feeding grounds than they did in 1970.  Scientists say they are following the changes in temperature in Europe.  The scientists found that individual swans do not change where they like to go during their own lifetimes.  Instead, different generations of swans go to different places from their parents and grandparents.

Taxonomy 
 Genus Cygnus
 Black swan (Cygnus atratus)
 New Zealand swan (Cygnus atratus sumnerensis) †
 Trumpeter swan (Cygnus buccinator)
 Bewick's swan (Cygnus bewickii)
 Whistling swan (Cygnus columbianus)
 Whooper swan (Cygnus cygnus)
 Black-necked swan (Cygnus melancoryphus)
 Mute swan (Cygnus olor)
 Genus Coscoroba

References

Anatidae
A pupa (plural: pupae or pupas) is part of becoming an adult for some insects, like some butterflies, moths, beetles, flies, and bees. The pupal stage comes after being a larva; the next stage is adulthood.

The pupa stage of a butterfly, called a chrysalis (plural "chrysalids"), is a well-known example of a pupa because they are often found in the open.

Insects
Paul might mean:

People

Paul the Apostle
Paul of Russia, a Russian Tsar
Prince Paul of Yugoslavia ("Pavle"), a prince of the Kingdom of Yugoslavia in the 1930s

Other
Paul (movie), a 2011 movie
Paul, Idaho, a city in the U.S. state of Idaho
Paul the Octopus, an octopus who seemed able to say who would win football matches
Goose (plural geese, genus Anser) is a genus containing 11 species within the swan subfamily.

This family also includes the swans, which are mostly larger than geese, and the ducks, which are smaller and have short necks.

Geese are famously gregarious: they like to stick together. They can be moved in large herds because of this feature of their behaviour. Both as chicks and as adults, geese show collective animal behaviour. Geese migrate in groups in the spring and fall, flying together in a V-shape.

A male goose is called a "gander" and a baby goose is called a "gosling". A group of geese is called a "gaggle".

Related pages 
Bar-headed goose
Canada goose
Magellan goose
Barnacle goose
Pink-footed goose
Swan goose
Chinese goose

 
Poultry
Ovaries (Singular: Ovary) are organs found in female organisms. Ovaries are part of the reproductive system needed to reproduce sexually. 

Most vertebrates have ovaries. Usually animals have two ovaries. Birds usually have only one working ovary; snakes have one ovary in front of the other. The ovaries are similar to testicles in men.

Anatomy 
Ovaries are shaped like eggs and are around 3 cm by 1.5 cm by 1.5 cm. The ovary is found in the side walls of the pelvis. 

Each ovary is attached to the Fallopian tube. Usually each ovary takes turns releasing eggs every month.

Uses 
Ovaries have two purposes:
 Produce female sex hormones resulting in puberty
 Produce ova (also called "egg cells"), which are the female reproductive cells.

Menstruation 

During menstruation, an ovum is released from the ovary and enters one of the Fallopian tubes. There, the ovum can be fertilised. Ovaries have a certain number of eggs in them, so when eggs stop being released, this is the start of the menopause. During this time, female hormones stop being produced.

Related pages
 Cervix
 Fallopian tube
 Menopause
 Ovum
 Vagina

Other websites 
 Merck Online Medical Library: Female Reproductive System

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
A rhinoceros (rhino for short) is any animal in the family Rhinocerotidae. They are in the order Perissodactyla, or odd-toed ungulates. There are five living species. Two of these species are native to Africa.  Three of these species are also native to Southern parts of Asia.

Taxonomy 

 Family Rhinocerotidae
 Black rhinoceros, Diceros bicornis
 White rhinoceros, or square-lipped rhinoceros Ceratotherium simum
 Javan rhinoceros, Rhinoceros sondaicus
 Indian rhinoceros, Rhinoceros unicornis
 Sumatran rhinoceros, Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Habitat 
All five rhinoceros species are native to Africa or Asia. The two species in Africa are the White rhinoceros and the Black rhinoceros. The three species in Asia (including islands of Indonesia) are the Javan rhinoceros, Sumatran rhinoceros, and Indian rhinoceros.

Life 

The rhinoceros is a herbivore. Its favourite food is plants, branches and bushes (if it is a browser species), or grass (if it is a grazer species).

Rhinoceroses have a large horn on the nose. Their horns are not like those of other horned mammals: the rhinoceros' horn is made of keratin packed together very tightly.  

The rhinoceroses can weigh up to  and be up to  tall.

Rhinoceros and humans 
Only the white rhinoceros is not in critical danger of becoming extinct.  They are protected, but hunted mainly by poachers, for their horns.  The horns are used in Asian medicine, similar to elephants and tigers, and for dagger handles in Yemen and Oman.  Loss of habitat is also a danger to rhinos.  Governments have made logging their habitat and poaching illegal.

Related pages 
Elasmotherium, a large extinct rhinoceros.

Other websites 

 Rhinoceros information from the International Rhino Foundation
The Archbishop of Canterbury is the spiritual leader of the Church of England and in the Anglican Communion the leader of its mother church. He is the head of the Church, and lives in the English city of Canterbury. The Archbishop is chosen by the English monarch (the church's "supreme governor"), under guidance from senior bishops, acting in cooperation with the prime minister of the UK. 

The office of Archbishop of Canterbury was founded in the year 597. In that year, Saint Augustine came to England, to the area called Kent. He had been sent by the Pope to convince the local people to become Christians. The people accepted him and Christianity when their King (Ethelbert of Kent) became a Christian. Augustine became the first bishop in the kingdom of Kent and was later recognised as archbishop when a second diocese was created. Since then, there has been an Archbishop at Canterbury in Kent.

The Archbishop of Canterbury used to be head of the Roman Catholic Church in England, but in the early 16th century the English church broke away from the Roman church. The new church called itself the Church of England, and now the Archbishop is the leader of that church. The current Archbishop is Justin Welby (from 2013). 

The archbishop oversees the Province of Canterbury that is all the Church of England dioceses in the south and midlands of England. The dioceses of Wales were also within the Province of Canterbury until 1920 when the Church in Wales became independent. In the north of England another archbishop has the Diocese of York and other northern dioceses (including the diocese of Sodor and Man) to oversee. Both archbishops are members of the House of Lords and rank very high in the official English order of precedence. When a new monarch is crowned the placing of the crown on his head is done by the Archbishop of Canterbury. The principal home of the archbishops is at Lambeth Palace in the south of London rather than at Canterbury itself. Within the Diocese of Canterbury (which consists of eastern Kent and a small enclave in Surrey) the archbishop has at least two assistant bishops.

Justin Welby (formerly the Bishop of Durham) became Archbishop on 21 March 2013.

References

Other websites 
Official web site
Ethanol, also known as ethyl alcohol, grain alcohol or just alcohol, is a flammable, colorless chemical compound. Its chemical formula is C2H5OH, also written as C2H6O. It is the active part of alcoholic drinks, which are drunk in most cultures worldwide. It is also used as a solvent because it can dissolve many other chemicals and is not very toxic. Yeast makes most of the ethanol that people use.

Ethanol fuel 

Ethanol fuel can be used instead of gasoline in cars and other engines. Engines can use pure ethanol or ethanol mixed with gasoline.

In Brazil, ethanol fuel made from sugar cane provides 18 percent of the country's fuel for cars. Because of this, Brazil does not have to buy oil from other countries.
To do this, Brazil cut down much of the rain forests to grow more sugar cane, which is then fermented into Ethanol.

Most cars in the U.S. can run on fuels that have of up to 10% ethanol in them. Car makers like Ford, DaimlerChrysler, and GM also make vehicles specifically designed to run on higher ethanol blends. Some of their engines can run on up to 85% ethanol (E85). By mid-2006, there were about six million E85-compatible vehicles on U.S. roads.

References

Other websites 
 US E85 refueling map 
 International Chemical Safety Card 0044
 Molview from bluerhinos.co.uk  See Ethanol in 3D (may take over a minute to load using a dial-up connection)

Fuel
2
The boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which the substance boils, or enters a state of rapid evaporation. For pure water this is 100° Celsius or 212° Fahrenheit. This is measured at one atmosphere, that is, the air pressure at sea level

Boiling points can be changed in several ways. The addition of solutes or other substances usually changes the boiling point. Additionally, changing the pressure on a liquid changes its boiling point. 

The boiling point of a liquid depends on the pressure of the surrounding air. An increase in air pressure increases the boiling point; a decrease decreases the boiling point. In the low pressure environment at the top of Mt Everest for example, water boils at only 69 °C. (156.2 °F).
It can also be defined in terms of vapour pressure as the temperature at which vapour pressure of liquid becomes equal to atmospheric pressure

Sugar, salt or other non-volatile solutes in water will usually make the boiling point higher. Alcohol, in contrast, is a volatile chemical that lowers the boiling point of water. Even a large amount dissolved in the water will usually make only small changes in the boiling point.

Thermodynamics
Basic physics ideas
A platonic solid is a kind of polyhedron.  It has the following characteristics:

 Each face is built from the same type of polygons
 There are the same number of polygons meeting at every corner of the shape.

The platonic solids
The following Platonic solids exist; there are only 5:

Tetrahedron, has 4 sides, is made of triangles, and looks like a pyramid.
Cube, Hexahedron, has 6 sides, and is made of squares.
Octahedron, has 8 sides, and is made of triangles.
Dodecahedron, has 12 sides, and is made of pentagons. 
Icosahedron, has 20 sides, and is made of triangles.

Uses

There are a lot more uses for Platonic Solids, but some of the main reasons are:the shapes are often used to make dice, because dice of these shapes can be made fair.  6-sided dice are very common, but the other numbers are commonly used in role-playing games. Such dice are commonly referred to as D followed by the number of faces (d8, d20 etc.).

The tetrahedron (4 sided), cube (6 sided), and octahedron (8 sided), are found naturally in crystal structures. The dodecahedron (12 sides) is combinatorially identical to the pyritohedron (in that both have twelve pentagonal faces), which is one of the possible crystal structures of pyrite. However, the pyritohedron is not a regular dodecahedron, but rather has the same symmetry as the cube.

In meteorology and climatology, global numerical models of atmospheric flow are of increasing interest which use grids that are based on an icosahedron (20 sides,refined by triangulation) instead of the more commonly used longitude/latitude grid. This has the advantage of better spatial resolution without singularities (i.e. the poles) at the expense of somewhat greater numerical difficulty.

Geometry of space frames is often based on platonic solids.

Other websites 
Stella: Polyhedron Navigator Tool for exploring polyhedra
Paper Models of Polyhedra Many links
The Uniform Polyhedra
Virtual Reality Polyhedra The Encyclopedia o  Polyhedra
London South Bank University Water structure and behavior
Book XIII of Euclid's Elements.
Interactive 3D Polyhedra  in Java
The Euclidean algorithm is an algorithm. It can be used to find the biggest number that divides two other numbers (the greatest common divisor of two numbers).

What the algorithm looks like in words 
Euclid solved the problem graphically. He said
If you have two distances, AB and CD, and you always take away the smaller from the bigger, you will end up with a distance that measures both of them.

The algorithm as an enumerated list 
Start out with two positive integers m and n.
 If the value of m is less than the value of n, switch the values of m and n
 Find a number r equal to m modulo n
 Let m have the same value as n
 Let n have the same value as r
 If n does not have the value of 0, go to step 2
 The wanted value is in m.

The algorithm in pseudocode 
Note: This pseudocode uses modular arithmetic instead of subtraction. It does the same thing as above, but gets the answer faster.

Precondition: two positive integers m and n
Postcondition: the greatest common integer divisor of m and n
if m < n, swap(m,n)
while n does not equal 0
   r = m mod n
   m = n
   n = r
endwhile
output m

C/C++ source code 
Iterative (Non-recursive):
int euclid_gcd(int m, int n)
{
	int temp = 0;
	if(m < n)
	{
		temp = m;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	while(n != 0)
	{
		temp = m % n;
		m = n;
		n = temp;
	}
	return m;
}

Recursive:
int euclid_gcd_recur(int m, int n)
{
	if(n == 0)
		return m;
	
	return euclid_gcd_recur(n, m % n);
}

Algorithms
Unicellular organisms are organisms that have one  cell. They are divided into two quite different types, from  different classification kingdoms. 

The prokaryotes, bacteria and archaea, have cells with no nucleus and a simple cell structure.
Eukaryotes have a nucleus, and a more complex cell structure.

The differences between the prokaryota and eukaryota are significant. Eukaryotes possess a nucleus and various subcellular organs called organelles, and prokaryotes do not.

Observations 
Almost all unicellular organisms are microorganisms but you can observe eukaryotes and many prokaryotes by using a compound microscope. Bacteria just appear as dark dots. To gather unicellular organisms for observation, one can place a cover slip on the surface of pond water, and leave it overnight. By the next morning, numerous unicellular organisms will have grown entire colonies on the bottom of the slip. They multiply fast: colonies can double their size in between 30 minutes and a few hours.

Unicellular organisms can be found everywhere. The oldest forms of life existed 3.8 billion years ago, if not longer. They pursue a variety of strategies for survival: photosynthesis (cyanobacteria), chemotrophy (many archaea), and heterotrophy (amoeba). Some unicellular organisms have flagella, little tails they use for locomotion, or lobopods, extensions of the cellular skeleton (cytoskeleton), which appear as bloblike arms. The flagella of our unicellular ancestors occurs all the way up into the animals, where it makes an appearance as flagellated sperm.

Of all the six eukaryote supergroups, four are exclusively composed of unicellular organisms. Unicellular organisms vary in size, with the smallest bacteria measuring only a third of a micron (300 nanometers) across, ranging up to the titanic plasmodial slime molds, which can grow to 20 cm (8 in) across. The largest unicellular organisms may have millions of nuclei scattered throughout the cellular envelope. To observe some of the smallest unicellular organisms requires an electron microscope, while the very largest can be seen with a microscope or anything that enhances images.

Related pages
 Life timeline
 Multicellular organisms
 Microorganism

Other websites
About the kingdom Protista 

Microbiology
Multi-cellular organisms are  organisms with more than one cell. This is the case for animals, plants and most fungi. In such organisms, cells are usually specialised. All the cells with the same function work together. Such a group of cells is then called a tissue. 

Multi-cellular organisms have a set of cells that specialize in reproduction. Reproduction in such organisms is usually sexual. The sex cells are either sperm or ovum (also named "egg") cells. If they are sperm cells, the organism is male, if they are egg cells it is female. If both are present, the organism is a hermaphrodite.

Evolutionary history 
We know, from their cell structure, that multicellularity has evolved independently many times in Earth history, for example in plants and animals.
The earliest forms of life in the fossil record are cyanobacteria from the Archaean era at 3.5 billion years ago. They grew as single cells but lived in colonies as stromatolites. 
 
The first multicellular fossils have been found in 2.1 billion years old Palaeoproterozoic rocks from the Gabon in Africa. These are eukaryotic cells which live colonially. The fossils are visible to the naked eye, and hence much larger than bacteria. The authors comment that one advantage of  multicellularity is larger size, and that an adequate level of oxygen is required to support this kind of life.

Consequences of multicellularity 
To reproduce, multicellular organisms must solve the problem of regenerating a whole organism from germ cells (i.e. sperm and egg cells), an issue that is studied in developmental biology. 
   
Multicellular organisms, especially long-living animals, also face the challenge of cancer, which occurs when cells fail to regulate their growth within the normal program of development.

Related pages 
 Life timeline
 Metazoa
 Unicellular organism

References 

Evolutionary biology
Cell biology
Kazan (Volga region) Federal University (, Kazanskiy (Privolzhskiy) federalnyy universitet; ) is a university in Kazan, Tatarstan, Russia. It was founded in 1804. The famous Russian mathematician Lobachevsky was its headmaster from 1827 till 1846. The post is now being held by Myakzyum Salakhov (Mäğzüm Säläxev).

Kazan University is also known as "the birthplace of organic chemistry" because of the works of Aleksandr Butlerov, Vladimir Markovnikov, Aleksandr Arbuzov, and others.

Notable graduates 
 Aleksandr Arbuzov
 Mily Balakirev
 Aleksandr Butlerov
 Vladimir Lenin (expelled)
 Nikolay Lobachevski
 Vladimir Markovnikov
 Leo Tolstoy
 Nikolay Beketov
 Afanasy Shchapov
 Vladimir Galkin
 Michael Minsky (Spirin)

Related pages
 List of Kazan State University's rectors

Other websites 

 Kazan State University Official Site 

Colleges and universities in Russia
Tatarstan
The New World is a name used for the Western Hemisphere. It specifically refers to the Americas. It can also refer to certain Atlantic and Pacific islands (like Bermuda) and sometimes Oceania, (Australasia). The name started in the early 16th century, shortly after America was colonized. The people of the European Middle Ages thought the world was only Europe, Asia, and Africa. These continents are called the Old World. The Americas were also referred to as the "fourth part of the world".

The continent (North and South America) was named America after Amerigo Vespucci.

Oceania, which was colonized some centuries later, is referred to as "The Newest World".

Related pages
 The Americas
 Western Hemisphere

History of North America
History of South America
Rabbits are mammals of the order Lagomorpha. There are about fifty different species of rabbits and hares. The order Lagomorpha is made of rabbits, pikas and hares. Rabbits can be found in many parts of the world. They live in families and eat vegetables and hay. In the wild, rabbits live in burrows, that they dig themselves. A group of rabbits living together in a burrow is called a warren. Rabbits are famous for hopping and eating carrots. 

A male rabbit is called a buck, and a female is called a doe. A baby rabbit is called a kit, which is short for kitten. Rabbits have a gestation period of around 31 days. The female can have up to 12-13 kits, very rarely litters as big as 18 and as small as one. When the doe gives birth her babies are collectively referred to as a litter. Some people have rabbits as pets.  Rabbits are also raised for their meat. Rabbits are of a different biological classification than hares.  

Since rabbits are prey animals, they are careful in open spaces. If they sense danger, they freeze and watch. Rabbit vision has a very wide field, including overhead scanning. Their enemies are foxes and dogs; also bears, raccoons, minks, weasels and snakes. Birds of prey sometimes take rabbits. People are also known to shoot rabbits, because they eat crops. Their escape method is to run for their burrow, where they are usually safe.

Rabbits have a complex social structure and, like dogs, they have a hierarchy. Rabbit ears probably have several functions. The main function is to give warning of predators, but they may be used for signalling, and temperature regulation.

Rabbits as pets 
In the wild, rabbits have plenty to keep them occupied, from foraging to reproduction to territorial defense. Captive rabbits, on the other hand, often lack stimulation. This can lead to behavioral problems and poor health. The expected lifespan of a rabbit in the wild is about three years.

References 

Lagomorphs
Pets
Louis Pasteur (December 27, 1822 – September 28, 1895) was a French microbiologist and chemist.
He and his wife, Marie, are best known for their experiments supporting the germ theory of disease, and he is also known for his vaccinations, most notably the first vaccine against rabies.

Career 
He made many discoveries in the field of chemistry, including the asymmetry (different shapes) of crystals. He is also well known for his way of keeping milk and wine from going sour for longer periods of time. That process is called pasteurization. It is when the milk and or wine is put under about 161 Fahrenheit (72 Celsius) for fifteen seconds. 

Pasteur's later work on diseases included work on chicken cholera. During this work, Pasteur noticed how a culture of the responsible bacteria had spoiled, and it failed to induce the disease in some chickens, which he was infecting, with the disease.

Personal life 

Louis Pasteur was born on December 27, 1822 in Dole in the Jura region of France, into the family of a poor tanner. Louis grew up in the town of Arbois. He gained degrees in Letters and in Mathematical Sciences before entering the École Normale Supérieure, an elite college. 

After serving briefly as professor of physics at Dijon Lycée in 1848, he became professor of chemistry at the University of Strasbourg, where he met and courted Marie Laurent, daughter of the university's rector, in 1849.

Louis Pasteur and Marie were married on May 29, 1849, and together had five children. Only two survived to adulthood; his other three children had died of typhoid fever. These personal tragedies inspired Pasteur to try to find cures for diseases, such as typhoid.

Death 
In 1895 at Marnes-la-Coquette, a commune in Paris, Pasteur died after several strokes.

References 

1822 births
1895 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in France
Deaths from stroke
French chemists
French microbiologists
Vaccinologists
Akrotiri and Dhekelia are two British overseas territories that borders the  Republic of Cyprus and Northern Cyprus. They are used as military bases by the United Kingdom. The bases were kept by the UK after Cyprus changed from being a colony in the British Empire, to being an independent republic. The United Kingdom kept them because of the important location of Cyprus in the Mediterranean Sea.

British overseas territories
Cyprus
A transcontinental country is a nation that is in more than one continent.  Examples:

Africa and Asia
 Egypt 
Asia and Europe
Cyprus
Georgia
Kazakhstan
Russia
Turkey

 
Most of the other examples are contentious, based on the possession of small islands in another region. For example, Spain controlling the Canary Islands which is geologically located in Africa. A few are undoubtedly intercontinental:

Asia and Oceania
Indonesia, controlling large islands in Oceania.

America and Oceania
United States, because Hawaii is a state located in Oceania.

America, Oceania and Antarctica
Chile, because Easter Island is a province in Oceania and Chilean Antarctic is a territory in Antarctica.

Oceania and Antarctica
Australia,  Australian Antarctic Territory is a territory in Antarctica.
New Zealand,  Ross Dependency is a territory in Antarctica.

Europe, Africa, and America

• France, because Réunion, Mayotte, Martinique, Guadeloupe, and French Guiana are regions of France

References 

Countries
For the place of similar name in New Zealand see: Kurow

Kurów is a village in south-eastern Poland, near Puławy and Lublin, on the Kurówka River. It is the main village of a gmina within the Lublin Voivodship and has 2826 people living there (as of 2010). The village was built before 1185 and made bigger between 1431 and 1442 with city rights based on the Magdeburg Law. The former President of Poland, Wojciech Jaruzelski was born in Kurów in 1923.

Other websites 
 Wiki about Kurów

Villages in Poland
Scorpions are eight legged venomous arachnids. They have a long body with an extended tail with a sting. The average adult scorpion is about 3 inches in length. The longest scorpion is the African scorpion, which can be 9 inches long. There are about 1,750 species of scorpions worldwide.

The evolutionary history of scorpions goes back to the Silurian, 430 million years ago. They have adapted to a wide range of environments, and live on all continents except Antarctica. There are 13 living families. Only about 25 species have venom which can kill a human being.

Anatomy 
They have eight legs and a pair of grasping pedipalps (like claws). The tail is narrow, with segments. It usually has a forward curve over the back, ending with a venomous stinger.

Their body is in three parts. The front section is the cephalothorax; the abdomen is called the mesosoma, and the tail is the metasoma. The body is covered by an exoskeleton which gives them good protection.

Survival in the desert 
Scorpions have many ways to survive in the desert. They can slow down their metabolism. This allows them to survive on as little as one insect per year. This ability also allows them to shelter from the sun and heat for extended periods of time, using only little amounts of oxygen. 
Many people also believe that their claws, or pincers, were once front legs that have turned into what they now are by going through evolution. Nevertheless, the scorpions' claws play a crucial part in their hunting and mating rituals.
Scorpions also possess a special, feather-like pair of organs, called pectines that they use to sense even the smallest of movements around them. This allows them to effectively track down and hunt their prey, either above or below the surface. This also warns them of possible dangers, such as other bigger hunters.
The scorpion’s most feared and recognized feature is its sting. The sting contains a neurotoxin, which the scorpion uses to paralyze the victim, so it would be easier to kill and eat. They also stay hidden under rocks and that makes their body temperature cool.

Breeding cycle 
The mating ritual of scorpions begins when the male and female connect claws. After this they verify that the other scorpion is of the same species, and is the opposite gender. After this, the male leads the female around until it finds a suitable spot to deposit its spermatophore. Once the male has found a suitable spot, he guides the female over it, where it enters her and fertilizes her. The mating ritual can take anywhere between 1 and 26 hours, depending on the male’s ability to find a suitable spot. Only a scorpion that has reached maturity may go through the mating ritual. A scorpion reaches maturity after it has gone through 5 to 7 moults.

Related pages 
Arachnid
Desert scorpion
Scorpion Tattoo

References 

Arachnids
John Richard Schlesinger, CBE (16 February 1926 – 25 July 2003) was a British movie director. He was born into a Jewish family in London. He was openly gay. He died of a stroke in Palm Springs, California, United States.

Schlesinger's acting career began in the 1950s. He started to direct in 1956. By the 1960s he was not acting so he could just direct. His documentary Terminus (1961), got a Venice Film Festival Gold Lion and a British Academy Award.  A Kind of Loving won the Golden Bear award at the 12th Berlin International Film Festival in 1962.  Schlesinger's movie, Midnight Cowboy (1969), made in the United States, was internationally successful. A story of two hustlers living on the fringe in the bad side of New York City, it was Schlesinger's first movie shot in the U.S. It won Oscars for Best Director and Best Picture. In 1996 he received the BAFTA Academy Fellowship Award, a lifetime achievement award.

Filmography
Feature and television movies (as Director)
 A Kind of Loving (1962)
 Billy Liar (1963)
 Darling (1965)
 Far From the Madding Crowd (1967)
 Midnight Cowboy (1969)
 Sunday Bloody Sunday (1971)
 Visions of Eight (1973)
 The Day of the Locust (1975)
 Marathon Man (1976)
 Yanks (1979)
 Honky Tonk Freeway (1981)
 Privileged  (1982)
 Separate Tables (1983) (TV)
 An Englishman Abroad (1983)  (TV)
 The Falcon and the Snowman (1985)
 The Believers (1987)
 Madame Sousatzka (1988)
 Pacific Heights (1990)
 A Question of Attribution (1991) (TV)
 The Innocent (1993)
 Cold Comfort Farm (1995) (TV)
 Eye for an Eye (1996)
 The Tale of Sweeney Todd (1998) (TV)
 The Next Best Thing (2000)

References

Other websites 

1926 births
2003 deaths
Academy Award winning directors
Actors from London
BAFTA Award winners
British television directors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in California
Deaths from stroke
English movie actors
English movie producers
English television actors
English LGBT people
Jewish British actors
LGBT directors
Gay Jews
Jewish screenwriters
Movie directors from London
The Gilbert and Ellice Islands were a British protectorate from 1892 and colony from 1916. They are formed from two groups of islands in the Pacific Ocean. On 1 January 1976 the islands were split into two different colonies that became independent states. The Gilbert Islands have been the biggest part of the nation of Kiribati since 1979, and the Ellice Islands became Tuvalu in 1978.

Kiribati
Pacific islands
History of the United Kingdom
1892 establishments in the United Kingdom
19th-century establishments in Oceania
Flatulence or farting is when intestinal gas leaves the anus. This often happens with a sound that can be embarrassing to some people, but in some cultures it is treated like humor. The word flatuence comes from the Latin word flatus, which means blowing or breath, but people today usually call it farting.

In mammals like humans, the gases come from two sources: swallowed air (for example, while eating, talking or drinking) and gases naturally created by bacteria in the body during digestion. Of the gases that come out during flatuence, most of it is nitrogen (which has the chemical formula N2 and makes up between 20% to 90% of all the gases), followed by hydrogen (H), carbon dioxide (CO2), oxygen (O2) and methane (CH4).

References

Other websites
7 Easy Ways to Tame Excessive Gas

Digestive system
A typewriter is a machine that is for typing on a piece of paper instead of writing by hand.  It has keys for typing letters, numerals, and symbols one at a time.  Typewriters were created in 1829.  Typewriters were originally invented to make writing faster and printing.  The earliest typing was done on stone, clay, or metal sheets by inscribing them. 

A typewriter does not have computer memory.  As with writing with a pen, it is difficult to correct mistakes.  One advantage is that many of them are not electrical, so you do not need to plug them in.  Hackers cannot see what you have typed.  On many typewriters, a separate type element (called a typebar) corresponds to each key.  The first commercial typewriters were introduced in 1874. They did not become common in offices until after the mid-1880s.     

Typewriters quickly became a necessary tool for almost all writing other than personal handwritten letters.  They were used a lot by professional writers, in offices, and for business correspondence in private homes.  Typewriters were common in most offices up to the 1980s.  After that, computers often replaced them. Nevertheless, typewriters are still common in some parts of the world. They are needed for a few specific applications, and they are popular in certain subcultures.  Early typewriters, and later cheap ones, were "manual" typewriters. This means they were powered completely by the user.  After the mid-20th century, electric typewriters with a motor became most common.

Related pages 
 Teletypewriter

Writing tools
Częstochowa is a city in south Poland on the Warta River. It has 248,894 residents. It has been in the Silesian Voivodeship (administrative division) since 1999, and was once the capital of Częstochowa Voivodship (1975-1998).

The town is known for the famous monastery of Jasna Góra Monastery, which is the home of the Black Madonna painting, a shrine of the Virgin Mary. Every year, thousands of people from all over the world come to Częstochowa to see it.

City name 

The name Częstochowa means Częstoch's place, and comes from the name of a person, Częstoch. It is mentioned in medieval documents also as Częstobor and Częstomir. Częstochowa is also known as Czestochowa, Czenstochov, and Chenstochov.

Tourism 

Currently, the city is one of the main tourist attractions in the area. It attracts hundreds of thousands of visitors every year.
The Black Madonna of Częstochowa, kept at the Jasna Góra Monastery, is a very popular attraction.

Cities in Poland
Twilight means either dawn (in the morning) or dusk (in the evening).

In the morning, dawn is when it is not dark any more, and the light of the sun is just starting to appear, before sunrise. In the evening, it is the other way around and that phenomenon is called dusk. At sunset, the sun disappears, and darkness is settling in. Light fades away.

The following have been defined:
Civil twilight is when the sun is less than 6° below the horizon. It ends at sunrise in the morning or follows sunset in the evening.
Dark twilight is when the sun is between 6° and 9° below the horizon.
Black twilight is when the sun is between 9° and 12° below the horizon.
Astronomical twilight is when the sun is between 12° and 18° below the horizon.
For all these definitions, the horizon is at sea level.

Other websites 

Definition of Twilight, US Naval Observatory
Twilight time calculator 
Formulae to calculate twilight duration , by Herbert Glarner

Parts of a day
Delhi (;  Dillī;  Dillī;  Dēhlī), officially the National Capital Territory of Delhi (NCT), is a territory in India. It includes the country's capital New Delhi. It covers an area of . It is bigger than the Faroe Islands but smaller than Guadeloupe. Delhi is a part of the National Capital Region, which has 12.5 million residents. The governance of Delhi is like that of a state in India. It has its own legislature, high court and a council of executive ministers.

Delhi is on the banks of the Yamuna River. Historians have evidence that people have been living in this region since at least the 6th century BC. People also believe that the legendary city of Indraprastha was here. This city has many remains and monuments of historic importance.

The India Gate is a war memorial in Delhi. Following the Bangladesh Liberation war in 1972, a structure consisting of a black marble plinth with a reversed rifle, capped by a war helmet and bounded by four eternal flames, was built beneath the archway. This structure, called Amar Jawan Jyoti (Flame of the Immortal Soldier), has since 1971 served as India's tomb of the unknown soldier

References

Other websites 
 Nightlife in Delhi
   newstaza

 
Capital cities in Asia
The European Central Bank (ECB) is the central bank for the euro and administers monetary policy of the eurozone, which consists of 19 EU member states and is one of the largest currency areas in the world. It is one of the world's most important central banks and is one of the seven institutions of the European Union (EU) listed in the Treaty on European Union (TEU). The capital stock of the bank is owned by the central banks of all 28 EU member states. The Treaty of Amsterdam established the bank in 1998, and it is headquartered in Frankfurt, Germany.  the President of the ECB is Mario Draghi, former governor of the Bank of Italy, former member of the World Bank, and former managing director of the Goldman Sachs international division (2002–2005). The bank primarily occupied the Eurotower prior to, and during, the construction of the new headquarters.

The primary objective of the ECB, mandated in Article 2 of the Statute of the ECB, is to maintain price stability within the Eurozone. Its basic tasks, set out in Article 3 of the Statute, are to set and implement the monetary policy for the Eurozone, to conduct foreign exchange operations, to take care of the foreign reserves of the European System of Central Banks and operation of the financial market infrastructure under the TARGET2 payments system and the technical platform (currently being developed) for settlement of securities in Europe (TARGET2 Securities). The ECB has, under Article 16 of its Statute, the exclusive right to authorise the issuance of euro banknotes. Member states can issue euro coins, but the amount must be authorised by the ECB beforehand.

The ECB is governed by European law directly, but its set-up resembles that of a corporation in the sense that the ECB has shareholders and stock capital. Its capital is €11 billion held by the national central banks of the member states as shareholders. The initial capital allocation key was determined in 1998 on the basis of the states' population and GDP, but the capital key has been adjusted. Shares in the ECB are not transferable and cannot be used as collateral.

The European Central Bank is the main bank of the European Union. The European Central Bank is in Frankfurt am Main. The main goal of the European Central Bank is to maintain price stability, in other words make sure inflation is below 2%. This is done by e.g. controlling the interest rates. It is also the only bank allowed to issue euro banknotes (€), used by 16 of the 28 member states of the European Union (EU).

Presidents:
 Wim Duisenberg (from the Netherlands): 1998-2003
 Jean-Claude Trichet (from France): 2003-2011
 Mario Draghi (from Italy): 2011-present

References

European Union
Banks of Europe
Frankfurt
1998 establishments in Europe
Friendship means familiar and liking of each other's mind. 

People who are friends talk to each other and spend time together. They trust one another and also help each other when they are in trouble or are hurt. Friends are people that can be looked up to and trusted. Usually, friends have similar interests. A friend is one who admires a person's skill and helps or encourages them to make the right choices and do not get into any trouble at all.

The strength of the bond of friendship between two people can vary. If the bond is very strong, they are called best friends. This can usually be achieved by possessing the elements of friendship, by being kind, generous, loyal, honest, and by having fun. With these qualities, you can truly enjoy the bliss of friendship. 

There are expectations, demands, and complaints in friendship too. If friends don't match your expectations, it does not mean you will break the friendship. It is all about understanding, realizing, and helping whenever possible. 

Friendship is both good and necessary. Man cannot live all alone. He is a social being. He needs someone to share his joys and sorrows. Generally, it is only people of similar age, character, and background, mentality, etc., who can understand him and his problems. Friends are needed for support and for sharing.

There are many different types of friendships. Most people find friends at a very young age however it is harder for others. Many movies are based on a group of friends. An example of a friendship would be that of Sierra, Olivia, Emma, Langli, and Mallory in the movie Eight grade Whittier.

The word Friendship is also the official motto of Texas.

Related pages
 Platonic love
 Cross-sex friendship

Other websites

Friendship facts by RoastedBook.com 

Sociology
Emotions
Relationships
State mottos of the United States
Texas
The clitoris is a female genital organ. It includes erectile tissue, glands, muscles and ligaments, nerves, and blood vessels. In an embryo there is a small raised point that grows into a clitoris in girls or a penis in boys. Inside the penis, there is the urethra, but there is no urethra in the clitoris. In women, the urethra is hidden behind the clitoris and in front of the vagina. Penises with male urethras are used daily for urination, and can be used for sex: semen passes out of the body through the male urethra. 

Although the parts are placed differently, the clitoris is a match to the male penis. The clitoris causes females sexual pleasure, arousal and orgasm. Rubbing or applying other consistent pressure to it is usually needed to help the female have an orgasm.

During sexual arousal, erectile tissue fills with blood. This causes the clitoris to grow. It grows until orgasm happens. Also during arousal, touching the clitoris and other sensitive areas of the female genitals makes a woman's vagina change shape and release a lubricant.  The lubricant and change of shape makes it easier for a man to enter a woman and for sex to occur. Most of the clitoris is hidden inside the body. Only a small part of it is seen outside the body. Adding the outside and inside parts, the clitoris is about the same size as the penis. The clitoris and penis grow from the same tissue in the womb; they bear many similar parts.

Parts of the clitoris

Outside the body
The parts of the clitoris that can be seen from the outside are located from the clitoral junction (the point where the outer lips meet at the base of the pubic mound) to the fork (where the lower edges of the inner lips meet below the vaginal opening). The outside parts include:
 the glans: the head or tip. It is filled with nerve endings. The glans creates pleasurable feelings. It also increases a woman's sexual response.
 the hood: the fold of skin formed by the outer edges of the inner lips. It covers the glans. The hood is the same as the male foreskin.
 the inner lips: hairless and very sensitive to touch.

Inside the body 
 The parts of the clitoris inside the body include erectile tissue, glands, muscles, blood vessels, and nerves. In both the clitoris and the penis, there are two types of erectile tissue. These are corpus cavernosum (cavern-like body) and vestibular bulbs. These tissues fill with blood during sexual arousal. This causes an erection. The clitoral shaft is connected to the glans. It is just underneath the surface of the skin. The shaft is a round spongy erectile tissue. It is very sensitive like the glans. It feels like a hard ridge. The shaft is about  long. It moves toward the pubic mound for a short distance, then bends sharply and divides. This forms two thin legs. These legs are also made of spongy tissue. The legs spread out like the wishbone of a chicken.

References 

Anatomy of the female reproductive system
Łódź (pronounced "wuj") is the third-largest city in Poland, with 776,000 inhabitants. It is in the Łódź Voivodeship in the centre of the country. In Polish the name also means "boat". The mayor of Łódź is Hanna Zdanowska.

History 
The first documents mentioning the city date from 1332. Łódź was awarded city rights (according to the Magdeburg law) in 1432. The Congress of Vienna decided in 1815 that the city should be part of Russia. Only in 1918 did the city fall back to Poland.

Geography 
The city is about 120 km south-west of Warsaw. In and around the city, there are some textile and electronics industries. Because of prolonged economic difficulties, there has been a decline in the population of the city. The city has a university and a film academy. Łódź has a humid continental climate (Dfb in  the Koeppen climate classification).

Sports 
There are two major football teams in Łódź: the first is called ŁKS Łódź and the second is Widzew Łódź.

Images

Notable residents 
Grażyna Bacewicz, composer
Max Factor, Sr., businessman, founder of the Max Factor cosmetics company
Piotr Fronczewski, Polish actor
Marcin Gortat, NBA basketball player for the Phoenix Suns
Roman Polanski, cinema director, Oscar and Golden Palm winner
Władysław Reymont, writer, Nobel Prize winner
Paweł Rogaliński, journalist
Artur Rubinstein, pianist, settled
Julian Tuwim, poet
Miś Uszatek, cartoon character
Marek Saganowski, football player
Adam Ostrowski, better known as O.S.T.R., rapper
Kraków (Polish: Kraków; (pronounced: ); variant English spelling Cracow; in full Royal Capital City of Krakow, Polish: Królewskie Stołeczne Miasto Kraków) is one of the oldest and largest cities in Poland. In 2014 in Kraków lived 759,800 people. It is on the Vistula river. Krakow is the capital of Lesser Poland Voivodeship (województwo małopolskie); before that it was the capital of Kraków Voivodship (since 14th century).

During the mid-early 19th century, Krakow became an independent city-state, under the name of "The Free, Independent and Strictly Neutral City of Krakow". However, it was annexed by Austria-Hungary in 1846.

Pope John Paul II was raised in Krakow and was its archbishop from 1964 until he was elected as Pope in 1978. When it was later announced that the city will host World Youth Day in 2016, it will be a tribute to the late Pope who became a saint in 2014.

The current mayor of Krakow is Jacek Majchrowski.

Sister cities
Kraków is twinned, or maintains close relations with:

Related pages 
Trams in Kraków
 Buses in Kraków

Other websites 
 www.e-krakow.pl