cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Wall Street Crash of 1929 was the greatest stock market crash in the history of the United States. 

It happened in the New York Stock Exchange on Tuesday October 29, 1929, now known as Black Tuesday.  Bank failures followed, resulting in businesses closing. This caused worldwide panic, which started the Great Depression. Stock prices did not reach the same level until late 1954.

The crash signaled the beginning of the 10-year Great Depression that affected all Western industrialized countries. Countries imposed high tariffs and otherwise restricted imports. International trade declined. Soup kitchens were the place to go for food for many people. The Depression ended in the United States with the start of American mobilization for World War II at the end of 1941. People who lost their homes lived in what were Hoovervilles. They called many things after Herbert Hoover. They named the food handed out to the poor “Hoover Blankets” they called the newspapers they used as Blankets. “Hoover hogs” were jack rabbits that were used for food, and “Hoover Wagons” were broken down cars that were pulled by mules. Great Depression was ushered in by the stock market crash of October 29, 1929. It ended as dramatically a decade later on September 3, 1939, when the Second World War began. The widespread poverty and suffering during the 1930s. The Great Depression spread rapidly from the US to Europe and the rest of the world as a result of the connection between the United States and European economies after WWI.The Wall Street Crash was the U.S. Stock Market crash of October 29, 1929, which triggered the Great Depression

Causes 
Stock-exchange speculation led hundreds of thousands of Americans to invest heavily in the stock market, creating an economic bubble. Many were borrowing money to buy more stocks.   

"At the turn of the 20th century, stock market speculation was restricted to professionals, but the 1920s saw millions of 'ordinary Americans' investing in the New York Stock Exchange. By August 1929, brokers had lent small investors more than two-thirds of the face value of the stocks they were buying on margin – more than $8.5bn was out on loan". 

The amount of money out on loan was more than the entire amount of currency circulating in the U.S.A at the time. When a stock price declined below the amount of borrowed money, the owner had to sell to pay the debt. This caused prices to decline more. Years later, regulations limited the use of debt in this way.

References 
https://kids.britannica.com/kids/article/Great-Depression/353208
1929 in the United States
Economic history
Levi Strauss (February 26, 1829–September 26, 1902) was a German-born American maker of clothing.

Born as Löb Strauss into a Jewish family in Buttenheim in Franconia, Bavaria, now a part of Germany.  In 1847, Strauss, his mother and two sisters moved to New York City to join his brothers Jonas and Louis Löb in their dry goods business. By 1850 he had adopted the name "Levi Strauss".

In 1853, Strauss moved to bustling San Francisco, California, where the California Gold Rush was still in high gear. Levi expected that the mining camps would welcome his buttons, scissors, thread and bolts of fabric; additionally, he had yards of canvas sailcloth intended for tent-making and as covers for the Conestoga wagons that dotted the landscape next to every stream and river in the area.

It was on California Street that Levi and his brother-in-law David Stern opened a dry goods wholesale business called Levi Strauss & Co.  Levi was often found leading a pack-horse, heavily laden with merchandise, directly into the mining camps found throughout the region. The story goes that both prospectors and miners, often complaining about the easily torn cotton "britches" and pockets that "split right out" gave Levi the idea to make a rugged overall trouser for the miners to wear. These were fashioned from bolts of brown canvas sailcloth, with gold ore storage pockets that were nearly impossible to split. Levi exhausted his original supply of canvas as the demand grew for his hard-wearing overalls, and so he switched to a sturdy fabric called serge, made in Nimes, France. Originally called serge de Nimes, the name was soon shortened to denim.

In 1872, Levi received a letter from Jacob Davis, a Reno, Nevada tailor. Davis was one of Levi Strauss' regular customers, who purchased bolts of cloth from the company to use for his own business. In this letter, Davis told Levi about the interesting way in which he made pants for his customers: he placed metal rivets at the points of strain—pocket corners and on the base of the fly. As he did not have the money to patent his process he suggested that Levi pay for the paperwork and that they take out the patent together.

On May 20, 1873, Strauss and Jacob Davis received United States patent #139121 for using copper rivets to strengthen the pockets of denim work pants. Levi Strauss & Co. began manufacturing the first of the famous Levi's brand of jeans in San Francisco, using fabric from the Amoskeag Manufacturing Company in Manchester, New Hampshire.

Levi Strauss died on September 26, 1902, at the age of 73. He left his thriving manufacturing and dry goods business to his four nephews—Jacob, Louis, Abraham and Sigmund Stern—who helped rebuild the company after the 1906 San Francisco earthquake and fire. The following year, Jacob Davis sold back his share of the company.

Peter Haas and his family are the primary heirs to the Levi Strauss fortune.

Other websites 
 Levi Strauss Company
 Levi's
 Levi's Europe
 Levi's Online Store 

 

Businesspeople from San Francisco
1829 births
1902 deaths
Princess Peach Toadstool (sometimes called Peach) is a character in the Mario video game series. In most of the games she appears in, she is kidnapped by the reptile monster King Bowser and his son, Bowser Jr. She is the princess of the Mushroom Kingdom, which is the main setting of most of the Mario games.

Appearance 
Princess Peach's looks are different than what they used to be. In her first game, Super Mario Bros. (1985), she had red hair and her dress was white.  She had dark red hair in Super Mario Bros. 2 (1986).  In Super Mario World (1991), her looks changed. She had yellow hair. In the Mario sport series games, she wears different dresses because she cannot play well in her normal, long, pink dress.

Her name has changed over the years.  In Japan, her name was always Peach.  When Nintendo sold Super Mario Bros. in other countries, she was called Princess Toadstool.  In Super Mario 64, her name became Princess Peach Toadstool.

Peach appears most often as the damsel-in-distress – always being kidnapped by Bowser.  Mario must always rescue her.  In Super Princess Peach (2006), the tables are turned and Bowser kidnaps Mario instead.  Peach must then rescue Mario.

Peach has been voiced by two different actresses.  The first was Leslie Swan.  The second was Jen Taylor.

Playable appearances 
 Super Mario Bros. 2—1988
 Mario Teaches Typing—1992
 Super Mario Kart—1992
 Super Mario All-Stars—1993
 Mario's Early Years: Fun with Letters—1994
 Mario's Early Years: Fun with Numbers—1994
 Mario's Early Years: Pre-School—1994
 Mario's Tennis—1995
 Super Mario RPG: Legend of the Seven Stars—1996
 Mario Kart 64—1996
 Mario Teaches Typing 2—1997
 Mario Party—1998
 Mario Golf—1999
 Mario Party 2—1999
 Mario Tennis—2000
 Paper Mario—2000
 Mario Party 3—2000
 Super Mario Advance—2001
 Mario Kart Super Circuit—2001
 Super Smash Bros. Melee—2001
 Mario Party 4—2002
 Mario Golf: Toadstool Tour—2003
 Mario Party 5—2004
 Mario Kart: Double Dash!!—2003
 Mario Power Tennis—2004
 Mario Party 6—2004
 Paper Mario: The Thousand-Year Door—2004
 Mario Party Advance—2005
 SSX On Tour—2005
 Mario Superstar Baseball—2005
 Mario Party 7—2005
 Mario Kart DS—2005
 Mario Tennis: Power Tour—2005
 NBA Street V3—2005
 Super Mario Strikers—2006
 Super Princess Peach—2006
 Mario Hoops 3-on-3—2006
 Super Paper Mario—2007
 Yoshi's Island DS—2006
 Mario Strikers Charged—2007
 Mario Party 8—2007
 Itadaki Street DS—2007
 Super Smash Bros. Brawl - 2007
 Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Games - 2007
 Mario Kart Wii - 2008
 Mario Super Sluggers - 2008
 Mario & Sonic at the Olympic Winter Games - 2009
 Mario & Sonic at the London 2012 Olympic Games - 2011
 Mario Kart 7 - 2011
 Fortune Street - 2011
 Mario Party 9 - 2012
 Mario Tennis Open - 2012
 Mario Kart Arcade GP DX - 2013
 Mario & Sonic at the Sochi 2014 Olympic Winter Games - 2013
 Super Mario 3D World - 2013
 Mario Party: Island Tour - 2013
 Mario Golf: World Tour - 2014
 Mario Kart 8 - 2014
 Super Smash Bros. for Nintendo 3DS / Wii U - 2014
 Mario Party 10 - 2015
 Mario Tennis: Ultra Smash - 2015

Fictional characters introduced in 1985
Mario series characters
Fictional princesses
Bel canto is a way of singing in opera.  It comes from the Italian, meaning "beautiful singing".  

Bel canto singing means singing beautifully, flexibly and smoothly, delivering high and low notes in a similar style so that all the notes of a singer's range sound even from top to bottom.  Bel canto singing started when opera began in the 1600s, but the term "bel canto" is normally used for operas written in the early 19th century.  The operas of Rossini, Bellini and Donizetti need bel canto singing. The term "bel canto" was not used at the time.  People only started talking about "bel canto" in the mid-to-late 19th century, when a lot of new operas by composers such as Richard Wagner appeared. These new operas had to have singers with big, dramatic voices if they were to sound good.

Bel canto-style operas came back into fashion in the 1950s, having been out of favour for the previous 50 or 60 years. Today, some of the most popular operas are bel canto ones. Famous bel canto singers of recent times include the sopranos Maria Callas, Joan Sutherland, Montserrat Caballé, Beverly Sills and the tenors Francisco Araiza, Juan Diego Florez, Alfredo Kraus, Luciano Pavarotti. 

Mathilde Marchesi was a famous 19th-century bel canto teacher.

Opera terminology
Richard Wagner was a German opera composer

Wagner could also mean:

 Anthony Wagner, the 20th century English officer
 Robert Wagner, American actor
Midori Days is an anime about a girl who falls in love so badly that when she wakes up she's somehow attached to her love interest's (seiji) right hand. This anime is about how these two adjust to their strange new relationship.

High school boy Seiji Sawamura is really quite a nice guy, but he's got a bad reputation and the nickname Mad Dog, earned by copious street fighting, often in pursuit of justice. His right hook is so deadly that it's got its own nickname-The Devil's Right Hand. Other students avoid him and he can not get a girlfriend. In fact, 20 girls have turned him down. But unknown to him, he has had a secret admirer for the past three years-quiet goody-two-shoes Midori Kasugano, who is so paralyzed by her shyness that she could not possibly tell him how she feels. Then, in the tradition of Minami's Sweetheart (*DE) and The Eternity You Desire, Midori falls into a coma, while Seiji finds that instead of a right hand, he now has a living glove puppet-compare to Puppet Master Sakon. A tiny, living and speaking Midori is attached to the end of his arm and reveling in his undivided attention. The situation is awkward and embarrassing but the pair find they really do like each other, even when things are switched for an episode and Seiji becomes Midori's left hand. The result is a very silly show that still manages to convey how paralyzing shyness can be and how enforced intimacy can reveal unsuspected aspects of a person's character. Based on the manga by Kazuro Inoue in Shonen Sunday, itself a surreal cartoon version of the perennial surrogate parenting and reluctant roommates genres of live-action Japanese television

References 

Anime
A symphonic poem or tone poem is a piece of orchestral music which has a story attached to it or describes something such as poem or a painting or any idea which is not music.  A symphonic poem is a kind of programme music (music for instruments which has an idea outside music).

Symphonic poems were mostly written in the 19th century at the time known as the  Romantic period.  They are normally in one movement lasting perhaps between 10 and 20 minutes.  Some of the longest ones, such as Ein Heldenleben by Richard Strauss are much longer, like a symphony with four movements which run into one another.
 
The idea can be seen in Beethoven’s overtures which tell the story of the opera or play which is about to be performed.  Composers such as Felix Mendelssohn then started to write overtures which told a story but were not attached to any opera. Fingal's Cave (1832) describes the sea lapping against the rocks of a cave in the Scottish Hebrides. 

Franz Liszt was the composer who made the symphonic poem an important musical form.  He wrote twelve works which he called Symphonische Dichtung (Symphonic poem) because the music developed in the same way as in a symphony.  One example is Mazeppa (1851) which describes the poem by Victor Hugo about a wild horse that carries a man tied to him until he is rescued by the Ukrainians and made into their chief.

Other composers who wrote symphonic poems include Sergei Rachmaninoff, Modest Mussorgsky, Camille Saint-Saëns, Claude Debussy, Jean Sibelius, Bedřich Smetana, Antonín Dvořák, Pyotr Tchaikovsky and César Franck.

The opening of Richard Strauss’s  tone poem Also sprach Zarathustra (1895-1896) has become particularly famous in recent years through its use in the movie  2001: A Space Odyssey.

Musical forms
A melody in music is a group of notes of various pitches (how high or low a note sounds) which are played one after another. Together they make a tune in the same way that a group of words make a sentence.  Some people like to sing melodies.  Melodies have rhythm (the length of the notes). 

In music, 'melody' contrasts with 'harmony'.  Harmony means notes which are played at the same time, like chords.  Composers often think of a melody and then add harmony to it. 

Some music has more than one melody happening at the same time.  When this happens throughout the whole piece, it is called polyphonic music. Rounds and fugues are types of polyphonic music. If the other melody only happens sometimes, then the second melody is called a countermelody.

The adjective of melody is melodic. There is also the adjective melodious which means: 'a sweet-sounding melody'.  

Music that does not have an obvious melody may be hard to understand (unless it is focused on rhythm, such as a drum solo).

Many melodies are easy to sing, while others are difficult to sing. Still other melodies are impossible to sing. Those melodies can still be played on musical instruments. 

Music theory
The Apostolic Palace, also called the Papal Palace or the Palace of the Vatican, is the official residence of the Pope in the Vatican City.

The palace is a complex of buildings, with the Papal Apartment, the Catholic Church's government offices, a handful of chapels, the Vatican Museum and the Vatican library. In all there are over 1,000 rooms with the most famous including the Sistine Chapel and its renowned ceiling frescoes painted by Michelangelo (restored between 1980-1990) and Raphael's Rooms.

The other papal residences are at the Lateran Palace and the Castel Gandolfo outside Rome.

Before 1871, the Quirinal Palace was the Pope's official residence. After the final overthrow of the Papal States in 1870, the King of Italy confiscated that palace in 1871, making it the king's official residence; after the abolition of the Italian monarchy in 1946, it became the President of the Italian Republic's residence.

Related pages
Borgia Apartment
Clementine Hall
Domus Sanctae Marthae
Papal Gentlemen
Papal Apartment 
Sistine Chapel
Raphael Rooms

Vatican City
Palaces
Staple may mean:
 Staple (fastener), a small piece of metal used to hold sheets of material or wires together
 Staple food, a food that is the basic part of a diet. This meaning is often used to cover other areas besides food (A rollercoaster is a theme park staple).
 Staple (textiles) is the raw material, or its length and quality, of fibre from which textiles are made. It is the material in its standard form as a traded commodity.
 The Staple Singers, a United States gospel, soul, and R&B singing group.
 Staple (band), a Christian post-hardcore band.
 STAPLE!, a convention for creators of comics, minicomics, and other independent media

Places
 A staple port was one in which trade in specified goods was regulated. The term is a medieval one. Normally the king licensed a particular group of merchants to trade in the commodity, in an area such as his kingdom and their trading had to be done in the staple town or port.
 The staple was the staple port where wool exports were traded. From 1363 to 1558, this was at Calais.
 Staple, Nord (pronunciation: stohpl) is a commune in the Nord département of France. This is the name in its Flemish form.
 Étaples, Pas-de-Calais, is another place in which the word appears but in its French form.
 Staple, Kent is a village in Kent, England near Sandwich.
A real or complex number is called a transcendental number if it cannot be found as a result of an algebraic equation with integer coefficients.

Proving that a certain number is transcendental can be very hard. Each transcendental number is also an irrational number. The first people to see that there were transcendental numbers were Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz and Leonhard Euler. The first to actually prove there were transcendental numbers was Joseph Liouville. He did this in 1844.

Well known transcendental numbers:
 e
 π
 ea for algebraic a ≠ 0

References 

 David Hilbert, "Über die Transcendenz der Zahlen  und ", Mathematische Annalen 43:216–219 (1893).
 Alan Baker, Transcendental Number Theory, Cambridge University Press, 1975, .

Other websites 
 Proof that  is transcendental 
 Proof that  is transcendental (PDF)  (German)
 Proof that  is transcendental (PDF)  (German)

Transcendental numbers
Number theory
In footwear and fashion, flip-flops are a kind of flat, backless sandal. They have a flat sole held on the foot by a u-shaped strap that passes between the first (big) and second toes and around either side of the foot, attached to the sole at three points, commonly known as the thong strap. They may have been developed out of traditional Japanese woven or wooden soled sandals (i.e., zori and setta) in Australia.

Footwear
A hamlet is a small settlement, smaller than a village. Usually, all settlers in a hamlet are centered around a single economic activity. A hamlet may consist of a farm, a mill, a mine or a harbor. All the people living there would be workers on that farm, mill, mine or harbour. Hamlets, especially those with a medieval church may have resulted from a medieval village, that was abandoned for some reason.

Because of the small size of the settlement, there are usually no buildings which have a central or admninistratrive function. There usually is no church, town hall or pub. Roads and streets in the hamlet do not have names, most of the time.5-6 families may live there usually within a 2km radius area. 

In Germany, Austria, Switzerland and the Alsace region of France, such hamlets often have names that end in -wil, -wil(l)er, -wyhl or -viller.

 

bg:Махала
he:כפר#כפר מסורתי וכפריר
The Recording Industry Association of America or RIAA is an organization that was created and paid for by large record companies. It is based in Washington, D.C. It symbolizes the entire recording industry of the United States of America. The RIAA also participates in the collection, management and distribution of music licenses and royalties.

The association is responsible for certifying gold and platinum albums and singles in the U.S. Its goals are:
to protect intellectual property rights worldwide and the First Amendment rights of artists;
to perform research about the music industry;
to watch over and review laws, regulations and rules that apply to the music industry.

Members 
The members of the RIAA are mostly record companies in the U.S.

History 
The RIAA was created in 1952 to create technical standards for vinyl records so any record could play on any record player without difficulty. In today's times, the RIAA's goals is to prevent piracy of records. The RIAA says that the music industry loses nearly 4.2 billion U.S. dollars a year because of this.

Related pages
 Recording Industry Association of Japan (RIAJ)
 American Society of Composers, Authors and Publishers (ASCAP)
 Japanese Society for Rights of Authors, Composers and Publishers (JASRAC)

References

Other websites
Official website of the Recording Industry Association of America (RIAA)

1952 establishments in the United States
Music industry
Washington, D.C.
Mar del Plata is a city of Argentina in the Buenos Aires Province. It is found on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, about 400 km south of Buenos Aires. Mar del Plata has a population of 541,733 people. It is the 7th biggest city in Argentina.

Other websites 

 Official Government website 
 Tourist Info (from the Official Government website)  
 Mar del Plata Website with news and things to do

Cities in Argentina
Buenos Aires Province
Pope Boniface VIII (; c. 1230 – October 11, 1303), born Benedetto Caetani, was an Italian cleric of the Roman Catholic Church and the 194th Pope  from 1294 to 1303.

Early life 
Benedetto Caetani was born in 1235 at Anagni in Italy.  Caetani studied at Todi and at Spoleto where he earned a degree in law. He came from a very noble family. His family was in government.

In 1265, Caetani traveled with Cardinal Ottobuono Fieschi to England.

Cardinal
In 1281, Pope Martin IV raised Caetani to the rank of cardinal. In 1291, Pope Nicholas IV made him Cardinal of SS. Silvestro e Martino ai Monti.

Pope
Cardinal Caetani was elected in 1294; and he chose to be called Boniface VIII.

Pope Boniface confirmed the decree of Pope Celestine V that any pope can freely resign.

Boniface was involved in Italian and European political disputes.

Boniface VIII made a rule that if a ruler (king) fined people taxes without the church or popes' permission that the ruler would be excluded from the church. He would make rash decisions without consideration. He was known to be harsh, mean, cruel, and did not listen to other people's recommendations. For example, He declared a very rash papal law that all people, not just Christians, must follow him if they want to go to heaven. He believed as the Pope, all rulers should bow down to him and respect him.

After his death
Dante mentions Boniface in The Inferno.  He identifies the pope as "the Prince of the new Pharisees."

Related pages
 List of popes
 Abdication

References

Other reading
 Boase, Thomas Sherrer Ross. (1933). Boniface VIII. London: Constable.  OCLC 1387650

Other websites 

 
  Catholic Hierarchy, Pope Boniface VII
  Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Cardinal Caetani 

Italian popes
1235 births
1303 deaths
Signal, signals or signalling may refer to:

Scientific concepts 
 Signal (electrical engineering), a varying quantity that can carry information over air or wires.
 Signal processing, the field of techniques used to extract information from signals
 Signal (computing), an event, message, or data structure transmitted between computational processes
 Cell signalling (biology), the system of communication that governs basic cellular activities and coordinates cell actions
 Signal (biology), electrochemical activity in an organism

Communications 
 Signals used in various kinds of transport:
 Road traffic signal
 Railway signal
 Semaphore
 Beacon
 International maritime signal flags, using the International Code of Signals
 Signals (military), a historical name for the military communications
 Signal corps, the branch of military which operates with command, control and communications systems
 Signalling theory in biology, how organisms signal their state to others
 Distress signal
 Smoke signal (See also :Category:Early telecommunications)
 Signalling (telecommunications), a part of some communication protocols
 Signal (recognition), a way of showing that a person recognizes something; such as the Color of the day used by police.

Names 
 Signal band A rock band from Northwest Indiana
 Signal (band), a Bulgarian rock band
 Signals (album), an album by progressive rock band Rush
 Signal (magazine)
 Signal (toothpaste)
 Signal 1 and Signal 2 radio stations
 Signal (subscription service), service that provided real-time stock quotes
 Signaal (now Thales Nederland), a Netherlands-based defence company
 Signal Systems, a company of the McLean Group of Companies

Other 
 Any implicit, subtle, or disguised message, in situations such as:
 Partnership card games (see signal (bridge))
 Signaling (economics)
 Signals and slots, a software design pattern
 Kent (game) a card game also known as Signal or Kemp
In the fields of communications, signal processing, and in electrical engineering more generally, a signal is any time-varying quantity. 

The concept is broad, and hard to define precisely.  Definitions specific to subfields are common. For example, in information theory, a signal is a codified message, i.e., the sequence of states in a communications channel that encodes a message. In a communications system, a transmitter encodes a message into a signal, which is carried to a receiver by the communications channel.  For example, the words "Mary had a little lamb" might be the message spoken into a telephone. The telephone transmitter converts the sounds into an electrical voltage signal. The signal is transmitted to the receiving telephone by wires; and at the receiver it is reconverted into sounds.

Examples of signals 
 Motion.  The motion of a particle through some space can be considered to be a signal, or can be represented by a signal.  The domain of a motion signal is one-dimensional (time), and the range is generally three-dimensional.  Position is thus a 3-vector signal; position and orientation is a 6-vector signal.

 Sound.  Since a sound is a vibration of a medium (such as air), a sound signal associates a pressure value to every value of time and three space coordinates.  A microphone converts sound pressure at some place to just a function of time, using a voltage signal as an analog of the sound signal.

 Compact discs (CDs).  CDs contain discrete bits representing a sound signal, recorded at 44,100 samples per second.  Each sample contains data for a left and right channel, which may be considered to be a 2-vector (since CDs are recorded in stereo).

 Noise typically unwanted but not always.

References
Shannon, C. E., 2005 [1948], "A Mathematical Theory of Communication,"  (corrected reprint ), accessed Dec. 15, 2005. Orig. 1948, Bell System Technical Journal, vol. 27, pp. 379–423, 623-656.

Electronics
Engineering
Communication
Eddie August Schneider (October 20, 1911 – December 23, 1940) was an American aviator. He set the transcontinental airspeed record for pilots under the age of twenty-one in 1930. When he received his pilot's license, he was the youngest licensed pilot in the United States.

Biography
Eddie Schneider was born in 1911 in Manhattan in New York City. His father was Emil August Schneider (1886-1955), a banker and stock broker who born in Germany. His mother was Inga Karoline Eldora Pedersen (1882-1927), who was born in Farsund, Norway. The family moved from Manhattan to Red Bank, New Jersey, and then they moved to Jersey City, New Jersey by 1920. Eddie graduated from Dickinson High School in Jersey City in 1927, the same year that his mother died. After his mother's death, he and his parents visited Bielefeld, Germany and Farsund, Norway to visit with relatives. In Germany Eddie went on a plane ride and then aviation became his obsession. In 1929 he trained at Roosevelt Field on Long Island and became the youngest person in the United States to receive a commercial pilot's license. That same year he also received a mechanics license, becoming the youngest licensed airplane mechanic in New York. 

On August 25, 1930 he set the round-trip transcontinental air speed record for pilots under the age of twenty-one years in his airplane. He flew from Westfield, New Jersey on August 14, 1930 to Los Angeles, California in 4 days with a combined flying time of 29 hours and 55 minutes. He lowered the East to West record by 4 hours and 22 minutes. He then made the return trip from Los Angeles to New York City in 27 hours and 19 minutes, lowering the West to East record by 1 hour and 36 minutes. His total elapsed time for the round trip was 57 hours and 14 minutes, breaking the preceding record for the round trip. Frank Goldsborough held the previous record which was 62 hours and 58 minutes. When Eddie landed in New York on August 25, 1930, his first words were to his father: "Hello Pop, I made it."

He married Gretchen Hahnen (1902-1986) in New York City on June 2, 1934. Gretchen was the daughter of Zora M. Hahnen (1882-1962) and was originally from Des Moines, Iowa. Eddie met her at an aviation function. They did not have any children. 

In 1936 Eddie left for Spain to be a pilot in the Spanish Civil War which was against the law. Along with fellow Americans Bert Acosta and Frederic Ives Lord he organized the Yankee Squadron. He was only there for a month before he returned to the United States. When talking to reporters Eddie said: "I was broke, hungry, jobless ... yet despite the fact that all three of us are old-time aviators who did our part for the development of the industry, we were left out in the cold in the Administration’s program of job making. Can you blame us for accepting the lucrative Spanish offer?" 

On December 23, 1940, Eddie was killed in an accident while training another pilot. They were trying to land, when a Navy pilot struck the tail of Eddie's plane. Eddie's plane went into a spin and crashed into the river. Both the student and Eddie were killed.

References 

1911 births
1940 deaths
People from New York City
American aviators
Air New Zealand  is a big passenger airline from Auckland, New Zealand. It flies mainly in Australasia and South Pacific, but it also has services to Europe, North America and Asia. It is a Star Alliance member. It joined the alliance in 1999. Its main base or hub is Auckland International Airport.

History
In 1940, TEAL was founded. Its first flights were from Auckland to Sydney and Wellington. Later, flights to Fiji, Samoa, Tahiti and the Cook Islands were added. The Australian government bought 50% of TEAL in 1953. The remaining 50% was owned by the Government of New Zealand. In 1961, the airline became completely owned by the Government of New Zealand. TEAL was officially renamed Air New Zealand on April 1, 1965. The airline bought Douglas DC-8 airplanes in July 1965. These were used for longer routes to Honolulu and Los Angeles. A larger Boeing 747 was bought in 1981. Air New Zealand bought Ansett Australia in 2000. Ansett later went out of business.

Gallery

Destinations
Air New Zealand serves the following destinations:

References

1965 establishments in Oceania
Airlines of Oceania
Auckland
Star Alliance
Transport in New Zealand
1960s establishments in New Zealand
IATA members
Air Jamaica is the national airline of Jamaica from Kingston, Jamaica. It flies regular services from Kingston and Montego Bay to 23 airports in the Caribbean, the USA, Canada and United Kingdom. The airline's main bases are Norman Manley International Airport (KIN), Kingston and Sangster International Airport (MBJ), Montego Bay.

References 

Jamaica
Airlines of North America
Artillery is a word for the big guns used in an army, for example cannons and howitzers. Such guns are used to shoot targets far away. Artillery is often used to stop enemy troops using an area, to bombard trenches and buildings with enemies in it and to support friendly units. There are many different weapons that are called artillery. They may shoot shells or missiles. Newer systems can even drop mines over a big area, making the area uncrossable. Anti-aircraft warfare includes the use of artillery to fight planes and other aircraft.  

Those who fire the artillery piece are called "gunners". In most cases someone else, called a "spotter" must see the enemy, because artillery often shoots farther than the gunners can see. The artillery crews do not have to see the enemy to damage them.

Different types of artillery

Other websites 

 Artillery -Citizendium
The House of Lords is one of the two Houses of Parliament of the United Kingdom (UK). It is in London, the capital city of the UK. The other house is the House of Commons. Together the two houses form the government and parliament of the UK. 

The House of Lords is not elected (voted for), except in the case of the holders of the seats reserved for hereditary peers (who are chosen by the House or by other hereditary peers in their parties).

 2 people are members because of their job (The Duke of Norfolk, who is the Earl Marshal, and the Marquess of Cholmondeley, the Lord Great Chamberlain, who both help to organise royal events).
 90 people are hereditary peers. These are members of the House of Lords because one of their ancestors was made a member and (since 1999) have been elected from among other such people.
 The other members were made members for life, either life peers, who have existed since 1958 or as law lords. Law lords were senior judges made members of the House to help when the House of Lords was also the highest court in England and Wales (before the foundation of the Supreme Court in 2009).
 The twenty-six most senior Bishops of the Church of England also sit in the House of Lords, they are called the Lords Spiritual.

Crossbenchers 

Many members of the House of Lords sit as Crossbenchers.  This means they do not support either the government or opposition parties, but instead are independent of party politics. They got their name because the benches where they sit are placed across the aisle which separates the government and opposition supporters.

References

Other websites 
Parliament UK

Politics of the United Kingdom
United Kingdom
Acapulco is a town and sea port on the Pacific coast of Mexico, 300 km (190 miles) southwest from Mexico City. Acapulco is on a deep, semi-circular bay. It is a stop for shipping and cruising lines running between Panama, and San Francisco, California, USA. In 2005, about 722,499 people lived there.

Its name is a Nahuatl word, meaning "plain of dense reeds". The city has been a port since the 16th century.

Playones de San Isidro 
Playones de San Isidro de Isidro is a community belonging to the Flavio Alfaro canton. The village has a population of approximately 200 people.

Cities in Mexico
Guerrero (state)
1520s establishments in Mexico
Deutsche Bahn AG (short DB AG or often only DB) is Europe's largest railway company. It runs over 30,000 trains a day and owns more than 5,000 stations. The company headquarters are in Berlin, Germany.

It was founded on January 1, 1994 to replace the Deutsche Bundesbahn, which was the state railway of West Germany, and the Deutsche Reichsbahn, which was the state railway of East Germany.

Deutsche Bahn is also active in the field of logistics and owns companies like Schenker. DB claim they are the second largest logistics company in the world.

Other websites 

DB corporate home page
DB travel portal
DB timetable information

Rail transport in Germany
Transport companies of Germany
Train operating companies
1994 establishments in Germany
The Vienna Convention on the Law of Treaties is a contract of International law. It was signed in the 1960s. It codified earlier customs that were there. 105 states signed the convention.

Other websites 

Full text of the treaty: html, pdf
Easy-to-read version of the text

Sources
Damrosch, Henkin, et al., International Law, West Group 2001.

Treaties and Conventions
The Lost World is a book written by Sir Arthur Conan Doyle in the year 1912. In it, Professor Challenger and his companions travel to find a large plateau in South America where dinosaurs still live. After a long journey they find the plateau, and witness not only dinosaurs, but two tribes - an ancient Native American people and ape-men who resemble the missing link.

After many adventures, they return to London and attempt to describe their adventures to a disbelieving public.

Other websites

 

British novels
Science fiction books
Books by Arthur Conan Doyle
Amnesty International (also called AI or Amnesty) is an international organization founded in London in 1961. They promote human rights in accordance with Universal Declaration of Human Rights and international human rights law.  This organization was the recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize in 1977 for its defense of human dignity against torture. It is one of the most widely-known human rights groups in the world.  The six key areas that Amnesty International focuses on are refugee rights, the rights of women, children, and of minorities, ending torture, stopping the death penalty, the rights of people imprisoned because of what they believe, and protection of human dignity.

What they believe in 
Amnesty International is based on these central ideas:
 Every person has human rights. Human rights cannot be taken away from a person. They are natural laws that are the right of all human beings from their birth on.
 Human rights cannot be divided. When one right is taken away, this is also bad for other rights. When one right is protected, other rights are in a better position as well.
 Human rights will not be protected by governments alone. Governments have said they will protect human rights, and then not acted upon it. Human rights organisations have to influence the governments.
 To protect human rights, people must help other people. Danger for human rights starts at the level of single persons. To help one person means to stop the danger from growing. One person alone can do this.
 To defend human rights, an organization must be independent and impartial. It should not be for or against any one ideology. An ideology is a certain point of view. It can be political, economic, or religious. Also, the organization should not say one country is the "worst". It should focus on the individual and all individuals.

References

Literature 
 Jürgen Wüst: «Imperialistisches Menschenrechtsgeschrei». Der Kampf des MfS gegen die Internationale Gesellschaft für Menschenrechte (IGFM) und Amnesty International (AI), in: Deutschland Archiv, Nr. 3/1998, S. 418—427

Other websites 
 Amnesty International website

1961 establishments in Europe
1960s establishments in England
Capital punishment
Charities
Human rights organisations in the United Kingdom
Imprisonment and detention
International organizations
The Decameron is a collection of 100 short stories. It was written by the Italian writer Giovanni Boccaccio around 1350. In the book, ten friends, seven young women and three young men, leave the city of Florence because of the plague and stay in a large house in the countryside. Each day, they entertain each other by taking turns to tell stories. The stories are of different types. Some are romantic, some are erotic, some are comedies and some are tragedies.  

Other writers have used the stories for ideas. Many paintings have been done which illustrate the stories. The picture to the right shows a scene from the story of "The Pot of Basil" in which Isabella buries the head of her murdered lover Ferdinand inside a potplant.

Other websites 
 Decameron Web, from Brown University
 The Decameron - Introduction, from the Internet Medieval Sourcebook

14th-century books
Commodity is a term with distinct meanings in both business and in Marxian political economy. For the former, it is a product, that is traded solely on the basis of price. For Marxian political economy it means wares offered for exchange.

Business usage
In the world of business, a commodity is a product, good or service that is traded based solely on its price, rather than quality and features. Examples include: electricity (most users of electric power are only concerned with energy consumption; only a minority of users are concerned with the quality and technical details of voltage and frequency deviations), wheat, bulk chemicals such as sulfuric acid, metals, and even orange juice.  

In the original and simplified sense, commodities were things of value, of uniform quality, that were produced in large quantities by many different producers; the items from each different producer are considered as of the same value.

Examples
Wheat is an example of a soft commodity. Wheat from many different farms comes together.  Generally, it is all traded at the same price; wheat from farm A has not another price than wheat from farm B.  Some uniform standard of quality is assumed. (There may be various standards leading to different pools:  one say for genetically modified wheat, and one for unmodified wheat.)
  
Markets for trading commodities can be very efficient, particularly if the division into pools matches demand segments. These markets will quickly respond to changes in supply and demand to find a price.

Commodities and Marxism
In classical political economy and especially Karl Marx's critique of political economy, a commodity is simply any good or service offered as a product for sale on the market. Some items are also seen as being treated as if they were commodities, e.g. human labour or labor power, works of art and natural resources, even though they may not be produced specifically for the market, or be non-reproducible goods. 

Marx's analysis of the commodity is intended to help solve the problem of what establishes the economic value of goods, using the labor theory of value. This problem was extensively debated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo and Karl Rodbertus-Jagetzow among others. Value and price are not equivalent terms in economics, and theorising the specific relationship of value to market price has been a challenge for both liberal and Marxist economists.

Illustration
To understand the concept of a commodity, consider a chair. It is a commodity if the chair is a tradeable product of human work possessing a social use-value. By contrast, a fallen log of deadwood sat upon in the forest is not a commodity, as it was not produced by human work for the purpose of trade. A chair created by a hobbyist as a gift to someone is not a commodity. Nor is a chair a commodity (as a chair) if its only use would be as scrap firewood (unless one purchases a chair specifically to chop it up for fire wood). A chair that nobody could sit on has no use-value, and cannot be a commodity (unless it has an ornamental value, e.g. in a doll's house).

Related pages
 Property
 Trade

Business
The My Lai Massacre (pronounced IPA: [mi.˧˩˥'lɐːj˧˧], Thảm sát Mỹ Lai, Thảm sát Sơn Mỹ) was the killing of hundreds of civilians by United States troops at the village of My Lai, Vietnam on March 16, 1968. A memorial in My Lai lists the names of 504 victims.

Before the massacre, U.S. troops were told that all of the "true" civilians would be at the market and the remaining people would be members of the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam. When the soldiers got to the village they did not find any NLF troops. Despite this, many troopers began to kill the villagers, mainly elderly people, women, and children. 

The killings were stopped by an American helicopter pilot.

The killings were covered up by the United States Army, but eventually 26 soldiers were charged with being involved in the killings. However, only one, Lieutenant William Calley was found guilty.

The massacre caused public opinion in the United States to shift further towards wanting peace and wanting to get American troops out of Vietnam.

Massacres in Asia
Vietnam War
1968 in the United States
20th century in Vietnam
1960s in Asia
Damascus (sometimes called the city of Jasmin) is the capital city of Syria. IIn Arabic, its name is Dimashq (دِمَشْق‎). It is the largest city in Syria with about 4.8 million people living there. Damascus is thought to be one of oldest cities in the world that still has people living in it. It is believed that people started living in Damascus as long ago as 8000 BC to 10,000 BC (12000 years ago).

Location
Damascus is about 50 miles inland from the Mediterranean Sea, sheltered by the Anti-Lebanon Mountains.

Economy
Damascus used to play an important role as an important trade center. Now it is not because of political development in the region as well as the development of modern trade. Most goods produced in Damascus, as well as in Syria, are distributed to countries of the Arabian peninsula. Damascus also holds an annual international trade exposition in the fall since 1955.

Education 
There are many universities in Damascus, one public university: Damascus University. while other universities are private, such as the Syrian Private University  and the aljazeera Private University.

Historical sites 
Damascus has many historical sites dating back to many different periods of the city's history. Since the city has been built up with every passing job, it has become almost impossible to dig out all the ruins of Damascus that lie up to 8 feet (2.4 m) below the modern level. The Citadel of Damascus is located in the northwest corner of the Old City. The Bab Sharqi street is filled with small shops and leads to the old Christian quarter of Bab Tuma (St. Thomas's Gate). Medhat Pasha Souq is also a main market in Damascus and was named after Medhat Pasha. At the end of the Bab Sharqi street, one reaches the House of Ananias, an underground chapel that was the cellar of Ananias's house. The Umayyad Mosque, also known as the Grand Mosque of Damascus, is one of the largest mosques in the world and also one of the oldest sites of continuous prayer since the rise of Islam.

Image gallery

References

Other websites 

eDamascus - Official website for Damascus
Damascus Online - Brief information about the city of Damascus
The 31 Places to Go in 2010 (The New York Times)
Ronald William George Barker (25 September 1929 – 3 October 2005), popularly known as Ronnie Barker and (as a writer) Gerald Wiley, was an English comic actor, comedian and writer. He was born in Bedford and moved to Oxford when he was four. He is best known for being on the very popular television variety show The Two Ronnies. Also on the show was his long-time comedy partner, Ronnie Corbett. Barker died of heart failure in Adderbury, Oxfordshire.

References

Other websites

People from Bedfordshire
Actors from Oxfordshire
British television writers
Cardiovascular disease deaths in England
Deaths from heart failure
English comedians
English movie actors
English television actors
English television presenters
English television writers
People from Bedford
People from Oxford
Writers from Oxfordshire
1929 births
2005 deaths