cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A chain was a unit of length. It is part of the imperial and United States customary systems. It was used for measuring land. The short way of writing chains is ch.

There are a number of different definitions of the chain, from 50 to 100 feet long. In the imperial system, one chain is equal to 66 feet or 20.1168 metres. This is also called a Gunter's chain, surveyor's chain or land chain.

History and usage
The chain was originally called an "acre's breadth", because it was the width of a acre, while a furlong was the length.

Edmund Gunter, a clergyman and mathematician, invented a measuring device called a chain. The chain was  long. It was divided by 100 in small metal links. The links were made of thick wire with a loop at each end. The links were connected to each other by three rings. There were brass handles at each end. People folded the chain up, link by link, and carried it in their hand. The name chain comes from these devices.

The unit was once important in everyday life in the United Kingdom and its colonies and in the United States. People used it when they made maps and planned out cities and towns. Land was surveyed and measured using these chains. Even after more accurate ways of measuring land were invented, many people continued to use the chain as a unit because land had already been surveyed in this method for so long.

In England, it is still used in old railways, along with miles. The length of a cricket pitch is one chain.

Gunter's chain

The Gunter's chain is the standard unit.

Other websites
 Math Words 
 How Many? A Dictionary of Units of Measurement 
 How to make a Gunter's Chain

Old units of measurement
Units of length
A furlong is a unit for measuring distance. It is part of the imperial and US customary systems. It is equal to . There are eight furlongs in a mile.

History
The unit was first used in the ninth century at the latest. The word "furlong" comes from Old English words furh ("furrow") and lang ("long"). Originally it was the length of the furrow in one acre of a ploughed field. An acre is an area that is one furlong long and one chain wide. For this reason, the furlong was once also called an acre's length. Around the year 1300, England standardized the furlong as 40 rods or 660 feet.

The length of the furlong was standardized between South Africa, Australia, United Kingdom, Canada , New Zealand and the United States in the International Pound and Yard Agreement.

The furlong was abolished for official use in the UK in 1985. It is still occasionally seen on road signs in Myanmar.

Distances for horse racing in the UK, Ireland, and Canada are still given in miles and furlongs. The unit is not used otherwise. It is considered to be an archaic unit.

The proverb one furlong per fortnight means to express something in as obscure and little-used units as possible. (A fortnight is two weeks, or fourteen days). The proverb itself means speed, and is the same as 0.000166309524 m/s or 0.17 mm/s.

Length

Imperial units
Units of length
Stefan Zweig (; November 28, 1881 – February 22, 1942) was an Austrian writer of Jewish descent. He was born in Vienna. He volunteered to be a soldier in the First World War, and got the post as a military commentator. This made him an enemy of war. The Nazis gained power in Germany in 1933, and their influence could be felt in Austria as well. 1934, Stefan Zweig emigrated, first to London, then to South America. That way he lost much of his audience. He committed suicide (together with his second wife) by barbiturate overdose in Petropolis, Rio de Janeiro in 1942.

He has written many books and poems. One of his best-known works is called 'Schachnovelle (The Royal Game, in English. In it, he describes a Chess player, that is forced to play against himself (while imprisoned). He explores the theme of madness. This book inspired the movie Geri's Game, made by Pixar in 1997.

Further reading 
 Elizabeth Allday, Stefan Zweig: A Critical Biography, J. Philip O'Hara, Inc., Chicago, 1972
 
 Alberto Dines, Morte no Paraíso, a Tragédia de Stefan Zweig, Editora Nova Fronteira 1981, (rev. ed.) Editora Rocco 2004
 Alberto Dines, Tod im Paradies. Die Tragödie des Stefan Zweig, Edition Büchergilde, 2006
 Randolph J. Klawiter, Stefan Zweig. An International Bibliography, Ariadne Press, Riverside, 1991
 Donald A. Prater, European of Yesterday: A Biography of Stefan Zweig, Holes and Meier Publ., (rev. ed.) 2003
 George Prochnik, The Impossible Exile: Stefan Zweig at the End of the World, Random House, 2014, 
 Marion Sonnenfeld (editor), The World of Yesterday's Humanist Today. Proceedings of the Stafan Zweig Symposium, texts by Alberto Dines, Randolph J. Klawiter, Leo Spitzer and Harry Zohn, State University of New York Press, 1983
 Friderike Zweig, Stefan Zweig, Thomas Y. Crowell Co., 1946 (An account of his life by his first wife)
 Martin Mauthner, German Writers in French Exile, 1933-1940, Vallentine Mitchell, London 2007,

Other websites 

 Zweig Music Collection at the British Library
 Stefan Zweig Collection at the Daniel A. Reed Library, State University of New York at Fredonia, Fredonia, NY 
 Stefan Zweig Centre Salzburg
 Beware of Pity, review by Joan Acocella in The New York Review of Books, July 13, 2006
 Stefan Zweig at Project Gutenberg
 Zweig's foreword to The World of Yesterday

1881 births
1942 deaths
Austrian Jews
Drug-related suicides
Jewish writers
Jews who committed suicide
Refugees from Nazism
Writers from Vienna
The Leeward Islands are part of the Society Islands in French Polynesia. 

Islands of French Polynesia
Complexity theory is a type of Computer science. It looks at how hard a problem is to do for a computer, and how good particular solutions (algorithms)  to that problem are. Different algorithms that solve a problem may be better or worse in multiple ways. An algorithm may be faster than some other algorithm, but it may need more resources, like memory.

Part of complexity theory is understanding how algorithms perform in their worst-case scenario. An algorithm's worst-case scenario is a problem that will take a long time, or lots of resources, to solve. If people know how good an algorithm is in its worst case, they can guarantee that the algorithm will be at least that good in every case. People are also interested in how a certain algorithm does on average; many algorithms are very inefficient in their worst case, but are okay on most cases. Knowing how good an algorithm is on average lets people know what to generally expect when using that algorithm.

Related pages
Computational complexity theory

Computer science
In mathematics, a binary operation, often denoted *, on a set is a way of combining a pair of elements in that set that results in another element of the set. For example, if we take a pair of natural numbers and let the operation * be addition, then their sum is also a natural number, and is the result of applying this particular binary operation. Another example of an operation on the natural numbers is multiplication. For instance, take the natural numbers 2 and 3. When multiplied together they give 6, another natural number.

Others: The sum between matrices. The composition of functions. The union and the intersection of sets are also two different binary operations on the set of all sets, or on subsets in a power set.

References 

Mathematics
Edubuntu is the version of Linux distribution Ubuntu. It is used for education. It uses GNOME and is designed for use in classrooms.

Edubuntu has been created in collaboration with teachers and technologists in multiple nations. Edubuntu is built on top of the Ubuntu base, and incorporates education-specific applications, designed for the 6–18 years age group.

Characteristics 
Included with Edubuntu is the Linux Terminal Server Project, a large number of educational applications including GCompris, KDE Edutainment Suite, The first Edubuntu release coincided with the release of Ubuntu 5.10, which was called Breezy Badger on 2005. Edubuntu CDs can be ordered for free through the official website service.

Project goals 

The principal design goals of Edubuntu are easier configuration, users and processes, together with ways for working together in classrooms. Equally important is the gathering together of the best available free software and digital materials for education.

Related pages 
 List of Linux distributions

References

Other websites 
 Official website

Ubuntu (operating system) derivatives
A civil servant or public servant is an employee who works in the civilian career public sector for a government department or agency. Many consider the study of civil service to be a part of the field of public administration. Who is a civil servant and who is not is different in different countries.

Workers in non-departmental public bodies, (called Quangos in some countries) may also be called civil servants in context with statistics. All people that may be called civil servants together form a nation's Civil Service or Public Service.

References 
 Bodde, D.  Chinese Ideas in the West
 Brownlow, Louis, Charles E. Merriam, and Luther Gulick, Report of the President's Committee on Administrative Management. (1937) U.S. Government Printing Office. 
 P. N. Mathur. The Civil Service of India, 1731-1894: a study of the history, evolution and demand for reform (1977)
 Kevin Theakston. The Civil Service Since 1945 (Institute of Contemporary British History, 1995)
 Ari Hoogenboom. Outlawing the Spoils: A History of the Civil Service Reform Movement, 1865-1883. (1961)
 Schiesl, Martin. The Politics of Efficiency: Municipal Administration and Reform in America, 1880-1920. (1977)
 Van Riper, Paul. History of the United States Civil Service (1958). 
 White, Leonard D., Introduction to the Study of Public Administration. (1955)
 Leonard D. White, Charles H. Bland, Walter R. Sharp, and Fritz Morstein Marx; Civil Service Abroad, Great Britain, Canada, France, Germany (1935) online

Social sciences
An employee is a term for workers and managers working for a company, organization or community.  These people are the staff of the organization.  In general, any person hired by an employer to do a particular job in exchange for payment is an employee, but there are different kinds of employees.  In some countries, employers are required by law to do certain things, like obey minimum wage laws, provide a safe workplace, and sometimes pay a tax.  Employers also have to give their official employees benefits, like paying for health insurance.  Because of this, some employers like to hire independent contractors to do work instead of regular employees.  In the United States, a worker is an employee if their employer gets to tell them what do do, how to do it, and when to do it in a material way and an independent contractor if they get to make their own decisions about how to do what the employer wants.

The relationship between employer and employee is different from that between the firm and a customer or client.

An employee usually has to provide a resume and have an interview before being offered a job.

Independent contractors

Some employers like to hire independent contractors, or workers who are technically running their own businesses, because they do not have to follow all of the same laws.  For example, in the United States, an employer has to some of the employee's social security taxes and the employee pays the rest. A self-employed person pays for all of his or her own social security taxes.

For example, if a company hires a plumber every time they need a leak or pipe fixed in their building, that plumber is an independent contractor.  If a company hires a plumber to be part of their company, then that plumber is an employee.  They must pay the employee plumber whether there are leaks to fix or not.  They must obey any minimum wage laws that the country has.  They must provide other things.  But the employer gets to tell the employee plumber what to do and how to do it much more than an independent contractor plumber.  They can make the employee plumber follow a dress code, while the independent plumber gets to wear what he or she wants.  They can make the employee plumber come in or leave on a set schedule like other employees.  The independent contractor plumber gets to decide when to come to work, usually by making an appointment with the employer.

Some companies like to hire independent contractors and then tell them exactly what to do and when to do it, like regular employees.  They can get in trouble for this.  In the United States, the Internal Revenue Service can sue companies that lie about whether their employees really are independent contractors.

Other websites 
NBER, Science and Engineering Workforce Project
UK gov Local Business Link

References

Employment
Social sciences
An employer is a person or institution that hires employees.  Employers offer wages or a salary to the workers in exchange for the worker's work or labor.

One speaks of wages if the employee is paid by the hour and of salary if he is paid a set rate per pay period. Wages are paid for all hours worked, including overtime, but a salary is typically not paid more for more hours worked than the minimum.

Employers include everything from individuals hiring a babysitter to governments and businesses which may hire many thousands of employees.  In most western societies governments are the largest single employers, but most of the work force is employed in small and medium businesses in the private sector.

Other websites 

NBER, Science and Engineering Workforce Project
UK gov Local Business Link

Employment
Social sciences
The public sector is the part of economic and administrative life that deals with the delivery of goods and services by civil service and for the government, whether national, regional or local/municipal. Examples of public sector activity range from delivering social welfare, administering infrastructure and urban planning and organising national defences.

References 
Social sciences
Economics
Administration may refer to:

Business
 Administration of business, the management of a business
 Management, the act of directing people towards achieving a goal
 Academic administration, a branch of a place of learning (e.g., a school) that maintains and supervises how it works
 Central Administration, the highest administrative department of an organisation

Government
The executive branch of government under a specific head of government
Public administration, the act of administering public policy as determined by a government

Other 
 Drug administration, giving someone medication
 Military administration, the techniques and systems used in the management of the armed forces

Related pages
 Administrator
Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children is a computer animated movie. It was released in 2005 by Square Enix.

Story
The movie is set two years after Final Fantasy VII . A mysterious illness has spread against humanity, Cloud Strife and the children are infected. He does not tell anyone he is infected. The villains included Kadaj, Loz, and Yazoo, are trying to find the "Cells of JENOVA". The Cells are a lifeform which fell to the planet hundreds of years ago and tried to destroy it.

Other websites 
Official Advent Children English site
Official Advent Children Japanese site

Advent Children.net - news, information, profiles, images, fan submissions and more 
The Making of Advent Children with interview translations and images

Final Fantasy
2005 movies
2005 animated movies
2005 computer-animated movies
2000s fantasy movies
2000s science fiction movies
Mithril is a fictional metal from J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth universe. 

Mithril is the strongest metal known in Middle-earth. It looks similar to silver. It does not weigh much, and it is easy to make into things. Mithril is very rare and precious. It was only found in Khazad-dûm (Moria), where it was mined by the Dwarves, and (perhaps) in Númenor. 

The name "mithril" comes from the Sindarin words mith, meaning "grey", and ril meaning "glitter". In Quenya, its name is mistarille. Mithril was also called "true-silver" or "Moria-silver". 

The most well known object made of mithril is probably the mail shirt of Bilbo and Frodo Baggins.

Influence on other fiction 
Mithril is now often used in other fictional works, usually as a strong and magical metal. It other fictional works, mithril it is also sometimes written differently, for example as mythril or mithral.

Middle-earth
Shaw and Crompton is a town in the North West of England. It is to the north-east of Manchester. Shaw and Crompton was part of Lancashire until the 1970s, but is now part of Greater Manchester. Shaw and Crompton is near to Oldham.

Shaw and Crompton grew during the Industrial Revolution because of its large cotton factories which sent fabric across the world.

Other websites 
Crompton  articles at Gen UKI
Crompton: from the Normans to the Tudors  A comprehensive historical reference site.

Towns in Greater Manchester
Greater Manchester is a county in North West England. It has 2.7 million people living there. It was created on 1 April 1974. Its cities are Manchester and Salford and its large towns are Oldham, Bury, Rochdale, Ashton-Under-Lyne, Stockport, Wigan and Bolton. It also has smaller towns and villages, for example, Shaw and Crompton.

 
Ceremonial counties of England
1974 establishments in England
A league is an old unit of length. It was the distance a person could walk in about one hour. The Romans adopted the league and it became a common unit of measurement throughout western Europe and Latin America.

In English-speaking countries the league was usually three statute miles (4.828032 kilometres) on land or three nautical miles (5.556 km) at sea. However, in writing the word league often means the Spanish, Portuguese or French league.

Ancient Rome
The league was used by Ancient Rome, which defined it as being  Roman miles (7500 Roman feet or 2.22 km). The origin is the "leuga gallica"  (also: leuca Gallica), the league of Gaul. The ancient league was short but the unit grew longer over time.

Argentina
In Argentina a league is a distance of 5 km.

Brazil
In Brazil the league was 6 km but it is not used anymore.

France
The French league had different values at different times: 10 000, 12 000, 13 200 and 14 400 French feet, about 3.25 km to about 4.68 km. It was used for a while together with the metric system but it is not used now. The French league was three nautical miles.

Mexico
In the Mexican countryside the league is still commonly used in the original sense of the distance a person can walk in an hour. So a league along a good road on level ground is longer than a league on a difficult path over rough ground.

Spain
The Spanish league was originally set as a fixed unit of distance of 5,000 varas (a Spanish yard), about 2.6 miles or 4.2 km. In 1568 Philip II of Spain officially abolished the league. However, in parts of Latin America, people still use it (with different meanings in different countries).

References 

Old units of measurement
Units of length
The gill (pronounced like the girl's name Jill) is a unit for measuring volume. It is equal to a quarter of a pint. People do not use it much now .

Old units of measurement
Units of volume
The ampere or amp (Symbol: A) is the standard unit of electric current. An electric current of one amp is one coulomb per second. The amp is named after André-Marie Ampère who studied electromagnetism.

The ampere is defined so the elementary charge e is 1.602 176 634 × 10−19 C or A•s.

References

Other websites 
 The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty
 A short history of the SI units in electricity 

SI units
The newton (symbol: N) is the SI unit of force. It is named after Sir Isaac Newton because of his work on classical mechanics. A newton is how much force is required to make a mass of one kilogram accelerate at a rate of one metre per second squared. 

 1 N is the force of Earth's gravity on a mass of about 102 g.
 On the Earth's surface, a mass of 1 kg pushes on its support with an average force of 9.8 N.
 1 Newton is equal to the amount of force required to accelerate an object (with a mass of one kilogram) at a rate of 1 meter per second, per second. 
 The US Customary Unit of force is the pound (symbol: lbf). 1 pound is equal to 4.44822 newtons.  

In 1946, Conférence Générale des Poids et Mesures (CGPM) set the unit of force in the MKS system of units to be the amount needed to accelerate 1 kilogram of mass at the rate of 1 metre per second each second.  In 1948, the CGPM adopted the name "newton" for this force.  The MKS system then became the blueprint for today's SI International System of Units.  That made the newton the standard unit of force.

This SI unit is named after Isaac Newton. As with every International System of Units (SI) unit named for a person, the first letter of its symbol is upper case (N). However, when an SI unit is spelled out in English, it should always begin with a lower case letter (newton)—except in a situation where any word in that position would be capitalized, such as at the beginning of a sentence or in material using title case. Note that "degree Celsius" conforms to this rule because the "d" is lowercase.— Based on The International System of Units, section 5.2.

Newton's second law of motion states that F = m•a, where F is the force applied, m is the mass of the object receiving the force, and a is the acceleration of the object. The newton is therefore:[2]

SI units
A corporation is a union of natural persons that has its own legal status. This status is independent from the persons involved. 

Because it is recognized by governments as a separate entity, the corporation must file tax returns and pay taxes and conform to state and federal law. This separation of persons and corporation gives it special powers. A corporation's status and capacity is determined by the law of the place of incorporation.

Investors and entrepreneurs often form joint stock companies. Therefore, the term corporation often means such business corporations. Corporations may also be formed for local government (municipal corporation), political, religious, and charitable purposes (not-for-profit corporation), or government programs (government-owned corporation).  Condominiums are a common kind of non-profit corporation.

In common speech, the word "corporation" refers usually to limited responsibility corporation. That is a business firm where each of the partners invest a sum of money in as the capital of the corporation. They receive shares for the sum they have invested. If the company becomes bankrupt, the business partners are responsible for only the name value of their shares of the company's debts. The partners do not use their personal money to pay for the debt.

Related pages 
 Joint stock company

Other websites 
Corporation Origins of corporations, their history, legal definition and current issues.
US Corporate Law at Wikibooks

Companies
In jurisprudence, a natural person is a real human being in contrast to an artificial person, meaning an organization that the law treats for some purposes as if it were a person distinct from its members or owner.

For example, the right to vote is given to natural persons only. That is the case for most of the human rights. Therefore, obviously a corporation cannot hold public office, but it can file a lawsuit.

Although science fiction has long fantasized about the possibility of sentient robots (e.g. androids) living among humans (such as Robin Williams Bicentennial Man), no court has yet dealt with the question of whether such a being would be considered a natural person.

Other websites

 Natural Person

Law
Jurisprudence is the theory and philosophy of law. Scholars of jurisprudence, or legal philosophers, hope to obtain a deeper understanding of the nature of law, of legal reasoning, legal systems and of legal institutions. As jurisprudence has developed, there are three main aspects with which scholarly writing engages:
 natural law is the idea that there are unchangeable laws of nature which govern us, and that our institutions ought to match this natural law
 analytic jurisprudence asks questions like, "what is law?" "What are the criteria for legal validity?" or "what is the relationship between law and morality?" are other questions that legal philosophers may engage with
 normative jurisprudence asks what law should be like. It overlaps with moral and political philosophy, and includes questions of whether we should obey the law, on what grounds law-breakers might properly be punished, the proper uses and limits of regulation

Modern jurisprudence and philosophy of law is dominated today primarily by Western academics. The ideas of the Western legal tradition have become so pervasive throughout the world that it is tempting to see them as universal. Historically, however, many philosophers from other traditions have discussed the same questions, from Islamic scholars to the ancient Greeks.

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics

Other websites 
   Navigate to page for Encyclopedia of the Science of Law (Mellen, 2002).
 John Witte, Jr: A Brief Biography of Dooyeweerd, based on Hendrik van Eikema Hommes, Inleiding tot de Wijsbegeerte van Herman Dooyeweerd (The Hague, 1982; pp 1-4,132) 
 LII Law about... Jurisprudence
 The Case of the Speluncean Explorers:  Nine New Opinions , by Peter Suber (Routledge, 1998.)  Lon Fuller's classic of jurisprudence brought up to date 50 years later.
 The Roman Law Library, incl. Responsa prudentium  by Professor Yves Lassard and Alexandr Koptev.
 Evgeny Pashukanis - General Theory of Law and Marxism
 Internet Encyclopedia: Philosophy of Law
 

Law
Orascom is an Egyptian company that offers mobile telephone services in many countries.

Affiliates
Orascom operates these companies:

Mobinil  in Egypt
Djezzy in Algeria
Iraqna  in Iraq
Mobilink in Pakistan
Banglalink in Bangladesh
Telecel Zimbabwe in Zimbabwe

History 
In 1997, Orascom Telecom Holding (OTH) was established as a separate entity to consolidate the telecommunications and technology interests of the Orascom group of companies established in 1976. Founded in 1998 as part of the Orascom company, it became the largest cellular operator in the Middle East in only five years.

In 2010, Russian Vimpelcom acquired Orascom Telecom as well as Wind Telecomunicazioni from Weather Investments of the Egyptian entrepreneur Naguib Sawiris and merged the two companies to form Global Telecom Holding based in Cairo. Excluded from this transaction were the activities in North Korea (Koryolink) and Egypt, which were transferred to Orascom Telecom Media and Technology Holding, which remained majority-owned by Naguib Sawiris. The Italian activities of Wind Telecomunicazioni report directly to the parent company Vimpelcom and are not part of Global Telecom Holding.

Orascom Telecom Holding has been renamed to Global Telecom Holding in 2013. On 1 July 2019 Gerbrand Nijman (since June 2015 GTH's group CFO) has succeeded Vincenzo Nesci (retired) as GTH's CEO.

Other websites 
Orascom

References 

Technology companies
Egypt
A legal entity is a legal construct through which the law allows a group of natural persons to act as if they were a single person for certain purposes.  The most common purposes are lawsuits, property ownership, and contracts.

A legal entity is not always something else than the natural persons of which it is composed as one can see with a company or corporation.

Some examples of legal entities include:
 companies
 cooperatives (co-ops)
 corporations
 municipalities
 natural persons
 political parties
 sovereigns
 states
 temples, in some legal systems, have separate legal personality
 trade unions
 ship or vessel

Limitations
There are limitations to the legal recognition of artificial persons.  Legal entities cannot marry, they cannot vote or hold public office, and in most jurisdictions there are certain positions which they cannot occupy.  The extent to which a legal entity can commit a crime varies from country to country.  Certain countries prohibit a legal entity from holding human rights; other countries permit artificial persons to enjoy certain protections from the state that are traditionally described as human rights.

examples of legal entities are 
- sole traders
-partnerships
- trusts
- private and public company

Recently, in India, a company despite being artificial person has got court stay, from High Court Jaipur Bench against an employee seeking justice in labour court.

Related pages
 Company

Footnotes

Law
Possession usually means to have some sort of ownership over something else. A person may be in possession of some property, which is legal ownership, under property law.

There are some other related uses of the term. When English explorer, Captain James Cook, claimed the country of Australia as a British country, he took "possession" of the land. The spot where he made his claim on 22 August 1770, a small island in the Torres Strait, is now called Possession Island.

In some beliefs, to be possessed is to be under the control of devils, demons, or evil spirits. These people may do evil or terrible things because of their possession.

References

Law
Religious behavior and experience
An officer of arms is someone who is chosen by a sovereign or state to do some important jobs relating to:
 heraldry and coats of arms
 arranging and conducting ceremonies of state
 keeping and interpreting heraldic and genealogical records.

In Scotland the officers of arms maintain the old job of a herald - passing on royal messages. Three days after parliament is dissolved in London the royal proclamation is read out at the Mercat Cross in Edinburgh. They wait three days because this is how long it used to take to get from London to Edinburgh by horse.

Politics
An oral tradition or oral culture is a way of transmitting history, literature or law from one generation to the next, without a writing system, by voice. People tell stories. Often the stories are made into poems and songs to make remembering easy. For example, the Homeric poetry of the Iliad and the Odyssey combined oral literature and oral history. Eventually they were written down.

Related pages 
Narrative poetry
Oral law

Other websites 
 The Center for Studies in Oral Tradition
 The Milman Parry Collection of Oral Literature Online 
 Oral Tradition Journal
Nasal hair  are small hair-like cells in the nose. Most of them can be found near the nostrils. The purpose of these hairs is to act as a filter, keeping dust and dirt out of the nasal passages. They also draw liquid mucus up from the epithelium by capillary action. In that way, they help to maintain humidity in the air passages and stop them from drying out. The hairs trap moisture as air is breathed out. The evaporation of trapped moisture on the hairs increases the humidity of air as it is breathed in. Note that nasal hair is different from the cilia found in the nose, which are part of the olfactory system.

Some cultures consider nose hair coming out from the nostrils to be ugly. The increased growth of nasal cilia with age (particularly for men) is often a source of anxiety and embarrassment. A number of devices have been sold to trim the nose hair, including small rotary clippers and attachments for electric shavers. However, given the role of nasal cilia, many doctors recommend trimming them lightly, if at all. There is evidence that the movement in the ciliar slows down with age. This may be the reason that old people have more respiratory infections.

Hair
Nose
Events 
January 16 - Emir Abd-ar-rahman III of Cordoba creates the Caliphate of Cordoba and assumes power
Pope Stephen VII succeeds Pope Leo VI

Deaths 
Pope John X
Al-Batani, Arab astronomer
Houston Steward Chamberlain (September 9, 1855 – January 9, 1927) was a writer of books. He wrote many popular scientific books, about Richard Wagner, Immanuel Kant, and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe amongst others. He was born in Portsmouth, but later emigrated to Germany. In later life he became a German citizen. He was acquainted with Hitler and died in Bayreuth. He is known for his Antisemitism. His best-known book, The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century is seen as a standard antisemitic work of the early 20th century.

1855 births
1927 deaths
English writers
German writers
Nazis
Joseph Arthur Comte de Gobineau (July 14, 1816 — October 13, 1882) was a French aristocrat. He was well educated, and wrote many things. He became famous for developing the racialist theory of the Aryan Master race in his book An Essay on the Inequality of the Human Races (1853-1855).

1816 births
1882 deaths
French writers
A staff (or stave) is the name given to the five horizontal lines on which we can write music. Musical notes can be placed either on a line (i.e. with a line going through the middle of the note head) or in a space.  There are four inside spaces as well as the two outer spaces at the top or bottom.

The higher the pitch of the note the higher it will be on the staff. Taking the white notes of a keyboard: each note (A, B, C, D etc.) is placed higher on the stave (line, space, line, space etc.).  A clef is needed to show which notes they are. There are different clefs to suit high, medium or low instruments.

This musical example shows the opening of Symphony no 5 by Beethoven.  The first three notes are on the second line (counting from the bottom).  They are Gs, because there is a treble clef at the beginning of the staff.  The fourth note is a little lower: on the bottom line, the E line (because of the flats in the key signature it is an E flat).  The next note is between the other two in pitch (an F). After the three Fs comes a D in the outside bottom space.

Sometimes composers have used staves with fewer or more than 5 lines, but the five-line staff started to become the usual one in Western music in the 13th century.

When notes are a little too high or low to put on the stave, extension lines are used.  These are called ledger lines.  

If two or more staves are being played at the same time the staves are joined on the left by a bracket which is called a brace.  Piano music, for example, is written on two staves: one for the right hand and one for the left.

Instruments that only play a rhythm (such as the cymbals), do not need a stave.  The notes can be written just on one line. The beats are crosses. It's modern notation started from the Catholic Church.

References 

Musical notation

fi:Nuottikirjoitus#Nuottiviivasto
The Colorado potato beetle, Leptinotarsa decemlineata, is a beetle. It is sometimes just called the Colorado beetle. It is one of the worst potato pests in the world.  

The beetle is notable for its ability to resist pesticides. Over the last 50 years it has become resistant to 52 chemical compounds used in insecticides, including cyanide. However, not every population is resistant to every chemical.

The Colorado beetle first lived in the southwest United States and northern Mexico. Now it lives in most of North America and also in Europe and Asia.

What it eats
The Colorado potato beetle now eats cultivated potato plants. Both larvae and adults eat the leaves and strip the plant down to a skeleton. They may also attack tomato and eggplants. There can be so many Colorado potato beetles in potato farms that they destroy the potatoes.

Defence 
Because the beetle rapidly evolves resistance to chemicals, the best defence may be biological control. A ground beetle, Lebia grandis is a predator of the eggs and larvae, and its larvae are parasitoids of the Colorado beetle's pupae. 

Beauveria bassiana (Hyphomycetes) is a pathogenic fungus that infects many insects, including the Colorado beetle. It is probably the most widely used natural enemy of the Colorado beetle. There are commercial formulations that can be applied using a pesticide sprayer.

Origins 
The Colorado potato beetle did not always eat potato plants. This is because potatoes came from South America, not near the beetle's original range. Before people brought potatoes to North America, the Colorado beetle ate a plant called buffalo-bur.

References

Chrysomelidae
Agricultural pests
Harvestmen are eight-legged arachnids. Even though they belong to the arachnid family, harvestmen are not spiders. They are in the order Opiliones or Phalangids.

More than 6,400 species of harvestmen have been discovered, although the real number of extant species may be more than 10,000. Well-preserved fossils have been found in the 400-million year old Rhynie cherts of Scotland. The samples found look surprisingly modern. Apparently, the basic structure of the harvestmen has not changed much since then.

In some places, harvestmen are known by the name "daddy longlegs", but this name is also used for two other unrelated arthropods: the crane fly (Tipulidae) and the cellar spider (Pholcidae).

Many species are omnivores, they eat anything they can find. Most of the time this is small insects, and some plants and fungi. Some are scavengers.

Harvestmen are not dangerous to humans. None of the described species have poison glands. They are not "true" spiders even though they look like spiders in many ways.  For example, harvestmen have no venom or silk glands; spiders have these.

Anatomy 
These arachnids have exceptionally long walking legs, compared to body size, although there are also short-legged species. In harvestmen the two main body sections (the abdomen and cephalothorax) are broadly joined, so that they appear to be one oval structure; they also have no venom or silk glands, unlike true spiders. In more advanced species, the first five abdominal segments are often fused into a dorsal shield called the scutum, which is normally fused with the carapace. In some species, this shield is only present in males. The second pair of legs is longer than the others and works as antennae. This can be hard to see in short-legged species.

The feeding apparatus (Stomotheca) differs from other arachnids as they are able to eat their food in chunks, without needing to liquify it. Most species have a single pair of eyes in the middle of their heads, oriented horizontally. However, there are some eyeless species.

Further reading
 Joel Hallan's Biology Catalog (2005)
 Pinto-da-Rocha R. Machado G. & Giribet G. eds. 2007. Harvestmen – the biology of Opiliones. Harvard University Press 
 Pinto-da-Rocha R. & Kury A.B. 2003. Third species of Guasiniidae (Opiliones, Laniatores) with comments on familial relationships. Journal of Arachnology 31: 394-399. PDF 
 Shultz, Jeffrey W. 1998. Phylogeny of Opiliones (Arachnida): an assessment of the "Cyphopalpatores" concept. Journal of Arachnology 26: 257-272. PDF

Other websites

Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on North American harvestmen
Harvestman: Order Opiliones Diagnostic photographs and information on European harvestmen
 University of Aberdeen: The Rhynie Chert Harvestmen (fossils)
  National Museum page Classification of Opiliones A synoptic taxonomic arrangement of the order Opiliones, down to family-group level, including some photos of the families

References

Arachnids
The Shikon no Tama (English:The Jewel of Four Souls) is the fictional magic jewel in Rumiko Takahashi's manga and anime series InuYasha. It contains four types of souls, Courage, Friendship, Wisdom and Love. The souls can make a person powerful. Before Midoriko sacrificed herself, she joined four souls within her heart, with the demonic one making it good and pure. This created the Shikon Jewel, where Midoriko and the demon are trapped within. The battle depends to any demon who kept the jewel. If the jewel is purified, Midoriko survives. If the demon binds the jewel, it becomes defiled. Naraku defiles the jewel, while collecting all pieces. Shako (Sango's grandfather) found the impured jewel from one of the demons. When Kikyo dies, the jewel survives and Naraku plans to retrieve it. Kagome Higurashi ends up travelling to the past while keeping the jewel. After Kagome destroys the raven, the jewel is shattered into pieces. Izumo is a philosopher half–demon who made the fake jewel with small power, by copying the real one. However, Inuyasha defeats him.

InuYasha

pt:Jóia de Quatro almas
The Daddy-Long-Legs Spider (Pholcus phalangioides) is a spider of the family Pholcidae. Its legs are about 5 or 6 times the length of its body.  It is often confused with the daddy long-legs, a member of the Opiliones, which are not true (real) spiders. P. phalangioides has the habit of shaking the web violently when disturbed. This is probably to blur the vision of a predator. Because it is often found on the ceilings of rooms, caves or cellars, it is also called cellar spider.  They can easily catch and eat hairy house spiders, mosquitoes, and other insects.  When food is scarce, they will prey on their own kind. Because they originally came from the tropics, these spiders do not seem to be aware of seasonal changes and breed at any time of the year. 

The female holds 20 to 30 eggs in her jaws.  Spiderlings are transparent with short legs and change their skin about 5 or 6 times as they grow.

Females have a body length of about 9mm, males are slightly smaller.

Crossopriza lyoni and Physocyclus globosis are spiders with a very similar appearance.

Trivia 
 This is the only spider species described by Swiss painter and entomologist Johann Kaspar Füssli.
 Some spiders, including P. phalangioides, have the ability to completely suck out a mosquito from the tip of one of its legs, although this may take up to twelve hours.

Other websites 

 Description and pictures 
 Long description and pictures

Spiders
Crane flies are flies in the family Tipulidae. They are insects. Crane flies look similar to large mosquitoes but, unlike mosquitoes, crane flies do not bite people or animals. Crane flies occasionally eat nectar.

They are also known as daddy longlegs around the world. The term 'daddy-long-legs' is also given to arachnids of the order Opiliones or the family Pholcidae. The larvae of crane flies are known commonly as leatherjackets.

There are about 15,000 different species and 525 genera of crane flies. This means that the Tipulidae (crane flies) are the largest group of flies. Most crane fly species (75%) were found by Charles P. Alexander.

The adult only lives to mate and lay eggs: 10 to 15 days is all. In some species the adult does not eat at all.

Larvae 
Most of the crane fly's life is spent as a larva. Crane fly larvae are called leatherjackets or 'leatherjacket slugs' because of the way they move and eat roots (such as those of grass in lawns) and other vegetation. Some leatherjackets are aquatic.  

Leatherjackets can cause damage to plants. Because of this, crane flies are a pest of lawn grass in some areas. Invasive (European) crane flies (Tipula paludosa) cause extensive damage to turfgrass. 

Larvae of crane flies are divided into segments. They have a distinct head capsule on the front. The segments on the rear portion of the larva (the abdominal segments) often have long fleshy projections (like tentacles). Scientists have never seen the larvae from most crane fly species: less than 2% of the larvae are known.

Appearance

Adult crane flies have very long legs and a long, thin abdomen. It is very easy to accidentally break off their delicate legs when catching crane flies. Their thin legs and  abdomen may help them to escape from birds who try to eat them. Females have larger abdomens in comparison to the males. The female abdomen also ends in a pointed ovipositor that looks a bit like a stinger. Crane flies cannot sting.

The wings are often held out from the body when the crane fly is not moving. When the wings are held out, the large halteres (balancers) can be seen behind the wings. Unlike mosquitoes, crane flies can not fly well. They will sometimes "wobble" when flying.

Crane flies that live in temperate places, such as Tipula species, may grow as big as 60 mm in size. Tropical crane flies may grow to more than 100 mm. The giant crane fly (Holorusia rubiginosa) that lives in the western United States can reach 38 mm (1-3/8 inches). There are also small crane flies, the size of mosquitoes.

References

 Oosterbroek, Pjotr. "Tipulidae" <http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/aocat/tipulidae.html>.

Other websites 
 Family descriptions and images 
 Ohio State University Fact Sheet
 1 Photo 
 Crane Flies of Pennsylvania 
 Crane Fly Tipula sp.

 Crane Fly Tipula dorsimacula
 Catalogue of Craneflies of the World 
 Family Tipulidae - By Pjotr Oosterbroek
  Image Gallery from Diptera.info
 Image Gallery from Bug Guide Extensive

Flies

sv:Harkrankar
The Association pour la Taxation des Transactions pour l'Aide aux Citoyens (Association for the Taxation of Financial Transactions for the Aid of Citizens, ATTAC) is an organization that promotes a tax on foreign exchange transactions, the so-called Tobin tax.

Background

At first Attac demanded only the introduction of the so-called Tobin tax on currency speculation. Now it fights for many issues related to globalisation. Therefore, it reports about the decisions of the World Trade Organisation (WTO), the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).  ATTAC attends the meetings of the G8 with the goal of influencing policymakers' decisions.

Though ATTAC criticises the neoliberal ideology dominating economic globalisation, it is not "anti-globalisation".  It supports globalisation policies that they characterise as sustainable and socially just. One of ATTAC's slogans is "The World is not for sale", denouncing the "merchandisation" of society.

Other websites 

 ATTAC homepage
 ATTAC.info
 "Disarming the Markets", editorial by Ignacio Ramonet
 Term Paper about ATTAC

1998 establishments
Political organizations
OECD
A threat is basically a declaration of intent to inflict punishment or harm or loss on another.  However, in many cases the threat is not believed, or may even be a joke.  Like other communications a threat has a context, and the context decides its meaning.

A child who says "I'll tell my dad" may learn from the reply "I'm so scared!" that the threat is an idle threat: one that is promises harm that cannot or will not actually be inflicted.

To encourage compliance, a threat to do harm may be mixed with an offer to do good, conditional upon what the recipient does. This is sometimes called a throffer.  The threat part may be implied, yet effective. 

Some countries, such as the United States, have a legal concept of true threat. A true threat is a threatening communication which can be prosecuted under the law.

A threat can describe a situation of danger: for example "a terrorist threat". Many countries have a system where the government can adjust its security by having official threat levels.

Related pages 
Nonverbal communication

References 

Human communication
Words
Psychology
Promotion means spreading information about an product, service or issue

Promotion as part of marketing means spreading information about a product, product line, brand, or company.
Promotion includes:
 Publicity and public relations
 Advertising

Promotion for marketing includes additionally:
 Personal selling
 Non-personal selling
 Sales promotion
 Tradeshows
 Direct selling
 Product placement
 For example, arranging  that a product is used on a television programme or in a movie so that the viewer can see the brand name or symbol or logo.

Promotion can also happen when a marketing company is providing discounts and coupons to customers to create brand awareness.

References

Communication