cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon  (Margaret Rose; 21 August 1930 – 9 February 2002), was the only sibling of Queen Elizabeth II and the younger daughter of King George VI and Queen Elizabeth.

Early life
Margaret was born in Glamis Castle, Scotland. 

During the 1950’s, she was in a relationship with Peter Townsend which gained much press coverage, hoping they would marry, but ultimately they did not. 

In 1960, she married the photographer Anthony Armstrong-Jones, who was made Earl of Snowdon. They had two children, David Armstrong-Jones, 2nd Earl of Snowdon born in 1961 and Lady Sarah Chatto born in 1964. After they divorced in 1978, she was known as Princess Margaret Countess of Snowdon; the Earl's new wife was simply the Countess of Snowdon. Armstrong-Jones died in January 2017, almost 15 years after Margaret.

Illness and death
Around January 2002, it was announced Princess Margaret was admitted to hospital.

She died on 9 February 2002 of a stroke in the  King Edward VII Hospital.
She was cremated so she could be buried next to her beloved father, George VI at St George's Chapel. her mother Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother survived her by a month, she died on 30 March 2002 aged 101 and was also buried in St George's Chapel.

Titles and styles

21 August 1930 – 11 December 1936: Her Royal Highness Princess Margaret of York
11 December 1936 – 3 October 1961: Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret
3 October 1961 – 9 February 2002: Her Royal Highness The Princess Margaret, Countess of Snowdon

Ancestry

References

Bailiffs Grand Cross of the Order of St John
Cardiovascular disease deaths in England
Deaths from stroke
House of Windsor
Princes and princesses
1930 births
2002 deaths
Elizabeth II
An heir (female: heiress) is a person who has inherited something after the original owner's death. Most often a child after his or her parent's death.

Heir apparent and heir presumptive usually refer to someone who will inherit a royal or noble title:

An heir apparent is someone who will inherit at the death of the present title holder.
A Crown Prince is an heir apparent to the throne in a monarchy.

An heir presumptive is someone who may inherit, unless someone with a better claim under the rules of succession is found.

For example
Queen Elizabeth II's oldest son is Prince Charles, so he is her heir apparent.
Queen Elizabeth II (when she was still called Princess Elizabeth) was heiress presumptive to her father King George VI, because she was his oldest daughter and he had no sons. She was not his heir apparent, though, because if the king ever had a son he would have taken over as heir apparent.

Prince Bertil of Sweden was heir presumptive to his nephew King Carl XVI Gustav. The King's son, Prince Carl Philip became heir apparent when he was born, but because the law of succession changed his sister Princess Victoria became the world's first heiress apparent.

Monarchies that have used the title

Prussia
Japan
Sweden
Denmark
Greece

References

Royalty and nobility
Monarchy
The Armenia national football team is the national football team of Armenia. After the split of the Soviet Union, they played their first match against Moldova on 12 October 1992.

Most appearances

Top scorers

References 

European national football teams
Sport in Armenia
Michel de Nostredame (14 or 21 December 1503 – 2 July 1566), also known as Nostradamus, was a French apothecary (or pharmacist) and allegedly a doctor. He was born in Provence. He is famous as a 'seer' who wrote collections of prophecies that have since become famous around the world. His best known book was called Les Propheties (The Prophecies) and first appeared in 1555. Since its first publication the book has rarely been out of print. Over the years, many people have come to believe that Nostradamus predicted a range of events in history. People often reached this conclusion by applying methods similar to the Bible code - i.e. by twisting the texts in such a way as to suggest that they predicted the future. He died of edema in Provence.

Most academics say that these associations between Nostradamus' quatrains and world events are the result of misinterpretations, or bad translations, that are so far-fetched that they are useless as a source of genuine prediction. What is more, no interpretation has yet managed to predict any event before it happened.

Fake Nostradamus prophecies
Some people have written prophecies that were wrongly assumed to be by Nostradamus. For example, in 1997 a college student in Canada wrote an essay that included a fake English quatrain (a four-line verse) written in the same style that Nostradamus used in French. The quatrain ended up on the Internet, where it was soon assumed that it was a verse by Nostradamus himself predicting the events of 9/11. So many people e-mailed it to their friends, thinking that it was by Nostradamus, that the associated websites and discussion forums were soon overwhelmed.

References

Sources
Lemesurier, Peter, The Nostradamus Encyclopedia, 1997; The Unknown Nostradamus, 2003; Nostradamus: The Illustrated Prophecies, 2003

Other websites

1503 births
1566 deaths
Astrologers
Cardiovascular disease deaths in France
Deaths from cerebral edema
French esotericists
French physicians
Writers from Provence-Alpes-Cote d'Azur
Pharmacists
The QuikSCAT (Quick Scatterometer) is an earth-observing satellite that provides wind speed and direction information over oceans to NOAA. It is a "quick recovery" mission to fill the gap created by the loss of data from the NASA Scatterometer (NSCAT) that was lost in June 1997. It is in a sun-synchronous low-earth orbit.

Because of the 2003 failure of the ADEOS II satellite that was meant to succeed the NSCAT, QuickSCAT is currently the only US-owned instrument in orbit that measures surface winds over the oceans.  The European Space Agency has its own scatterometers in orbit, such as Envisat.

However, because it is now running on a backup transmitter and having other problems, this satellite could fail at any moment, putting risk at weather forecasts for possibly dangerous tropical cyclones.

In early June 2007, Bill Proenza, Director of the National Hurricane Center in Florida, came under fire for criticizing his NOAA superiors for not creating a back-up plan for replacing the capabilities provided by this satellite.

References

Satellites
Mikhail Saakashvili (; born December 21, 1967) is a Georgian politician and was the President of Georgia.  As of 2020 he is head of National Reform Council of Ukraine.

In October 2021, Mikheil Saakashvili, was arrested after returning illegally to his country, after being in exile outside Georgia since 2013. A gesture he explained by his willingness to fight alongside his compatriots in the country.

1967 births
Living people
Presidents of Georgia
Politicians from Tbilisi
Waltham is a city in Middlesex County, Massachusetts, United States. The population was 59,226 at the 2000 census.

References

Other websites 

Waltham official website

Cities in Massachusetts
A national language is a language which is the national identity of a nation. A national language is used for political and legal discourse.

Related pages 
 Official language

Languages
Nationality
The current flag of Iran was started to be used on July 29, 1980, and is a similar of changes brought to Iran by the Islamic Revolution. The simple design of the flag is three horizontal bands of green above white above red, symbolizing Islam, peace, and courage.

Iran
Iran
Real Zaragoza is an Aragonese football Club. The club competes in La Liga (the Spanish Premier League).

History 
It was established in 1932 when Zaragoza CD and Iberia FC join to create Real Zaragoza. Its home stadium is La Romareda in the city of Zaragoza.

Managers 
Amongst its previous managers is Víctor Fernández.

Name 
 1932-1941 Zaragoza F.C.
 1941-present Real Zaragoza

Awards 
Real Zaragoza's honours includes 6 Spanish Championships "Copa del Rey" and five times runners-up, a Inter-City Fairs Cup and another runners-up, a UEFA Cup Winners' Cup and a Spanish Premier League "La Liga" runners-up.

League position

Former position

Players 
Famous players like Juan Esnáider, Gabi Milito, Jorge Valdano, Ricardo Oliveria, Cafu or José Luis Chilavert have played for Real Zaragoza.

Spanish football clubs
Zaragoza
Everton Tigers are an English professional basketball team. They play in Liverpool. The Tigers are a part of the British Basketball League (BBL). The Tigers play at the Greenbank Sports Academy. Some of the Everton Tigers players are Mohamed Niang, Delme Herriman, and Chris Haslam.

Sport in England
Basketball teams
Liverpool, Merseyside
The Eastman School of Music of the University of Rochester (also known more simply as The Eastman School, Eastman, or ESM) is a music conservatory in Rochester, New York, in the United States. It is said to be one of the best schools for teaching music in the world.

Music schools
Schools in New York
Buildings and structures in New York
{{Infobox ethnic group
|group = Persians  <small>
|rawimage =
|population =  52.5
million
|region1 =  Iran
|pop1 = 49,312,834 (61–65% of total population)
|ref1 =Library of Congress, Library of Congress – Federal Research Division. "Ethnic Groups and Languages of Iran". http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf. Retrieved 2009-12-02.

|region5 =  Turkey
|pop5 = 618,000
|ref5= 

|region6 =  Iraq
|pop6 = 15,405,000
|ref6= 

|region8 =  USA
|pop8 = 331,000
|ref8 = 

|region9 =  Israel
|pop9 = 250,000
|ref9 = 
|region10 =  UAE
|pop10 = 238,250
|ref10 = 
|region11 =  Germany
|pop11 = 200,000
|ref11 = GTZ: Migration and development – Afghans in Germany : estimate for Tajiks based on total of 100,000 Afghans in Germany.
|region12 =  Canada
|pop12 = 173,760
|ref12 = This figure only includes Tajiks from Afghanistan. The population of people with descent from Afghanistan in Canada is 48,090 according to Canada's 2006 Census. Tajiks make up an estimated 33% of the population of Afghanistan. The Tajik population in Canada is estimated from these two figures. Ethnic origins, 2006 counts, for Canada .
|region13 =  Russia
|pop13 = 172,303
|ref13 =
|region14 =  Qatar
|pop14 = 160,000
|ref14 = 
|languages = Persian , Luri
|religions = Primarily Shia Islam, Sunni Islam, SufismIrreligion, Christianity, Bahá'í, Judaism, Zoroastrianism
|related =
}}

The Persians''' are an Iranic ethnic group who speak the Persian language. They share the same culture and history. In  Western writings, it is common to name all ancient Iranic peoples as Persian, although some of them were not of the Persian culture, and did not speak the Persian language.

Persian people include many groups, such as Tats. Most of them live in Iran.

Related pages 
 Persian language

References 

History of Iran
Louis P. Lochner (born Ludwig) (February 22, 1887 – 1975) was a Pulitzer Prize winning American journalist at the Associated Press. He won the Pulitzer Prize for his work reporting the news from Nazi Germany.

Other websites 
Louis P. Lochner (1887-1975) Family Collection, 1524-1975: Concordia Historical Institute

1887 births
1975 deaths
Writers from Illinois
American journalists
Pulitzer Prize winners
The Armenian Secret Army for the Liberation of Armenia (ASALA) was a Marxist-Leninist guerilla organization, that operated from 1975 to 1986.
The stated intention of ASALA was "to compel the Turkish Government to acknowledge publicly its alleged responsibility for the deaths of 1.5 million Armenians in 1915, pay reparations, and cede territory for an Armenian homeland".

ASALA was founded in 1975 in Beirut, Lebanon by Hagop Hagopian (Harutiun Tagushian) and Kevork Ajemian, a prominent contemporary writer.

The group's activities were primarily assassinations of Turkish diplomats and politicians in Western Europe, the United States and the Middle East. A failed attack in Geneva on October 3, 1980, in which two Armenian militants were injured resulted in a new nickname for the group, the 3 October Organization. The ASALA's eight point manifesto was published in 1981.

Continuous attacks prompted Turkey to accuse Cyprus, Greece, Syria, Lebanon, and the Soviet Union of provoking or possibly funding the ASALA, though nothing of this sort was ever found to be true.
  
According to Tessa Hofmann, Turkish officials frequently used the accusation of collaboration with the ASALA and foreign Armenian circles to incriminate extreme left-wing Turkish opposition groups.

Other websites
GlobalSecurity site: ASALA

References

1975 establishments
Anti-Turkism
Armenian Genocide
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Terrorism
Kevork Vartani Ajemian (Adjemian) (in Armenian Գևորգ Աճեմյան, in Western Armenian Գէորգ Աճեմեան) (May 23, 1932 – December 27, 1998) was an Armenian writer, journalist and public activist, one of the founders of ASALA military organization.

Biography
Kevork Ajemian was born in Syria, in the family of Armenian refugees. In early age he moved to Lebanon, where he studied at the American University of Beirut. 

A prominent representative of the new generation of Armenian Diaspora writers of 1960s he wrote both in Armenian and in English, his books were published in Lebanon, USA and USA. 

In 1978-1989 Ajemian edited the "Spurk" journal, in 1979 he took part of the First Armenian Congress Organizing Committee (Paris). He died in Paris, France. 

In 1999 a collection of the best journalistic works of Ajemian was published.

Books
Rulling over the Ruins, USA, 1999
A Time for Terror, USA, 2000.

Other websites
Ajemian at Amazon

1932 births
1998 deaths

Armenian writers
Armenian diaspora
Supabarn is a small, cheap supermarket chain which started in Canberra with large shops across the Australian Capital Territory and New South Wales in Australia. It was known as Supabarn Emporium in the early 2000s before becoming Supabarn Supermarkets in 2004. It sells traditional, wholefoods,  and  grocery and fresh food items.

History 
It was first opened in the Canberra Centre in 1991 and six more shops have been opened from that time onwards. Supabarn is one of Canberra's largest employers because it has 750 people in seven shops, with two in Sydney. 

In 2015, Coles bought some of its stores.

Sections 
Delicatessen: Cheeses, antipasto's, pates, dips and salads with a European style
Seafood: Fish, lobsters, oysters and prawns - all from HACCP approved suppliers
Produce: Fresh and dried fruit and vegetables
Butcher Shop: Meat and chickens
Bakery: Baked items like pies - prepared daily, cakes, pastries and breads
General Merchandise: Kitchenware, bakeware, glassware and other everyday items
Groceries: Normal, organic, gluten-free and gourmet items
Dairy & Frozen Foods: Milk, cheeses, yoghurts, fresh sauces, ready-to-eat meals, ice cream and other dairy and frozen food items
Liquor: Champagnes, wines, imported beers and spirits

References

Other websites 
Supabarn Supermarkets
Bloomberg profile
Supermarkets of Australia
Canberra
This is a list of members of the United Nations. The list includes the date each country joined the United Nations.

References 
All notes are based on Official list of member states

Other websites 
 Official list of member states

United Nations, Members of
The 1960 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVII Olympiad, were held at Rome in Italy.  

Rome had been awarded the 1908 Summer Olympics. However, after the 1906 eruption of Mount Vesuvius, London became the host. Other possible cities to host the 1960 Summer Olympics were Lausanne, Detroit, Budapest, Brussels, Mexico City and Tokyo; but in 1955, Rome was chosen.

CBS paid $394,000 for the right to broadcast the Games in the United States.

Participating nations 
A total of 67 nations sent athletes to compete at the Melbourne games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Rome 1960 at Olympic.org

1960 Summer Olympics
The 1948 Winter Olympics, officially known as the V Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1948 in St. Moritz, Switzerland. The games started on January 30 1948. St. Moritz was also the site of the 1928 Winter Olympics.

These Games were the first in twelve years, because none were held during World War II.

Olympics
Winter Olympics in Europe
Sport in Switzerland
1940s in Europe
20th century in Switzerland
The 1932 Winter Olympics, officially known as the III Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1932 in Lake Placid, New York, United States. The games started on February 4 1932. The 1932 Winter Olympic Games were going to be in Big Pines, California, but because of poor snow conditions, the games were moved to Lake Placid.

Olympics
1932 in the United States
1930s in New York (state)
Lake Placid, New York
Winter Olympics 1932
Winter Olympics 1932
Sexual assault is the act of violation, a process when two people come in contact of a sexual nature, but one of them does not want this contact to happen. This happens when sexual excitement  damages prefrontal cortex of the offender and experience of dissociative-like symptoms that leaves the person to primitive reflexes. Evolutionary biologist Randy Thornhill and evolutionary anthropologist Craig Palmer theorize that the primary motive behind sexual assault is sex and signifies the inability of the perpetrator to deal with their own emotions for adaptive response.

A study states "successful inhibition of sexual expressions (restrain, cancel, suppress) is a natural and adaptive reaction to contextual factors against the excitatory expressions (initiate, execute, promote), and enables the regulation of sexual behavior, thereby preventing undesired consequences for the individual and for society." Another study states that increased sexual excitation and heightened desire are associated with poorly regulated sexuality, and also found that those with decreased response to humorous stimuli had good regulation.

In some cultures being sexually experienced is a required aspect of psychological maturity to achieve balance in desire, and a person lacking it is subjected to stigmatization. Popularity of online dating applications and their role in the hookup culture of certain societies are an example of it. Improper balancing between inhibitory and excitatory sexual mechanisms results in a maladaptive sexual response or deregulated sexuality and that further results into socially undesirable consequences.

Statistics
As many as 90-99% of people with developmental disabilities are sexually exploited before they are 18 years old.

A 2010-2011 study in the United States of 1058 people aged 14 to 21 found that 8% had sexually assaulted in their lives. In 66% of cases no one found out and the perpetrator did not get into any trouble. 50% said that their victim was completely to blame. 2% had raped and 3% had tried to rape.

Types
In some cases, one of the people involved may also be unable to consent to the contact. For example, they might be too young to consent or they may be unconscious. Rape is one form of sexual assault, but there are others.

Law
Different countries have different definitions of sexual assault. It is illegal, but often not reported. People convicted of sexual assault are sometimes sent to prison. In some places the crime of sexual assault has replaced the crime of rape. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, rape is a separate crime to sexual assault.

Religion
Sexual assault is a common theme in the bible, and often associated with condemn and punishment. In Judges 19:22-26, men of Gibeah assaulted an Ephraimite's wife to death and the whole of Israel went against the assaulter's. In Genesis 19:30-38, Lot, a nephew of Abraham, and a father figure of a family was raped by his daughters.

References

Rape
The 1994 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1994 in Lillehammer, Norway. Other possible host cities were Anchorage, Alaska, USA; Östersund/Åre, Sweden; and Sofia, Bulgaria. In 1986, the International Olympic Committee voted to change the schedule of the Olympic Games so that the summer and winter games would be arranged in alternating even-numbered years. Lillehammer won the right to host the event in September 1988 in Seoul before the opening ceremony of the 1988 Summer Olympics. The Lillehammer Games were held in 1994, the only time the Winter Games have occurred two years after the previous games.

The Lillehammer Olympics are notable for being the last Winter Olympic Games to date to have been held in a town (Lillehammer's population is just 25,000). Later Winter Olympics were held in larger cities, such as Nagano, Salt Lake City, Turin and Vancouver.

 
1994 in sports
1994 in Europe
20th century in Norway
The 1992 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVI Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1992 in Albertville, France. Other possible host cities were Anchorage, USA; Berchtesgaden, Germany; Cortina d'Ampezzo, Italy; Lillehammer, Norway; Falun, Sweden; and Sofia, Bulgaria.

These were the last Winter Games to be held in the same year as the Summer Games. They were also the first Games where the Winter Paralympics and the Winter Olympics were held at the same site.

1992 Winter Olympics
1992 in sports
1990s in France
1992 in Europe
The 1980 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1980 in Lake Placid, New York, United States. Another possible host city was Vancouver-Garibaldi, British Columbia, Canada; they withdrew before the final vote.

Olympics
1980 in the United States
1980s in New York (state)
Lake Placid, New York
Winter Olympics 1980
Winter Olympics 1980
The Maya people form a diverse range of the Native American peoples of southern Mexico and northern Central America. The Mayan civilization was powerful, lasting for over a thousands of years.

The most populations of Maya are in the Mexican states of Yucatán, Campeche, Quintana Roo, Tabasco, and Chiapas, and in the Central American countries of Belize, Guatemala, and the western portions of Honduras and El Salvador.

Other websites 
 Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya at the National Gallery of Art 
 Learn more about Maya hieroglyphs  and Maya numbering from the National Gallery of Art 
 La Pintada, a Maya Chorti village near Copan Ruinas, Honduras 
 A Day with Modern Mayans in the village of Oxtapacab, Yucatan, Mexico

Ethnic groups in North America
Maya civilization
The cor anglais, or English horn, is a double reed instrument in the woodwind family.  It is very similar to an oboe, but as it is longer than an oboe it plays lower notes.

The lowest note of an oboe is B flat (just below Middle C).  The lowest note of a cor anglais is an E natural, a diminished fifth (five notes of a scale, minus a semitone) lower than the oboe's lowest note.

The cor anglais is a transposing instrument pitched in F.  This means that the music sounds a fifth lower than written.  This has the advantage that the cor anglais player uses fingering as if he were playing an oboe, but it will sound a fifth lower. 

The bell (the bit at the end of the instrument) is shaped like a pear.  This gives it a less nasal sound (the sound of the cor anglais is less as if played through the nose).  The reed is not fixed to a piece of cork like the oboe reed but it is put straight onto the short piece of metal (called a "bocal") at the top of the instrument.

Etymology
The word "cor anglais" is a French word which literally means "English horn", but the cor anglais is neither English nor a horn. No one is sure how it got its name, but many people think it is because the bocal at the top is curved (the French word for curved, "anglé" is pronounced like the word for English "anglais").

Repertoire
Many oboists can play the cor anglais as well, just as flautists can play the piccolo (if they play both instruments in the same concert this is called doubling).

There are few solo pieces for the instrument, but mostly it is used for solo melodies in slow pieces for orchestra because it can sound very expressive.

Some famous examples of cor anglais solos can be found in:

Alfred Reed's Russian Christmas Music (1944)
Antonín Dvořák's Symphony No. 9 (1893), the New World Symphony (Largo)
Joaquín Rodrigo's Concierto de Aranjuez (1939) (2nd movement)
Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique (third movement) (1830)
Alexander Borodin's Eine Steppenskizze aus Mittelasien

Double reed instruments
The Committee of Union and Progress was a political group. It was made by Bahaeddin Şakir in 1906 during the fall of the Ottoman Empire. The group was one of the Young Turks. This group came to power between 1908 and 1918. At the end of World War I most of its members were court-martialled by the sultan Mehmed VI and imprisoned. The remnants of the organization were eliminated from the Republic of Turkey during the "assassination of president" trials in 1926.

History of Turkey
Politics of Turkey
1906 establishments
1926 disestablishments

ba:Иттихат
kk:Иттихат
The Dardanelles is the narrow strait in northwestern Turkey connecting the Aegean Sea to the Sea of Marmara. It marks the division between Asia to the East, and Europe to the west. As a waterway it is highly significant to all countries in the region.

From Ancient Greek times it is also known as the Hellespont.

Related pages

 The Dardanelles Campaign, during World War I.

Geography of Turkey
Straits
Biescas is a town in the province of Huesca, Aragon, Spain. It is on the river Gallego at and altitude of 875 m in the zone known as Tierra de Biescas. The population is 1240.

It is divided in two main neighbourhoods "San Pedro" and "El Salvador", the last one divided other two neighbourhoods called "Barrio Bajo" and "La Peña" (or "Barrio Alto"). 

There are two churches in the town, the first one, San Pedro's Church is in the neighbourhood of San Pedro and the second one San Salvador's Church in La Peña.

Municipality of Biescas is divided in four parts
 Tierra de Biescas, which includes the towns of Orós Alto, Orós Bajo, Oliván, Escuer Alto, Escuer Bajo and Biescas.
 Sobremonte, which includes Aso de Sobremonte, Betés de Sobremonte and Yosa de Sobremonte.
 Valley of Tena, where are the towns of Piedrafita de Jaca, Búbal, Polituara and Saqués.
 Valley of Gavín, where Gavín is the only one town.

Additionally Ainielle, Barbenuta, Bergusa, Casbas, Espierre, Susín and Javierre del Obispo are included in Biescas municipality

References

Settlements in Huesca
Municipalities in Aragon
Fore-Caucasus (, sometimes Ciscaucasia, Front Caucasus) is a region to North of the Caucasus Major (Большой Кавказ) mountains of Caucasus and farther bounded by Kuma-Manych Depression from the North, Sea of Azov and Kerch Strait from the West, and Caspian Sea from the East.

Russia
The North Caucasus is the northern part of the Caucasus region between Europe and Asia. The term is also used as a synonym for the North Caucasus Economical Region of Russia.

Politically, the Northern Caucasus (territory north of the Greater Caucasus Range) includes the Russian Republics of the North Caucasus as well as several regions of Georgia and Azerbaijan.

Geography of Russia
Greater Caucasus (; ; , sometimes translated as "Caucasus Major", "Big Caucasus" or "Large Caucasus") is the major mountain range of the Caucasus Mountains.

The range stretches for about  from west-northwest to east-southeast, between the Taman Peninsula of the Black Sea to the Absheron Peninsula of the Caspian Sea: from the Western Caucasus near Sochi on the northeastern shore of the Black Sea and reaching nearly to Baku on the Caspian.

The range is traditionally separated into three parts:
Western Caucasus, from the Black Sea to Mount Elbrus
Central Caucasus, from Mount Elbrus to Mount Kazbek
Eastern Caucasus, from Mount Kazbek to the Caspian Sea

In the wetter Western Caucasus, the mountains are heavily forested (deciduous forest up to , coniferous forest up to  and alpine meadows above the tree line). In the drier Eastern Caucasus, the mountains are mostly treeless.

Mountain ranges
Caucasus
Mountains of Russia
Geography of Azerbaijan
Geography of Georgia (country)
Mount Elbrus (, ) is a peak in the western Caucasus mountains. It is in Kabardino-Balkaria and Karachay-Cherkessia, Russia, near the border of Georgia. It consists of two peaks. The western peak has a height of , the eastern peak is  high.

Mount Elbrus is an inactive volcano, with a glacier on top. The western peak still has a crater with a diameter of about . No eruptions have been recorded, but there are other signs of volcanic activity, namely hot springs in the area. There last eruption happened in the first century.

Mount Elbrus is the highest mountain in the Caucasus range, and the highest one on Russian soil. Mount Elbrus is about  taller than Mont Blanc, which is commonly seen as the highest peak in Europe. The Caucasus range is generally seen as the border between Europe and Asia. People disagree on which mountains of the Caucasus are in Europe, and which ones are in Asia. A common view is to use the watershed as the boundary line. If this definition is used, Mount Elbrus is in Europe, and its highest mountain.

Other websites 
Mount Elbrus on TierraWiki.org
"Elbrus, Mount." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2006. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 14 Nov. 2006 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9032240>.
Computer generated summit panoramas North South index. There are a few discontinuities due to incomplete data. Politically the Caucasus are in Europe but topographically they are in Asia.
 NASA Earth Observatory pages on Mount Elbrus:  ,  
 Mount Elbrus live webcam  (view from Mount Cheget) (the web cam is not working)
 Climbing Mount Elbrus information 
 Elbrus Photos (Hundreds of large photographs of Mt. Elbrus and the vicinity)
 A trip report

References 

Mountains of Russia
See also: Ranked list of Dominican Provinces
The Dominican Republic has thirty-one (31) provinces (in Spanish, provincias). The President of the Republic appoints a Civil Governor (Gobernador Civil) in every province. The only function of the Governor is to represent the President of the Republic in the province.

The people who live in the province elect one Senator (Senador) and at least two (2) Representatives (Diputados) for the National Congress.

The National District (Distrito Nacional) is similar to a province but without a Civil Governor and with only one municipality, Santo Domingo de Guzmán, the national capital.

There are two (2) or more municipalities (in Spanish and in singular, municipio) in every province. The municipalities are governed by municipal councils and mayors elected by popular vote. The municipal districts (in Spanish and in singular, distrito municipal) are subdivisions of some municipalities ruled by a municipal council and a mayor.

The Dominican Republic has 154 municipalities and 202 municipal districts.

The following is a table of the provinces and their capital cities. Population figures in the following table are from the 2010 census.

References

Other websites 
 Political Database of the Americas - Dominican 2002 Constitution 
 Oficina Nacional de Estadística, Statistics Portal of the Dominican Republic
Reductio ad absurdum is a Latin phrase which means "reduction to the absurd". The phrase describes a kind of indirect proof. It is a proof by contradiction, and is a common form of argument. It shows that a statement is true because its denial leads to a contradiction, or a false or absurd result. It is a way of reasoning that has been used throughout the history of mathematics and philosophy from classical antiquity onwards.

The ridiculous or "absurdum" conclusion of a reductio ad absurdum argument can have many forms. For example,
 Rocks have weight, otherwise we would see them floating in the air.
 Society must have laws, otherwise there would be chaos.
There is no smallest positive rational number, because if there were, it could be divided by two to get a smaller one.

History 
The phrase can be traced back to the Greek η εις  άτοπον απαγωγή (hê eis átopon apagogê). This phrase means "reduction to the impossible". It was often used by Aristotle. The method is used a number of times in Euclid's Elements.

Method
Reduction ad absurdum can be a tool of discovery.

The method of proving something works by first assuming something about it. Then other things are deduced from that. If there is a contradiction, it shows that the first something cannot be correct.  For example, 
To prove A is true, correct, valid, credible ....
Assume the opposite --  that "not-A" is true....
Assume that if "not-A" is true, then it must mean or imply B.
Show that B is false, incorrect, invalid, incredible ...
Therefore, A must be true after all.

Related pages
 Mathematical proof
 Proof by induction
 Straw man

References

Other websites 
 Conditional Proof and Reductio ad Absurdum

Mathematics
Logical fallacies
Today Sandoz is a part of Novartis. It is a big pharmaceutical firm in Switzerland. Today, Sandoz produces many drugs whose patents have run out (so called generic drugs). The original company, which was founded in 1886, is known for several things:
It invented saccharin in 1899. Saccharin is an artificial sweetener, a substitute for sugar. Artificial sweeteners are used in many Light-products today.
It invented LSD in 1938

Companies of Switzerland
Pharmaceutical companies of Europe
An artificial sweetener or sugar substitute is a chemical. It is added to some foods to make them taste sweet. It is made to taste like sugar or corn syrup. Usually it has a much lower energy value than sugar. It can be found in many products which say Light or Diet in their name. 

Consumers use artificial sweeteners for one of the following reasons:
Diabetes mellitus - People with diabetes have problems regulating their sugar levels in the blood. Artificial sweeteners are better for them than sugar.
Reactive hypoglycemia - This is a condition similar to diabetes. People who suffer from it therefore often use artificial sweeteners.
Some people think that artificial sweeteners can help them lose weight. A  study at the university showed, however, that those people using artificially sweetened drink are more likely to become obese than those who do not.
Dental hygiene – sugar substitutes are tooth-friendly, as they are not fermented by the microflora of the dental plaque.

Problems

Studies done with animals have shown that artificial sweeteners cause weight gain. A sweet taste causes insulin to be produced. This will store some of the sugar in the blood in tissues, including fat. With artificial sweeteners, the amount of sugar in the blood does not increase. This means that there will be too little sugar in the blood. This is known as hypoglycemia. On the next meal, more food will be eaten to get the blood sugar level back to normal values. 
After a while, rats given sweeteners have steadily increased the amount of calories. This increased body weight, and adiposity (fatness). The natural response to eating sugary foods is to eat less at the next meal and to use some of the extra energy to warm the body after the meal. When using artificial sweeteners, this effect is lost gradually.

References

Sweeteners
Lawrence Mark Sanger (born July 16, 1968) is an American internet project developer. He worked with Jimmy Wales to create the online encyclopedias, Nupedia and Wikipedia before he created his own online encyclopedias Digital Universe and Citizendium.

Career 
Wales, through his company Bomis, paid Sanger to help them to maintain Nupedia.

On January 2, 2001, Ben Kovitz, Sanger's friend, had the idea to use a wiki to help to make Nupedia better. Sanger in turn told Wales, and on January 15, 2001, Wikipedia was launched. There are different opinions on which of the three people are most responsible for Wikipedia.

In 2005, Sanger created Digital Universe, an online encyclopedia like Wikipedia.

In 2006, Sanger created Citizendium, another online encyclopedia. Citizendium uses the MediaWiki engine (like Wikipedia) but the rules are different. People must use their given names on Citizendium and experts are given special status in approving articles.

In December 2017, Sanger joined Everipedia. He left the project in 2019.

References

Other websites

 

1968 births
Living people
Wikipedia people
American bloggers
Cats is a musical. It is based on Old Possum's Book of Practical Cats, a book of poems by T.S. Eliot. Trevor Nunn wrote the lyrics for the song, "Memory", which  is based on some of T.S Eliot's poems. Andrew Lloyd Webber wrote the music.

Cats premiered at the New London Theatre in the West End on 11 May 1981. It closed on 11 May 2002 after 8,949 performances. It opened on Broadway on 7 October 1982 at the Winter Garden Theatre. It closed on 10 September 2000, after 7,485 performances.

The musical won the 1982 Laurence Olivier Award for Best New Musical and the 1983 Tony Award for Best Musical.

Plot
Every year, a tribe of cats known as the Jellicle Cats meet for the Jellicle Ball. At the Jellicle Ball, Old Deuteronomy, the leader of the tribe, chooses one cat to ascend to the Heaviside Lair to be reborn and return to a new life. 
Grizabella, an elderly (younger in some productions) glamour cat who left the Jellicle tribe's junkyard home, comes back to her tribe, but they shun her.  While the other cats dance at the Jellicle Ball, Grizabella watches in the background. She performs a simple dance when the other cats leave called Memory, and sings about how she wants to be accepted. Old Deutoronomy sees this and sympathizes with her.
In act two, Old Deuteronomy gets kidnapped by Macavity, a "mystery cat" who is the only true antagonist in the musical. As soon as he is successfully returned, it is time to choose who goes to the Heaviside Layer. 
Grizabella is chosen, and she is taken on a tire to fly into the Heaviside layer. 

West End musicals
Broadway musicals
Musicals based on books
Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber
Tony Award winning musicals
Laurence Olivier Award winning musicals
1980s musicals
Cargo cult is a name given to several religions. There are many cargo cults in Melanesia and New Guinea. These religions are started when tribal societies come into contact with Western civilisation. When the first contact happened, the tribespeople saw Western manufactured goods, like radios. These things are called cargo. The tribespeople did not know how the manufactured goods worked nor how they were made.  

They imitate the behaviour they saw the Westerners do, in the hope that some spirits will send them more cargo.  In other cases, such as on the island of Tanna in Vanuatu, cult members worship Americans who brought the cargo.

During the age of colonialism, the colonial powers came in contact with many technologically less advanced societies. The first cargo cults were documented in New Guinea, and other countries of Micronesia, Melanesia and the West Pacific Ocean. 

The people who are part of the cargo cults think that the cargo was created by their deities and ancestors. They think that the cargo was made for the members of the cargo cult, but the foreigners have it. For this reason, the efforts and rituals of cargo cults are done so that the foreigners should get less of these goods and the cult members more of them.

Related pages
Vailala Madness - a cargo cult active between 1919 and 1922, possibly the first documented cargo cult.
Ghost Dance - a similar movement that happened when Native Americans came in contact with the European settlers.

References

Other websites
 Vanuatu cargo cult marks 50 years (BBC News)
 Information on the Jon Frum Cargo Cult (still active) 
 Contemporary Cargo Cults by John FitzGerald
 Western Oceanian Religions 
 
 Cargo cults  includes a bibliography
 Account of a Visit to a Jon Frum Village in 2005 
 Air Force Magazine , January 1991, Vol. 74, No. 1. Summary from the guys who fly those Cargoes.

New religious movements
Walloon is a Romance language. It belongs to the family of the oïl languages along with French, Picard and Norman.

Walloon is spoken in Wallonia in Belgium and in some villages in Wisconsin in the United States.

It has about 3,400,000 speakers.

Languages of Europe
Romance languages
Gallo is one of the two regional languages of Brittany. It is an Oïl language of the  Romance language family, with Latin at the base. Gallo is spoken in the eastern part of Brittany.

The other regional language of Brittany is Breton. Breton is a Celtic language.

References

Romance languages
Diethyl ether is a clear liquid chemical. It is often just called ether. Ether burns very easily and boils at about 35°C. It has a sweet smell and does not mix with water.

Ether was discovered in 1275. It was used in the past as a general anesthetic to make people unconscious during surgery. Now other chemicals are used because ether has side effects and can catch fire. Ether is used as a solvent by scientists for chemical reactions.

People used to take ether as a recreational drug (drugs used for fun, such as alcohol) in the 1800s. People would either drink a drink with small amounts of ether in it, just like people drink alcoholic drinks, or inhale the fumes given off by pure or nearly pure ether. This could have addicted these people to the ether if they did that often enough. It was a big problem in some places, like Ireland and Poland. It first became popular because Europeans thought it was unladylike to drink alcohol. Women would drink ether instead, as would teetotalers, people who had decided not to drink alcohol. 

It became illegal to sell ether in Poland in 1923.

Ether is made as a byproduct when ethanol is made, so it is not very expensive.

Organic compounds
The Vattenfall Cyclassics is a cycling race held every year in Hamburg, Germany.

It started as an unimportant race in 1996, but because cycling became very popular in Germany it was made a part of the UCI Road World Cup in 1998. Since 2005, it is a part of the UCI ProTour.

The route of the race changes, but is about 250 km long. During a number of laps through Hamburg, the Waseberg hill is climbed a several times.  The cyclists also race over Hamburg's highest bridge Köhlbrandbrücke.  Unlike many races the Cyclassic race almost never ends in a mass sprint, that is, with a lot of riders close together racing to the finish line.

There is an amateur part of the Cyclassics.  Earlier on the day of the race there are three Jedermann-Rennen.   Anybody (jedermann) with a ticket can take part in these races (rennen) over 55 km, 100 km and 155 km.  Tickets must be reserved months in advance. In 2005 there were 20000 amateurs on the course.

The sponsor of the Cyclassics, was the Hamburg Electrizität Werke, Hamburg electricity plant or "HEW", after it became part of the big "Vattenfall" company the Cyclassic changed its name too, and from 2006 this cycling race has been known as the Vattenfall Cyclassics.

Winners

Other websites
 Official Cyclassics site

Cycle racing in Germany
Sport in Hamburg
The Gothic language is an extinct Germanic language that was spoken by the Goths. It is the East Germanic language with the most texts surviving today. It had died out by the 8th century or perhaps the early 9th century.

Probably, one of the best known works of the language is Wulfila's translation of the Bible, known as the Wulfila Bible or Gothic Bible or Codex Argenteus. The translation was done in the 3rd century.

Other websites 
 Project Wulfila, studies the Gothic language.

References

Germanic languages
Languages of Europe
9th-century disestablishments in Europe
Sir Ernest MacMillan (born Mimico, Ontario, 18 August 1893; died 6 May 1973)  was a famous Canadian conductor and composer.

MacMillan's father was a Scottish Presbyterian minister and musician.  He was a child prodigy.   He gave his first organ recital in Massey Hall at the age of ten. After studying in Britain and gaining the ARCO and FRCO diplomas at the Royal College of Organists, he studied modern history at the University of Toronto from 1911 to 1914.

Prisoner in Germany
In 1914 he went to Europe.  He wanted to study at the Paris Conservatoire but this was closed because of the political situation.  He went on to Germany to attend the Bayreuth Festival, but World War I started and he was taken prisoner and kept at the Ruhleben civilian detention camp near Berlin.  He helped the other people who were prisoners in the camp to put on concerts.  He gave talks about classical music and conducted a performance of the Gilbert and Sullivan opera Mikado as well as a pantomime version of Cinderella.  This helped him to get experience in conducting.  He also took part in the drama productions. He studied hard and was given a BA degree from the University of Toronto (1915) and a D Mus from the University of Oxford (1918), although he was locked up in the camp all this time.

After the war
After the war he returned to Canada where he gave organ recitals and lectured about his experiences in Ruhleben.  From 1926 to 1942 he was principal of the Toronto Conservatory of Music, later to become the Royal Conservatory of Music. He was the conductor of the Toronto Symphony Orchestra between 1931 and 1956.  He did a lot for music in Canada,and he was knighted in 1935 by King George V. In 1969 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. He died in Toronto in 1973.

When he conducted he often took the music very slowly.  This gave him the nickname "Lord Largo" ("Largo" means "slow and broad" in music).  He had an amazing musical memory and he could improvise very well.  MacMillan helped to record and preserve the traditional songs and music of Canada's aboriginal or First Nations people.  He had an important influence on almost every part of Canadian musical life.

1893 births
1973 deaths
Canadian musical entertainers
POW at Ruhleben
Knights Bachelor
Canadian composers
Colin McRae (5 August 1968 – 15 September 2007) was a Scottish rally car driver. He was one of the best rally drivers in the world. He died with his son and two other friends when he crashed his helicopter near his home in Lanark, Scotland.

References

Accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Aviation deaths
Scottish racecar drivers
1968 births
2007 deaths
Benjamin Dale (born London 17 July 1885; died London 30 July 1943) was a British composer.

Dale won many prizes at the Royal Academy of Music for composition when he was still very young.  He wrote a  Piano sonata in D minor which shows the influence of Romantic composers such as Liszt and Schumann.  It was played by pianists such as York Bowen and  Dame Myra Hess who were becoming famous.  He wrote music for viola for Lionel Tertis to play.

He was in Germany when World War I broke out and was a prisoner in the camp at Ruhleben.  There were other musicians there, including the  Canadian Ernest MacMillan who later became a famous conductor. They organized a lot of musical events at the camp.   Ernest MacMillan gave lectures about each of the nine symphonies by Beethoven, after which he and Dale would play the whole symphony in a piano duet arrangement.

After the war he worked as an Associated Board examiner.  He became professor of harmony at the Royal Academy of Music.  He continued to compose music.  His ballade for violin was especially popular.  Dale’s music is not played much today, but there have been some attempts to make his music known again through CD recordings.

1885 births
1943 deaths
English composers
POW at Ruhleben