cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A sauna is a small room or building that is made hot. The heat of a sauna is calming and makes the person using it sweat. This is believed to help people be more healthy though it causes stress on the body by overheating. Today many countries and groups of people have different ways of heating and using a sauna. The temperature is often 80°C in Finnish saunas. The heat can be more than 100°C. Finnish and Swedish saunas have lower humidity (the air is less wet) to make this high heat comfortable.

The Turkish hammam has a high humidity (the air is more wet) and a lower temperature.

Today saunas can often be found at hotels and places for sports and exercise. In Finland, they are more common and are also often in private apartments and office 
buildings.

In almost every house in Finland they have a sauna.

Common rules for public saunas
In some cultures, swimsuits must be worn in a sauna. In other cultures swimsuits are not be worn. Swimsuits are more often worn when men and women use a sauna together. Some saunas are only for men, or only for women. Some places have fixed times when each gender can use a sauna. Private saunas may have their own rules.

Areas where the sauna is used while nude
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Finland
Russia
Slovenia
Sweden
Croatia
Japan
Netherlands
Flanders
Estonia
Lithuania
Latvia

Areas where the sauna is used in a swimsuit or covered by a towel
France
United Kingdom
United States
Hungary
South America
Africa
Wallonia

Area where men and women do not sauna together
Russia
Japan

Areas where sitting on a towel is required
Germany
Austria
North-eastern Italy
Netherlands
Flanders

Related pages
Onsen
Sentō
 Jjimjilbang
Banya

Health
Finnish culture
A poet is someone who writes poetry. Poetry can be written in any language by a poet.  

Sappho was an Ancient Greek poet. She lived in Lesbos, Greece. She was famous for writing lyric love poems to women. She wrote in the Ancient Greek language.  

Famous English poets are William Shakespeare, Alexander Pope, William Wordsworth, William Blake, John Keats, and Percy Shelley. They wrote in the English language. Their poetry comes in different styles and forms. Often their poetry is lyrical and rhymes. 

The most famous American poets include Emily Dickinson and Walt Whitman. They wrote in English. Often their poetry did not rhyme. They lived in the 19th century in the United States. Later 20th century American poets include Ezra Pound, T. S. Eliot, Sylvia Plath, and Anne Sexton. 

Modern French poets are Arthur Rimbaud and  Charles Baudelaire. Rimbaud was famous for his poetry collection called “Illuminations.” Baudelaire wrote of beauty, decay, and spirituality in his famous work “Flowers of Evil.” 

Great Spanish poets are Garcilaso de la Vega Frederico García Lorca, Antonio Machado, and Gustavo Adolfo Bécquer. Vicente Aleixandre won the Nobel Prize. 

Three Latin American poets won the Nobel prize in the 20th century. They include Gabriela Mistral, Pablo Neruda, and Octavio Paz. They wrote in Spanish. 

Caribbean poets Derek Walcott and Giannina Braschi wrote epic poetry.  Winner of the Nobel Prize, Walcott wrote Omeros and In a Green Night in English. Giannina Braschi writes epic poetry in English, Spanglish, and Spanish, including Empire of Dreams 

Ancient Chinese poets are Wang Wei, Du Fu, and Qu Yuan. They wrote in Chinese about the nature and man.

Related pages 
poetry 
sonnet

References 

 
Occupations
Writers
Literature
The  is one of the biggest universities in Germany. It is in the Ruhr-Area, in the city of Bochum.

History 
The Ruhr-Universität was the first public university that was founded in West Germany after World War II (in 1962). Later in the 1960s, education expanded in West Germany and more universities were founded, but Bochum has a bright selection of subjects because it was the beginning of education expanding.

The Ruhr-University was one of the fourth largest university in Germany in the late 1980s and early 1990s with more than 40,000 students. But after the state of North Rhine-Westfalia decided to earn study fees, many students left the university and school examiners do not start studying anymore. Actually the fees are 1,000 Euro in the year (about 1,100 US $), but the Ruhr-Area is traditionally a working class region. Sommer Semester 2011 was the last semester with tuition fees http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/studienbeitrag/ . The number or students now is more than 34 000 http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html

The university of Bochum was one of the first to have Bachelor and master's degrees instead of the traditional German Diplom and Magister degree.

Present situation 
The Ruhr-University has about 34,000 students.http://www.ruhr-uni-bochum.de/universitaet/fakten/menschlich/index.html Academically it is an upper middle-class university with a lot of international affairs, especially with Eastern Europe and Asia. The Ruhr-University Bochum lost some subjects by when the state reduced its budget.
The main focuses in research are neurosciences, engineering, European law, plasma physics, solidstate physics, biochemistry, economics, Middle Ages and modern history, philosophy and languages.

Subjects 
 Mathematics
 Applied Computational Science
 Physics and Astronomy
 Chemistry and Biochemistry
 Biology and Neuro Sciences
 Geosciences (Geology, Geophysics, Mineralogy, Palentology)
 Geography
 Civil Engineering
 Electro Engineering
 Nanotechnology
 Psychology
 Medicine
 Philosophy
 History (Old, Middle Ages and New History, History of Arts)
 Archeological Sciences
 Chinese(language and literature, there are regional studies for eastern Asia, too)
 Eastern Asian Studies (China, Korea and Japan)
 English Language and Literature American and Canadian Literature
 Romanic Languages and Literature (Italian, French, Spain, Portuguese)
 Slavic Languages and Literature (Russian, Polish)
 German Languages and Literature
 Comparative Literature
 Latin and Old Greek
 Near and Middle Eastern Studies (Arabian Stuies, Indian)
 Roman Catholic Theology
 Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
 Economy
 Laws
 Social Sciences (Sociology, Social Psychology, Politics, Socail-Economical studies)
 Environmental Studies
 Development policy
 Working Sciences
 Sports
 Music Sciences
 Educational Sciences

Other websites 
 English website

Bochum
Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in North Rhine-Westphalia
Aachen ( ; Aachen dialect: Oche [ˈɔːxə]; French and traditional English: Aix-la-Chapelle ; Latin: Aquae Granni or Aquisgranum; ) is a German city in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It has about 260,000 inhabitants and a well-known university, the Rheinisch-Westfälische Technische Hochschule (RWTH).

History 
The Romans built a spa over hot water springs here in ancient times. 

In the Middle Ages, it was the capital city of the Frankish emperor, Charlemagne. The city was called Aix-la-Chapelle by the French. 

Charlemagne ordered the building of a cathedral in 786 AD. He was buried in a tomb in this cathedral. German emperors were crowned in the cathedral in Aachen until 1531.

European countries made two important peace agreements in Aachen. In 1668, the first treaty (agreement) ended the War of Devolution between France and the alliance of England, Holland and Sweden. The treaty allowed France to keep most of the towns it had captured in Flanders the year before. In 1748, the second treaty ended the War of the Austrian Succession. In this war, France, Prussia, and other nations tried to take territory from the Austrian Empire. The treaty said that Maria Theresa of Austria was the ruler of these territories. It also gave Prussia the territory of Silesia.

Since 1972, Aachen has been part of the Cologne Government Region.

Notes

References

Other websites

Spa towns in Germany
Cities in North Rhine-Westphalia
 
1306 establishments
14th-century establishments in Europe
Establishments in Germany
1801 disestablishments
1800s disestablishments in Germany
The Philipps-University of Marburg is the oldest Protestant university of the world, and was founded by Martin Luther's friend Philipp of Hesse in the time of the reformation.

Major areas of research are medicine, nano-science, materials science, and near eastern studies.

List of subjects 
 Mathematics
 Physics
 Chemistry
 Biology
 Medicine
 Dental Medicine
 Pharmacology
 Geography
 Philosophy
 History
 Protestant (Lutheran) Religious Studies
 Roman Catholic Religious Studies
 Latin and Ancient Greek
 English
 German
 Romance Languages and Literature (French, Italian, Spanish)
 Near Eastern Studies
 Social Science and Political Science
 Economics (strong point is microeconomics)
 Slavic Languages and Literature (Polish, Russian) (well-known, but may be closed soon)
 Far Eastern Studies (China, Japan) (will be closed soon)

Other websites 
 http://www.uni-marburg.de

Colleges and universities in Germany
Education in Hesse
The Netherlands Antilles was a country within the Kingdom of the Netherlands. The country was originally a group of six islands in the Caribbean Sea. Some were discovered in 1493 by Christopher Columbus, and some were discovered in 1499 by Alonso de Ojeda.

Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao are part of the Leeward Islands. They are near Venezuela. Saint Martin, Sint Eustatius, and Saba are part of the Windward Islands. They are near Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Of these, the island Sint Maarten is in fact part of two countries: the northern part belongs to France (as Saint Martin), but the southern part is Dutch (as Sint Maarten).

Aruba left the Netherlands Antilles in 1986. When Curaçao and Sint Maarten did the same thing on 10 October 2010, the country no longer existed. The remaining BES Islands of Bonaire, Sint Eustatius and Saba now belong to the Netherlands and are called the Dutch Caribbean islands.

Because the Netherlands Antilles was a part of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands proper was also the Queen of the Netherlands Antilles, but the islands' residents had a government of their own. Aruba, Curaçao and Sint Maarten are now separate countries within the Kingdom. All of these places still have King Willem-Alexander as their monarch today.

The last Prime Minister of the Netherlands Antilles was Emily de Jongh-Elhage. The last Governor was Frits Goedgedrag, who is since the 10 October 2010 the first Governor of Curaçao.

Other websites

Method of Securing the Ports and Populations of All the Coasts of the Indies is an old document from 1694 that talks about the Netherlands Antilles

Dutch-speaking countries
A pharmacy is a shop where therapeutic drugs are sold. Sometimes a pharmacy is also called a  drug store or chemist and druggist store. The people working in a pharmacy are called pharmacists, druggist or chemists (British English). These people can recognise simple diseases and formulate or dispense drugs for some of them.

Certain drugs are special, because they can be addictive, or they change the way other drugs act, or they need to be taken in a special way. These drugs cannot simply be bought at a pharmacy. A prescription is necessary to get them. Medical doctors give out prescriptions, which can then be used to get the drug.

Many pharmacies do not sell drugs only. They also sell beauty products and hygiene-related products, like tampons for women and contraceptives.

Pharmacy is also a branch of chemistry that studies the molecular structure of drugs to find better drugs.

Related pages

 Pharmacist
 Pharmaconomist
 Pharmacology
 Online pharmacy

Medicine
Drugs
Health care
People kiss each other, usually by using their lips and mouth to touch each other. However, there are many different types of kiss, with different meanings. Also, the meaning of kissing may be different in different cultures. Most often, people kiss to show love or affection for each other. Sometimes, people kiss as a sign of friendship, sometimes it is a ritual performed to greet someone.

Types of kisses

Greeting kisses 
Greeting kisses are not given for sexual passion, but simply a sign of friendship. In many parts of the world, women often kiss on meeting female friends, but men do not. And the female greeting kiss may not actually touch the friend's face. In the past of many western countries men used to kiss the back of a woman's hand when being introduced. This suggests that a direct kiss from a man to a woman was too intimate to be just a greeting.

There are different ways of kissing. People might kiss on the cheeks to greet someone, or to bid them farewell. Depending on the culture it usually does not mean that the kisser loves the person he or she kissed. Kissing when female friends meet is usual in many countries, with some interesting variations. Parisian females often do a rapid double 'air kiss' or 'cheek kiss': a kiss on each side twice, but without lips touching flesh.

Sexual kisses 

French kissing is  an erotic gesture. It involves touching tongues while kissing. It is more intimate than other forms of kissing.

Ritual kisses 
A kiss may be a ritual, that is, a symbolic or social gesture showing devotion, respect or greeting. Temples, religious books or icon are sometimes given a ritual kiss. A bride and groom kissing at the end of a wedding ceremony or national leaders kissing each other in greeting, are examples.

Kisses and health 
It is possible to spread diseases through kissing, but it is also possible to exaggerate the danger. Exotic diseases like herpes and mononucleosis can be spread, but that is rare, and spreading HIV this way is almost unknown. Colds and the flu are much more likely to be spread. Mononucleosis is well known for being spread through kissing. Many diseases that can be spread by sharing drinks can also be spread by kissing.

The upside to this is that, usually, kissing makes people happier. That has health benefits.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Non-verbal communication
A chemical substance is any material with a known chemical composition. For example, water has the same properties and the same ratio of hydrogen to oxygen whether it came from a river or was made in a laboratory. Typical chemical substances found in the home include water, salt (sodium chloride) and bleach. Generally, substances exist as a solid, a liquid, or a gas, and may change between these phases of matter when there are changes in temperature or pressure.

Gallery

References 

Chemistry
The South China tiger (Panthera tigris amoyensis) is an almost extinct subspecies of the tiger. There are now 20-30 of them left in the wild and 60 left in captivity. It is one of the world's ten most endangered animals and the most endangered of the six surviving tiger subspecies. The South Chinae tiger is also known as the Chinese, Amoy, or Xiamen tiger.

Description
It can be distinguished from other tiger subspecies by its narrow face, its longer nose, more intense orange colour, short fur, longer legs, and shorter stripes which are spaced far apart from each other compared to other tiger subspecies. The South China tiger has the least amount of stripes out of all the tiger subspecies, and is the second smallest tiger.

A male South China tiger is around 2.3 to 2.65 m (91 to 104 in) long, and weighs 130 to 175 kg (290 to 390 lb). Females are smaller and are around 2.2 to 2.4 m (87 to 94 in) long, and weigh 110 to 115 kg (240 to 250 lb). The smallest length of the skull in males is 318 to 343 mm (12.5 to 13.5 in), and in females 273 to 301 mm (10.7 to 11.9 in).

Behaviour
The South China tiger is a carnivorous predator, hunting its prey by stalking it until the South China tiger has the opportunity to catch it off guard. South China tigers usually hunt large mammals like deer, wild boar, cattle and goats.

The South China tiger is found on mountains, and in temperate, upland forests of southern-China.

Reproduction
Females are pregnant for around 3 to 4 months before giving birth to around 5 cubs. Newborn South China tiger cubs weigh about 1 kg (2 lb) and are blind and helpless. The mother feeds them milk for about 2 months and then the South China tiger cubs are introduced to meat. South China tiger cubs depend on their mother for the first 18 months and then they start hunting on their own.

References

Tigers
Star Wars: Episode IV: A New Hope (initially named Star Wars) is a science fiction movie. It is the first film in the Star Wars saga. The movie was released in 1977 and also incorporates adventure, action and drama.

Plot 
Princess Leia Organa is a prisoner of the evil Empire. She was captured by Darth Vader, who is helping the Empire stop a rebellion, by using the Death Star. Luke Skywalker, Obi-Wan Kenobi and Han Solo work together to rescue her. They are helped by the droids (or robots) R2-D2 and C-3PO. With the princess, they try to stop the Empire and bring peace and happiness to the galaxy.

Cast 
 Mark Hamill as Luke Skywalker
 Harrison Ford as Han Solo
 Carrie Fisher as Princess Leia Organa
 Alec Guinness as Ben (Obi-Wan) Kenobi
 James Earl Jones as Darth Vader
 Anthony Daniels as See Threepio (C-3PO)
 Kenny Baker as Artoo-Detoo (R2-D2)
 Peter Mayhew as Chewbacca
 Peter Cushing as Grand Moff Tarkin
 Denis Lawson as Red Two (Wedge)

Related pages
 The Phantom Menace
 Attack of the Clones
 Revenge of the Sith
 Solo
 Rogue One
 The Empire Strikes Back
 Return of the Jedi
 The Force Awakens
 The Last Jedi
 The Rise of Skywalker

Further reading

Other websites

 Official website
 
 
 
 Star Wars at the Movie Wiki

1977 movies
1977 science fiction movies
Movies directed by George Lucas
Screenplays by George Lucas
New Hope
United States National Film Registry movies
Danish is the Germanic language spoken in Denmark, the Faroe Islands, and parts of Greenland and Germany (Southern Schleswig). Around 5.5 million people speak Danish.  It is used as a second language in Greenland and the Faroe Islands.  The Danish people, or Danes, call their language dansk.

Here are some simple words in Danish:

References

                                                                            

Germanic languages
Denmark
Languages of Europe
Niger or the Niger ( or ; ), officially the Republic of the Niger, is a country in western Africa. The capital is Niamey, and the official language is French. It is surrounded by Algeria and Libya to the north, Chad to the east, Nigeria and Benin to the south, and Burkina Faso and Mali to the west. Niger is landlocked, meaning it has no coastline. Niger gets its name from the Niger River, whose name possibly comes from the Berber word "River of Rivers".

The Mali Empire and the Songhai Empire both had land in what is now Niger. Later France controlled the land that is now Niger. Niger has a population, or the number of people living in an area, of 15,306,252 and an area of 1,267,000 square kilometres. Much of Niger is desert.

After a military coup in 2010, Niger is now a democratic, multi-party state. Most of the people live in rural areas, and have little access to advanced education.

Niger is one of the poorest countries in the world with a lack of contraception. 41.4% live in poverty. Hunger plagues the country.

Niger’s main exports are uranium ore, livestock, cowpeas and onions. Millet and sorghum are grown in the south, as well as cassava and sugarcane. Rice is grown in the Niger River valley. Peanuts are the most important cash crop. Other important crops are cotton and pulses.

Niger is home to the critically endangered addax antelope. West African giraffes are the only giraffes in West Africa that exist in Niger.

Geography
Niger is on the border between the Sahara and Sub-Saharan regions. Niger's area is  of which  is water. It is the world's twenty-second largest country. Niger borders seven countries. The longest border is with Nigeria to the south.

The lowest point is the Niger River, with an elevation of . The highest point is Mont Idoukal-n-Taghès in the Aïr Mountains at .

Cities
This table shows cities with a population over 10,000, according to 2001 census.

Climate
Niger's subtropical climate is mainly very hot and dry. Much of it is covered by desert. In the extreme south there is a tropical climate on the edges of the Niger River basin. The land is mostly desert plains and sand dunes. There is flat to rolling savanna in the south and hills in the north.

Wildlife

Demographics
There are several ethnic groups in Niger:
 Hausa 53.1%
 Zarma/Songhai 21.2%
 Tuareg 11%
 Fulani (Peuhl) 6.5%
 Kanuri 5.9%
 Gurma 0.8%
 Arab 0.4%
 Tubu 0.4%
 other/unavailable 0.9%

Education
The literacy rate (the amount of the adult population who can read or write) of Niger is among the lowest in the world. In 2005 it was estimated to be only 28.7% (42.9% male and 15.1% female). Primary education in Niger is required for six years. The primary school enrollment and attendance rates are low, particularly for girls. Children are often made to work rather than attend school. This is particularly true during planting or harvest periods.

Related pages
 List of rivers of Niger
 Niger at the Olympics
 Niger national football team

References

Other websites 

 Niger - CIA world factbook 

 
French-speaking countries
Least developed countries
Members of the Organisation of Islamic Cooperation
Zealand (Danish: Sjælland) is an island in the eastern part of Denmark. It is just west of Sweden and a strait called the Øresund lies between the two. It has an area of 7,031 km² and is the largest island in the country.

About 2,268,000 people were living in Zealand as of 2016. Most of these people live in and around Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark, which is on the eastern shore of Zealand.

A number of bridges and tunnels link Zealand to other parts of Denmark. They include:
 the Great Belt Bridge, which links Zealand to Funen, an island to the west.
 the Storstrøm Bridge, which links Zealand to Lolland, an island to the south.
 the Øresund Bridge, which links Zealand (actually the island of Amager) to Sweden to the east, near Malmö.

Islands of Denmark
Bogota is the capital (city) of Colombia. As of 2009, more than 7 million people live in Bogota, which makes it the largest city in Colombia. It is about 2,640 meters above sea level, on top a plateau (a mountain with a flat top). This makes it the third highest capital in the world. With many universities and libraries, Bogotá has become known as "The Athens of South America".The weather is usually nice during the day and cool at night. It has a series of bike paths (trails that are made for bikes) that wind through the city. It has many recreational and amusement parks open to the public. The current mayor is Claudia López.

History
Originally, Native Americans called Muisca lived in the area. Then, in 1538, Gonzalo Jimenes de Quezada, a Spanish conqueror, founded Bogota. Bogota became a center of trade, art, and education. Some of the oldest universities in the Americas are in Bogota.  After Independence from Spain, Bogota became the capital of Gran Colombia in 1819. 

Bogota has had extremely awful moments. In 1948, a presidential candidate, Jorge Eliécer Gaitán, was murdered while doing a speech in front of hundreds of persons. This tragic moment brought with it terrible consequences: one of the most remembered one is the "Bogotazo". The "Bogotazo" started as a political party war, the blue party, self named the "conservatives", began to hunt and kill every single member of the red party, the "liberals".  The remaining blue party members decided to create the "Fuerzas Armadas Revolucionarias de Colombia" (FARC); however, this group was ironically created to protect the oppressed people from their oppressors. Nowadays, this group is known as terrorists and murderers;nevertheless, Colombia's capital city, Bogota, has not being attacked in the last few years.

References

 
1538 establishments
1530s establishments in the Spanish Empire
The Aymara are members of a tribe of Native Americans that live in Bolivia and Peru.  They are native to the area around Lake Titicaca.  They speak the Aymara language. They call themselves Aymaras.  

The president of Bolivia, Evo Morales, is Aymara.

The many-colored flag of the tribe is called the Wiphala.

South American people
Native American
The perihelion is the point in the orbit of a planet, asteroid or comet that is nearest to the sun. It is the opposite of aphelion, which is the point farthest from the sun.

The word perihelion stems from the Greek words "peri," meaning near, and "Helios," meaning the Greek god of the sun. So it referred to as perihelion. (The similar word,  perigee, refers to the nearest point in some object's orbit of Earth.)

All planets, comets and asteroids in our solar system have approximately elliptical (a kind of non-circular) orbits. Thus, they all have a closest and a farthest point from the sun: a perihelion and an aphelion. Orbital eccentricity measures the flatness of the orbit. Any single revolution of a body around the sun is only approximately elliptical, because the precession of the perihelion prevents the orbit from being a simple closed curve such as an ellipse. This causes Milankovich cycles.  

Earth comes closest to the sun every year around January 3. It is farthest from the sun every year around July 4. The difference in distance between Earth's nearest point to the sun in January and farthest point from the sun in July is 3.1 million miles (5 million kilometers). Earth is about 91.4 million miles (147.1 million kilometers) from the sun in early January, in contrast to about 94.5 million miles (152 million kilometers) in early July.

When Earth is closest to the sun, it is winter in the northern hemisphere and summer in the southern hemisphere. Thus it is possible to see that Earth's distance from the sun does not noticeably  cause the seasons to change; the relatively minor effects of differences in distance is somewhat masked by the mainly oceanic southern hemisphere vs the half- continental northern hemisphere. Therefore, the Earth's seasons come and go mainly because Earth does not rotate with its axis exactly upright with respect to the plane of our world’s orbit around the sun. Earth's axial tilt is 23.5 degrees.  This puts the Sun farther south in December and January, so the north has winter and the south has summer. Thus winter falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes least directly. Summer falls on that part of the globe where sunlight strikes most directly.

Orbits
Johnston Atoll is an island in the Pacific Ocean. It is a property of the United States. The military used the Island for many things including a re-fueling location for planes going overseas, a chemical weapons ammunition storage facility, and a test launch location for nuclear testing. It was inhabited by all forces of the US military and government contract workers.

The island is named after Captain James Johnston, who discovered it in 1807. The island was mined for guano until 1890. After that, it was used as an army base.

Other websites 

Johnston Island Memories Site, the personal website of an AFRTS serviceman stationed there in 1975-6
Coast Guard Medevac from Johnston Island, photo from December 2007 medevac operation
JACADS - Johnston Atoll Chemical Agent Disposal System, history of nuclear testing, and JACADS Sarin and VX nerve agent disposal
U.S. Fish & Wildlife Johnston Island National Wildlife Refuge Contains additional information on wildlife and clean-up efforts

Atolls
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Islands of Oceania
Events 
 Treaty of Nanking between China and the United Kingdom(1842)
 Irish Potato Famine(1845–1848)
 Mexican-American War (1846–1848)
 The Communist Manifesto (1848)is published
 European Revolutions of 1848 (1848)
 California Gold Rush (1849)

World leaders 
 Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 Emperor Franz Josef (Austria-Hungary)
 King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
 Frederick William IV of Prussia (Prussia)
 Pope Gregory XVI
 Pope Pius IX
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 Queen Isabella II (Spain)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland)
 Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord John Russell (United Kingdom)
 President Martin Van Buren (United States)
 President William Henry Harrison (United States)
 President John Tyler (United States)
 President James Knox Polk (United States)
 President Zachary Taylor (United States)
 Sultan Abd-ul-Mejid I (Ottoman Empire)
 Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
 Mohammad Shah Qajar, (b. 1810 – d. 1848) Shah from 1834 to 1848
 Nasser-al-Din Shah, 1848–1896

Births 
 Edvard Grieg (1843)
 Wyatt Earp (1848)

Deaths 
 Edgar Allan Poe (1849)
Palmyra Atoll is an island in the North Pacific Ocean. No one lives there, but 4 to 20 people use this island, mainly scientists. It is managed as a nature reserve by the United States. It is known as the Palmyra Atoll National Wildlife Refuge.

In 2005, a team of scientists from around the world started to build a research station on the island. They wanted to gain a deeper understanding of the environment of the island.

History 
Palmyra Atoll was claimed by the Kingdom of Hawaii in 1862, and was taken by the United States in 1898 along with Hawaii. The atoll was not included in the Hawaii Admission Act of 1959, which made Hawaii a state, so it remained a US territory.

References

https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/um.html

Other websites

Palmyra atoll 
Palmyra Island 
Palmyra Atoll NWR
The Curse of Palmyra Island – article
The Curse of Palmyra Island – free book 
The Nature Conservancy in Palmyra Atoll 
Palmyra Atoll Research Consortium
United States v. Fullard-Leo (Supreme Court opinion; includes a history of the island's ownership)
WorldStatesmen- U.S.
History of Palmyra Atoll 
The Palmyra Gazette 

Atolls
United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Uninhabited regions
Jarvis Island (; formerly known as Bunker Island) is an uninhabited island owned by the United States.  The small island is a part of the United States Minor Outlying Islands, a group of mostly uninhabited islands.

Jarvis Island was officially made part of the United States in 1858. People used to mine guano there, but they then abandoned it. The United States treats it as a nature reserve. 

Located 25 miles south of the equator, Jarvis Island, is an uninhabited coral island located in the South Pacific Ocean. Jarvis has no known natural freshwater sources, and very little rain. This creates a very bleak, flat landscape with plants no larger than shrubs. Jarvis Island has no ports or docks, other than a reef the guano miners blew up in order for the cargo boats to be able to drop anchor. Its grass, vines and low-growing bushes are primarily a nesting, roosting, and foraging habitat for wildlife. The island has a tropical desert climate, with high temperatures in the day, constant wind, and a very hot sun. There is no evidence that the island has ever supported a native human population, but on August 30, 1913, the Amaranth was carrying a cargo of coal from Newcastle, New South Wales, to San Francisco when it crashed on Jarvis' southern shore. Ruins of ten wooden buildings, and a two-story house among them, could still be seen by the Amaranth crew, who left Jarvis aboard two lifeboats. Also, Settlers were moved to Jarvis Island in 1935 to maintain a weather station and plan a landing field. A settlement called Millersville was established on the west coast of the island because of it was the highest elevation. The Japanese shelled the island in 1942 and the men living on Jarvis were evacuated soon afterward. The United States claimed possession of Jarvis under the Guano Islands Act of 1856. The Act gave American citizens the right to claim any unclaimed, uninhabited islands for the purpose of mining guano. Because at the time guano was a very valuable asset used for fertilizer.

References

Other websites
 Jarvis Island Home Page Website with photos, weather, and more.
 Jarvis Island information website  Has several photos of the old Millersville settlement, together with more modern photos of the island.
 WorldStatesmen Offers brief data on Jarvis island.
 U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service Jarvis Island National Wildlife Refuge The Jarvis Island refuge site.

United States Minor Outlying Islands
Pacific islands
Islands of Oceania
Uninhabited regions
Events 
 Ayya Vaikundar appeared after the incarnation, above the sea of Thiruchendur.
 Croquet invented in Ireland.
 Mormon religion founded in New York.
 Belgium founded. 
 Ecuador declares independence. 
 Queen Victoria becomes ruler of Great Britain.

World leaders 
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Emperor Ferdinand I (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 King Louis-Philippe (July Monarchy France)
 Frederick William III of Prussia (Prussia)
 Pope Gregory XVI
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 King William IV (United Kingdom)
 Queen Victoria (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Grey (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Lord Melbourne (United Kingdom)
 President Andrew Jackson (United States)
 President Martin Van Buren (United States)
 Shahs of Persia (Qajar dynasty)
 Fath Ali Shah, 1797–1834
 Mohammad Shah Qajar, 1834–1848

Births 
 Emily Dickinson, writer
 Gustave Eiffel, engineer
 Johannes Brahms, German musician
 Alfred Nobel, inventor
 Grover Cleveland, politician

Deaths 
 Simón Bolívar, leader
 Jean-François Champollion, Egyptologist
 Sir Walter Scott, writer
 James Weddell, explorer
 Alexander Puskin, writer
Events 
 Greek War for Independence
 Much of South America declares independence from Spain.

World leaders 
 Emir Dost Mohammad Khan (Afghanistan)
 Supreme director José Rondeau (Argentina)
 Acting supreme director Juan Pedro Julián Aguirre y López de Anaya (Argentina)
 President Bernardino Rivadavia (Argentina)
 President Vicente López y Planes (Argentina)
 General Manuel Dorrego (Argentina)
 General Juan Manuel de Rosas (Argentina)
 Emperor Francis II (Austria)
 Chancellor Klemens Wenzel von Metternich (Austria)
 Sheikh Sulman ibn Ahmad Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Sheikh Khalifah ibn Sulman Al Khalifah (Bahrain)
 Administrative leader Tendzin Drugdra (Bhutan)
 Administrative leader Choki Gyaltshen (Bhutan)
 President Simón Bolívar (Bolivia)
 President Antonio José de Sucre (Bolivia)
 President José María Pérez (Bolivia)
 President José Miguel de Velasco (Bolivia)
 President Pedro Blanco (Bolivia)
 President Andrés de Santa Cruz (Bolivia)
 Emperor Pedro I (Brazil)
 Sultan Muhammad Kanzul Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Muhammad Alam (Brunei)
 Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin II (Brunei)
 King Ang Chan II (Cambodia)
 President Bernardo O'Higgins (Chile)
 President Agustín Eyzaguirre (Chile)
 Provisional triumvirate of the three provinces Congreso de Plenipotenciarios (Chile)
 Interim Supreme Director Ramón Freire (Chile)
 Acting Supreme Director Diego José Benavente (Chile)
 President Manuel Blanco Encalada (Chile)
 President Francisco Antonio Pinto (Chile)
 President Francisco Ramón Vicuña (Chile)
 President José Tomás Ovalle (Chile)
 Emperor Daoguang (China)
 President Simón Bolívar (Greater Colombia)
 King Frederick VI (Denmark)
 Governor Muḩammad ‘Alī (Egypt)
 Emperor Iyoas II (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Gigar (Ethiopia)
 Emperor Baeda Maryam III (Ethiopia)
 President José Cecilio del Valle (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President Manuel José Arce (Federal Republic of Central America)
 President José Francisco Barrundia (Federal Republic of Central America)
 King Louis XVIII (Restoration France)
 King Charles X (Restoration France)
 Governor Ioannis Kapodistrias (Greece)
 King Henri Christophe (Haiti)
 President Jean Pierre Boyer (Haiti)
 Pope Pius VII
 Pope Leo XII
 Shogun Tokugawa Ienari (Japan)
 Khan Omar Beg (Kokand)
 Khan Mohammed Ali (Kokand)
 Emperor Sunjo (Korea)
 Emir Jaber I Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
 Emperor Agustín de Iturbide (Mexico)
 President Guadalupe Victoria (Mexico)
 President Vicente Guerrero (Mexico)
 President José María Bocanegra (Mexico)
 President Pedro Vélez (Mexico)
 Sultan Slimane (Morocco)
 Sultan Abderrahmane (Morocco)
 Fath Ali Shah of Qajar dynasty (Persia)
 King Frederick William III (Prussia)
 Emperor Alexander I (Russia)
 Emperor Nicholas I (Russia)
 King Victor Emmanuel I (Sardinia)
 King Charles Felix (Sardinia)
 King Rama II (Siam)
 King Rama III (Siam)
 King Ferdinand VII (Spain)
 Pasha Yusuf Karamanli (Tripoli)
 King George IV (United Kingdom)
 King William I (United Kingdom of the Netherlands)
 President James Monroe (United States)
 President John Quincy Adams (United States)
 Emperor Minh Mang (Vietnam)

Births 
 Clara Barton
 Louis Pasteur

Deaths 
 Carl Maria Von Weber
 Thomas Jefferson
 John Adams
Isaiah was a prophet of God in Judaism, Islam, Christianity and Bahá'í. He lived from about 740 to 681 BC. The name Isaiah means "the Lord is salvation" in the Hebrew language. 

Isaiah is also the name of a book in the Old Testament of the Bible, which tells the story of the Israelites in Isaiah's time.  According to Christianity, Isaiah predicted in this book, the birth and then death of Jesus, hundreds of years before it actually happened.  Judaism does not agree with that interpretation.

Isaiah was known to be the Shakespeare of the Bible due to his good education and the quality of the passages he wrote. He was cut in half by King Manasseh which led to his gruesome death. Most of Isaiah's Bible passages begin with 'God's message to'.

Old Testament people
Ancient Israeli people
Leopold Poetsch was a German antiSemitic professor and a high school teacher of Adolf Hitler who influenced the future leader's later views. 

Poetsch came from the southern German border area. There, political fights between Slavs and ethnic Germans angered him and made him one who was for the Pan-German movement. He started to teach in Maribor, Slovenia and later moved to Linz, Austria to teach history.

Hitler was very interested in what Poetsch said. Poetsch hated the Habsburgs and argued that all ethnic Germans should be united by a single government. He said that the Aryan race was stronger, in better health, and more fit to rule than all other people. Poetsch said that Jews and Slavs were what he called "inferior races". (This view was held a lot in Germany after World War I.)

Hitler began reading an anti-Semitic newspaper in his area. In his later years, Hitler spoke of Poetsch as a "great man." As dictator of Germany, Hitler tried to get all German-speaking people together and persecuted Slavs, Jews, Gypsies, and others. Hitler later tried to kill them all in the "Final Solution."

References
Shirer, William L. Rise and Fall of the Third Reich: A History of Nazi Germany. Simon & Schuster, 1990. ISBN 0-671-72868-7

German people
The prime minister of the United Kingdom or British prime minister is the head of government in the United Kingdom. The prime minister controls the Government of the United Kingdom through the cabinet. The prime minister is the chairman of the British cabinet and a member of the Privy Council. It is normal for the prime minister to be the leader of the political party that has a majority in the House of Commons. 

The prime minister is not the head of state, but is the most important politician in the British politics. By tradition, the monarch of the United Kingdom chooses as prime minister. The monarch chooses the leader of the political party with enough votes to get the Parliament of the United Kingdom's approval for the British monarch's speech from the throne.

Boris Johnson (Conservative Party) became prime minister after the 2019 Conservative Party leadership election.

Background
The prime minister is usually the leader of the political party which wins most seats after a general election. There are 650 are available in the United Kingdom. Voters vote for their own local member of parliament, not for the prime minister. Voters in their constituency choose their member of parliament. The prime minister is a member of parliament, and only voters in one constituency can vote for them.

The first prime minister was Robert Walpole in the eighteenth century. He was known as the "First Lord of the Treasury".  The first person to be use the title "prime minister" officially was Henry Campbell-Bannerman in 1905.

Well-known prime ministers in the 20th century include Neville Chamberlain, Winston Churchill, Clement Attlee, Margaret Thatcher, and Tony Blair. The prime ministers usually live and work at 10 Downing Street or Chequers while in office. Chequers was donated to the country by Winston Churchill.
	
There are several other official residences, some owned by the government, others held by trusts. The  Chevening House estate, in Kent is an example. Dorneywood is another.

Living former prime ministers
There are five living former British prime ministers:

Related pages 
List of prime ministers of the United Kingdom
Deputy Prime Minister of the United Kingdom

References 

 
 
Politics of the United Kingdom
The River Forth is a river in Scotland. 

The source is Loch Ard, in Kinlochard. The river flows through the city of Stirling, and the city of Edinburgh is on the south of the Firth of Forth estuary.

Rivers of Scotland
Alejandro Toledo is a former president of Peru. He won the 2001 election for president. He gained international prominence after leading the opposition against president Alberto Fujimori, who held the presidency from 1990 to 2000.

Early life
He pursued his undergraduate and graduate education at the University of San Francisco and Stanford University. He originally joined the technical and academic field, from where he participated as an analyst on politics and economics on some occasions.

Political career
He entered politics when he founded the País Posible party, participating for the first time in the 1995 general election. In 2000, he managed to become in the largest opposition leader to the government of Alberto Fujimori, before whom in the midst of a controversial and bumpy process, lost the election for a second time. After the transition stage and the return of democracy in Peru, he participated for the third time in the 2001 elections against Lourdes Flores of National Unity and Alan García of the Peruvian Aprista Party; he competed with the latter in the second round, winning with 53.1% of the popular vote.

Arrest
On 16 July 2019, Toledo was arrested in the United States. On 19 March 2020, he was released on bail.

Personal life
He is from the town of Chimbote in Ancash Region, Peru. He is married to Eliane Karp of Belgium.

References

Presidents of Peru
1946 births
Living people
Fall Out Boy (often shortened to FOB) is an alternative rock band from Chicago, Illinois, USA. The members are Pete Wentz (bassist), Patrick Stump (vocals), Andy Hurley (drums), and Joe Trohman (guitar). They have written successful songs, including "Thnks fr the Mmrs", "Sugar, We're Goin Down" and "Dance, Dance".

Overview 
Their music is mostly like the pop-punk style, or genre, of music. The band got the name "Fall Out Boy" from a character who appeared in one episode of The Simpsons. "Sugar, We're Goin' Down" was the first single from their album From Under the Cork Tree. It has peaked at number eight on the Billboard charts. The second single was "Dance, Dance" which picked up major airplay in the U.S. The third single was "A Little Less Sixteen Candles, a Little More Touch Me." Their third album is Infinity on High and it had lots of success around the world. 

Two songs from the album were very popular across the world. They are "This Ain't a Scene, It's an Arms Race" and "Thnks fr th Mmrs". The second song's title is "Thanks for the Memories" without the vowel letters, which is meant to look as if it were from a text message. 

The third single from Infinity on High is called "The Take Over, The Breaks Over". The fourth is "I'm Like a Lawyer With the Way I'm Always Trying to Get You Off (Me & You)". Their fourth album Folie à Deux, was released on December 16, 2008. "I Don't Care" was the first song released from the album. In late 2009 the band took a rest. Patrick Stump went solo and released his debut album Soul Punk on October 18, 2011. 

His EP Truant Wave was released on February 22, 2011. Bassist Pete Wentz formed the electropop band Black Cards. Guitarist Joe Trohman and Andy Hurley formed a rock band The Damned Things with people from Anthrax and Every Time I Die.

Fall Out Boy came off hiatus in 2013, releasing a new single "My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark (Light 'Em Up)" and an album Save Rock and Roll, along with a supporting tour, They went on the Save Rock and Roll Arena Fall Tour September of 2013 with fellow rock band Panic! at the Disco in support of the album as well. In September 2014, they released a new single, called "Centuries".

Discography
 Fall Out Boy's Evening Out with Your Girlfriend (2003)
 Take This to Your Grave (2003)
 From Under the Cork Tree (2005)
 Infinity on High (2007)
 Folie à Deux (2008)
 Save Rock and Roll (2013)
 PAX AM Days (2013)
 American Beauty/American Psycho (2015)
 Make America Psycho Again (2015)
 MANIA'' (2018)

References

Other websites

Fall Out Boy's MySpace Profile
Official Website

2001 establishments in the United States
2000s establishments in Illinois
American pop rock bands
American punk bands
 
Musical groups established in 2001
Musical groups from Chicago
Pop punk bands
Good Charlotte is an American punk music band. They are from Waldorf, Maryland. They have many popular songs, including "The Anthem", "Girls and Boys", and "Lifestyles of the Rich and Famous".  

Their third album is unique. The Chronicles of Life and Death came in two different versions: the Life version, and the Death version.  The only difference between them is the last song on the CD.  The Life version has "Falling Away", and the Death version has "Meet My Maker".

The lead singer of the band is Joel Madden.  His twin brother, Benji, is also in the band. But besides them, there is Billy (guitarist), Paul (bassist) and Dean (drums).

Discography
Studio albums
 Good Charlotte (2000)
 The Young and the Hopeless (2002)
 The Chronicles of Life and Death (2004)
 Good Morning Revival (2007)
 Cardiology (2010)
 Youth Authority (2016)

Other websites 
Official Site
Good Charlotte Fan Site 
Official Good Charlotte Myspace
Interview: Joel Madden of Good Charlotte

1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American punk bands
 
Musical groups established in 1996
Musical groups from Maryland
1996 establishments in Maryland
Grand Rapids is a large city in western Michigan, United States. About 200,000 people were living here in 2018.

Former American president Gerald Ford grew up in Grand Rapids. Grand Rapids is also the birthplace of Amway and the Meijer store chain.

Grand Rapids is the county seat of Kent County. It is the second largest city in the state, after Detroit. The third largest is Warren.

The city has many attractions, including the Frederik Meijer Gardens and Sculpture Park and John Ball Park, which is a zoo. Grand Valley State University has a campus in downtown Grand Rapids.

Many Reformed Christians from Dutch ancestry live in Grand Rapids.

Other websites 

County seats in Michigan