cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Utopia  is a name for an imaginary community or society with a perfect system of laws and politics. 

Sir Thomas More invented the word for his 1516 book Utopia. The book was about a fictional island in the Atlantic Ocean. The word has been used to describe both a perfect society, and societies in literature. A related idea is dystopia.

There have been many utopias based on politics, economics, religion, ecology. Some of these have been propagated in books and pamphlets, some as actual communities. In practice, attempts to create utopias seem doomed, as good intentions run against problems. Most of the literary utopias are actually satires of existing societies.

Literature examples 
Plato's Republic by Plato (~380 BCE) is one of the earliest conceptions of a utopia.
The City of God by Augustine of Hippo, (413–426 AD) describes an ideal city, the "eternal" Jerusalem, the archetype of all Christian utopias.
New Atlantis by Francis Bacon (1627).
Gulliver's Travels by Jonathan Swift (1726), a satire on human nature and on 'travellers tales'.
Erewhon by Samuel Butler (1872), a satirical utopia.
News from Nowhere by William Morris (1892). Nowhere: a place without politics, a future society based on common ownership and democratic control of the means of production.
A Modern Utopia by H. G. Wells (1905).
Nineteen Eighty-Four by George Orwell (1949), a dystopia.

References

Society
Durban (Zulu: eThekwini; IPA: ) has the third largest population of a city in South Africa. It is part of the province KwaZulu-Natal.

History 
It is thought that the first known inhabitants of the Durban area arrived from the north around 100,000 BC, according to carbon dating of rock art found in caves in the Drakensberg. These people lived in the central plains of KwaZulu-Natal until the expansion of Bantu people from the north during the last millennium.

Sister cities 
Durban's sister cities are:
  Alexandria, Egypt
  Chicago, Illinois, United States
  Eilat, Israel
  Leeds, England (United Kingdom)
  Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
  Guangzhou, China

Partner cities 
 Rotterdam, The Netherlands

References 

 Municipal Demarcation Board
  
 Independent Electoral Commission 2004 election results

Other websites 

 Official Durban city website 
 Durban Art Deco Directory 
 Accommodation in Durban 
 Durban harbour
 Google Maps
 durbanscouts.za.net Events, culture, news and information from Durban 
 Business in Durban 
 Durban Shack Dwellers' Organisation
 South Africa Today A YouTube Channel giving news updates on SA's high crime situation for tourists, business and media. Based in Durban, South Africa.

 
1880 establishments
1880s establishments in South Africa
In the United Kingdom, a Knight Bachelor is a man who is a knight, (has the title Sir) but who is neither a:
 senior member of one of the orders of chivalry, sometimes called orders of knighthood, nor
 a baronet.

In the 1920s, the Society of Knights Bachelor were allowed to wear a special badge on the days when other knights would wear their insignia.

The title is not hereditary, so it cannot be passed on to the knight's children, but a baronet's title can be inherited.

Men who get some jobs, such as senior judges, are made Knights Bachelor. Women cannot be knights bachelor, so if they get one of those jobs, they are made Dames of the Order of the British Empire (DBE)

Knights Bachelor have no post-nominal letters (letters after their name to show they are a knight), unlike knights of the orders of knighthood, who use letters like KBE, or GBE etc., or baronets who put Bt or Bart after their name.

The title "Sir" is always followed by the given name, so, Paul McCartney would be "Sir Paul McCartney" or "Sir Paul". They would never be Sir last name, so not "Sir McCartney". The same applies for women with the title "Dame" ("dame" is pronounced to rhyme with "same").

Knights Bachelor
English Heritage is an organization of the United Kingdom government (Department for Culture, Media and Sport). It manages many monuments of the historic environment of England. It was set up under the terms of the National Heritage Act 1983. Before the Department of the Environment had had these functions. 

English Heritage takes care of many important historical and archaeological sites, from Stonehenge to the world's first iron bridge. But it has responsibilities in conservation, giving advice, registering and protecting the historic environment as well.  It also maintains a public archive, the National Monuments Record (NMR).

Equivalent organisations
 Wales — Cadw
 Scotland — Historic Scotland
 Northern Ireland — Environment and Heritage Service
 Republic of Ireland — Office of Public Works

Other websites
English Heritage website
Images of England website 
Chief Executive website

History of England
Conservation organisations of the United Kingdom
1983 establishments in the United Kingdom
1980s establishments in England
The Filioque clause is a part of the Nicene Creed that not all Christians agree about. Filioque is Latin. In the context (of the Nicene Creed) it means and from the Son.  The main parties involved are the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox Church. The Eastern Orthodox Church rejects this change, the Catholic Church, as well as most Protestant and the Anglican Church accept it.

The Latin text is given below, the change is highlighted. This was added in the Catholic version.

This is usually translated into English as:

Many Eastern Catholic Churches have the same version as the Eastern Orthodox Churches. They do however believe what the added words say.

References

Christianity of the Middle Ages
Christian creeds
Christian terminology

he:רוח הקודש (נצרות)#רוח הקודש בזרם הנוצרי המרכזי
Historic Scotland is an agency of the Scottish Executive, that is responsible for historic monuments in Scotland.

Its website states: 
"Historic Scotland was created as an agency in 1991 and was attached to the Scottish Executive Education Department, which embraces all aspects of the cultural heritage, in May 1999. As part of the Scottish Executive Historic Scotland is directly accountable to Scottish Ministers for safeguarding the nation's built heritage, and promoting its understanding and enjoyment."

It has direct responsibility for maintaining and running over 200 monuments.

As an arm of government, Historic Scotland has similar functions to its counterparts in other parts of the United Kingdom:

English Heritage in England
Cadw in Wales,
Environment and Heritage Service in Northern Ireland.

Other website
Official website

Historic Scotland
Conservation organisations of the United Kingdom
Loudness is a heavy metal band from Japan. The band was founded in 1981 by singer Akira Takasaki and drummer Munetaka Higuchi. Loudness was the first Japanese heavy metal band to be signed to a recording contract in the United States.

References

Other websites 
Loudness Official Homepage 
Takasaki.net Loudness 
Loudness' page on MySpace

Japanese heavy metal bands
Osaka
The Gulag was a vast network of "slave labor" camps run by the Soviet Union from the 1920s to the 1950s. Ever since the Soviet Union was founded in 1917, it imprisoned people who spoke out against it or were otherwise dangerous. Imperial Russia in previous decades had a similar system of prison camps. But the Soviet Union camp system grew to be one of the largest prison systems in existence. The Soviet camp-system was set up under Vladimir Lenin.
It  reached its peak during Joseph Stalin's rule from the 1930s to the early 1950s. 

The Gulag was run at first by the GPU (State Political Directorate), later by the NKVD and in the last years by the Ministry of Internal Affairs (MVD). The internment system grew rapidly, reaching a population of 100,000 in the 1920s. According to Nicolas Werth, the yearly mortality rate in the Soviet concentration camps varied, reaching 5% (1933) and 20% (1942–1943) and dropped in the post-war years to about 1 to 3% per year at the beginning of the 1950s.

Soviet leaders believed it was right to put these people to work and make their labor and goods part of the national economy. In fact, two out of every hundred workers in the Soviet Union were gulag prisoners. By 1936, there were 5,000,000 prisoners in the gulags.

Location 
Even though the Gulag is often associated with Siberia, labor camps were built across the Soviet Union. Siberian camps greatly simplified the problem of keeping prisoners from running away, though it was harder to feed these camps and move goods in and out because the camps were so far away.

Decline and legacy 
The Gulag system declined during the 1950s after the death of Joseph Stalin, and many people were released starting in 1954.  The Gulag program was ended with a government decree in 1960.

According to the Gulag administration, 10 million people were sent to the gulags between 1934 and 1947.  However, Western scholars estimate that between 1918 and 1956, 15 to 30 million died in the gulags. 

Former prisoner and Nobel Prize-winning author Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn wrote two books about the Gulag: One Day in the Life of Ivan Denisovich  and The Gulag Archipelago.

When Nikita Khrushchev became the leader of the Soviet Union, he began a "De-Stalinization" process. He made a secret speech, in which he denounced Stalin as having committed many murders of innocent people in Gulags and elsewhere, including Katyn massacre and slaughter of Poles in Ukraine & Belarus in 1937 and 1938.

References

Human rights
Soviet Union
Concentration camps
A multimeter or a multitester is an electronic measuring tool that is a combination of several tools in one unit. It usually includes an ammeter, voltmeter, and ohmmeter. Digital multimeters are sometimes called DMM too.

Modern multimeters can be used to measure electrical quantities other than current, resistance and voltage. For example, they can be used to measure frequency, capacitance, transistors Hfe and temperature.

The multimeter can make many tests, so it is often called "multitester".  When measuring resistance it acts as an ohmmeter, showing ohms.  For volts it would be a Voltmeter.  Sometimes it is called a mixture of things like  Volt/ohm meter or VOM. Most meters can measure volts, amps, and resistance.

How it can be measured
The multimeter can be used to measure the voltage of a battery. It can also be used for measuring the voltage across two points in a circuit. The Voltmeter is placed in parallel between the positive and negative terminals of the battery. It can also be used to measure resistance and amps hence the name of some meters "Voltmeter, Ohmmeter, and Amperage".

References

Other websites  
 Multimeter Tutorial - Lots of useful information on Digital multimeter usage.

Measuring tools
In tort law, an invitee is a member of the public who has been invited to do business with the owner of a property.  For example, if someone owns a store and invites someone else to come into the store to buy something, the person who is invited is an invitee.

In some places (or jurisdictions), tort law asks whether a person is an invitee when it decides what duty the owner of land has to keep that person safe from harm.

Law
In law, negligence is a kind of legal claim that people and organizations can bring if they are hurt. It is a kind of tort. The law calls someone negligent if he hurts someone else, or someone else's property, because he was not careful enough. In a legal case about negligence, the person who brings the lawsuit is called the plaintiff and the person who is being sued is called the defendant.

Negligence case 

The law about negligence is different in many places (or jurisdictions), but for the plaintiff to win, he or she usually has to prove at least four things:

 the defendant had a duty to behave in a certain way;
 the defendant breached that duty;
 the plaintiff was damaged, or harmed as a result; and
 the breach of duty was the cause reasonably predictable cause of the plaintiff's harm.

Duty 

The defendant's duty is what the law says that he or she has to do. Usually, the law says that people have to be reasonable. That means they have to be careful, use good judgment, and not be unfair to other people. In some cases, the law tells people that they have special duties. In other cases, the law says that people have no duties at all. For example, in most places that use the common law, a person has no legal duty to rescue another person from harm, even if the rescue is very easy and does not cost anything or put anyone else in danger.

Breach 

When people do not follow their duty, the law says that they breach their duty.

Harm 

A plaintiff can usually bring a lawsuit only if he or she has been hurt, or has some other legal harm. The law tells people what kinds of injuries people can sue about.

Cause 

A plaintiff can usually sue a defendant only if that defendant was the one who hurt the plaintiff. In many cases, it is easy to figure out who hurt someone. But sometimes people get hurt in ways that nobody expects. For example, a defendant might be driving while drunk, and he might hit an electric pole. The electric pole could fall down and cause a neighborhood to lose electric power. As a result, a person two miles away might trip and fall in the dark. The law will decide whether the drunk driver caused the person to trip and fall.

Outside the law 

The word negligence is sometimes used outside the law in a similar way. It means that someone has not been careful enough.

References 

Law
Cytokinesis is the division of cells after either mitosis or meiosis I and II.

During cytokinesis, the cytoplasm (the liquid center of the cell that holds the organelles into place) splits into two equal halves, and the cell becomes two daughter cells. This occurs right after the beginning of anaphase (in mitosis and in meiosis I and II).

Cell division continues during telophase (in mitosis and in meiosis I and II) until the cell has completely divided. mitosis and meiosis II starts again after cytokinesis. A new and complete nucleus has been formed in each of the two cells.

Cytokinesis in plants 

In plants cytokinesis is slightly different. As plant cells cannot move apart because of their cell wall, a cell plate begins to form during late anaphase and throughout telophase. 

When the cytoplasm and organelles are divided evenly between the two new cells, the plate then becomes less flimsy and soon becomes another cell wall separating the daughter cells. Cytokinesis splits the cell wall, unlike animal cells, where it splits the cytoplasm. The cell wall grows later as the two new cells expand.

References 

Cell biology
Femininity is a set of attributes, behaviors, and roles generally associated with females. Femininity is made up of both socially defined and biologically created factors. This makes it distinct from the simple definition of the biological female sex, as women, men, and transgender people can all exhibit feminine traits.

The colour pink is associated with femininity.

Femininity is also exhibited through certain natural instincts and biological traits like the broadening of the hips in females to support the baby in the womb during pregnancy and while reproduction, development of breasts and high pitched voice are the most common and evident in human beings.

Women
Gender
An assault is when a person attacks another. In law, it is considered a crime or tort. In common law, it is when somebody threatens or tries to physically hurt someone else.  In order to be considered assault, the act must involve the ability to cause the harm. It does not necessarily have to involve touching the other person; that is called battery. In criminal law, an assault can be an attempted but unsuccessful battery. In some states or legal codes, the words "assault" and "battery" may mean the same thing.

There are several different kinds of assault. Each legal system has their own definitions.

A stronger form of assault is aggravated assault. This usually involves using a weapon that could easily be used to kill.

References 

Types of crime
Violence
Megaloblastic anemia is a kind of anemia. It can be caused by not having enough vitamins, especially Vitamin B12 or folic acid.

Diseases
A legal code is a written system of laws.  To codify the law is to write it down in a systematic manner.

Legal codes are typically written by legislatures.

Law
Peer may refer to:

 Peerage, a system of nobility in various countries
 Peer group, a group of people of the same age, ability, etc.
 Peer-to-peer computer network, in which users act as both client and server
 Peer (Belgium)

pl:BitTorrent#Podstawowe pojęcia
Plácido Domingo KBE (born 21 January 1941) is an Spanish operatic tenor and conductor. He is often regarded as one of the leading tenors of his generation.

Life and career

Born José Plácido Domingo Embil in Madrid, Spain, the son of singers who later moved to Mexico, where he made his vocal study. He began his career as a baritone singing in operettas but quickly retrained as a tenor. He made his official operatic debut in Mexico City in 1961, as Alfredo in La traviata. 

He sang in Tel Aviv from 1962 to 1965 in a wide variety of roles often in Hebrew. He made his American debut at the New York City Opera in 1965, and at the Metropolitan Opera in 1968. This was followed by La Scala in Milan (1969), the Royal Opera House in London (1971), the Paris Opéra (1973), and most of the great opera houses of the world. 

Although mostly associated with the Italian and French repertoire, he has in recent years sung several Wagner roles, and turned to conducting. He is the General Director of the Washington National Opera and the Los Angeles Opera. 

He was one of "The Three Tenors", alongside Luciano Pavarotti and José Carreras, and got 1.5 million dollars each time they sang.

In August 2019, Domingo was accused by nine women of sexual harassment.

In March 2020, Dominago was diagnosed with COVID-19 and hospitalized in Mexico.

References

1941 births
Living people
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Madrid
Spanish opera singers
Spanish singers
Tenors
Latin Grammy Award winners
Honorary Knights Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Leukemia or leukaemia is a cancer of white blood cells and bone marrow. When a person has leukemia, the body creates too many white blood cells (leukocytes).

There are many kinds of leukemia. Leukemia is part of a bigger group of diseases, the blood cancers (hematological neoplasms).  Without treatment, leukemia may lead to death within weeks, months, or years. The life of the person depends upon the type of leukemia.

In 2000, about 256,000 children and adults around the world developed some form of leukemia, and 209,000 died from it.  About 90% of all leukemias are seen in adults.

Four major types of leukemia 
Leukemia can be either acute or chronic.  Acute leukemia usually grows quickly.  Chronic leukemia grows slowly.

Leukemia can also affect two different types of white blood cells. These are lymphoid cells and young granulocyte cells (which are called myelocytes).

For this reason, all of the different forms of leukemia are divided into four main types:
 Acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) is the most common type of leukemia. It is common in young children but can also be seen in old people.
 Chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) is usually seen in people over the age of 55. Children almost never have this.
 Acute myelogenous leukemia (AML) is seen more commonly in adults than in children.
 Chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML) happens mostly in adults.

Causes and risk factors 
The causes of most types of leukemia are not known. In general, all cancers have a breakdown in the normal way cell division is controlled. Most likely, the different kinds of leukemias have different causes. The known causes account for relatively few cases. Most of the causes are outside our control.

Researchers believe that some things may influence whether a person develops leukemia:
 Exposure to Ionizing radiation
 Exposure to certain chemicals, for example benzene.
 Certain viruses
 Treatment with certain drugs that influence how cells develop; e.g. treatment of a tumor; Chemotherapy
 Certain genetic factors.

Viruses that are believed to cause leukemia include:
 Human immunodeficiency virus or HIV
 Human T-lymphotropic virus

Fanconi anemia is also a risk factor for developing acute myelogenous leukemia.

Treatment
Most cases of leukemia are treated with many drugs, which are usually combined into a chemotherapy program. In some cases, radiation therapies or bone marrow transplants are done.

Leukemia inhibitory factor 
Leukemia inhibitory factor, or LIF, is an interleukin 6 class cytokin. It affects cell growth by inhibiting differentiation. When LIF levels drop, the cells differentiate.

References

Cancer
Blood disorders
Blood cells
Gaucho () or Gaúcho () is the term commonly used for people who live in the south regions of Brazil, mainly in Rio Grande do Sul. It can also be used for people from Uruguay, Argentina and Chile. They are similar to the North American cowboys, and, like them, gauchos of Argentina have become a symbol of freedom.

History 

Working with his horse, a laço, boleodoros, and a knife, gauchos rode around the Pampas, killing wild cattle whose hides he sold secretly. They were usually outlaws, and did not become respectable until they fought with San Martin for Argentine freedom. After some time, many gauchos began working for hacendados and spent their lives helping huge herds of cattle over the Pampas. They liked to choose where they worked and traveled from place to place.

Description 
Like cowboys, gauchos had a traditional outfit: a big hat, a collared shirt (mainly red), and baggy pants called bombachas, which were tucked into leather boots. Colorful pieces of cloth or a wide leather belt decorated with silver went around his waist, and silver spurs were on his boots. When working, gauchos often wore a big leather apron.

Today, though, most gauchos are disappearing. Trucks, roads, and fences are changing gauchos into farmers and assistants. Traditional dress is usually worn only on festival days, when they can remember their exciting old days.

References

Other websites 

Movimento Tradicionalista Gaucho 
Pagina do Gaucho 

South America
Brazil
Argentina
Chile
Uruguay
The flag of Tunisia is a national flag.  It is red and white in colour with a star inside a moon.  It was created for the first time in 1831 by the Tunisian bey Hassine I. Since then, it has had some small changes.

Tunisia
Tunisia
1831 establishments
19th-century establishments in Africa
Establishments in Tunisia
Humat Al-Hima is the national anthem of Tunisia since November 1987.

The text (words) of this anthem was written by two men, Mustapha Sadiq Al-Rafi'i and Abul-Qacem Ech-Chebbi. And the Egyptian musician Mohamad Abdul-Wahab made its music.

Words 

Tunisia
National anthems
1987 establishments in Africa
Nymphadora Tonks is a fictional character in the Harry Potter book series written by J. K. Rowling. 

Tonks, as she is known, is the only daughter of Andromeda Black and Ted Tonks. She is a Half-Blood, but both of her parents are actually magical. Her mother is a pureblood from the ancient wizarding family of the Blacks, and her father is a muggle born, therefore considering that the majority of her father's family are muggles she is considered a half-blood, even though he is not a muggle himself. Tonks is a metamorphmagus, which means that she can change her appearance at will. Her Patronus is a jack rabbit, but it changed into a wolf (Remus's Patronus) due to her love for Remus Lupin.

Tonks is first described in the books as having a pale heart-shaped face, dark twinkling eyes, and short, spikey hair that was a violent shade of violet. She knocked over a plate in the Dursley's kitchen when the 'Advance Guard' came to pick up Harry to take to number twelve, Grimmauld Place. She also knocked over the troll umbrella stand, which made Sirius's mother, Walburga Black, start screaming. She is known as "seriously clumsy."

Nymphadora was born on the 11th of May, 1973. She attended Hogwarts School of Witchcraft and Wizardry from 1984-1991, the time of Charlie Weasley, and was Sorted into Hufflepuff House. She never became a Prefect in her 5th year, because her Head of House, Pomona Sprout, said she lacked necessary qualities, such as the ability to behave herself. 

She works as an Auror in the Ministry of Magic under the eye of Mad-Eye Moody. She worked as a spy for the Order of the Phoenix. So did Arthur Weasley, Kingsley Shacklebolt, and a few others, as they themselves worked inside the Ministry.

In Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows, she marries the werewolf Remus Lupin (even though she is much younger than him), and many people disapprove of her choice. Remus Lupin feels that he has endangered her and her son, and leaves her at the beginning of the Deathly Hallows. Harry, already lost his parents and his godfather, mocks him to be a coward, resulting in Harry was thrown into a wall by an angry Remus. But Remus Lupin decided that Harry was right and come back a few days later. They have a son named Edward Remus 'Teddy' Lupin. He is a metamorphmagus, just like his mother, Tonks, and is known for having aqua colored hair. Both Tonks and Lupin die during the Battle of Hogwarts, Lupin by Antonin Dolohov, and Tonks by Bellatrix Lestrange.

Teddy Lupin lives under the care of Andromeda, Tonks's widowed mother, and his godfather, Harry Potter.

Harry Potter characters

cs:Fénixův řád#Nymfadora Tonksová
de:Figuren der Harry-Potter-Romane#Nymphadora Tonks
en:Order of the Phoenix (fiction)#Nymphadora Tonks
fr:Lieux dans l’univers de Harry Potter#Ministère de la Magie
he:הארי פוטר - דמויות משנה#דמויות שונות
no:Medlemmer av Føniksordenen#Nymfadora Dult
ru:Нимфадора Тонкс
fi:Feeniksin kilta#Nymfadora Tonks
tr:Zümrüdüanka Yoldaşlığı#Nymphadora Tonks
Tonks may mean: 

Henry Tonks, artist
Lewi Tonks, American quantum physicist known for the discovery of the Tonks-Girardeau gas
Nymphadora Tonks, a fictional character in J. K. Rowling's Harry Potter novels
Andromeda Tonks or Ted Tonks, Nymphadora's parents
Rosemary Tonks, a British poet
Tonks Avenue in Wellington, New Zealand

fr:Personnages secondaires de l’univers de Harry Potter#Nymphadora Tonks
pl:Członkowie Zakonu Feniksa#Nimfadora Tonks
Scelidosaurus was an early type of herbivorous dinosaur. It was a thyreophoran, a lightly plated, herbivorous dinosaur about 4 metres long. It lived during the early  Jurassic, 208 to 194 million years ago. Its fossils have been found in England, Ireland, and in Arizona, in the United States.

Scelidosaurus has been called the earliest complete dinosaur. This and related genera have been found on three continents.

It is one of the earliest and most basal of the armoured dinosaurs. A review by Serano had Scelidosaurus as the sister group (closest relative) to both the Stegosauria and Ankylosauria.

A full-grown Scelidosaurus was rather small, compared to some later dinosaurs. Its  length was about 4 metres (13 ft). Scelidosaurus was quadrupedal, with the hindlimbs longer than the forelimbs. It may have reared up on its hind legs to browse on foliage from trees, but its forefeet were as large as its hind feet, indicating a mostly quadrupedal posture.

Scelidosaurus and its Jurassic relatives were herbivorous. Other ornithischians had teeth capable of grinding plant material, but Scelidosaurus had smaller, less complex teeth. Its jaw could only do simple up-and-down movements. In this aspect, they resembled the stegosaurids, which also had primitive teeth and simple jaws. Also, like stegosaurs, they may have swallowed gastroliths to aid processing of food (because of the lack of chewing ability). This is also done by modern birds and crocodiles. The diet of Scelidosaurus was low-lying plants like ferns and cycads. Seaweed has also been suggested as a food. Grass did not evolve until the Cretaceous period.

References 

Thyreophora
The genome of an organism is the whole of its hereditary information encoded in its DNA (or, for some viruses, RNA). This includes both the genes and the non-coding sequences of the DNA.
Professor Hans Winkler coined the term in 1920.

Winkler's definition, in translation, runs:
"I propose the expression genome for the haploid chromosome set, which, together with the pertinent protoplasm, specifies the material foundations of the species ...." p165

However, no single haploid chromosome set defines even the DNA of a species. Because of the huge variety of alleles carried by a population, every individual is genetically different. Even a diploid individual carries genetic variety. For that reason Dobzhansky preferred "set of chromosomes", and the definition now must be broader than Winklers' definition. The genome of a haploid chromosome set is merely a sample of the total genetic variety of a species.

The term 'genome' can be applied specifically to mean the complete set of nuclear DNA (the 'nuclear genome') but can also be used of organelles that contain their own DNA, as with the mitochondrial genome or the chloroplast genome.

Lists 
There are 10 lists of sequenced genomes on English Wikipedia. They include animals, archaea, bacteria, eukaryotes, fungi, algae, plants, plastomes, and protists. Readers must look in the main English Wikipedia for them under the title "Lists of sequenced genomes".

Genome sizes 

Note: The DNA from a single human cell has a length of ~1.8 m (but at a width of ~2.4 nanometers).

Related pages
Bioinformatics
Gene
Sequence analysis
Human genome
ENCODE: the complete analysis of the human genome

References 

 Benfey P. and Protopapas A.D. 2004. Essentials of genomics. Prentice Hall.
 Brown T.A. 2002. Genomes 2. Bios Scientific Publishers.
 Gibson G. and Muse S.V. 2004. A primer of genome science. 2nd ed. Sinauer Assoc.
 Gregory T.R. (ed) 2005. The evolution of the genome. Elsevier.
 Reece R.J. 2004. Analysis of genes and genomes. Wiley.
 Saccone C. and Pesole G. 2003. Handbook of comparative genomics. Wiley. 
 Werner E. 2003. In silico multicellular systems biology and minimal genomes. Drug Discov Today. 8(24):1121-7. PubMed
 Witzany G. 2007. Natural genome editing competences of viruses. Acta Biotheoretica.

Other websites 
 DNA Interactive: the history of DNA science
 DNA from the beginning
 All about the human genome project from Genome.gov
 Animal genome size database
 Plant genome size database 
 GOLD:Genomes OnLine Database
 The Genome News Network
 NCBI Entrez Genome Project database
 NCBI Genome Primer
 BBC News - Final genome 'chapter' published
 Software that maps an Artificial Genome sequence to a Network and to a Lineage tree
 IMG The integrated microbial genomes system, for genome analysis by the DOE-JGI.

Genetics
Atomic force microscopes (AFMs) are a type of microscope. AFMs provide pictures of atoms on or in surfaces. Like the scanning electron microscope (SEM), the purpose of the AFM is to look at objects on the atomic level. In fact, the AFM may be used to look at individual atoms. It is commonly used in nanotechnology.

The AFM can do some things that the SEM cannot do. The AFM can provide higher resolution than the SEM. Further, the AFM does not need to operate in a vacuum. In fact, the AFM can operate in ambient air or water, so it can be used to see surfaces of biological samples like living cells.

The AFM works by employing an ultra-fine needle attached to a cantilever beam. The tip of the needle runs over the ridges and valleys in the material being imaged, "feeling" the surface. As the tip moves up and down due to the surface, the cantilever deflects. In one basic configuration, a laser shines on the cantilever at an oblique angle, and allows for the direct measurement of the deflection in the cantilever by simply changing the angle of incidence for the laser beam. In this way, an image may be created revealing the configuration of the molecules being imaged by the machine.

There are many different operating modes for an AFM. One is the "contact mode", where the tip is simply moved across the surface and the cantilever deflections are measured. Another mode is called "tapping mode", because the tip is tapped against the surface as it travels along. By controlling how hard the tip is tapped, the AFM can move away from the surface when the needle feels a ridge, so that it will not hit against the surface when it moves across. This mode is also useful for biological samples, because it is less likely to damage a soft surface.
These are the basic modes most commonly used. However there are different names and methods such as "intermittent contact mode", "non-contact mode", "dynamic" and "static" modes and more, but these are often variations on the above described tapping and contact modes.

Related pages
 Microscope
 Electron microscope

References 

Microscopes
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali (September 3, 1936 – September 19, 2019) was the second President of Tunisia from 1987 to 2011.

On January 14, 2011, he was forced to leave Tunisia and go to Saudi Arabia with his wife Leïla Ben Ali and their three children after a month of protests against his rule. The Arab Spring started in Tunisia.

Birth
Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali was born in Hammam Sousse on September 3, 1936.

Work before Presidency
He was assigned to manage (direct and take care) the Defense Military Security in 1964, and worked there until 1974. He was then promoted (his grade was changed to a superior one) to director-general of National Security at the Ministry of Interior in 1977. After that, he was assigned to take care of relations between Tunisia and the Kingdom of Morocco.

After being the ambassador of Tunisia in Poland, he returned to National Security.

Right before becoming the President of Tunisian Republic, Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali has been promoted to Prime Minister and the constitutional successor on October 1, 1987.

Five weeks after his promotion he, officially, became the Second President of Tunisia.

Controversy
The way that Zine El-Abidine Ben Ali governs had cause some problems with groups including the Al-Jazeera channel. Al-Jazeera does not believe it is correct for Ben Ali to say that Muslim women wearing headscarves (religious clothes) in public places must take then off and say that they will not wear them in public again.

Death
Ben Ali died at a hospital in Jeddah, Saudi Arabia of prostate cancer on September 19, 2019 at the age of 83.

References

1936 births
2019 deaths
Deaths from prostate cancer
Presidents of Tunisia
Prime Ministers of Tunisia
Former dictators
Heraldry is the art and science of designing and using a coat of arms.  The study of coats of arms is also called armory.  The practice of using distinct markings on a person's shield started in the Middle Ages, when a knight's helmet covered his face, making everybody look the same in battle.  At first, only knights and nobility had coats of arms, but in the Middle Ages, some cities started using heraldry too.  By the end of the Middle Ages, other people began using coats of arms, now called burgher arms, which means they belong to a commoner and not a member of the nobility.  An official in charge of approving and recording coats of arms is called a herald.  The related study of flags is called vexillology.

Heraldry is described in English using a specialised jargon called Blazon which is based on French words.  Heraldry uses only bold, bright colors, called tinctures, with special names.  Gold, for instance, is called Or.  This word is often capitalised to distinguish it from the conjunction or.  Silver and white are sometimes treated as different colors, but in English Blazon both are called argent.  Some combinations of colors represent furs, and these have names that are only used in heraldry.  There are a number of geometric shapes, called ordinaries, that are used in heraldry, and each of these has a special name too.  The shield may be divided in a number of ways, usually following the lines of the ordinaries.
In the United Kingdom a baronet is a man who has the title Sir, like a knight, but who is neither
 a senior member of one of the orders of chivalry, sometimes called orders of knighthood, nor
 a Knight Bachelor.

Unlike the members of the orders of chivalry and a knight bachelor a baronet can pass his title to his children.

Baronets rank higher than knights, but below barons.

History 

Some baronets were created in the 1300s, but the modern Order of Baronets dates from King James I of England.

On 22 May 1611 King James I set up the present hereditary Order of Baronets in   England. He made 200 gentlemen of good birth baronets.  He did this partly to reward those people with more than a knighthood, without making them as important as a Baron.  The other reason was that the king needed money to keep soldiers in Ireland.  Each of the new baronets had to pay £1095, which was the cost of keeping thirty soldiers for   three years.

In 1619 James I set up the Baronetage of Ireland, to raise more money.

To explore Nova Scotia (New Scotland) in what we now call Canada, King James I of England was going a create  the Baronetage of Nova Scotia in 1624, but he died that year.  His son King Charles I  set up the Baronetage of Scotland and Nova Scotia in 1625.   The new baronets had to pay £2000 or to support six settlers for two years. 

Today over a hundred  baronets of Nova Scotia still exist. The Duke of Roxburghe, who is also Baronet of Innes-Ker of Innes is the Premier Baronet of Scotland  because the baronetcy is the oldest one still existing in Scotland.  It was created in 1625.

Insignia 

The Baronets of Nova Scotia were allowed to wear a badge from 1629. The design on the badge is the same as the flag of Nova Scotia

Baronets of England, of Ireland, of Great Britain or of the United Kingdom had no badge until 1929.

References
Berkelium (IPA: ) is a synthetic, radioactive, chemical element in the periodic table that has the symbol Bk and atomic number 97. It is a metallic element and part of the actinide series. Berkelium was invented by scientists and does not exist in nature. Berkelium was first made by hitting americium with alpha particles or helium ions. It is named after Berkeley, California and the University of California, Berkeley.

Uses 
Its only uses are to create bigger elements and research.

References 
Los Alamos National Laboratory - Berkelium
It's Elemental - Berkelium

Other websites 

WebElements.com - Berkelium

Chemical elements
Actinides
Berkeley, California
BBC Learning English is a website hosted by the BBC World Service since 1996. It provides free learning materials for people who speak English as a second language and want to improve their English Language skills.

References

BBC
Omarosa Manigault Newman (born February 5, 1974) known mononymously as Omarosa is a former participant on Donald Trump's television reality show The Apprentice. Omarosa was born in Youngstown, Ohio where she attended Rayen High School. She has gone on to appear on various talk shows and other reality shows, where her strong personality has often been the source of controversy. Her partner was late actor Michael Clarke Duncan.

The Apprentice 
Omarosa's appearance on Trump's The Apprentice ended on Week Nine, when she was "fired" (see Season 1). During the final episode, in which two finalists competed, contestant Kwame Jackson chose Omarosa as part of his final team. Trump complained that Jackson was unable to control Omarosa and added that he should have fired her.

Donald Trump cabinet 
In 2016, President-elect of the United States Donald Trump selected Omarosa to be Director of Communications for the White House Office of Public Engagement and Intergovernmental Affairs. She resigned on January 20, 2018, a year after taking the position.

Post White House Controversy
In August 2018 while on a book tour, she released controversial recordings of her time in the white house, including conversations with the president and white house chief of staff John Kerry. She also told MNSBC she had heard Trump use the N-word during the Apprentice.

References

1974 births
Living people
Participants in American reality television series
People from Youngstown, Ohio
Anne Josephine Robinson (born 26 September 1944) is an English television presenter and game show host. She was born in Crosby, Lancashire. She is best known for presenting BBC quiz show, The Weakest Link from 2000-2012 which earned her the nickname "Queen of Mean". In the United States she presented Weakest Link for three series on NBC. She is one of the presenters on the long-running British consumer affairs series, Watchdog from 1993-2001 and again from 2009-2015, on 28th June 2021, she became the new host of the long-running game show Countdown.

Personal life
In 2001, Robinson was diagnosed with skin cancer, for which she had surgery.

References

Other websites 

1944 births
Living people
British game show hosts
English journalists
English television presenters
Skin cancer survivors
Television personalities from Lancashire
Scooch are a British bubblegum dance group. The members of Scooch are Natalie Powers, Caroline Barnes, David Ducasse, and Russ Spencer. They formed in 1998.

Scooch represented the United Kingdom in the Eurovision Song Contest 2007 in Helsinki, Finland, with their song "Flying the Flag (for You)".

The song reached #5 in the UK Top 40 Singles Chart on 13 May 2007. People had already had the chance to download the song 2 months before. If however the download and CD were released at the same time it is considered that they would have been #1 in the UK for 2 weeks in a row.

Performance in the ESC final
Scooch performed in 19th place on the final night and after the votes were confirmed, came 22nd out of 42 entries. The quartet received 7 points from Ireland and the maximum 12 points from Malta. This was the first time since 2002 that a UK Eurovision entrant had received the maximum 12 points in the competition from any country.

Other websites 
Facebook

1998 establishments in the United Kingdom
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English pop music groups
Musical groups established in 1998
Rock art is a term in archaeology for any markings that were made on natural stone by human beings. They can be divided into:

Petroglyphs – carvings into stone surfaces
Pictographs – rock and cave paintings

In addition, there is rock art made by aligning or piling natural stones.  The stones themselves are used as large markings on the ground.

Location
One can find petroglyphs and pictographs on the walls of a cave or on rock in open-air.

Similar terms 
Rock art has also been described as rock records, rock sculptures, rock inscriptions, rock carvings, rock paintings, rock engravings, rock drawings, rock pictures,

Gallery

Related pages 
Cave painting
Upper Palaeolithic

References

Further reading 
Malotki, Ekkehart and Weaver, Donald E. Jr., 2002, Stone Chisel and Yucca Brush: Colorao Plateau Rock Art, Kiva Publishing Inc., Walnut, CA,  (cloth). For the "general public", this book has well over 200 color prints with commentary on each site where the photos were taken; the organization begins with the earliest art and goes to modern times.
Rohn, Arthur H. and Freguson, William M, 2006, Puebloan ruins of the Southwest, University of New Mexico Press, Albuquerque, NM,  (pbk, : alk. paper). Adjunct to the primary discussion of the ruins, contains color prints of rock art at the sites, plus interpretations.
Schaafsma, Polly, 1980, Indian Rock Art of the Southwest, School of American Research, Sana Fe, University of New Mexico press, Albuquerque, NM, . Scholarly text with 349 references, 32 color plates, 283 black and white "Figures", 11 Maps, and 2 Tables.

Other websites 
 Ekaterina, Devlet. 2001. Rock Art and the material culture of Siberian and central Asian shamanism. In The Archaeology of Shamanism. 43-54. 01/04/2007. 
 Rock Art studies - A Bibliographic database at the Bancroft Library containing over 10,000 citations to the world's rock art literature.
 The website of Rock Art Foundation - Native American Rock Art
 Trust for African Rock Art
 British Rock Art Collection 
 ARARA American Rock Art Research Association.
 Rupestre.net A rock art site, mainly devoted to Valcamonica and Alpine Rock Art.
 EuroPreArt The database of European Prehistoric Art.
 Art and Archaeology of the Dampier Archipelago 
 Bradshaw Foundation Supports dissemination of information on rock art, migration, and the study of artistic man around the world.
Rock Art in South Africa http://rockart.wits.ac.za/origins/ 
 UNESCO World Heritage: Rock Shelters of Bhimbetka

Art
Painting
Ancient history
Stone Age
Edward Teach (1680 – 22 November 1718) was a pirate, often called "Blackbeard the Pirate". (It is not clear what his real name actually was; some historians think that his last name may really have been Thatch.)  He attacked ships in the Caribbean and the American colonies. His flagship ship was the captured French slave ship La Concorde which Blackbeard renamed Queen Anne's Revenge. About 1718 it ran aground near Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina and was abandoned.

Blackbeard often fought wearing a big feathered tricorn hat, and with lots of  swords, knives, and pistols. Some pictures show him with lighted rope matches woven into his enormous black beard during battle. The matches burned slowly and gave of lots of smoke.  They were designed to make him look frightening.   He probably got the idea from seeing the burning rope was used to light the gunpowder in cannons and guns. (These old fashioned guns were called matchlocks, later a flint was used to make a spark, these were called flintlock guns). No one knows how many wives Blackbeard had. The book A General History of the Pirates says that he had as many as fourteen wives, but he was not legally married to most of them.

Early life 

Blackbeard is thought to have been born in Bristol, England. Teach went to sea when he was very young. He served on an English ship in the War of the Spanish Succession, privateering in the Spanish West Indies and along the Spanish Main. At the war's end in 1713, Teach, like many other privateers, turned to piracy. Blackbeard was born in a trade epicenter and he grew up knowing about sailing. Many merchant ships landed and traded there.

Blackbeard the Pirate

Teach began as a pirate under Benjamin Hornigold. In 1716, Hornigold retired, taking advantage of an amnesty offered to former privateers by the British government. Teach then took command of his own ship.

During the next two years Blackbeard attacked merchant ships, forcing them to allow his crew to board their ship. The pirates would seize all of the valuables, food, liquor, and weapons. Ironically, despite his ferocious reputation, there are no verified accounts of him actually killing anyone.

Capture and death 

The Lieutenant-Governor of Virginia, Alexander Spotswood sent two ships after Blackbeard.  On 18 November 1718, Lt. Robert Maynard sailed from Hampton, Virginia to Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina.  On 22 November 1718, Maynard and his men defeated Blackbeard and the pirates.  The most complete account of the following events comes from the Boston News-Letter: 

Teach was said to have been shot five times and stabbed more than twenty times before he died and was decapitated. Legends about his death immediately sprang up. His headless body, was thrown overboard, but swam three times around the ship before sinking. Teach's head was placed as a trophy on the bowsprit of the ship.  Captain Maynard had to keep the head to claim his prize when he returned home. Later, Teach's head hung from a pike in Bath, Somerset.

References 

1680 births
1718 deaths
Pirates
Mysterious people