cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The toothbrush is a tool to clean teeth. The toothbrush has a small brush at the end of a handle. Toothpaste, which often contains fluoride, is commonly added to a toothbrush to help clean the teeth. Both toothpaste and toothbrushes come in many different colours. Toothpastes can also come in many different flavours. Nice toothbrushes (especially electrical) can make toothbrushing fun and help your child on the way to perfect oral health.

Invention 
Toothbrushes were first invented by a prisoner. Before anyone had thought of a toothbrush, people kept their teeth clean by chewing on a stick until one end got soft and frayed like a brush. Sometimes they dipped a finger in chalk or salt and then rubbed their teeth. Toothpicks were another way to take care of teeth, and toothpicks were very fancy then. They were made of gold or jewels, and people would stick them in their hats or hang them on necklaces when they were not using them. 

The first brushes came from China, where the Chinese made them out of hairs pulled from the back of wild hogs. The kind of toothbrush we know came from William Addis. He worked on the toothbrush while he was in jail. First, he saved a bone from one of his meals and poked some holes in it. The prison guard gave him some bristles. Joseph tied the bristles into little bundles, cut them to make them even, put glue on the ends, and stuffed them into the holes. The company he started still make millions of toothbrushes every year.

Etymology
The word toothbrush came from the two parts of the word, first a noun and then a verb or noun. The action of brushing teeth with a toothbrush is basically the use of the invention of Joseph Addis.

References

Tools
Teeth
Hygiene
Homeostasis  is self-regulation, a basic property of all self-organising systems. In biology, it is the keeping of a stable internal environment.

Homeostasis is life's ability to stay balanced, when the environment changes. Animals keep their body in a stable condition. They do so by regulating their inner equilibrium . For example, they adjust their pH, temperature, amount of oxygen or carbon dioxide in the blood and so on. In living things, the study of how they keep in a stable condition is called physiology. Mostly, our physiology works unconsciously throughout life. We have many negative feedback systems which adjust our physiology so that we stay alive. These systems are self-organising and do not need to be learnt. They are inherited.

The concept was described by Claude Bernard, and the term was later coined by Walter Cannon in 1926, 1929, and 1932. Walter Cannon thought these were the features of homeostasis:
Constancy in an open system, such as our bodies, is done by mechanisms which maintain this constancy. Cannon based this on insights into the ways by which steady states such as glucose concentrations, body temperature and acid-base balance were regulated.
To keep a steady-state condition, any change automatically meets with factors that resist change. An increase in blood salt results in thirst as the body attempts to dilute the concentration of salt in the extracellular fluid.
The regulating system doing homeostasis has a number of cooperating mechanisms which act simultaneously or successively. Blood sugar is regulated by insulin, glucagons, and other hormones that control its release from the liver or its uptake by the tissues.

Examples of homeostasis:
 The operation of a thermostat
 The regulation of water and minerals in the body 
 The regulation of body temperature: mammals and birds have complicated systems which keep their body temperature within close limits.

In mammals, the main organs involved with homeostasis are:
The hypothalamus and pituitary gland
the lungs
the skin
the muscles
the kidneys
the liver and pancreas
The brain is also central to homeostasis. It controls behaviour, and the basic function of behaviour is to support life by taking action.

References

Related pages
Biology
Biochemistry
Physiology
Cybernetics

Physiology
Systems theory

lt:Savireguliacija
A toilet is a place where humans get rid of waste that comes from their bodies (urine and feces). Most toilets use water to flush the waste through plumbing into a sewage system. However, some modern toilets do not use water, and are called dry toilets.

A room that has a toilet can be called a "restroom" or "bathroom" in the United States. In other places it may be called the toilet or the water closet (WC).

Toilets in homes 

Almost all modern buildings have at least one toilet. In the home, a toilet may or may not be in the same room as a shower or a bathtub. Some toilets are outside, in an "outhouse".

In developing countries, many people do not have a toilet in their home. More than 4.5 billion people do not have access to toilets.

Public toilets 

A public toilet may or may not cost money to use. Toilets that cost money are called "pay toilets".

Public bathrooms often have many toilets with walls between them. This makes areas called stalls (US) or cubicles (UK). Bathrooms for men often also have separate urinals. Urinals can either be on the wall for a single user, or a basin or trough for many men to use at the same time. Urinals on walls sometimes have small walls or dividers for privacy reasons.

Outdoor public toilets (in the street, around parks, etc.) are a form of street furniture. These toilets are in individual cubicles. Some are simple and have little or no plumbing. Others are less simple, and some toilets even clean themselves after every use.

Some toilet-cubicles are mobile and can be put in place where and when they are needed. These toilets are called "portable toilets". Portable toilets are commonly used at large outdoor events like concerts, festivals or carnivals.

Inventions 
In 1775, Alexander Cumming patented the S-bend. This was crucial in the development of the flushing toilet. It was a simple length of pipe with a curve in it.

 
Every day, toilets use 141 billion liters of water to flush waste. Engineers try to make toilets that do not need so much water. In 2019, one group made a chemical to put in  toilets to make them more slippery so that the waste flushes away with only a little water.

References

Other websites 

Toilet guide for travelers
Public Toilet Near Me
World Toilet Day celebrated on November 19
World Toilet Organization

Home
Waste management
Psittacosis is a bacterial disease that can be caught from birds such as parrots, pigeons, and parakeets. The disease is not common, with only 50 reported cases in the United States each year.

Psittacosis usually gives flu-like symptoms, such as fevers, chills, headaches, muscle aches, and a dry cough. The disease can also look like pneumonia on an x-ray. In rare cases, Psittacosis can cause endocarditis - swelling of joints, and swelling of the cornea. 

Psittacosis can be easily treated with antibiotics, especially with Tetracycline. The disease rarely kills people, with only 1% of those who get the disease dying.

Diseases caused by bacteria
A file extension or filename extension is a suffix at the end of a filename. It is used to show the type of a computer file. This suggests what program can understand it. For example, MYWORDS.TXT is a plain text file and may be opened by a text editor. Filename extensions come after the name of the file, and many of them are three letters long. 

Some examples of common file extensions are:
 HASH are hash program files
 TXT files are plain text files
 BMP are bitmap picture files
 JPG are picture files in the JPEG format
 MP3 are music files in the MP3 format
 AAC are Advanced Audio Coding music files
 FLAC are Free Lossless Audio Codec
 ALAC are Apple Lossess Audio Codec
 WMA are Windows Media Audio sound files
 MPEG are motion picture encoded video files
 MKV are Mastroska Video Codec
 WMV are Windows Media Video files
 HTM or *HTML are Hyper Text Markup Language files such as web pages
 PHP are web server scripts which create web pages
 ODT are Open Document text files
 DOC are text documents in Microsoft Word format
 XLS are Microsoft Excel spreadsheet documents
 PPT are Microsoft Power Point presentation files
 EXE are Microsoft Windows executable program files
 DLL are Dynamic Link Libraries, a type of executable file, in MS Windows
 ZIP are Compressed files (Lempel Ziff algorithm in an archive)
 Z are Unix / Linux compressed files
 bz2 are bzip2 block compressed files (very good compression)
 jar are Java archive files
 JSP are Java server pages files
 java are Java source code files
 class are Java compiled source code files
 oc are Java run-time library files
 tar are Unix / Linux tape archive files
 sh are Unix / Linux shell script files
 awk are Unix C like pattern processing language source code files
 sed are Unix stream editor command files
 lex are Unix / Linux lexical analyzer C code generator specification files
 c are C programming language source files
 o are C programming language compiled (object) files
 cs are C# programming language files
 rb are Ruby programming language files
 pl are Perl or Prolog programming language files

There are many other commonly used file extensions.

You can change the program defaults so that the computer knows which program to open each type of file extension with.

Software
Computer file formats
Lagomorpha is a mammal order. It includes pikas, rabbits and hares. Although the lagomorphs look like rodents, they are not so, but are closely related to them. They have four incisors on the upper jaw, not two as in rodents. Also, they only eat plant material, not meat as rodents do to some extent. 

Rabbits were classified under rodents until the 20th century.  They are divided into two families, Leporidae, hares and rabbits, and Ochotonidae, the pikas.

It has been known for some time that the Lagomorpha is an unusual group, and there have been many speculations about its evolution. Darren Naish explains this.

Taxonomy 
 Order Lagomorpha
 Family Ochotonidae (Pikas)
 Genus Ochotona
 Family Leporidae (rabbits and hares)
 Genus Brachylagus
 Genus Bunolagus
 Genus Caprolagus
 Genus Lepus
 Genus Nesolagus
 Genus Oryctolagus (includes the domestic rabbit)
 Genus Pentalagus
 Genus Poelagus
 Genus Pronolagus
 Genus Romerolagus
 Genus Sylvilagus

References
Lupus, or Lupus erythematosus, is a disease of the immune system. It is chronic, which means it does not go away. It is an autoimmune disease, where the person's immune system attacks their own body.

The immune system is partly made up of white blood cells in your body that fight off disease. In lupus, these white blood cells think that the healthy cells of the body around them are diseased, so they end up attacking healthy parts of the body. Lupus can be deadly. It causes swelling and tissue damage, and can attack any part of the body. It most commonly affects the heart, joints, skin, lungs, blood vessels, kidneys and the brain/nervous system. Some symptoms include: fatigue, fever with no cause, hair loss, mouth sores, sensitivity to sunlight, a skin disease, and Raynaud's syndrome. There is treatment for lupus, called immunosuppression, which is medicine that stops the white blood cells from damaging healthy cells for a while. After a while, this medicine wears off, and then the white blood cells go back to hurting healthy parts of the body again. For the disease of lupus, there is no cure that stops the white blood cells from attacking healthy parts of the body forever, but doctors are not giving up on finding a cure.

Lupus takes its name from the Latin word "lupus", meaning wolf. This is because a lupus-caused rash on a person's face makes the person's face look like the face of a wolf. In the United States alone, there may be 270,000 to 1.5 million (1,500,000) people with lupus. Worldwide, it is estimated (not known for sure, but a good guess) that over 5 million (5,000,000) people living with lupus. The disease mainly affects young women, but men can be affected as well.

Famous people with lupus
Disney Star Selena Gomez was diagnosed with lupus in 2013.
The pop singer Michael Jackson was diagnosed with systemic lupus in 1986.
Toni Braxton has systemic lupus.
British singer-songwriter Seal has had scarring on his face due to lupus since the age of 23.

References

Autoimmune diseases
Kuomintang (KMT; ; English: Chinese Nationalist Party), also known as Guomindang (GMD), is the main political party in Republic of China (Taiwan). It was ruling in Mainland China until 1949 when Communists captured the mainland and the KMT moved to Taiwan. It was founded by Song Jiaoren and Sun Yat-sen. Chiang Kai-shek later led for decades.

References

Political parties in Taiwan
Conservative parties
Nationalist organizations in Taiwan
Chiang Kai-shek was a Chinese nationalist politician and military leader who was  President of the Republic of China, born in Xikou on October 31, 1887.  His father was a merchant who died when Chiang was eight years old.  Chiang became an officer in the army of the Manchu empire, but supported the Chinese Xinhai Revolution of 1911 that converted China into a republic. 

He led the Republic of China from 1930 to 1949 on mainland China until he was overthrown by Mao Zedong in the Chinese Civil War. He fled to Taiwan where he ruled from 1950 until his death in 1975, although his government was still officially called the Republic of China.

Military career 

After his father died, Chiang joined the army. At first, he went to Baoding in northern China to study military science.  Later, he went to Japan to learn more about the military.  On October 10, 1911, Chiang Kai-Shek came back to China.   

In 1918, he joined the Nationalist Party of Sun Yat-sen.  Sun Yat-sen helped Jiang Kai-Shek make a military academic school called Huangpu Military School. In 1926 and 1927 he led the Northern Expedition to conquer local warlords and unify China.  After Sun Yat-sen died, he pushed out the Communists in 1927. In 1928, he made a new government in Nanjing, and became head of the state. He focused on fighting the Communists and the Empire of Japan. In 1937, Japan began to invade China, and Chiang was in charge of the Nationalist Chinese Army, until the war ended in 1945. Chiang ruled China until 1949, when Mao Zedong, who led the Communist Party of China, attacked Chiang and his officials, and they were forced to flee to Taiwan.

References

Other websites 
 Chiang Kai-shek, Citizendium

1887 births
1975 deaths
Anti-Communists
Deaths from cardiovascular disease
Generals
Methodists
Presidents of the Republic of China
Prime ministers
Taiwanese military people
Time People of the Year
World War II political leaders
Zhejiang
Dark matter is a type of matter thought to be responsible for much of the mass in the universe.

The idea arose when astronomers found that the mass of large astronomical objects, and their gravitational effects, was much greater than the mass from the "luminous matter" that contains stars, gas, and dust.

Dark matter was first proposed by Jan Oort in 1932 as a reason for the spinning speeds of stars in the Milky Way. Fritz Zwicky in 1933 used dark matter to explain "missing mass" in the spinning speeds of galaxies in clusters. Later, many other observations have suggested that there is dark matter in the universe. The spinning speeds of galaxies, gravitational lensing of background objects, the temperature distribution of hot gas in galaxies and clusters of galaxies: these are some of the examples that make scientists believe in dark matter.

According to the Planck mission team, and based on the standard model of cosmology, the total mass–energy of the known universe contains 4.9% ordinary matter, 26.8% dark matter and 68.3% dark energy . Thus, dark matter is estimated to make up 84.5%  of the total matter in the universe, while dark energy plus dark matter make up 95.1% of the total "stuff" in the universe.
 
Because dark matter does not seem to give off or reflect light, x-rays, or any other radiation, the instruments that are used to find normal matter (like hot gas, stars, planets, and us) can't find dark matter. It seems that dark matter is not made of the same thing as the matter we see every day on Earth. The only way we can tell if dark matter is there, is by how it affects things we can "see" by gravity.

In 2006, a group of scientists claimed that they had found a way to find dark matter. Since dark matter is supposedly very different from normal matter, it is expected to act differently. The scientists observed two far-away galaxy clusters that had crashed into each other at high speed: normal matter would have been scattered nearby after the collision, while dark matter would not. By measuring gravity, they were able to detect what looked like two clouds of dark matter, with a cloud of normal matter (hot gas) in between them.

Related pages 
 Dark energy
 Expansion of the Universe
 Nature timeline

References 

Astrophysics
Galaxies
Sanja Stijačić (born 14 November 1965) is a Serbian flutist. She is also a professor at the Faculty of Arts (Priština), University of Priština in Kosovska Mitrovica, Serbia and at the University of East Sarajevo, Republika Srpska, Bosnia and Herzegovina.

Serbian musicians
Stijacic, Sanja
1965 births
Living people
A comb is a tool used to care for hair or other fibers. It has small pieces sticking out of a main frame; these are called "teeth." A comb is usually flat.

Humans have been using combs as a tool for a long time, at least for 5,000 years. Combs are used by humans to separate tangled hairs, to keep their hair clean and to style their hair. They are also used as a decoration for hair.

Combs are used in the making of thread from fibers like wool or cotton. Combing makes all the fibres point the same way so a thread can be spun.

History 
The first use of the comb was about 5,000 years ago. Different kinds of comb have been found throughout history by archaeologists. The ancient Egyptians carved out combs. In ancient China, combs were worn as hair decorations and accessories. Over time, combs have become into tools for taking care of hair. Today, there are hundreds of different kinds of combs.

Use 
Combs can be used to fix stray hairs and untangle wet hair. Another common use for the comb is to make hair be put in one position before tying it up. Combs may also be used to part hair for coloring, conditioning and braiding. Combs can also be worn as accessories that hold hair up in a special style.

Gallery

References 

Basic English 850 words
Care
Journey is an American rock/heavy metal band from San Francisco, formed in 1973. They are known for their hit songs like "Don't Stop Believin", "Anyway You Want It", "Open Arms", "Lovin', Touchin', Squeezin' " and "Faithfully". Some of the members used to be members of the band Santana. The band has sold 75 million albums and were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2017.

Discography
Studio albums
 Journey (1975)
 Look into the Future (1976)
 Next (1977)
 Infinity (1978)
 Evolution (1979)
 Departure (1980)
 Escape (1981)
 Frontiers (1983)
 Raised on Radio (1986)
 Trial by Fire (1996)
 Arrival (2001)
 Generations (2005)
 Revelation (2008)
 Eclipse (2011)

1973 establishments in the United States
1970s American music groups
1970s establishments in California
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American heavy metal bands
American rock bands
Musical groups established in 1973
Musical groups from San Francisco
Bruno Brun (1910 — 1978) was a Yugoslavian clarinet player and professor at the Music Academy in Belgrade.

He graduated from the Belgrade Music Academy in 1945 and continued his education in Paris. He played as a soloist in Yugoslavia and other countries. He was one of the founders of the "Association of Musical Artists of Serbia".

His most famous students are Milenko Stefanovic, Mihailo Zivanovic, Ernest Ackun, Ante Grgin and Nikola Srdic.

References
 Blagojevic, Andrija."Bruno Brun (1910-1978) - Founder of the Yugoslav clarinet school."  ''The Clarinet'', Vol. 41/3 (June 2014), pp. 46-51.
 Blagojević, Andrija. "The Performance Career of Bruno Brun."  The Clarinet, Vol. 47/3 (June 2020), pp. 34–37.

1910 births
1978 deaths
Clarinetists
Yugoslavian people
The Faculty of Arts of Priština (Serbian: Факултет уметности у Приштини or Fakultet umetnosti u Prištini) is the faculty of arts of the University of Priština in Kosovo, Serbia.

History 
The Faculty of Arts of Pristina was founded in 1973 as the Academy of Arts, and got its present name in 1986. Because of Albanian terrorist attacks it was moved in 1999. It first moved to Varvarin and later to Zvečan, where it is now. It is part of the University of Priština temporarily relocated in Kosovska Mitrovica.

Divisions 
Art
Music
Theatre

Degrees offered

Acting 
 Bachelor of Arts
 Master of Arts

Music 
 Bachelor of Music
 Master of Music

Visual arts 
 Bachelor of Arts
 Master of Arts

Notable teachers 

Jasmina Novokmet
Milenko Stefanovic
Sanja Stijacic

Other websites 

 Official website
 Infostud 
 Ministry of Education of Republic of Serbia 

Colleges and universities in Europe
Buildings and structures in Serbia
1973 establishments in Europe
Jasmina Novokmet (born 8 September 1969 in Pristina, Yugoslavia) is a Serbian conductor, professor of conducting and former associate dean at the Faculty of Arts of Priština.  She is a former student of Jovan Šajnović.

Living people
1969 births
Serbian musicians
Conductors
A catapult is a type of machine used as a weapon to throw rocks, large arrows, or other things such as hot tar, that would cause damage to something else.  Often, catapults were set on higher ground or on castle towers to let them shoot farther.  They shot rocks to break castle walls, or pitch or hot tar to set the target on fire.

Catapults use weights and levers to send the rocks or other things into the air. They do not throw as far as modern weapons do, and are not useful in modern warfare.  Catapults were common in the past, especially the Middle Ages.

Nowadays catapults are used to study old weapons, and as experiments (for example in physics or engineering classes). Some old ones are kept in museums.

Aircraft carriers use much more powerful steam catapults to throw airplanes into the air.

References

Other websites 
How does a catapult work  - A thorough explanation of different types of catapults with images.
Animated Catapults Animations of a Roman mangonel and onager and a medieval trebuchet

Weapons
Year 1552 (MDLII) was a leap year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.

Events

Births
 February 1 – Edward Coke, English business person (d. 1634)
 February 8 – Agrippa d'Aubigné, French poet and soldier (d. 1630)
 February 19 – Melchior Klesl, Austrian statesman and cardinal (d. 1630)
 February 28 – Joost Bürgi, Swiss clockmaker and mathematician (d. 1632)
 June 18 – Gabriello Chiabrera, Italian poet (d. 1637)
 July 18 – Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor (d. 1612)
 August 24 – Lavinia Fontana, Italian painter (d. 1614)
 September 22 – Tsar Vasili IV of Russia (d. 1612)
 October 6 – Matteo Ricci, Italian Jesuit missionary to China (d. 1610)
 December 29 – Henri I de Bourbon, prince de Condé (d. 1588)
 December 30 – Simon Forman, English occultist and astrologer (d. 1611)
 date unknown
 Hans von Aachen, German mannerist painter (d. 1615)
 Thomas Aufield, English martyr (d. 1585)
 Jean Bertaut, French poet (d. 1611)
 Miguel de Benavides, Spanish clergyman (d. 1605)
 Richard Hakluyt, English writer, editor and translator (b. c. 1552 or 1553; d. 1616)
 Philemon Holland, English translator (d. 1637)
 Francisco Goméz de Sandoval y Rojas, Duke of Lerma, Spanish politician (d. 1625)
 Dom Justo Takayama, Japanese daimyo (d. 1615)
 Jean Hotman, Marquis de Villers-St-Paul, French diplomat (d. 1636)
 Jack Ward, English pirate (d. 1622)

Deaths 
 January 10 – Johann Cochlaeus, German humanist (b. 1479)
 January 22 – Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, English politician (b. 1509)
 February 26 – Heinrich Faber, German composer (b. 1500)
 April 18 – John Leland, English historian (b. 1502)
 May 26 – Sebastian Münster, German map maker (b. 1488)
 June 10 – Alexander Barclay, British poet (b. 1476)
 July 9 – György Szondy Hungarian soldier
 August 15 – Hermann of Wied, German Catholic archbishop (b. 1477)
 October 14 – Oswald Myconius, Swiss Protestant reformer (b. 1488)
 October 17 – Andreas Osiander, German Protestant theologian (b. 1498)
 December 2 – Francis Xavier, Spanish Jesuit missionary (b. 1506)
 December 20 – Katharina von Bora, wife of Martin Luther (b. 1499)
Year 1562 was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar.

Events 
 May 1 – Jean Ribault, French navigator, lands in Florida.
 September 22 – Maximilian becomes King of Bohemia.
 October – John Hawkins starts the English slave trade. He ships slaves from Sierra Leone to Hispaniola in the Caribbean.
 November 20 – Maximilian of Bohemia is elected King of the Romans.
 The Mughal Emperor Akbar conquers Malwa.

Births 
 January 13 – Mark Alexander Boyd, Scottish poet and soldier of fortune 
 January 20 – Ottavio Rinuccini, Italian composer 
 Jan Pieterszoon Sweelinck, Dutch composer 
 May 6 – Pietro Bernini, Italian sculptor 
 July 25 – Katō Kiyomasa, Japanese samurai 
 November 25 – Lope de Vega, Spanish poet and dramatist
 Isabella Andreini, Italian actress 
 John Bull, English composer
 Henry Constable, English poet
 Maeda Toshinaga, Japanese nobleman 
 Cornelis van Haarlem, Dutch painter

Deaths 
 January – Ilie II Rareş, Prince of Moldavia 
 January 9 – Amago Haruhisa, Japanese samurai and warlord 
 October 9 – Gabriele Falloppio, Italian anatomist 
 October 13 – Claudin de Sermisy, French composer 
 November 17 – Antoine de Bourbon, father of Henry IV of France 
 December 6 – Jan van Scorel, Dutch painter 
 December 7 – Adrian Willaert, Flemish composer 
 Matteo Bandello, Italian novelist 
 Nicholas Grimald, English poet and theologian
Year 1563 (MDLXIII) was a common year starting on Friday of the Julian calendar.

Births 
 January – Leonhard Hutter, German Lutheran theologian (d. 1616)
 January 30 – Franciscus Gomarus, Dutch theologian (d. 1641)
 March 5 – John Coke, English politician (d. 1644)
 April 15 – Guru Arjan Dev, fifth Sikh leader (A. 1606)
 June 1 – Robert Cecil, 1st Earl of Salisbury, English statesman and spymaster (d. 1612)
 September 4 – Wanli Emperor of China (d. 1620)
 October 14 – Jodocus Hondius, Flemish artist (d. 1633)
 November 8 – Henry I, Duke of Lorraine (d. 1624)
 November 19 – Robert Sidney, 1st Earl of Leicester, English statesman (d. 1626)
 December 19 – Lord William Howard (d. 1640)
 date unknown
 Yi Su-gwang, Korean scholar (d. 1628)
 Charles Blount, 1st Earl of Devonshire (d. 1606)
 John Dowland, English composer (d. 1626)
 Michael Drayton, English poet (d. 1631)
 Scipione Gentili, Italian legal scholar (d. 1616)
 Anna Guarini, Italian virtuoso singer (d. 1598)
 Hosokawa Gracia, Japanese noblewoman (d. 1600)
 Marcin Kazanowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1636)
 Zygmunt Kazanowski, Polish nobleman (d. 1634)
 Robert Naunton, English politician and writer (d. 1635)
 Joshua Sylvester, English poet (d. 1618)
 Jean Titelouze, French organist and composer (d.1633)

Deaths 
 February 1 – Emperor Menas of Ethiopia (b. 1559)
 February 24 – Francis, Duke of Guise, French soldier and politician (b. 1519)
 March 24 – Hosokawa Harumoto, Japanese military leader (b. 1514)
 March 28 – Heinrich Glarean, Swiss music theorist (b. 1488)
 May 21 – Martynas Mažvydas, writer of the first printed book in Lithuanian (b. 1510)
 ?June – Elizabeth Seymour, Marchioness of Winchester, English noblewoman (b. 1513)
 June 6 – Ikeda Nagamasa, Japanese military commander (b. 1519)
 June 9 – William Paget, 1st Baron Paget, English statesman (b. 1506)
 August 11 – Bartolomé de Escobedo, Spanish composer (b. 1500)
 August 18 – Étienne de La Boétie, French judge and writer (b. 1530)
 September 17 – Henry Manners, 2nd Earl of Rutland, English soldier (b. 1526)
 November – Ioan Iacob Heraclid, ruler of Moldavia (b. 1511)
 December 29 – Sebastian Castello, French theologian (b. 1515)
 date unknown – Odet de Selve, French diplomat (b. c. 1504)
A minuet is a dance which was popular in the 18th and 19th centuries in France.  It was danced by the aristocracy, especially at the court of King Louis XIV.

Sometimes the French spelling menuet is used, or the Italian minuetto.  It was a moderate or slow dance.  There were always three beats in a bar (3/4 time).

Composers liked the music of the minuet and often wrote them just as pieces of music for a keyboard or other instruments.  Composers like Bach and Handel included them in their suites (collection of dance movements).  Lully started to put them in his operas, often in pairs: Minuet I, Minuet II, then Minuet I repeated.  Often the second minuet would be played by three instruments, so it was called a trio.

In the Classical music period the minuet and trio were used in symphonies and sonatas. They usually formed the third movement of a four movement work. Haydn, Mozart and Beethoven all wrote minuets and trios.  Gradually the minuets became faster so that they were called scherzos.  By the 19th century the waltz had become fashionable among the new middle class.  The polite minuet went out of fashion.

Ballroom dances
Musical forms
The year 1592 (MDXCII) was a leap year that began on Wednesday.

Events 
 April 13 – The Siege of Busan begins.
 April 24 – Battle of Sangju: The Koreans lose against the Japanese.

Deaths 
 February – Thomas Cavendish, English sailor and explorer
 February 13 – Jacopo Bassano, Italian painter
 September 3 – Robert Greene, English writer

Births 
 March 28 – John Amos Comenius, Czech teacher and writer
The year 1599 was a common year which started on Friday.

Events 
 January 8 – The Jesuit educational plan known as the Ratio Studiorum is issued.
 June 20 – The Synod of Diamper is convened.
 August 15 – First Battle of Curlew Pass: Irish forces defeat the English.
 September 21 – The first reported performance of Shakespeare's Julius Caesar at the Globe Theatre in London, is recorded by Swiss traveller Thomas Platter the Younger.
 * October 18 – Battle of Sellenberk: Michael the Brave, Prince of Wallachia, defeats the army of Andrew Báthory near Șelimbăr, leading to the first recorded uniting of the Romanians.
Events 

Sasaki Kojiro, a famous swordsmen instructor and general, under Tokugawa Ieyasu, was slain in a duel against legendary swordsman, Musashi Miyamoto at Hesagigawa.

1610s
Chordata is a phylum (group) of animals which have a notochord. The group includes vertebrates, with some closely related invertebrates.

Classification

Taxonomy 
Phylum Chordata
 Tunicata – (tunicates, formerly Urochordata; 3,000 species)
 †Vetulicolia (8 Cambrian species of fossil)
 Cephalochordata – (lancelets, 30 species)
 Vertebrata (vertebrates – animals with backbones; 57,739 species)
  Agnatha (jawless vertebrates; 100+ species)
 Myxini or Hyperotreti (hagfish; 65 species)
 Conodonta (Conodonts)
 Hyperoartia (Lampreys)
 †Cephalaspidomorphi (Paleozoic jawless fish)
 †Pteraspidomorphi (Paleozoic jawless fish)
 Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
 †Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms)
 Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish; 300+ species)
 †Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks")
 Osteichthyes (bony fishes; 30,000+ species)
 Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish; about 30,000 species)
 Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
 Tetrapoda (four-legged vertebrates; 18,000+ species)

Phylogeny 

Note: Lines show likely evolutionary relationships.  Extinct groups are marked with a "†". Extinct animals are ones that have completely died out.

Origin of chordates 
According to a long-standing theory, the origin of chordates may be found in transformed larvae of sea-squirts (tunicates). Adult tunicates are sessile, but their larvae are motile, and have some features found in early vertebrates.  The process of paedomorphosis, where juvenile features are retained in the adult, is the proposed mechanism. Genome analysis shows that tunicates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates.

References

Other websites 

Chordate node at Tree Of Life 
Chordate node at NCBI Taxonomy
Veneto is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in northeastern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is Venice.

COVID-19 has killed more than 200 people in Italy. the regions of Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Veneto have  92 per cent of recorded deaths and 85 per cent of all cases in Italy.

Geography
The region is in Northeast Italy, bordered to the north by the Trentino-Alto Adige/Südtirol region (and Austria in the northeastern corner), to the east by the Friuli Venezia Giulia region, to the southeast and south by the Adriatic Sea, to the southwest by the Emilia-Romagna region, and to the west by the Lombardy region.

Veneto is the 8th largest region in Italy, with a total area of . The main river in the region is the Po. The highest mountain in the region is Marmolada (), in the Belluno province, with an altitude of .

Provinces 
Veneto is divided in a Metropolitan City (Venice) and six provinces:

Largest municipalities
The 10 communi with more people living in it are:

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Regione del Veneto Official site
Molise is one of the twenty regions of Italy, in Southern Italy on the Adriatic Sea. The capital is the city of Campobasso.

Molise previously formed, with the Abruzzo region, the old region of Abruzzi e Molise. Molise was separated from that region in 1963, making Molise the youngest region in Italy.

Geography 
The region is located in South Italy bordered by Abruzzo to the north, Lazio to the west, Campania to the south, Apulia to the southeast and the Adriatic Sea to the east.

Molise, with a total area of , is the second smallest region after Valle d'Aosta. The main rivers in the region are:
 Fortore,  long.
 Trigno,  long.
 Biferno,  long; it is the main river of those that flow only in the Molise region.
 Volturno, ; it is the main river in South Italy by its length and its discharge.

The highest mountain in the region is La Meta (its eastern summit) (), in the Isernia province, with an altitude of .

Provinces 
Molise is divided into two provinces:

Largest municipalities
The 10 communi of the region with more people living in it are:

Gallery

References

Other websites

 Official Site
The Visayas or Visayan Islands (Cebuano and Wáray-Wáray: Kabisay-an, Tagalog: Kabisayaan, Spanich: Bisayas), is one of the three principal geographical divisions of  the Philippines; the other two divisions are Mindanao, to the south, and Luzon, to the north.

People living in this islands are called Visayans.

Geography
The Visayas consists of several islands in central Philippines around the Visayan Sea, with the Philippine Sea to the east and the Sulu Sea to the west.

The main islands (and area) are:
 Bohol, 
 Cebu, 
 Leyte, 
 Negros, 
 Panay, 
 Samar,

Regions and provinces

Administratively, the Visayas is divided into 3 regions: Western Visayas, Central Visayas and Eastern Visayas. Each region is headed by a Regional Director.

The Visayas is composed of 16 provinces, each headed by a governor.

Western Visayas (Region VI)
Western Visayas consists of the islands of Panay and the western half of Negros; it has a population, in 2010, of 7,102,438. The regional center is Iloilo City. Its provinces are:
 Aklan
 Antique
 Capiz
 Guimaras
 Iloilo
 Negros Occidental

Central Visayas (Region VII)
Central Visayas includes the islands of Cebu and Bohol and the eastern half of Negros; it has a population, in 2010, of 6,800,180. The regional center is Cebu City. Its provinces are:
 Bohol
 Cebu
 Negros Oriental
 Siquijor

Eastern Visayas (Region VIII)
Eastern Visayas consists of the islands of Leyte and Samar; it has a population, in 2010, of 4,101,322. The regional center is Tacloban. Its provinces are:
 Biliran
 Leyte
 Southern Leyte
 Eastern Samar
 Northern Samar
 Samar

References

Other websites

  Die Visayas - Inselwelt in der Mitte der Philippinen

Islands of the Philippines
Tuscany (Italian: Toscana) is a region in the center of Italy. It has an area of 22,990 km² and a population of about 3.6 million people (in 2004). The capital is Florence. 

Tuscany is known for its landscapes and its artistic legacy. Six Tuscan localities have been made UNESCO protected sites: the historical center of Florence (1982), the historical center of Siena (1995), the square of the Cathedral of Pisa (1987), the historical center of San Gimignano (1990), the historical center of Pienza (1996) and the Val d'Orcia (2004).

Geography 
Tuscany, bordering Emilia-Romagna to the north, Liguria to the north-west, Tyrrhenian Sea to the west, Umbria and Marche to the east, Lazio to the south-east. The territory is two thirds hilly and one fourth mountainous. The remainder is constituted of the plains that form the valley of the Arno River.

Economy 
Tuscany is known for its wines (most famous of which are Chianti, Morellino di Scansano, Vino Nobile di Montepulciano, and Brunello di Montalcino) and has 120 protected regions (nature reserves). Other agricultural products include cattle (particularly the famous "Fiorentina" steak) and the production of olive oil, principally in Lucca.

The subsoil in Tuscany is rich in mineral resources. There are iron ore, copper, mercury and lignite mines, the famous soffioni (fumarole) at Larderello, and the vast marble mines in Versilia. Although its share is falling, agriculture is still important. In the region's inland areas cereals, potatoes, olives and grapes are grown. The swamplands, which used to be marshy, now produce vegetables, rice, tobacco, beets and sunflowers.

Tourism is important to the so-called "Cities of Art" (Florence, Arezzo, Lucca, Pisa, Siena, San Gimignano), as well as on the coast and in the isles (Elba).

Demographics 
In the '80s and '90s the region attracted an intense influx of immigrants, in particular from China and Northern Africa. There is also a significant community of British and Americans. As of 2006, the Italian national institute of statistics ISTAT estimated that 215,490 foreign-born immigrants live in Tuscany, about 5.9% of the people in Tuscany.

Towns of Tuscany with a population of 50,000 or more:

Provinces 

 Florence (Firenze) 
 Arezzo
 Grosseto
 Livorno
 Lucca
 Massa-Carrara
 Pisa
 Pistoia
 Prato
 Siena

Important points for industry in Tuscany

Famous people born in Tuscany

Related pages
 Tuscan dialect
 Grand Duchy of Tuscany
 History of Tuscany
 Tuscan food

Other websites 
 Official Site of Regions Tuscany (Italian site)

References

 
Wine regions
Events 
 July 6 – Portuguese sea captain Diogo Cão finds the mouth of Congo River
 September 15 – Peter Arbues, is assassinated while praying in the cathedral at Saragossa, Spain and he died on September 17.  He had been appointed Inquisitor of Aragon by the Inquisitor General, Tomás de Torquemada, in the campaign against heresy and crypto-Judaism.
 December 5 – Pope Innocent VIII gives the inquisition a mission to hunt heretics and witches in Germany with the lead of Heinrich Kramer and Jacob Sprenger.
 The first sugar mill becomes operational in the Gran Canaria.
 First cuirassier units (kyrissers) formed in Austria.
The Austronesian languages are a language family. They were originally spoken in Southeast Asia and on islands in the Pacific Ocean.

List of Austronesian languages 
 Anus
 Indonesian
 Fijian
 Hawaiian
 Javanese
 Malay
 Māori
 Tagalog
 Tuvaluan
The Fundamentalist Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints (FLDS) is a religious group. It broke from the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a Mormon movement, in the 19th or early 20th century. In 1890, the Latter-Day Saints stopped accepting polygamy.

A few people who believed polygamy was an important part of their religion started the new church. They taught that a man needs more than one wife to be able to get to heaven.

It is believed the church had about 10,000 members in 2009. These live in the sister cities of Hildale, Utah and Colorado City, Arizona; as well as Eldorado, Texas; Westcliffe, Colorado; Mancos, Colorado; Creston and Bountiful, British Columbia; and Pringle, South Dakota.

In the news 
The church has been in the news because its leader, Warren Steed Jeffs was arrested in southern Nevada in August 2006. Jeffs was arrested because he was accused of rape and molestation. At the time, Jeffs was on the FBI's Ten Most-Wanted list.

There has been another incident in 2008.
Beginning April 4, 2008, over a four-day period, troopers and child welfare officials searched the church's ranch. They took 416 children into the temporary custody of the State of Texas. Originally officials from the Texas Department of Family and Protective Services took 18 girls into temporary custody of the state. They acted because of a phone call from the ranch- it looks like a 16-year-old girl called the police to report she had been raped. She also said she had been married at age 15 to a 49-year-old man, Dale Evans Barlow. On the following day, Judge Barbara Walther of the 51st District Court issued an order authorizing officials to remove all children, including boys, 17 years old and under out of the compound. The children were being held by the Child Protective Services 45 miles away, north of the ranch. 133 women also voluntarily left the ranch with the children. The 16-year-old girl who alerted the authorities could not be located at the time of the raid. It looks like the call was made by a woman in her thirties, who gave a false identity. This woman is known by local police, as she has done similar things before. The woman was arrested for making the call (that triggered the raid) in April.

References 

Mormonism
Biological classification is how biologists group organisms.

The classification has its root in the work of Aristotle who invented a multi-ranked system. A great influence was Carolus Linnaeus, who popularized the idea of binomial nomenclature using a  two-part name indicating the genus, and the species. The human species is named Homo sapiens. Names of species are often printed in italics, although there is no obligation to do so (this also goes for names of genera, etc., etc.)

Biological classification is also known as taxonomy. It is a science, and like most sciences has evolved over time. At various times different principles were adopted, and it is not rare for different scientists to use different methods. Since the early 20th century, groupings are supposed to fit the Darwinian principle of common descent. These days, molecular evolution studies, which use DNA sequence analysis as data, are popular. This is often called "phylogenetics", a branch or form of cladism. This approach creates an evolutionary Tree of life (biology) and uses characters (traits) to decide on the branches of the taxonomy.

Sometimes organisms placed in the same group (taxon) are similar; such similarity is not necessarity coincidence. It may be the result of shared descent from a common ancestor.

Homology 
Homologous traits are similarities caused by common ancestry.  They are distinct from traits that are analogous.  For example, birds and bats both have the power of flight, but this is not used to classify them together, because it is not inherited from a common ancestor.

In spite of all the other differences between them, the fact that bats and whales both feed their young on milk is one of the features used to classify both as mammals, since it was inherited from a common ancestor.

When the present system of naming living things was developed, Latin was the language most widely used around the world. So, such names are still in Latin. Latin is also used presently because it is a dead language, so it never changes. The official descriptions and diagnoses of new taxa in Latin were and are written in Latin as well. Zoologist allow any language for the description of animals. From January 1, 2012, new taxa of algae, fungi and plants may be described in either English or Latin.

Name endings 
Taxa above the genus level are often given names based on a "type genus", with a standard suffix.  The suffixes used in forming these names depend on the kingdom, and sometimes the phylum and class, as set out in the table below.

Related pages
 Binomial nomenclature
 Taxonomy
 Systematics
 Cladistics
 Molecular evolution
 Molecular clock
 Phylogeny
 Wastebasket taxon
 Evolutionary grade

References
Kingdom is the highest rank, after the domain, which is normally used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. Each kingdom is split into phyla.

There are 5 to 7 kingdoms in taxonomy. Every living thing comes under one of these kingdoms and some symbionts, such as lichen, come under two. There are at least:

Prokaryotes or Monera  – the most simple living things: bacteria and archaea
Protista – eukaryotes that are not plants, fungi, or animals
Fungi – mushrooms, moulds and other fungi
Plantae – all plants, such as moss, trees and grass
Animalia – all animals, including people. See List of animal phyla
Chromoalveolata – plastids containing chlorophyll.

Overview

The kingdom-level classification of life is still widely employed as a useful way of grouping organisms. Sometimes entries in the table, which are next to each other, do not match perfectly. For example, Haeckel placed the red algae (Haeckel's Florideae; modern Rhodophyta) and blue-green algae (Haeckel's Archephyta; modern Cyanobacteria) in his Plantae, but in modern classifications they are considered protists and bacteria respectively. However, despite these differences, the table gives a useful summary.

 There is no agreement at present on how many kingdoms there are in the Eukarya. In 2009, Andrew Roger and Alastair Simpson said this: "With the current pace of change in our understanding of the eukaryote tree of life, we should proceed with caution".

Related pages
Tree of Life

References

Taxonomy
An order is a rank used in the biological taxonomy. Each order is split into families. There are many orders in each class.A group of closely related families forms an order. The similar characters are less in number as compared to different genera included in family

Examples of order 
 Carnivora is an order of meat-eating mammals. The cat family, dog family and bear family are in this order.
 Rodents are an order. Rats and mice are in one family. Squirrels belong in another family.
Primates are another order of mammals. Apart from humans, most live in forests.
 Pine trees are a genus in the order Pinales.  The order also includes all other living conifers, such as the cypress and yew families.

Taxonomy
In biology, a family is a  taxonomic rank, or a taxon at that rank. Each family contains one or more genera. The next important rank is that of order. Usually, the name of the family ends with a "idae" for animals, and "aceae" for plants. Sometimes there are also subfamilies and superfamilies. Subfamilies end with "inae" or "oideae".

In Latin, family is "familia". For example, walnuts (genus Juglans) and hickories (genus Carya) both belong to the walnut family (the Juglandaceae). And the family "readcoatius" is under the genus "comingforourknecappius" or the feline family felis

Taxonomy