cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Lumber (or timber) is wood that has been cut for use in building.

Dimensional lumber
Dimensional lumber is a term used in North America for lumber that is finished/planed and cut to standardized width and depth specified in inches.

Softwoods

Examples of common sizes are 2×4 (also two-by-four and other variants), 2×6, and 4×4.  The length of a board is usually specified separately from the width and depth. It is thus possible to find 2×4s that are four, eight, or twelve feet in length. In the United States the standard lengths of lumber are 6, 8, 10, 12, 14, 16, 18, 20, 22, and 24 feet.

Non-North American sizes

Outside North America sizes of timber vary slightly. Sizes are, in some cases, based on the imperial measurement and referred to as such; in other cases the sizes are too far removed from the imperial size to be referred to by imperial measurement. Lengths can be sold at every 300 mm (a metric approximation of 1'). Common sizes are similar to the North American equivalent; 2.4, 2.7, 3.0, 3.6, 4.2, 4.8, 5.4, 6.0.  But also in running lengths, where each plank in a given packet is different, from  2500mm to 5500mm, though shorter and longer may be present.

Hardwoods

In North America sizes for dimensional lumber made from hardwoods varies from the sizes for softwoods. Boards are usually supplied in random widths and lengths of a specified thickness, and sold by the board-foot (144 cubic inches).

Engineered Lumber
Engineered lumber is lumber created by a manufacturer and designed for a certain structural purpose.

Related pages
 Forestry
 Wood
 Woodworking

Other websites 
 Timber Development Association of NSW - Australia
 CPSC Test coatings to reduce arsenic emissions from pressure treated wood
 TRADA: Timber Research And Development Association
 The Forest Products Laboratory. US main wood products research lab. Madison, WI (E)
 International Wood Collectors Society
 Xiloteca Manuel Soler (One of the largest private collection of wood samples)

Wood
Forestry
El Puerto de Santa María (commonly called El Puerto) is a city on the banks of the Guadalete River in the province of Cádiz, Spain. As of the 2005 census, the city has 82,306 people. 50,000 of these people live in the urban center. The others live in the area around the urban center.

The city of El Puerto de Santa Maria is  northeast of Cadiz across the Bay of Cadiz. It is  best known for its ferry, El Vaporcito, which has been used for 76 years. It takes passengers to and from Cadiz to El Puerto.

History 
In the Odyssey of Homer, legend says that, after the Trojan War, a Greek official named Menestheus escaped with his troops through the Straits of Gibraltar. They got to the Guadalete River and created a port. They called the port Menestheus's port.

In 711, Arab (Moors) from the North of Africa invaded southern Spain. They changed the name to Alcante or Alcanatif. The name means Port of Salt. They chose that name because of the old salt industry of Phoenicians and Romans.

In 1260, Alfonso X of Castile took the city from the Moors. He renamed it Santa María del Puerto. 

Columbus began his second voyage to the New World from El Puerto. His pilot, Juan de la Cosa, created the first map of the world to include the coast of the New World in El Puerto in 1500. In the nineteenth century, the city became the General Headquarters for the French Army during the Spanish War of Independence under the reign of Joseph Bonaparte (1808–1813). The city is has much history, museums and monuments. It is also near the very historical cities of Seville and Cádiz.

Tourism 

El Puerto has a famous bull ring. It dates back to 1880. The bull ring has space for 15,000 to watch. Bull fighting is still enjoyed during the Feria season, which is during the month of August, and during the Feria de la Primavera, which is in early May. This Feria is dedicated to sherry. 180,0000 half bottles of sherry get drunk in 4 days. There are several bodegas in the town centre. All of these can be visited by the public. The most famous bodega is the Osborne and Terry Bodegas. They export sherry and brandy worldwide . In the cellars in El Puerto, sherry is made using the traditional method called “solera”. This method makes the pale dry sherries to the sweet Muscatel sherry, Amontillados and the older Olorosos.

Local food 
El Puerto is a very good place to taste local tapas and seafood, for which it is famous. Food is an important reason why many tourists go to El Puerto de Santa Maria. The Bay of Cadiz is famous for its fresh fish. The fish and plenty of fresh fruit and vegetables lead to very good restaurant menus. There are many different types of places to eat all in walking distance in the town centre.

Other websites 

Cultural Information of the Monuments and Museums of El Puerto de Santa María
360º Panoramic walk of El Puerto de Santa Maria

Cities in Andalusia
Municipalities in Andalusia
A bearing is a device to permit fixed direction motion between two parts, typically rotation or linear movement. Bearings may be broadly grouped by the way they work. The most common of the many types are plain bearings and rolling-element bearings. 

The two main types of rolling-element bearings are ball bearings and roller bearings. In ball bearings, the rolling elements are spherical balls. In roller bearings, the rolling elements are cylindrical, taper or spherical rollers. Ball bearings are shown in the pictures.

Other websites 

 Comprehensive article on bearings   
How Bearings Work - Animations and functioning
 How Bearings Work -  - Animations on www.mechanismen.be
 Early Bearing Failure Detection  - Case study
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Bearings information from Bosch Rexroth

Engineering
A bush is a mechanical fixing between two, possibly moving, parts, or a strengthened fixing point where one mechanical assembly is attached to another.

In a car or other vehicle's suspension, bushes are used to connect the various moving arms and shaft points to the chassis and other parts of the suspension. In machines, bushes provide mechanical strength to the rotor.

Other websites 
 Catalogs, CAD files and more Linear Bushings information from Bosch Rexroth

Objects
Suspension is the term given to the system of springs, shock absorbers and linkages.  The suspension acts as an intermediate between the car and the road and solves several problems:  

 Transfer to the frame or body of forces and moments arising from the interaction of wheels with the road surface;  
 Link wheels with body or frame;
 Provides the necessary for the normal movement of the position of the wheels relative to the frame or body and the road;
 Ensures acceptable running smoothness, compensates for uneven pavement.

So a car suspension is not just a set of components for connecting wheels and body or frame, but a complex system that makes normal and comfortable movement on car driving.

Springs 
Springs are elastic elements of a car suspension that work in conjunction with shock absorbers. The main functions of the springs are:
maintaining vehicle clearance under increased loads;
ensuring reliable tire contact with the road surface;
supporting and even distribution of vehicle weight;
exclude transmission of vibrations and other effects on the car body.

Shock absorbers  
Shock absorbers, as a damping element of a modern suspension, convert vibrational energy into heat. The amount of energy absorbed depends on the mass of the car, the stiffness of the spring and the vibration frequency.
The principle of operation of dampers is based on the displacement of fluid by a piston through special holes. In various modes, fluid is displaced through openings of different diameters. Due to this, the oscillations are absorbed both during compression and during rebound. As a result, these car suspension parts provide:
vehicle traffic safety;
control of the movement of the spring and suspension;
efficient car control;
axial braking force balance;
prevention of early tire wear;
monitoring of tire contact with the road surface;
control of swinging and oscillations about the vertical axis;
decrease in wearing of knots and units of the car.

Linkages 
Using these elements, the suspension parts are fastened together, and also the suspension is attached to the body or frame of the car. The fasteners can be either a regular bolted connection (like other types of rigid joints), or a connection using special elastic elements - rubber-metal hinges (or silent-blocks).

References

Other websites 
 Shock Absorbers
 The Suspension Bible

Engineering
The Suzuki method, (or Talent Education, or the Mother Tongue method, or the Suzuki movement) is a way of teaching.  It teaches people to be morally better through a caring environment. It normally uses a musical instrument such as the violin or piano to do this. It can also use other musical instruments like the flute, recorder, piano, guitar, cello, viola, bass, organ, harp and voice. The Suzuki method uses the same environment that people have when they learn their mother-tongue. This means that each student sees and hears music and good moral character all of the time.  Other people tell them that they will do well. The students learn one thing at a time. They learn new things when they are ready. The term "Suzuki method" is also used to mean only the Suzuki sheet music books and songs.

It was created in Japan in the mid-20th century by Dr. Shin'ichi Suzuki. He was a violinist who wanted to bring some beauty to the lives of children in his country after World War II. Dr. Suzuki saw that all children learn their own language very quickly. Even dialects which adults thought were hard to learn are spoken with ease by 5 or 6 year old children. He thought that if a person can speak their mother tongue, then they can learn to play a musical instrument. He came up with the idea that any pre-school age child could begin to play the violin.

Just as a child learns to speak before reading, Suzuki students learn by ear and generally only learn to read sheet music at a much later age. 

Suzuki students will always play with a "beautiful tone and a beautiful heart".

Other websites 
International Suzuki Association
Suzuki Association of the Americas

Music education
Pará is one of the states of Brazil. It is in the northern part of the country.

The capital city is Belém. Other cities include:
 Santarém
 Óbidos
 Anapu

References

 
States of Brazil
In syntactic analysis, a constituent is a word or a group of words that functions as one unit within a hierarchical structure.

Phrases (noun phrases, verbal phrases, etc.) are usually constituents of a clause, but clauses may also be combined into a bigger structure.  For example, in the phrase "I didn't hear what you said," the subordinate clause "what you said" is combined into the main clause and is syntactically its object; this can be demonstrated by substituting the pronoun "it" for the subordinate clause "I didn't hear it."

Linguistics

de:Konstituentengrammatik
Spindle could mean:
Spindle (textiles), a device to spin fibres into thread.  It is the root from which other usages derive
A spindle is a measure of spun cotton equal to 18 hanks
Spindle, a poisonous shrub or small tree of the genus Euonymus
Spindle (stationery), a device for holding paper documents
A spindle, also called cakebox, is the plastic container in which bulk blank CDs and DVDs are often sold
A spindle is the axis on which the platters of a computer hard disk spin. Database performance can be improved by spindling, the action of mounting data files and index files on different hard disks so that contention for read or write resources is diminished
A spindle is a woodworking machine rotating on a vertical axis in which shaped cutters are mounted for cutting mouldings, rebates and similar features in wood. It does (usually on a bigger scale) many of the non-routing jobs done by a modern portable (spindle) router. See also router.
A spindle is part of an automobile suspension system.  It carries the hub for the wheel.  It attaches to the upper and lower control arms
A spindle is part of a bicycle pedal. It carries the pedal body and threads into the crank arm.
Mitotic spindle, a cellular structure organizing and separating the chromosomes during mitosis
A muscle spindle is a specialized innervated muscle structure involved in the reflex action and in proprioception
A flywheel is a heavy disk or wheel that is attached to a rotating shaft. Flywheels are used for storage of kinetic energy. The momentum of the flywheel causes it to not change its rotational speed easily. Because of this, flywheels help to keep the shaft rotating at the same speed. This helps when the torque applied to the shaft changes often. Uneven torque can change the speed of rotation. Because the flywheel resists changes in speed, it decreases the effects of uneven torque. Engines which use pistons to provide power usually have uneven torque and use flywheels to fix this problem.

It takes energy to get a wheel (any wheel) to rotate. If there is little friction (good bearings) then it will keep rotating a long time. When energy is needed, it can be taken from the wheel again. So it is a simple mechanical means of storing energy. The amount of energy stored is a function of the weight and the speed of rotation - making a heavier wheel rotate faster takes more energy. Another factor is the radius (size) because the farther from the axis a part of the wheel is, the more energy it takes to make is rotate. These three factors can be represented by M (mass),  (angular velocity), and R (radius). Combining the two equations below gives 2MR2/4. A fly-wheel is not just any wheel, but specifically designed to store energy. So it should be heavy and/or rotate fast. For example, some buses have a fly-wheel that is used for stopping and starting. When the bus stops (e.g. for a traffic light), the fly-wheel is connected to the wheels, so the rotational energy is transferred to it, so the bus will slow down while the fly-wheel speeds up. Then, when the bus has to start driving again, it is connected again and the energy is transferred back. Of course, you wouldn't want to lug a heavy wheel around on a bus, so it is made of a lighter material that can withstand extremely fast rotation.

Mathematics of flywheels 
The kinetic energy of a rotating flywheel is

Where the moment of inertia of center mass is equal to

where  is the moment of inertia of the mass about the center of rotation and  (omega) is the angular velocity in radian units.

History 
The flywheel has been used since ancient times, the most common traditional example being the potter's wheel. In the Industrial Revolution, James Watt contributed to the development of the flywheel in the steam engine, and his contemporary James Pickard used a flywheel.

Other meanings 
In the world of venture capital, the term "flywheel" is used to represent the recurrent, margin-generating heart of a business.

Energy
Engineering
The potter's wheel, also known as the potter's lathe, is a machine used in the shaping of round ceramic wares. 

However, the name potter's lathe is also used for the machine used for another shaping process, turning, which is similar to that used for the shaping of metal and wood articles. The wheel may also be used during the process of trimming excess body from dried wares and for applying incised decoration or rings of colour.

History 
Many early ceramics were hand-built using a simple coiling technique in which clay body was rolled into long threads that were then pinched and beaten together to form the body of a vessel. In the coiling method of construction, all of the energy required to form the main part of a piece is supplied directly by the hands of the potter. This changed with the introduction of the fast-wheel, early forms of which used energy stored in the rotating mass of the heavy stone wheel itself.

The potter's wheel in myth and legend 
In Ancient Egyptian mythology, the god Chnum was said to have formed the first humans on a potter's wheel.

The potter's wheel in literature 
The way in which clay is shaped on a potter's wheel seems, even today, to have a magical quality to it; the clay body has the appearance of being a living thing that is being created or shaped by the potter. The potter and clay have long served as a metaphor for creation, and for the relationship of God to humankind:

But now, O LORD, thou art our father; we are the clay, and thou our potter; and we all are the work of thy hand.
–Isaiah 64:8

The "Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam" make sustained use of this metaphor. In FitzGerald's translation, a number of quatrains are collected into a Book of Pots, in which the pots engage in theological speculation:

  And, strange to tell, among that Earthen Lot
      Some could articulate, while others not:
  And suddenly one more impatient cried–
      “Who is the Potter, pray, and who the Pot?”
 
  Another said–“Why, ne'er a peevish Boy,
       “Would break the Bowl from which he drank in Joy;
  “Shall He that made the vessel in pure Love
      “And Fancy, in an after Rage destroy?”
    
  None answer'd this; but after Silence spake
      A Vessel of a more ungainly Make:
  “They sneer at me for leaning all awry;
      “What! did the Hand then of the Potter shake?”

Related pages
Pottery

Other websites 
 The Origins of the Potter's Wheel multi-page article on Ceramics Today site
 Video of a potter on a potter's wheel shaping clay to form a bottle 

Pottery
Metaphors
Nikolai Grigoryevich Rubinstein (born Moscow, 2 June 1835; died Paris, 23 March 1881) was a Russian pianist and composer. He was the younger brother of Anton Rubinstein and a close friend of Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky.

The Rubinstein family were middle-class Jewish people. Like his brother Anton, Nikolai soon showed great talent as a pianist. The family spent some time in Europe including three years in Berlin where they made friends with Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer.

Anton founded (started) the famous Conservatoire in St Petersburg where students could study music. Nikolai co-founded the Conservatoire in Moscow with Prince Nikolai Petrovitch Troubetzkoy. Both brothers were directors of the Conservatoires they had founded.

During his lifetime Nikolai Rubinstein was thought of as one of the greatest pianists of his time. As pianists the two brothers were very different. Anton was very fiery like Franz Liszt. Nikolai was quieter and more thoughtful, preferring lyrical Romantic music.

Anton liked to compose in the same way as composers from Western Europe. He was critical of Russian composers like Mily Balakirev and others from the group called The Mighty Handful who tried to make their music very Russian. Nikolai was much more broad-minded. He supported Balakirev and his group. He was a great friend of Tchaikovsky and encouraged him much more than his brother Anton had done. Nevertheless, he still criticised Tchaikovsky’s First Piano Concerto. He said he would not play it until Tchaikovsky had changed it. Tchaikovsky refused to change it. Years later Nikolai decided he liked it after all.

Although Nikolai wanted to be a successful composer he was aware that he was not a great one. When asked why he did not compose more he once replied that his brother “composed enough music for three”.

Nikolai died in Paris while on his way to Nice where he had wanted to improve his health. He always liked his food and on his deathbed he ate twelve oysters. Tchaikovsky wrote his Piano Trio in A minor in Rubinstein's memory.

Among his most popular works are his Tarantella in G minor and the Fantasia on a Theme by Schumann, both for piano solo.

Russian composers
Romantic composers
Russian pianists
1835 births
1881 deaths
The Okinawan language (沖縄口, Uchināguchi) is a Ryukyuan language that is spoken in the Okinawa Islands of Japan.

Most linguists say that it branched off from Proto-Japonic, which is the ancestor of Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages. The Japanese government says Okinawan is a dialect of Japanese because of politics.

History 
When a group of people called the Yayoi came into the Ryukyu Islands, they brought over a language called Proto-Japonic. This language over time turned into the modern Ryukyuan languages. Proto-Japonic was also spoken in mainland Japan, which turned into Japanese, meaning Japanese and the Ryukyuan languages are related/have the same origin.

Okinawan and other Ryukyuan languages were discriminated by Japan during the Meiji period, making the number of speakers go down. Before that, Okinawan was the official language of the Ryukyu Kingdom.

Classification 
Okinawan belongs to the Ryukyuan languages. It is in the northern group with both Kunigami and Amami. Sometimes, Kunigami is listed as a dialect of Okinawan but that view is rare.

Speakers 
Most older Okinawans speak Okinawan while younger Okinawans speak Japanese. This is why UNESCO lists Okinawan and the other Ryukyuan languages as “endangered”, meaning it’s possible for the language to die out in the future.

Sound Changes (Japanese vs. Okinawan) 
There are many sound changes between Japanese (Standard) and Okinawan (Shuri-Naha variety):

Japanese “o” - Okinawan “u” (Okinawa = Uchinaa)

Japanese “k” - Okinawan “ch” (Okinawa = Uchinaa)

Japanese “mi” - Okinawan “nn” (minato = nnatu)

Similar sound changes are in other Ryukyuan languages. Kunigami also uses “u” instead of Japanese “o”.

Sample words

Mensooree () - Welcome, Hello (when receiving)
Hai (はい) - Hello (gender neutral)
Haisai () - Hello (male only)
Haitai () - Hello (female only)
Ganjyuu () - Fine health (in greeting)
Uchinaaguchi () - Okinawan language
Uchinaanchu (沖縄人/うちなーんちゅ) - Okinawan person
Yamatunchu () - Japanese person
Yuntaku ()  - Talking
Waa () - Informal me or I
Wan () - Formal me or I
Iyaa () - Informal You
Unjyoo () - Formal you
Un, uu () - Yes
Aibiran () - No
Furaa () - Foolish
Yinagu () - Woman
Yikiga () - Man
Warabaa, Warabi () - Children
Uya () - Parents
Kwa () - A child ( as opposed to Parents)
Niisee () - A young man
Boujya () - A baby
In () - A dog    
In-gwa () - Puppy
Mayaa () - A cat
Mayaa-gwa () - Kitty
Hiijyaa (ひーじゃー) - A goat
Uchinaa (うちなー) - Okinawa
Yamatu (やまとっ) - Japan
Too (とー) - China
Chooshin (ちょーしん) - Korea
Uranda (うらんだ) - Europe

References

Japonic languages
Languages of Asia
Ryukyu Islands

Ryukyuan languages
Imbolc is a festival belonging to Brigid, the Celtic goddess who, in later times, became famous as a Christian saint. At first, her festival on February 1 was known as "Imbolc" or "Oimelc", two Gaelic names which refer to the lactation of the ewes. Lactation is the flow of milk that happens when the baby lambs are born in the spring, and Gaelic languages are those spoken in countries like Ireland and Scotland.

Imbolc was, and still is, a time to celebrate that winter would soon be over. Sometimes in Ireland, the first flowers are coming up at the time of this festival, even when there is still snow on the ground.

Later, the Roman Catholic Church replaced this festival with Candlemas Day on February 2, a day that now belongs to the Virgin Mary. On this day, people may have ceremonies or processions  by candlelight - walking together in the dark, with the only light coming from candles they carry. The may also sing songs to Brigid, or say poems or prayers to her.

In both Pagan and Christian celebrations, Brigid is celebrated as a powerful female figure, who brings light, inspiration, and healing to the world.

Ireland
Scotland
Festivals in the United Kingdom
Festivals in Europe
Religious festivals
James Marsters (born August 20, 1962) is an American guitarist, singer, and actor. His is best known for playing the part of Spike on Buffy the Vampire Slayer.

Other websites 

 
 James Marsters Official Site

1962 births
Living people
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American television actors
Whedonverse
Actors from California
Musicians from California
American blues musicians
Country musicians
Singers from California
Michelle Christine Trachtenberg (born October 11, 1985) is an American television and movie actress. She is best known for her role as Dawn Summers from the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer. Trachtenberg was born in New York City, New York. She is of Russian Jewish descent on her mother's side of the family.

Career 
Trachtenberg has been acting since 1988 at the age of four. She has acted in several television shows and many movies.

Movies

Television

Other websites 

 

1985 births
Living people
Trachtenberg, Michelle
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Actors from New York City
Trachtenberg, Michelle
Summer Glau (born July 24, 1981 in San Antonio, Texas) is an American dancer and actress. She is best known for playing as River Tam in the science fiction television series Firefly and movie Serenity.

Career 
Glau has appeared in several other series and movies including:
Television
 Terminator: The Sarah Connor Chronicles
 Angel
 The 4400
 The Unit
 CSI: Crime Scene Investigation
 The Cape
Movies
 Sleepover
 Mammoth

In February 2007, it was announced that Glau would be playing a role of Cameron Phillips in The Sarah Connor Chronicles, a spin-off of the Terminator series of movies. This character is a Terminator infiltration unit sent back to protect John Connor and Sarah Connor from Skynet.

Personal life 
Summer Glau has been in a relationship with Cooper Gross. She is currently married to Val Morrison and has two children.

Related pages 
 Firefly
 Serenity

References

Other websites 

 Fansite - Summer Glau Wiki

1981 births
Living people
American movie actors
American dancers
Whedonverse
American television actors
Actors from San Antonio, Texas
In anthropology, bands are the tiniest societies, consisting typically of 5-80 people, most or all of them close relatives by birth or by marriage. In effect, a band is an extended family or several related extended families. Today, autonomous bands are almost confined to the most remote parts of New Guinea and Amazonia, but there were many others that have only recently fallen under state control or been assimilated or exterminated. They include many or most African Pygmies, southern African San hunter-gatherers (so-called Bushmen), Aboriginal Australians, Eskimos (Inuit), and Native Americans of some resource-poor areas of the Americas such as Tierra del Fuego and the northern boreal forests; all these modern bands are or were nomadic hunter-gatherers rather than settled food producers.  Until at least 40,000 years ago, probably all humans lived in bands, and most still did as recently as 11,000 years ago. 

Bands have no permanent single base of residence, instead land is used jointly by the whole group, as opposed to being partitioned among subgroups or individuals. There is no regular economic specialization, except by age and sex: all able-bodied individuals forage for food. There are no formal institutions, such as laws, police, and treaties, to resolve conflicts within and between bands. Organization is often described as "egalitarian" in the sense that there is no formalized social stratification into upper and lower classes, no formalized or hereditary leadership, and no formalized monopolies of information and decision making. However, this definition of egalitarian should not be taken to mean that there is equality in prestige and the decision-making process among band members. Instead "leadership" should be thought of as informal and acquired through qualities such as personality, strength, intelligence, and fighting skills.

Our closest biological relatives, the gorillas and chimpanzees and bonobos of Africa, also live in bands. All humans presumably did so too, until improved technology for extracting food allowed some hunter-gatherers to settle in permanent dwellings in some resource-rich areas. The band is the political, economic, and social organization that we inherited from our millions of years of evolutionary history. Our developments beyond it took place within the last few tens of thousands of years.

relationships
Infertile means not able to have children or other offspring. Humans can be infertile, but animals and plants can too. When a human couple is infertile, they sometimes have fertility treatment to have children. This can be insemination or IVF. They also sometimes adopt a child.

Related pages
Fertility
Sexual reproduction
Pregnancy

Other websites 
 SexInfo's Assisted Reproductive Technology  This article discusses Artificial Insemination, In Vitro Fertilization, and other options for couples who are having trouble conceiving.
Types of Infertility
Male Infertility
Female Infertility

Biological reproduction
Destruction could mean:

 The act of destroying something.
Slighting, the act of damaging an important building
 Destruction (band), a German thrash metal band
 Destruction (DC Comics), one of the Endless in Neil Gaiman's comic book series The Sandman
 Destruction Bay, Yukon, Canada
 a magic art in the computer role-playing game series The Elder Scrolls
 Appetite for Destruction, the breakthrough debut album of rock n' roll band Guns N' Roses

Basic English 850 words
A crane is a lifting machine that has hoists, wire ropes and sheaves on it.  It can be used both to raise and lower things or to move them left and right. Cranes are often used in the construction industry (building houses or buildings) and in creating or moving heavy things.

Other websites 
Knots, hitches and bends 
VRML Simulation of an Excavator, Tower Crane, and Dumptruck 

Engineering
Data mining is a term from computer science. Sometimes it is also called knowledge discovery in databases (KDD). Data mining is about finding new information in a lot of data. The information obtained from data mining is hopefully both new and useful. 

In many cases, data is stored so it can be used later. The data is saved with a goal. For example, a store wants to save what has been bought. They want to do this to know how much they should buy themselves, to have enough to sell later. Saving this information, makes a lot of data. The data is usually saved in a database. The reason why data is saved is called the first use. 

Later, the same data can also be used to get other information that was not needed for the first use. The store might want to know now what kind of things people buy together when they buy at the store. (Many people who buy pasta also buy mushrooms for example.) That kind of information is in the data, and is useful, but was not the reason why the data was saved. This information is new and can be useful. It is a second use for the same data. 

Finding new information that can also be useful from data, is called data mining.

Different kinds of data mining 
For data, there a lot of different kinds of data mining for getting new information. Usually, prediction is involved. There is uncertainty in the predicted results. The following is based on the observation that there is a small green apple in which we can adjust our data in structural manner. Some of the kinds of data mining are: 
 Pattern recognition (Trying to find similarities in the rows in the database, in the form of rules. Small -> green. (Small apples are often green))
 Using a Bayesian network (Trying to make something that can say how the different data attributes are connected/influence each other. The size and the colour are related. So if you know something about the size, you can guess the colour.)
 Using a Neural network (Trying to make a model like a brain, which is hard to understand, but a computer can tell that if the apple is green it has a higher chance to be sour, if we tell the computer the apple is green. So this is like a black box model, we do not know how it works, but it works.) 
 Using Classification tree (With all other knowledge trying to say what one other thing about the thing we are looking at will be. Here is an apple with a size, a colour and shininess, what will it taste like?)

Computer science
Japanese schools of sword making can be divided into two categories: by the provinces where they were developed and by the masters who created a specific tradition of sword making.

History 
The late Kamakura period is often referred to as the greatest period of sword making in Japanese history. The Soshu tradition was one of the dominant traditions. Smiths like Kunitsuna and Sukezane combined their knowledge with methods from Yamashiro and Bizen traditions. Finally, a group of famous sword smiths culminated with Masamune (1264-1343 AD) and his school.

Types of Sword 
The rare swords were made out of five separate pieces and heat-treated at high temperatures. The swords of the Masamune School were harder than any of the swords made before. Masamune trained a group of at least ten followers. Two of his students (Kanemitsu and Nagayoshi) were from the Bizen province. In this way, during the early 14th century, the Masamune school attracted many smiths from other schools. Kanemitsu is believed to be the one who created the Soden School, which combined Bizen and Soshu techniques. 

At the same time Chogi was developing his school. The Chogi works show a stronger influence of the Soshu tradition than Kanemitsu swords.

Divisions

The division by regions 
Yamato-Den – Derived from five big schools attached to different temples.
Bizen-Den – Considered the starting point for the manufacturing of the traditional Japanese sword.
Yamashiro-Den - Started in late Heian period. Thin and slender blades.
Soshu-Den - Started in late Kamakura period under the effect of Kamakura Shogunate. 
Mino-Den – The youngest of the five traditions.

The divisions by people 
There are several famous schools created by sword masters:

Nagayoshi made better products by using the best ideas from both the Bizen and Soshu schools. He was successful because of the softer Bizen steel which is made at higher temperatures than that of the Soshu school used to be. 

Kaneuji I - it is believed that he created the Mino school in the Shizuyama region.  In his creation of swords he used the Shoshu style and added his own methods. Later his tradition was known as the Shizu school.
   
Kanemichi I - he founded the Mishina school in Mino province. His swords were appreciated for their quality and sharpness. He was so famous that he received the honorable title of Mitsu-(no)-Kami.

Emperor Gotoba (1184 to 1198 A.D), the 82nd Emperor of Japan was one of the best known sword makers.

Miyairi Akihira School is a continuation of Soshu tradition. In 1953 he obtained a sword-making license. Then, in 1973, he changed his name to Yukihira and his school was named after him. His school was based on Soshu-den and Shizu Kaneuji traditions.

Related pages
Katana
Samurai

Other websites 
Japanese legendary sword 

Sword schools
An ornamental plant is decorative: it is grown for how it looks, and not for other values. The term is often shortened to ornamental, used as a noun

Ornamental plants are plants that are grown for decoration. They are on display in gardens, landscapes and inside houses. They can be used indoors as cut flowers or potted plants. The cultivation of ornamental plants comes under floriculture and tree nurseries, which is a major branch of horticulture.

Ornamental plants are usually grown in the flower garden, or as house plants. They are usually grown for the display of their flowers. Other common ornamental features include leaves, scent, fruit, stem and bark. In all cases, their purpose is for the enjoyment of gardeners and visitors. Ornamental plants may be used for landscaping, and for cut flowers. The cultivation, called floriculture, is a major branch of horticulture. 

Ornamental plants come in a range of shapes, sizes and colours suitable to a broad array of climates, landscapes, and gardening needs. They are also often chosen for specialised looks or feels in landscape gardening.

Darwin was deeply interested in plants all his life. Several of his books are on plant physiology, and orchids were a passion for him.

Outstanding gardens can be an attraction for visitors. The white garden at Sissinghurst Castle was created by poet and writer Vita Sackville-West (18921962), and is still bringing in the paying visitors.

Related pages 
Cultivar
Domestication
List of garden plants

References 

Flowers
Gardens
The Celts were a large group of Caucasian tribes in Europe. They first appeared in the early Iron Age, around 1200 B.C. in Austria.  The name 'Celt' comes from the Greeks.  The Romans called them "Gauls".  They came from the Hallstatt and La Tène cultures. Their culture and genes spread through much of Europe, and by the time the Greeks and later the Romans started emerging, the British Isles and parts of western, southern and eastern Europe were Celtic - the most prominent Celtic tribes were in Gaul. The Celts spoke Celtic languages. Today, the Celtic languages that remain are the Breton, Cornish, Welsh and Gaelic languages.

Celtic society and technology, although not as advanced as the Romans, was far from being primitive for its time. The Celts lived a way of life based on ethical codes and honor codes and had developed a culture of their own, full of unique drawings, sculptures, jewellery, folklore, and building designs and techniques. They were also skilled in blacksmithing, farming and diplomacy.

Celtic warriors would wear war paint and try to scare their enemies by shouting war cries.  Tribes had different dress standards for battle; some warriors wore chainmail and/or leather armor, some wore only clothes and some were known to fight fully naked.  They also had their own type of sword that was very strong and a shield that was very protective. 

When the Roman Republic started expanding, the Gauls and the Romans became very hostile towards each other and clashed on many occasions; however, the Romans were eventually able to defeat them and ended up conquering most of the Celtic tribes in Europe and ruled them until the fall of the Western Roman Empire.  Celtic tribes also fought among each other.  After winning a battle, the Celts would cut off the heads of their enemies and take them home.

During the fall of the Roman Empire most of the old Celtic land ended up being ruled by migrating Germanic tribes and they merged with Romano-Celtic stock (people with both Roman and Celtic ancestry) to eventually form several European nations of today e.g. Portugal, Spain, France, Belgium, Switzerland, Luxembourg as well as Southern and Western Germany. Territories that are still considered Celtic are Ireland, Wales, Scotland, Isle of Man, Cornwall and Brittany.

References 

Celtic peoples
In economics free good means a good that is available without production, and therefore not scarce.  It is available in as much quantity as desired, with zero opportunity cost to society.

A good that is made available at zero price is not necessarily a free good.  For example, a shop might give away its stock in its promotion, but for the production of these goods, resources were needed, so this would not be a free good in an economic sense.

There are three main types of free goods:

Resources that are so abundant in nature that there is enough for everyone to have as much as they want.  An example of this is the air that we breathe.

Resources that are jointly produced.  This type of free good is produced as a by-product of something else that is more valuable.  Waste products from factories and homes, such as discarded packaging, are often free goods.

Ideas and works that can be copied at zero cost, or almost zero cost.  For example, if someone invents a new device, many people could copy this invention, with no danger of this "resource" running out.  Other examples include computer programs and web pages.

Intellectual property laws have the effect of converting some goods to scarce goods by law. 
Although these goods are free goods (in the economic sense) when they have been produced, they did require scarce resources, such as artistic skill, to create them in the first place.  Thus, intellectual property laws such as copyrights and patents are sometimes used to give exclusive rights to the creators of such "intellectual property", to make sure that people are interested in these activities.

Many futurists theorize that advanced nanotechnology with the ability to automatically turn any kind of material into any other combination of equal mass, will make all goods essentially free goods, since all raw materials and manufacturing time will become perfectly interchangeable.

Goods
A hoist is a device used for lifting or lowering a load by means of a drum or lift-wheel around which rope or chain wraps. It may be manually operated, electrically or pneumatically driven and may use chain, fiber or wire rope as its lifting medium. The load is attached to the hoist by means of a lifting hook.

A "hoist" normally is used for lifting (near vertical) and a winch is normally used for pulling (near horizontal).

Construction sites, especially for buildings of more than five floors in height, often employ hoists to lift workers and building materials.

Types of Hoist 
The basic hoist has two important characteristics to define it: Lifting medium and power type. The lifting medium is either wire rope, wrapped around a drum, or load-chain, raised by a gear-like wheel. The power type can be either electric motor or air motor. Both the wire rope hoist and chain hoist have been in common use since the 1800s.

Other websites 
 Using a two-post hoist (automotive)  Free video content from CDX eTextbook
 Using an engine hoist  CDX eTextbook

Tools
Flerovium is a synthetic chemical element also known as eka-lead. It has the symbol Fl and has the atomic number 114. It is a radioactive superheavy element. 

Flerovium does not exist in nature. It is made from a nuclear reaction between plutonium and calcium. The reaction that happens is a fusion reaction.

Uses 
It currently has no use at the moment as it is being researched right now.

History 
The discovery of Flerovium in December 1998 was reported in January 1999 by scientists at the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, Russia. The same team of scientists made another isotope of Fl three months later and made it again in 2004 and 2006.

In 2004 in the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research checked it was made by another method.  They found the final products of radioactive decay.

After its discovery, the "new" element was named ununquadium. The named changed on May 30th, 2012 to "flerovium". The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry named it so.

Chemical properties 
Not enough Flerovium has been made to measure its physical or chemical properties.  It is thought that it would be a soft, dense metal that changes colour in air.  It may have a low melting point of about 200 °C.

Making it 
Flerovium can be made by bombarding a plutonium-244 target with calcium-48 as a beam of ions.

298Fl - An undiscovered neutron-rich nucleus 
According to the nuclear shell model, the undiscovered neutron-rich nucleus 298Fl may be a doubly magic nucleus, atop the shell closure at N=184. It is predicted that this atom, amid the closed nuclear shells, expected to have longer half-lives for alpha decay and spontaneous fission. However using the fusion-evaporation method to produce this nuclide is impractical, since more neutron-rich starting materials with low proton numbers are unstable due to beta decay.

Estimates for half-lives for this atom range from a few minutes to several billion years.

References

Other websites 

 WebElements.com - Uuq
 Apsidium - Flerovium
 First postcard from the island of nuclear stability 
 Second postcard from the island of stability 

Chemical elements
Metals
Fate or destiny is the idea that the future is already planned even if people do not know what their fate is (what is going to happen to them).  Humans in nearly all cultures have had ideas about their fate being “predetermined” (fixed in advance).

People who live unhappy lives may believe that their misery is because of their fate and that they can do nothing about it.  This is called being “fatalistic”.  Other people may believe that they can control their fate by being brave and trying to “overcome”  fate by improving themselves and their lives.

In Greek mythology there were three Fates.  They were three goddesses who determined when every person was going to be born, how they would live and when and how they would die.  Human beings in many cultures had lots of ways in which they would try to “read” their fate (know what would happen to them).  Sometimes they would try to read their fate in the stars (this is called astrology).  In other cultures they might ask a person with powers of magic like a shaman.  The Ancient Greeks often went to Delphi to ask the oracle.

There are lots of references to fate in literature from almost every country and period, from Greek tragedy (e.g. Oedipus Rex) to Shakespeare (e.g. Macbeth) and Russian literature.

Composers may express fate in music.  Beethoven was thinking about Fate when he wrote his Fifth Symphony, and Tchaikovsky when he wrote his Sixth Symphony just before he committed suicide.

See also:
Fatalism
Superstition
Moirae
Norns
Fate (opera)

Social sciences
Runaway Brain is an animated short movie released on September 22, 1934 by MGM/United Artists. It was produced by Walt Disney and directed by Burton Gillett. The movie is 7 minutes long. It has Peter Penguin, Polly Penguin, Gosalyn Mallard, Honker Muddlefoot, Bubba the Caveduck, Donald Duck, Daisy Duck, Magica De Spell, and Poe De Spell.

Other websites 

Runaway Brain  at The Encyclopedia of Disney Animated Shorts

1934 movies
Disney animated movies
English-language movies
Maltese is the language of Malta, and a language of the European Union.  Maltese sounds similar to the Phoenician language that was spoken in areas around the ancient Mediterranean.  It is written in the Latin alphabet like English.  The language has borrowed many words from Sicilian, Italian, and English.  Around 393,000 people speak Maltese. Most of them live in Malta.

History
Many people from Sicily settled in Malta after the Muslims conquered it in 870 AD. They spoke a Sicilian-Arabic language from the Maghreb. In later centuries their language changed into Maltese. The oldest known document in Maltese is "Il Cantilena," a poem from the 15th century written by Pietro Caxaro. For centuries, Maltese was mainly a spoken language.

Maltese became an official language of Malta in 1934, alongside English. Before that year, the only official language of Malta was Italian. Italian, however, is still used a lot in the media.

Today
Italian and English words are being taken in by the language more and more. This sometimes causes words to form that are not found in Maltese, Italian, or English, but instead are a mix of the three. At schools, English is taught as a second language. Maltese is usually used in the standardized jobs and when people talk to each other. Most of the television, radio, and literature in Malta is also in Maltese.

References 

Semitic languages
Ögedei (1186-1241) was the third son of Genghis Khan and second Great Khan of the Mongol Empire, after his father. He continued to make his father's empire bigger. Like all of Genghis' sons, he helped to conquer Western China and Central Asia. Ögedei was thought to be his father's favorite son, ever since his childhood. As an adult, Ögedei was known to be persuasive in debates he was involved because he had a strong personality. Although less schooled than his father, and despite his drinking habits, he was intelligent and steady in character.

After Genghis Khan's Death 
He was selected as the supreme khan in 1229 because of the kuriltai, the meeting for important leaders, was held after Genghis' death, but it was never doubted that Genghis wanted Ögedei to rule after him. During his reign, the Mongols ended the Jin Dynasty (in 1234) and fought against the Southern Song Empire. In 1235, under the khan's direct command, the Mongols began a war of conquest that would not end for forty-five years, and would result in the addition of all of China. Mongol armies established permanent control of Persia (commanded by Chormagan) and expanded westward under the command of Batu Khan to take over Russia.

1186 births
1241 deaths
Mongolian people