cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Portland is the largest city in the U.S. state of Oregon. It is the county seat of Multnomah County. About 538,544 people live in the city of Portland, and about 1,927,881 people live in the city's metropolitan area. It is found in the north part of the state, where the Willamette River meets the Columbia River. Portland has the second most people of any city in the Northwest United States, after the city of Seattle.

Portland has many nicknames. One of these is "The City of Roses," because roses grow well there. Some other nicknames of Portland are "Stumptown" (from the fact that Portland was built over a forest), and "Puddletown" (from the fact that it often rains in Portland).

Many things are from Portland. Some of these things are Powell's Books, Beverly Cleary (and some of her most popular fictional characters, Henry Huggins and Ramona Quimby, which also have statues in the city's Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden for Children), and the Portland Trail Blazers basketball team.

References

 
Cities in Oregon
County seats in Oregon
1845 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Oregon
In physics, a frame of reference, or reference frame, is a perspective that one uses to determine if an object is moving. A frame of reference consists of an object or environment that is considered to be stationary. Typically the observer is at rest in the reference frame; in this context, the term is "observational frame of reference."

For example, when you see a ball roll down a street, you can tell the ball is moving because the frame of reference is the streets, whatever may be on the side of the roads, or the Earth. All of these are frames of reference.

All measurements of motion will be compared to a frame of reference. Therefore, the most commonly used frame of reference is Earth itself, even though it moves. Stars are used as a frame of reference when discussing the motions of the Earth.

When we walk from one side of a ship to the other, our frame of reference is the ship; whether the ship is moving is not relevant to that frame of reference.

Inertial frame of reference 

An inertial frame of reference is a frame that is either not moving or moving at a constant velocity. In other words, an inertial frame of reference has no net force acting upon it, and therefore Newton's laws of motion are observed.

Inertial reference frames are often used in general relativity and special relativity to describe relative motion of observers or objects and the effects they will endure.

Inertial frames of reference are useful in everyday life as well. For example, consider a situation where two cars are traveling along a road. See Figure 1. If they are separated by a distance of 100 meters, the car in the back is moving at 10 meters per second and the car in front is moving at 5 meters per second, both relative to the ground.

There are three obvious inertial reference frames that can be used to determine when the cars will be even with each other: one where the back car is not moving but the front car is moving backwards at 5 m/s, one where the front car is stationary and the back car is moving forward at 5 m/s, or one where the ground is not moving and the cars are moving at their given velocities. These three perspectives all describe the situation accurately and are physically identical.

Related pages 
 General relativity
 Special relativity
 Cartesian coordinate system
 Lorentz transformation
 Principle of relativity

References 

Relativity
Reference
Broadway is a -long main street in New York City. It is different from other streets in that it runs diagonally across the street grid of Manhattan, diagonally crossing newer streets. The street also goes through the Bronx. It continues north as U.S. Route 9 to Albany, the capital of New York State.

Times Square, where Broadway meets 7th Avenue and 42nd Street, is a center of entertainment and is famous for its many theaters and stage plays.  

One of the New York City Subway lines, the BMT Broadway Line, runs under the street in Manhattan, south of Times Square. The IRT Broadway - Seventh Avenue Line runs under Broadway, north of Times Square.

Manhattan
Roads in New York City
Theater
The Bronx
Pulau Run is an island in Indonesia. It is one of the smallest Islands of the Banda Islands. It is about 3 km long and less than 1 km wide.

It used to be of great importance, because of the value of the spices nutmeg and mace. Both spices are from the same tree. The trees were only grown on the Banda Islands.  During the history of the spice trade sailors of the British East India Company of the second expedition of James Lancaster, John Davis and John Middleton who stayed in Bantam on Java first reached the Island in 1603. They made good contacts with the people who lived there.

Two wars were fought over the extremely costly spices.

The Treaty of Westminster ended the First Anglo-Dutch War of 1652–1654. According to the treaty, Run should have been returned to England. The first attempt in 1660 failed due to formal constraints by the Dutch; after the second in 1665 the English traders were expelled in the same year and the Dutch destroyed the nutmeg trees.

After the second Anglo-Dutch War of 1665–1667 England and the United Provinces of the Netherlands agreed in the Treaty of Breda to the status quo: The English kept the island of Manhattan which a fleet sent by the Duke of York (the future Charles II), had occupied illegally in 1664 and renamed from New Amsterdam to New York. Run was officially given to the Dutch.

The Dutch monopoly on nutmeg and mace was destroyed by the transfer of nutmeg trees to Ceylon, Singapore and other British colonies in 1817 after the capture of the main Island Bandalontor in 1810 by Captain Cole. This led to the decline of the Dutch supremacy in the spice trade, but there are still nutmeg trees growing on Run today.

Further reading 

 Milton, Giles.  Nathaniel's Nutmeg: or the True and Incredible Adventures of the Spice Trader Who Changed the Course of History.  Penguin, 1999.  ()

Islands of Indonesia
Events 
 February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
 September 30 – Accession of Henry IV of England
 October 13 – Coronation of Henry IV of England
 November 1 – Accession of John VI, Duke of Brittany

Deaths
 February 3 – death of John of Gaunt, 1st Duke of Lancaster
54 is a year in the 1st century.

Events 
October 13 – Roman Emperor Claudius dies after being poisoned by Agrippina, his wife and niece.
Nero succeeds Claudius as emperor of Roman Empire
Patriarch Onesimus succeeds Stachys the Apostle as Patriarch of Constantinople.
Judea is returned piecemeal to Agrippa I's son Marcus Julius Agrippa between 48 and 54.
Saint Paul begins his third mission.
Apollos, a later assistant of Paul, is converted to Christianity in  Ephesus
Maiden Castle, Dorset in Dorset was captured from the Celtic Durotriges by Vespasian.
Events 
 Dogen Zenji establishes the Eiheiji temple in Japan, in doing so founding the Soto sect of Zen Buddhism.
 Sultan Malik al-Muattam razes city walls.
 James I of Aragon reconquers Altea, Spain.
Events 
 July 6 – Mindaugas is crowned as King of Lithuania.
 July – William II, Count of Holland defeats the Flemish army at Westkapelle.
 A series of naval wars begins between the Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice, which will continue sporadically until 1371.
 King Henry III of England meets with English nobles and church leaders to reaffirm the validity of the Magna Carta.
 Pope Innocent IV returns to Rome, having left nine years earlier in 1244 to depose Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor, and being unable to return until after Frederick's death due to the agitation throughout Europe caused by that action.
 Having rebuffed the armed forces of Conrad IV of Germany, Pope Innocent IV offers Sicily to Edmund, son of King Henry III of England.
 Galicia becomes a vassal state to the expanding Mongol Empire.

Deaths 
 January 19 – Dogen, Japanese founder of the Soto school of Zen Buddhism
 August 11 – Clare of Assisi, Italian follower of Francis of Assisi (born 1194)
 October 9 – Robert Grosseteste, English statesman and theologian
 Wenceslaus I, King of Bohemia
 Theobald IV of Champagne (born 1201)
 Saint Richard of Chichester
 King Henry I of Cyprus (born 1217)
 Amadeus IV of Savoy (born 1197)
Events
 January 10 – Archbishop of Canterbury William Laud executed for treason on Tower Hill, London.
 January 14 – English Civil War: Fairfax appointed Commander-in-Chief.
 January 29 – English Civil War: Armistice talks opened at Uxbridge.
 February 2 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Inverlochy
 February 15 – English Civil War: New Model Army is founded officially
 February 29 – English Civil War: Uxbridge armistice talks failed.
 March 4 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert left Oxford for Bristol.
 March 31 – Fearing the spread of the plague, Edinburgh Town Council bans all gatherings except weddings and funerals
 April 3 – Lords pass Self-Denying Ordinance.
 April 10 – Because of the plague, Edinburgh town council orders that the college graduation ceremony should be brought forward so that students can leave the city (in November 19, teaching continues in Linlithgow)
 April 23 – English Civil War: 150 Irish soldiers bound for service with King Charles, were captured at sea by parliamentarians who celebrated St George's Day by joyfully killing them all at Pembroke.
 May 9 – Covenanters defeated by Montrose at the Battle of Auldearn.
 June 1 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert' army took sacked Leicester
 June 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell confirmed as Lieutenant-General of Cavalry.
 June 14 – English Civil War: Battle of Naseby – 12,000 Royalist forces are beaten by 15,000 Parliamentarian soldiers
 June 28 – English Civil War – the Royalists lose Carlisle.
 July 2: Fight at Alford, Aberdeenshire.
 July 10 – English Civil War: Cromwell won the Battle of Langport, Somerset.
 July 23 – Alexei Mikhailovich, Tsar of Russia came to the throne.
 September 10 – English Civil War: Prince Rupert surrendered Bristol.
 September 13 – Covenanters defeated Montrose at the Battle of Philiphaugh, Selkirk.
 September 24 – English Civil War: Parliamentarians defeated Royalist cavalry at the Battle of Rowton Heath.
 October 8 – English Civil War: Final crushing of Basing house begun.
 October 8: Jeanne Mance founds the Hôtel-Dieu de Montréal, the first hospital in North America.
 October 11 – English Civil War The re-fortification of Bourne, Lincolnshire castle against threatened Royalist attack, was begun.

 Siege of Raglan Castle during the English Civil War
 The Long Parliament outlaws the 1559 version of the Book of Common Prayer
 Beginning of the Maunder Minimum, a time period when sunspots became exceedingly rare
 Founding of the Stolberg-Wernigerode branch of the family of counts of Stolberg and Wernigerode in Germany
 Wallpaper begins to replace tapestries as a wall decoration
 Mechanical calculating machine invented by Blaise Pascal.
Events 
 October – King Alexander III of Scotland defeats the Viking armada of King Haakon IV of Norway in the Battle of Largs.
 King James I of Aragon conquers Crevillente, Spain from the Moors during the Reconquista.
 Mindaugas, the only Christian king of Lithuania, is assassinated by his cousin Treniota.
 The chieftains of the eastern part of Iceland become the last to pledge fealty to the Norwegian king, bringing a more complete end to the Icelandic Commonwealth and the Icelandic civil war.
 Genoa captures the city of Chania on Crete from the Venetians.
 Hulagu Khan is defeated in an attempted invasion north of the Caucasus.
 Based on Magdeburg Law Żnin (Poland) was given city rights
Events 
 Before May – Second Barons' War, a civil war in England, begins.
 May 12 to May 14 – The Battle of Lewes of the Second Barons' War is fought between Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester and King Henry III of England in Sussex. By the end of the battle, de Montfort's forces capture both King Henry and his brother, future King Edward I, making de Montfort the "uncrowned king of England" for 15 months before Edward escapes captivity and recaptures the throne.
 June 18 – The Parliament of Ireland meets at Castledermot in County Kildare, the first definitively known meeting of this Irish legislature.
 In Spain, King James I of Aragon reconquers the cities of Orihuela in Alicante and Elx in Valencia from the Moors, ending over 500 years of Islamic rule.
 The Thuringian War of Succession ends.
 The state of Hesse gains its independence from Thuringia and becomes a free state of the Holy Roman Empire.
 In the Peerage of England, the title Baron de Ros, the oldest continuously held peerage title in England, is created by writ of summons.

Births 
 May 26 – Prince Koreyasu, Japanese shogun (died 1326)
 Pope Clement V (died 1314)

Deaths
Events 
The Long Parliament passes a series of laws written to help keep Charles I's absolutist policies.
 August 10 – Charles I of England runs from London to the north
 Irish Rebellion of 1641 – revolt of the Gaelic Irish in Ulster against the English settlers
The Dutch found a trading colony on Dejima, near Nagasaki, Japan.
Portugal is ousted from Malacca by the Dutch.
Claudio Monteverdi's opera Il ritorno d'Ulisse in patria is first performed.
Moses Amyraut's De l'elevation de la foy et de l'abaissement de la raison en la creance des mysteres de la religion is published.
The Norwegian city of Kristiansand was founded by King Christian IV
A hierarchy (in ; this comes from -hieros, sacred, and -arkho, rule) is a way of ranking and organizing things or people. Beneath the top of the hierarchy, each part of it is below some other part. This turns out to be like a pyramid. It is a system to decide who can make decisions, and who is forced to comply with those decisions.

An example with people would be the structure of a company. There is the top manager, and there are a few levels of middle and lower management. At the bottom are the common workers. Another example would be an army that might have a general, followed by colonels, corporals, and sergeants, then privates.

In democracy this is done by educating people in the issues and then voting - in an election to choose leaders, or a referendum to actually choose one option from several. Competing power networks each form a political party and each offers only one leader or one option to the public, to simplify the issues to make decisions possible. After the decision, they typically do not fight it to the point of civil war, but wait for the next election.

In dictatorship this is done by asking one powerful person to make the decision and then agreeing to force everyone to follow it. Any who will not are exiled, imprisoned, or killed, even if the decision is not very important, since the refusal to follow is taken as a challenge to the power structure itself. There is only one power network and all others are forced to become part of it, or fight it. Civil war is much more common in a dictatorship than in a democracy.

In these examples, people who are higher up have more authority and power than people below them.

Related pages
 Anarchism
Sultan is a name for Islamic rulers. 

The word sultan comes from the Arabic language. It means "strength", "authority", or "rulership". Later, it came to be used as the title of certain Muslim rulers who claimed full sovereignty. They did not have to take orders from any higher monarch, without claiming the overall caliphate. There is no specific word for a sultan's wife in Arabic. The word, sultana began to be used (as the feminine version of the Italian word for sultano) in the 16th century in Italy, to describe the  wife, mother, daughter, or concubine of a sultan. The Italian word also passed to other European languages.

The dynasty and lands ruled by the Sultan is called a sultanate. During the 20th century, several Sultans in the Arab world changed their title to "Malik", which means "king" in Arabic.
The Republic of India is divided into twenty-eight States and eight union territories, including the National Capital Territory.

States and capitals 

Union territories:

 
India-related lists
Anorexia nervosa (usually just called anorexia) is an eating disorder. 

People with anorexia think that they are fat, or desperately fear becoming fat even if they are very skinny. To try to lose weight, anorexics do not eat enough. When they do eat, they do not eat the amount of food their body needs, in an effort to avoid gaining weight.  This causes them to lose too much weight too quickly. This is very harmful to a person's body. There are various treatments for anorexia. One example is the Maudsley Method. This type of treatment is for patients who are 18 or younger. Two thirds of adolescent anorexia patients are 'recovered' at the end of this treatment. People with anorexia are more likely to die than people with any other mental illness.

Diagnosis
Doctors use the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders to make a medical diagnosis and decide if a person has anorexia or not. Four signs of anorexia are listed in the manual. People do not have to show all four signs for the doctor to decide that they have anorexia.

Signs of anorexia
People with anorexia do not want to keep a body weight and BMI that is normal for their age and height.
People with anorexia think that they are fat. They are afraid of gaining weight.
People with anorexia have low self-esteem because of the shape or weight of their body.  Also, they do not think that low body weight is a problem.
A woman with anorexia might not have their period multiple months in a row (one period is sometimes called a menstrual cycle).  They also must make sure the woman is not pregnant and has not had their periods stop permanently due to their age, which is called menopause.

Symptoms of anorexia
 Rapid, unexplained weight loss
 Refusal to maintain a healthy weight
 Low self-esteem and distorted self-image
 Frequent weighing, "body-checking", or negative comments on appearance
 Amenorrhoea, the loss of menstrual periods
 Low body temperature
 Low pulse, blood sugar and blood pressure
 Depression

Dangers of anorexia
 Total self-starvation
 Heart attack or heart failure
 Kidney failure
 Electrolyte imbalance
 Muscle and organ damage (when the body has no fat to live off of, it begins to digest muscle and tissue)
 Suicide

Causes
There is no single cause of anorexia. Researchers believe that it is caused by a combination of biological and environmental factors. It has been linked to the media. Many people think that anorexia is caused by wanting to be thin like models in magazines. However, it is not that simple.

People who develop anorexia tend to be perfectionistic. They are also more likely to have problems socializing. There has been research about the link between anorexia and autism spectrum disorder (ASD), a disorder that involves problems with socializing. Another symptom of autism spectrum disorder is OCD, which has also been linked to anorexia. Starvation is known to create antisocial behavior so there needs to be research that compares those traits in anorexics with people who have recovered.

References

Related pages
Bulimia nervosa

Eating disorders
Madness (or Insanity)  is a word that can have different meanings:
 Up to about the 19th century someone who acted strangely, or outside the socially accepted norms was called mad or insane. This could range from having bizarre ideas to someone having delusions or hallucinations, as they are common in some mental illnesses, such as psychosis. 
 Today, those having delusions or hallucinations (or other mental illnesses) are sometimes called mad or insane by people who are not doctors. Doctors say they have "mental disorders
 Certain diseases, such as rabies, lead to a markable change in behaviour.   An animal that suffers from rabies is sometimes called rabid or mad. 

Being able to tell right from wrong is the base of a working society and of law; for this reason, the law treats those people differently who are not able to make this distinction.

Related pages 
 Lunatic
 Psychiatry
 Insanity defense

Mental illnesses
Rabies is a neurotropic (referring to the nuerons) virus, viral zoonotic disease (can spread to humans by animals) that causes acute encephalitis.

Usually, people (and animals) die from it (it is fatal). There is no cure for it. People who are treated soon after becoming infected have a chance to survive.

The disease is transmitted through the saliva and the blood. The usual form of getting it is a bite of a rabid mammal. Pets, like dogs need to be vaccinated against it, in most countries.

Treatment 
There is no cure for Rabies. There is a vaccine (medicine to try to prevent rabies) against it. The vaccine was first developed by Louis Pasteur and Pierre Paul Émile Roux in 1885. This vaccine used a live virus grown in rabbits, and weakened (through drying it). The first person to be vaccinated was Joseph Meister (a 9-year-old boy who had been bitten by a dog). Vaccines similar to this are still used today, but other vaccines (growing the virus using cell cultures) are more used.

There is also a form of treatment that can be done once a person has been bitten. It needs to be done within 6 days of being bitten. There is no way to know whether someone is infected, until it's too late. Treatment starts with washing the wound. This is done to reduce the number of virus particles that enter the body. Often patients are given one dose of immunoglobulin and a certain number of vaccines, over a determined period of time, usually a month.

Other websites 
History of Rabies in Los Angeles

References 

CDC. Human-to-human transmission of rabies via a corneal transplant -- France. MMWR 1980;29:25-6
Javadi MA, Fayaz A, Mirdehghan SA, Ainollahi B. Transmission of rabies by corneal graft. Cornea. 1996 Jul;15(4):431-3.
Manbir Online
CNN News report of CDC news release - July 1, 2004.
Associated Press report: Families of rabies transplant victims react to deaths - July 3, 2004
BBC News Europe Report: Romanian killer bear had rabies - 19 October, 2004.
First Unvaccinated Rabies Survivor Goes Home - January 3, 2005

Other websites 

Rabies Information 
Rabies - A Comprehensive Guide 
Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
World Health Organization factsheet on Rabies
World Health Organization factsheet on Rabies vaccine
Rules for importing pets to the United Kingdom 
A Rabies-Free World, Inc.  - NPO dedicated to fighting rabies worldwide
Rules for importing pets to the European Union  
Rules for importing pets to the European Union Q&A 
Aspen Skunk Rabies Research 
"When Raccoons Attack" from Field & Stream Online 
“Only Known Unvaccinated Rabies Survivor Thrives” (USA Today) Progress report on the one known survivor of rabies

Diseases caused by viruses
Tirana ( or Tirana) is the capital city of Republic of Albania. It is the largest city in that country. The population of the city is estimated at 353,400 people (2003). Other people think there may be up to 1 million people who live in the city. Tirana was founded in 1614. It became Albania's capital city in 1920.

References and notes
John Forbes Nash Jr. (June 13, 1928 – May 23, 2015) was an American mathematician who worked in game theory and differential geometry. He was born in Bluefield, West Virginia. He shared the 1994 Memorial Prize in Economics with two other game theorists, Reinhard Selten and John Harsanyi.

Early life
Nash was born on June 13, 1928, in Bluefield, West Virginia. He studied at Princeton University and at Carnegie Institute of Technology.

Career
The winner of a Westinghouse scholarship, he attended the Carnegie Institute of Technology, where he received both his bachelor's degree and his master's degree in 1948. From Pittsburgh he went to Princeton University where he worked on his equilibrium theory. He received a Ph.D. in 1950 with a dissertation on non-cooperative games. The thesis, which was written under the supervision of Albert W. Tucker, contained the definition and properties of what would later be called the Nash equilibrium. His studies on this subject led to three articles:
 "Equilibrium Points in N-person Games", published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (USA) (1950);
 "The Bargaining Problem" (April 1950) in Econometrica, and
 "Two-person Cooperative Games" (January 1953), also in Econometrica.

Nash also did important work in the area of manifolds (complex spatial structures):
 "Real algebraic manifolds", (1952) Ann. Math. 56 (1952), 405 – 421. (See also Proc. Internat. Congr. Math., 1950, (AMS, 1952), pp. 516 – 517.)

This work led to Nash embedding theorem: "Two real algebraic manifolds are equivalent if and only if they are analytically homeomorphic."

Personal life
He is best known in popular culture as the subject of the Hollywood movie, A Beautiful Mind, about his mathematical genius and his struggles with schizophrenia, with which he was diagnosed.

Nash married Alicia Lopez-Harrison de Lardé in 1957. They had one son. Nash had a first son out of wedlock to Elenor Stier.. In 1963, the couple divorced. They later remarried in 2001. Nash lived in West Windsor Township, New Jersey for a long time.

Death
On May 23, 2015, Nash and his wife Alicia were killed in a car accident near Monroe Township, New Jersey. A taxi that they were riding in was struck by another vehicle and the pair was ejected from the taxi. Nash was 86 years old.

References

Other websites 

 Autobiography at the Nobel Prize website
 Nash's home page at Princeton
 John Forbes Nash Jr Information 
 Nash FAQ  from Princeton's Mudd Library, including a copy of his dissertation in PDF format
 Beautiful mind, unconventional matter , a 2001 Daily Princetonian interview
 PBS documentary 
 John Nash speaks out about alleged bisexuality

Abel Prize winners
American geometers
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from West Virginia
People with schizophrenia
Road accident deaths in New Jersey
1928 births
2015 deaths
Differential geometers
Muteness means not being able to speak. A person that cannot speak is called a mute. A mute keeps the ability to hear the speech of others. If not, the person would be a deaf mute.

Muteness is a type of speech  disorder. A person who chooses not to speak is said to be silent rather than mute. Slang for this (British English) is "keeping mum".

Originally, the common word dumb or dumbness used to mean "unable to speak". Unfortunately this was taken over to mean "unwilling to speak". So people prefer "muteness". "Dumb" is a much commoner word, and might be used if it would not be misunderstood.

Cause (eteliology)   
In general, someone who is mute may be mute for one of several different reasons: genetics, psychological, or trauma.

For children, a lack of speech may be developmental, neurological, psychological, or due to a physical disability or a communication disorder. 

Adults who previously had speech and then became unable to speak: this may be due to disease, injury, damage or surgery affecting areas of the brain needed for speech. Loss of speech in adults may occur, but rarely, for psychological reasons. Damage (however caused) to the parts of the brain needed for speech is called aphasia.

Action 
Treatment or management of muteness depends on what has caused the absence of speech. When there is an absence of speech, a speech assessment is strongly recommended to determine cause and treatment. Treatment of absence of speech is possible in a variety of cases. If the absence of speech is determined to be a permanent condition, a range of assistive and augmentative communication devices are available to aid communication.

Speech-generating devices help people with speech deficiencies.

References

See also
Aphasia
Aphonia
Autism
Deafness
Dysarthria

Health
Disability
A wooden spoon is a spoon that can be made from wood. Wooden spoons are used for mixing food.  Wooden spoon is also a  term for last place in a sporting contest.

Other websites
Stuart King's collection of carved wooden spoons 

Food utensils

sv:Slev
Nayarit is a middle sized Mexican state. It is on the West coast of Mexico (on the Pacific Ocean shore).
Native people from Nayarit are called Nayaritas (singular: Nayarita).

States of Mexico
A phylum (plural: phyla) is the third highest rank used in the biological taxonomy of all organisms. The second rank is kingdom and the highest is domain. Usually biologists count about 32 phyla of animals, about 14 of plants, and about 8 phyla of fungus, but definitions vary.

With genome analysis, groups of phyla have been put together based on evolutionary relationships. These are informal, not part of the standard classification.

Botanists usually prefer the word division instead of phylum.

Related pages 
List of animal phyla

Other websites 
Hogenboom, Melissa 2015. All animal life in 35 photos. BBC Earth. 

Taxonomy
Conduction in physics is about forms of energy, namely heat or electricity.

 Heat conduction takes place between two objects in contact with each other.  Heat energy moves from one to the other.  In heat conduction, the heat energy travels from the hot point to a cold point.  Eventually, the two materials will even out in temperature as the heat keeps on transferring until the temperatures are the same.  This is equilibrium.  For example, a pan of hot soup is taken off the oven and put on a table.  The area of the table under the pot gets hot.  Heat from the pot moved to the table top by conduction. 

 Electrical conduction is usually done through wires or cables. Something that electrons can easily move through is a good electrical conductor.  Metals are mostly  good conductors.  An insulator like rubber is a poor conductor.  Plastics are insulators.  Some materials, such as glass, are conductors for heat but not electricity.

Besides conduction, the other major ways of moving energy are by radiation and convection.

Related pages
 electrical conductor
 heat conduction
 fiber optics

Basic physics ideas
A royal family is the family of a monarch (king or queen of a country). Or, it is someone who is related to a queen, king or a monarch. Examples of royal families are the British Royal Family, Dutch Royal Family and Thai Royal Family. Many countries have abolished royalty altogether, as in post-revolution France, the United States, Brazil, Portugal, China, Germany, Austria, Russia, Turkey, Ethiopia, Iran, etc.

Royalty and nobility
Monarchy
The 2005 United Kingdom General Election was an election held on May 5, 2005 to elect 646 members to the House of Commons of the United Kingdom. The three main candidates to become Prime Minister of the United Kingdom are shown to the right. 

The election resulted in the Labour Party and it's leader Tony Blair winning a majority in the House of Commons for the third time in a row. The Labour Party did lose 47 of their seats in parliament and the amount of votes they got dropped by 5.5% from the 2001 General Election. Many people believe the Labour Party lost support because of Labour Prime Minister Tony Blair's unpopular decision to send troops to Iraq in 2003.

Results
 Labour Party (355 MP's, 35.2% of vote)
 Conservative Party (198 MP's, 32.4% of vote)
 Liberal Democrats (62 MP's, 22.0% of vote)
 UK Independence Party (0 MP's, 2.2% of vote)
 Scottish National Party (6 MP's, 1.5% of vote) - Scotland only
 Green Party (0 MP's, 1.0% of vote) - England and Wales only
 Democratic Unionist Party (9 MP's, 0.9% of vote) - Northern Ireland only  
 British National Party (0 MP's, 0.7% of vote)
 Plaid Cymru (3 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Wales only
 Sinn Féin (5 MP's, 0.6% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Ulster Unionist Party (1 MP, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Social Democratic and Labour Party (3 MP's, 0.5% of vote) - Northern Ireland only 
 Respect Party (1 MP, 0.3% of vote)
 Scottish Socialist Party (0 MP's, 0.2% of vote) - Scotland only
 Veritas (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 Alliance Party of Northern Ireland (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Northern Ireland only
 Scottish Green Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - Scotland only
 Socialist Labour Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 Liberal Party (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote)
 English Democrats (0 MP's, 0.1% of vote) - England only

The constituencies of Blaenau Gwent and Wyre Forest elected Independent candidates. The seat of Glasgow East was won by the Speaker of the House of Commons Michael Martin, who is not considered to be of any political party.

The next election was held on May 6, 2010. See United Kingdom general election, 2010

Related pages
MPs elected in the UK general election, 2005

2005 in the United Kingdom
2005 elections
United Kingdom general elections
May 2005 events
Flash memory is a memory storage device for computers and electronics. It is most often used in devices like digital cameras, USB flash drives, and video games. It was developed in the 1980s from the earlier and similar EEPROM.

Flash memory is different from RAM because RAM is volatile (not permanent). When power is turned off, RAM loses all its data. Flash can keep its data intact with no power at all. A hard drive is also permanent (non-volatile) storage, but it is bulky and fragile. Flash memory is one kind of Non-volatile random-access memory. It is slower than RAM but faster than hard drives. It is often used in small electronics because of its small size and lack of moving parts.

The main weakness of flash memory is that it is more expensive than hard drives for the same amount of storage.  Another weakness is the number of times that data can be written to it. Data can be read from flash as many times as desired, but after a certain number of "write" operations, "write cycles", it will stop working. Most flash devices are designed for about 100,000 - 1,000,000 write cycles.

EEPROM has the same limitation that flash does: ones made in the 20th century could only survive about 100,000 write cycles, later increased to about a million. It is more expensive than flash, so it is rarely used for storage greater than 128kB. The main difference between EEPROM and flash memory is that most EEPROM devices can erase any byte of memory at any time. Flash memory can only erase an entire chunk, or "sector", of memory at a time. Both EEPROM and flash are subject to the limitation that only bytes in an 'erased' state can be written, which means that if the user wants to change only one byte of flash, the entire sector must be erased and re-written. This means that flash memory can wear out faster than EEPROM.  Some flash memory can store hundreds of gigabytes, or even terabytes.  Many are in the form of a pen drive.  

Flash memory is used in USB Drives, solid-state drives, computer RAM (occasionally), hybrid drives (small SSD + hard drive), graphics cards, and memory cards.

Related pages
 USB flash drive

Computer memory
Bottrop is a city in west central Germany, on the Rhine-Herne Canal, in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia (Nordrhein-Westfalen). Bottrop is in the Ruhr industrial area, It is next to Essen, Oberhausen, Gladbeck and Dorsten. The city had been a coal-mining and rail center. There are factories producing coal-tar derivatives, chemicals, textiles, and machinery. The population is currently 119,655. Bottrop grew as a mining center beginning in the 1860s and was chartered as a city in 1921. In 1975 it was put together with the unification with the neighbor communities of Gladbeck and Kirchhellen, but Gladbeck left in 1976.

History 
The place is first heard of in 1150, as Borthorpe. This name means village on the hillside. In the year 1423, Bottrop is awarded the status of a market town. In 1786 the first cotton mill opens. Coal mining starts in 1856. The city gets town privileges in 1919. In 1953, the population passed 100.000 people for the first time.

Popular persons 

 Josef Albers
 August Everding
 Theo Jörgensmann

References

Other websites 
 Official city website

Urban districts in Regierungsbezirk Münster
Puducherry, which used to be called Pondicherry is a Union territory of India. Pondicherry is divided into four separate parts: Puducherry district, Karaikal district, Yanam district , and Mahe district. These four areas are under one name because they were all once ruled by the French. Chandranagore, the fifth former French colony 30 kilometers north of Kolkata, in West Bengal, India, is now outside this unconnected territory. 

When India took control of them, they took them in as one territory. Pondicherry is going through a name change to Puducherry, which means "new village" in the local language. It covers an area of 183 mi² or 474 km²; it is bigger than Andorra but smaller than Saint Lucia. 

Its a very nice tourist attraction. Its has many heritage buildings with old French architecture. The Boulevard is ellipse-shaped with two clock towers of the Small Market and the Big Market. The area of boulevards close to the Beach is called White Town. This was the area where initial French settlements were made. That's why it is called White town area.
The New York Yankees are a professional baseball team based in New York City, New York in the Bronx. They compete in Major League Baseball (MLB) as part of the American League (AL) east division. They are one of two MLB teams based in New York City, the other being the National League's (NL) New York Mets. They won 27 World Series championships to date, more than any other team in the Major Leagues. From 1923 to 2008, the Yankees home stadium had been Yankee Stadium. Currently, they are playing at their new Yankee Stadium.

The word "Yankee" (slang for "American") and the "Uncle Sam" top hat, make up part of what they are all about. As with the more common use of the term "Yankee", the team name is more often called "the Yanks". Their most commonly used "unofficial" nickname is "the Bronx Bombers", or simply "the Bombers". This nickname was given to them by the press a long time ago. It refers to their ability to hit home runs a lot (a home run is sometimes called a "bomb"). A less used nickname is "the Pinstripers", for their well-known uniform style.

The Yankees currently don't have a team captain. Derek Jeter retired after the 2014 season

The Yankees' current team ace is Geritt Cole.

The New York Yankees' main rival is the Boston Red Sox.

The Yankees' current team manager is Aaron Boone.

The Yankees' current General Manager is Brian Cashman.

The official fight song for the Yankees is "Here Come the Yankees".

After the game, they play Frank Sinatra's "New York, New York".

They have 18 retired numbers, more than any other teams in MLB. The number 42 was retired not only in the Yankees but also throughout Major League Baseball in honor of Jackie Robinson who broke the color barrier.

The Yankees were also the last team to repeat as World Series champions. They won three straight titles from 1998 to 2000.

References

Other websites
 Official website of the New York Yankees
 New York Yankees Home Uniform - American League (AL) - Chris Creamer's Sports Logos Page - SportsLogos.Net

Further Reading
Pinstripe Pride by Marty Appel

 
The Bronx
Events 
 The city of Oslo is founded by Harald Hardråde of Norway.
 Battle of Pasinler – Seljuks defeat a force of Byzantines and Georgians.
 Benedict IX driven from Rome, ending his third and final pontificate.
Sir Terry Pratchett OBE (Terence David John Pratchett; 28 April 1948 – 12 March 2015) was an English author. He was known for his fantasy works, including the famous Discworld series. His first novel, The Carpet People, was published in 1971. He was the UK's best-selling author of the 1990s. He was born in Beaconsfield, Buckinghamshire, England.

Pratchett died at his home in Broad Chalke, Wiltshire, England on 12 March 2015 from a severe chest infection with final complications from his Alzheimers, aged 66.

References

Other websites 
TerryPratchettBooks.com Official US site
Transworld  Official UK, Europe and Canada site
TerryPratchettBooks.org Fan site

1948 births
2015 deaths
English science fiction writers
Deaths from Alzheimer's disease
Disease-related deaths in Wiltshire
English novelists
Infectious disease deaths in England
Writers from Buckinghamshire
Events 
 Damietta is besieged by the knights of the Fifth Crusade.
 Livonian Brothers of the Sword begin to conquer Estonia.
 Minamoto no Sanetomo becomes Minister of the Right (udaijin) of Japan.
 Alfonso IX of Castile founds a university in Salamanca.
Events 
 March 30 – The Sicilian rebellion known as the Sicilian Vespers begins
 March – Dafydd ap Gruffydd, brother to Prince of Wales Llywelyn the Last, attacks an English castle
 Holy Roman Emperor Rudolph I of Germany makes his sons Albert I of Germany and Rudolph II of Austria as rulers of the of Austria and Styria, thus founding the Habsburg dynasty in those territories.
 Floris V, Count of Holland defeats the Frisians at the battle of Vronen and retrieves the body of his father, who had been dead for 26 years.
A critic is a person who reviews things like movies, books, and food to see if they are any good and if other people would like them.  They write reviews about what they have seen or read. 

Critics may write about art, music, theatre, politics, movies, television, books, or anything in which good or bad is a matter of personal opinion.

Roger Ebert, Gene Siskel, Raymond Williams, Susan George, John Ruskin, Rene Ricard, John Amis, Vladimir Vladimirovich Kara-Murza, George Bernard Shaw, Robert Schumann and Pauline Kael are some famous critics of art, music, politics and movies.

Related pages
Art critic
Criticism
Movie criticism
Music critic
Søren Aabye Kierkegaard (5 May 1813 – 11 November 1855), was a 19th-century Danish philosopher and theologian, and is usually thought of as the first existentialist philosopher.

He wrote many philosophical books about faith, existence, emotions, and feeling. He disliked people who tried to make Christianity political and people who tried to limit the single individual in favour of groups of many people. Many people have found his works interesting and have said that they were great works of philosophy. Ludwig Wittgenstein, a 20th-century philosopher, thought Kierkegaard was "by far, the most profound thinker of the nineteenth century".

Life
He was born in Copenhagen, Denmark. He attended Copenhagen University and earned his master's degree in 1841. During this time, he met and fell in love with Regine Olsen in 1837. Although they were engaged for a time, Kierkegaard ended the engagement in 1841.

After breaking up with Regine, he spent much of his time writing book after book, in a highly dramatic yet subtle way. He also wrote some of his works using pen names, or pseudonyms. He died in Copenhagen. Although his works were not very popular during his lifetime, after his death they became influential in the 20th century.

Works 
Books by Kierkegaard. Either/Or and Fear and Trembling, both published in 1843, are thought to be especially significant.

 (1841) The Concept of Irony (Om Begrebet Ironi med stadigt Hensyn til Socrates)
 (1843) Either/Or (Enten - Eller)
 (1843) Fear and Trembling (Frygt og Bæven)
 (1843) Repetition (Gjentagelsen)
 (1844) Philosophical Fragments (Philosophiske Smuler)
 (1844) The Concept of Dread (Begrebet Angest)
 (1845) Stages on Life's Way (Stadier paa Livets Vei)
 (1846) Concluding Unscientific Postscript to The Philosophical Fragments (Afsluttende uvidenskabelig Efterskrift)
 (1847) Edifying Discourses in Divers Spirits
 (1847) Works of Love (Kjerlighedens Gjerninger)
 (1848) Christian Discourses (Christelige Taler)
 (1849) The Sickness Unto Death  (Sygdommen til Døden)
 (1850) Training in Christianity (Indøvelse i Christendom)

Related pages
List of Danish writers

References 

1813 births
1855 deaths
19th-century philosophers
Danish writers
People from Copenhagen
Events 
 January 20 – Poland cedes Kyiv, Smolensk, and eastern Ukraine to Russia in the Treaty of Andrusovo that put a final end to the Deluge, and Poland lost its status as a Central European power.
 April 27 – The blind, impoverished John Milton sells the copyright of Paradise Lost for £10.
 June 12-17 – In the Raid on the Medway, a Dutch fleet under admiral Michiel de Ruyter burns Sheerness, sails up the River Medway, raids Chatham dockyards and escapes with the royal barge The Royal Charles.
 June 15 – The first human blood transfusion is administered by Dr. Jean-Baptiste Denys. He transfuses the blood of a sheep to a 15-year-old boy. (Though this operation is a success, a later patient dies from the procedure and Denys is accused of murder).
 June 20 – Dutch troops attack Royal Navy ships in London and Chatham and burn them.
 July 31 – Second Anglo-Dutch War ends: The Treaty of Breda ends the war. The treaty also recognizes Acadia as a French possession.
 October 18 – Brooklyn is chartered under the name Brueckelen by Mathias Nicolls, Governor of New Netherland.
 November 25 – Devastating earthquake rocks Caucasia, killing 80,000 people.
 Suleiman I becomes Shah of Persia.
 The Mogul Emperor Aurangzeb buys off the bandit Shivaji by making him a Rajah and allowing him to collect taxes.
 Robert Hooke demonstrates that the alteration of the blood in the lungs is essential for respiration.
 The War of Devolution begins, France invades Flanders and Free County.
 Louis XIV of France abolishes the Livre Parisis (Paris Pound) in favor of the much more widely used Livre Tournois (Tours Pound). He also designates Gabriel-Nicolas de la Reynie as first chief of "police" of Paris.
 French army uses grenadiers.
 Yohannes succeeds his father Fasildos as Emperor of Ethiopia.

Births 
 August 11 - Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici, Tuscan princess
 November 30 - Jonathan Swift, Irish writer
Despotism is a form of government that is controlled by one person or a small group of people. The person who controls the state is called a despot. The despot has complete control of the state, like a dictator or tyrant. In history, the pharaohs of Egypt were despots. The word despot is thought to come from the Ancient Greek word despotes, which means "the master".

According to Montesquieu, the difference between absolute monarchy and despotism is as follows. In the case of the monarchy, a single person governs with absolute power by fixed and established laws, whereas a despot governs by his or her own will and caprice.

The importance of the idea of despotism is that today it is a very common type of dictatorship or direct rule. Ruling monarchies are today few in number.

Even when there are elections, as there are for the Russian presidency,  opposition candidates are at such a disadvantage that they are rarely, if ever, successful.

Despotism has always been associated with Eastern rather than Western states. Of the former Soviet Union, it is only the new states to the west which have attempted, with difficulties, to build genuine democracies (such as Moldova and Ukraine).

References 

Forms of government
Lakshadweep (; ISO: , formerly known as the Laccadive, Minicoy and Aminidivi Islands (), are a group of islands in the Arabian Sea. They belong to India. Their capital is Kavaratti. It covers an area of . Eleven of the 36 coral atoll islands of Lakshadweep are inhabited. 

The islands are the only coral atolls in India. The people living there are Malayalam and Mahl people, who have been influenced by Arab traders. Lakshadweep is a Muslim region just like the neighbouring Maldives, where tourism is strictly regulated. Lakshadweep has the largest percentage of Muslims - 98%, even larger percentage than Jammu and Kashmir and is the only Muslim-majority Indian administrative division entirely within India. 

Apart from the emerging tourism, government jobs, fishing and coconut production are the mainstays of the Lakshadweep economy.

Territorial symbols of Lakshadweep

Other websites 

Commonwealth dependent states
Islands of India
Territories of India
Daman and Diu is a union territory in India. It covers an area of 50 mi² or 130 km², it is bigger than Saint Helena but smaller than Wallis and Futuna.

The territory used to belong to Portugal.
A riding helmet, sometimes called a horse riding helmet, is a type of helmet made for people who ride horses. It is important to wear a riding helmet when riding. It is easy for a person to fall off a horse and hit his or her head.  Riding helmets keep the rider of a horse from being hurt. Horses can accidentally step on a person who has fallen to the ground.

Helmets should be worn by all riders, but are most often worn by English style riders.

Protective clothing
Horse riding
Headgear