cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Center of mass or barycenter of a system is the average position of all the mass in a system.

In a rigid body, the centre of mass is always in the same place. In a loose collection the center of mass may be in space, as it is in the Solar System. Also, as planets' orbits change slightly, so will the position of the barycenter.

A simple way to understand the concept of barycenter is to push a supermarket trolley. If you hold only one corner and push, it will only go in a straight line when you push through the centre of mass. Otherwise a turning force is created. This shows that the mass acts as if it were only in one place.

The center of gravity is a closely related term. It is the point where an object can be balanced perfectly by a sharp point holding it up under the object. It is the center of mass acting in a gravitational field.

History 
The concept of center of mass was first introduced by the ancient Greek physicist, mathematician, and engineer Archimedes of Syracuse.  Archimedes showed that the torque (turning force) exerted on a lever by weights resting at various points along the lever is the same as what it would be if all of the weights were moved to a single point — their center of mass.  

Archimedes was the first person to work out ways of finding the center of mass in various objects.

Relation between the two terms 
The center of mass is often called the center of gravity because any uniform gravitational field g acts on a system as if the mass M of the system were concentrated at the center of mass R.

Physics
Mechanics
Marcel Duchamp (28 July 1887 – 2 October 1968) was a French artist whose work is most often associated with the Dadaist and Surrealist movements. Duchamp's output influenced the development of post-World War I Western art. He advised modern art collectors, such as Peggy Guggenheim and other prominent figures, thereby helping to shape the tastes of Western art during this period.

A playful man, Duchamp challenged conventional thought about artistic processes and art marketing, not so much by writing, but through subversive actions such as dubbing a urinal art and naming it Fountain. This approach would 50 years later be called conceptual art, though he himself used the term 'ready-mades' for this idea. He produced relatively few artworks, while moving quickly through the avant-garde circles of his time.

The creative act is not performed by the artist alone; the spectator brings the work in contact with the external world by deciphering and interpreting its inner qualifications and thus adds his contribution to the creative act.

Duchamp and chess 
Upon his return to Paris in 1923, Duchamp was, in essence, no longer a practicing artist. Instead, he played chess, which he studied for the rest of his life to the exclusion of most other activities.

Duchamp can be seen, very briefly, playing chess with Man Ray in the short film Entr'acte (1924) by René Clair. During this period his fascination with chess so distressed his first wife that she glued his pieces to the board. Duchamp continued to play in the French Championships and also in the Chess Olympiads from 1928–1933, favoring hypermodern openings such as the Nimzo-Indian.

References 

French artists
Chess players
1887 births
1968 deaths
Jean-Marie Le Pen (born June 20, 1928) is a French politician. He was born in La Trinitié-sur-Mer, Brittany, France. He was the leader of the French National Front (FN) from 1972 until 2011, which is a far-right political party in France. He stands for immigration restrictions, the death penalty, raising incentives for homemakers, and is against the EU. He is strongly against same-sex marriage, euthanasia and abortion.

Le Pen served in the French Army from 1953 to 1957.

Jean-Marie Le Pen founded the FN in 1972 and has been its leader ever since. He became a Member of the European Parliament (MEP) in 1984 and has run for President of France five times; in 1974, 1988, 1995, 2002 and 2007. He came second in the 2002 election. Le Pen has often been considered to have xenophobic and antisemitic views and was accused of having practised torture when he fought in the Algerian War (1954-1962). He was suspended from the FN on 4 May 2015.

The youngest of his three daughters is FN leader Marine Le Pen. His granddaughter is FN MP Marion Maréchal-Le Pen.

References

1928 births
Living people
French military people
MEPs for France
National Front (France) politicians
People from Brittany
Leaders of political parties
COBRA (or CoBrA) was a European avant-garde movement active from 1949 to 1951. The name was coined in 1948 by Christian Dotremont from the initials of the members' home cities: Copenhagen (Co), Brussels (Br), Amsterdam (A).

History
COBRA was formed by Karel Appel, Constant, Corneille, Christian Dotremont, Asger Jorn, and Joseph Noiret on the 8th November 1948 in the Café Notre-Dame, Paris, with the signing of a manifesto, "La Cause Était Entendue" (The Case Was Settled), drawn up by Dotremont. Formed with a unifying doctrine of complete freedom of colour and form, as well as antipathy towards surrealism, the artists also shared an interest in Marxism as well as modernism.
Their working method was based on spontaneity and experiment, and they drew their inspiration in particular from children’s drawings, from primitive art forms and from the work of Paul Klee and Joan Miró.
Coming together as an amalgamation of the Dutch group Reflex, the Danish group Høst and the Belgian Revolutionary Surrealist Group, the group only lasted a few years but managed to achieve a number of objectives in that time; the periodical Cobra, a series of collaborations between various members called Peintures-Mot and two large-scale exhibitions.
The first of these was held at the Stedelijk Museum in Amsterdam, November (1949), the other at the Palais des Beaux-Arts in Liège (1951).
  
In November 1949 the group officially changed its name to 'Internationale des Artistes Expérimentaux' with membership having spread across Europe and the USA, although this name has never stuck. The movement was officially disbanded in 1951, but many of its members remained close, with Dotremont in particular continuing collaborations with many of the leading members of the group.

The primary focus of the group consisted of semi-abstract paintings with brilliant color, violent brushwork, and distorted human figures inspired by primitive and folk art and similar to American action painting.  Cobra was a milestone in the development of Tachisme and European abstract expressionism.

Participants
Participants in COBRA included:

Karel Appel (1921-2006)
Corneille (1922-2010)
Pierre Alechinsky (born 1927)
Else Alfelt (1910-1974)
Jean-Michel Atlan (1913-1960)
Mogens Balle (1921-1988)
Ejler Bille (1910-2004)
Pol Bury (1922-2005)
Jacques Calonne (born 1930)
Hugo Claus (1929-2008)
Christian Dotremont (1922-1979)
Lotti van der Gaag (1923-1999)
William Gear (1915-1997)
Stephen Gilbert (1910-2007)
Svavar Guðnason (1909-1988)
Reinhoud d'Haese (1928-2007)

Henry Heerup (1907-1993)
Egill Jacobsen (1910-1998)
Édouard Jaguer (1924-2006)
Asger Jorn (1914-1973)
Aart Kemink (1914-2006)
Lucebert (1924-1994)
Ernest Mancoba (1904-2002)
Sonja Ferlov Mancoba (1911-1984)
Jørgen Nash (1920-2004)
Jan Nieuwenhuys (1922-1986)
Erik Ortvad (1917-2008)
Pieter Ouborg (1893-1956)
Carl-Henning Pedersen (1913-2007)
Raoul Ubac (1910-1985)
Serge Vandercam (1924-2005)

References

Other websites
Huntfor.com/arthistory
Didrichsenmuseum.fi 
Galerie Birch, Danish gallery founded 1946 specializing in COBRA
Museum Jorn, Silkeborg

Art movements
Acronyms
Cosimo II de' Medici (12 May 1590 – 28 February 1621) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1609 until 1621. He was the elder son of Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Christine of Lorraine. He married Maria Magdalena of Austria and had eight children. Galileo Galilei was his childhood tutor.

For the most of his eleven-year reign, he delegated the administration of Tuscany to his ministers. He is best remembered as the patron of Galileo Galilei, his childhood tutor.

He died of tuberculosis in 1621.

Family and children
Maria Magdalena and Cosimo had the following children:

Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had children.
Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had children.
Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) later made Governor of Siena.
Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

Titles and styles

12 May 1590 - 17 February 1609 His Highness The Grand Prince of Tuscany.
17 February 1609 - 28 February 1621 His Highness The Most Serene Grand Duke of Tuscany.

1590 births
1621 deaths
Grand Princes of Tuscany
People from Florence
Deaths from tuberculosis
Grand Dukes of Tuscany
Maria Magdalena of Austria or Maria Maddalena of Austria (7 October 1589 – 1 November 1631) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany from her husband's accession in 1609 until his death in 1621. With him, she had eight children, including a duchess of Parma, a grand duke of Tuscany, and an archduchess of Further Austria. She was the youngest daughter of Charles II, Archduke of Inner Austria, and his wife Maria Anna of Bavaria. During the minority of her son, Grand Duke Ferdinando II, she and her mother-in-law Christina of Lorraine acted as regents. She died in Padua.

Family and children

Maria Cristina  de' Medici (24 August 1609 – 9 August 1632) died unmarried.
Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 July 1610 – 23 May 1670), who married Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622 – 6 March 1694) and had issue.
Gian Carlo de' Medici (24 July 1611 – 23 January 1663) made Cardinal in 1644.
Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma and had issue.
Mattias de' Medici (9 May 1613 – 14 October, 1667) Governor of Siena.
Francesco de' Medici (16 October 1614 – 25 July 1634) died unmarried.
Anna de' Medici (21 July 1616 – 11 September 1676) who married Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Austria (1628-1662)
Leopoldo de' Medici (6 November 1617 – 10 November 1675) made Cardinal in 1667.

1589 births
1631 deaths
Grand Princesses of Tuscany
Habsburg Dynasty
Grand Duchesses of Tuscany
Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria
Margherita de' Medici (31 May 1612 – 6 February 1679) was Duchess of Parma and Piacenza by her marriage to Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma. Margherita was regent of Plaisance in 1635 and regent of the entire duchy in 1646 after the death of her husband.

Family 

She was the fourth of eight children and the second daughter born to Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and his wife Maria Magdalena of Austria. 

Margherita's siblings included Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany, Cardinal Gian Carlo de' Medici, Cardinal Leopoldo de' Medici and Anna, wife of Ferdinand Charles, Archduke of Further Austria. Margherita's other siblings died in childhood or eary adulthood. 

Margherita married Odoardo Farnese, Duke of Parma on 11 October 1628. On 11 September 1646 Odoardo died. Their eldest son, Ranuccio was not yet old enough to rule the Duchy alone so Margherita acted as regent until her son was old enough to govern alone. She died in Parma on February 6 1679.

Issue

Caterina Farnese (2 October 1629) died at birth.
Ranuccio Farnese, Duke of Parma (17 September 1630 – 11 December 1694) married (1) Margaret Yolande of Savoy, (2) Isabella d'Este, (3) Maria d'Este.
Alessandro Farnese (10 January 1635 - 18 February 1689), Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands died unmarried.
Onorato Farnese (24 January 1636 -2  November 1656) died unmarried.
Maria Caterina Farnese (3 September 1637 - 24 April 1648) a nun
Maria Maddalena Farnese (15 July 1638 - 11 March 1693) died unmarried.
Pietro Farnese (4 April 1639 - 4 March 1677) died unmarried.
Ottavio Farnese (5 January 1641 - 4 August 1641) died in infancy.

Tuscan princes and princesses
1612 births
1679 deaths
House of Medici
People from Florence
House of Farnese
Dukes and Duchesses of Parma
Vittoria della Rovere (7 February 1622–5 March 1694) was Grand Duchess of Tuscany as the wife of Grand Duke Ferdinando II. 

She gave her husband four children, two of which would survive infancy the future Cosimo III and Francesco Maria de' Medici, Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro. She was the Duchess of Rovere and Montefeltro in her own right and these went to her youngest son when she died. She was later the guardian of her three grandchildren. Her marriage bought a lot of art treasures to the House of Medici which are today at the Palazzo Pitti Uffizi Gallery in Florence. She did not get on with her daughter in law Marguerite Louise d'Orléans. 

She was the daughter of Claudia de' Medici. She was distantly related to her husband.

Children

Cosimo de' Medici, Grand Prince of Tuscany (19 December 1639 - 21 December 1639) died in infancy.
Unnamed daughter (1640)
Cosimo III de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (14 August 1642 – 31 October 1723) married Marguerite Louise d'Orléans and had issue. 
Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga, no issue.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

7 February 1622 – 6 April 1637 Her Highness Vittoria della Rovere, Princess of Urbino
6 April 1637 – 23 May 1670 Her Most Serene Highness The Grand Duchess of Tuscany
23 May 1670 –  5 March 1694 Her Most Serene Highness The Dowager Grand Duchess of Tuscany

1622 births
1694 deaths
Grand Duchesses of Tuscany
House of della Rovere
The Quebec Major Junior Hockey League (French: la Ligue de hockey junior majeur du Québec, shortened as QMJHL in English, LHJMQ in French) is one of the three major junior ice hockey leagues which make up the Canadian Hockey League. Because the name of the league is so long, it is sometimes called the "Q".

There are 18 teams in the QMJHL that are in Quebec, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, and Prince Edward Island in Canada. The winner of the QMJHL plays against the winners of the Western Hockey League and Ontario Hockey League for the Memorial Cup. Many good players go from the QMJHL to the National Hockey League, and nine players from the QMJHL are in the Hockey Hall of Fame.

History
The QMJHL was created in 1969 from two different junior leagues in Quebec, the Quebec Junior Hockey League and the Metropolitan Montreal Junior Hockey League. These two teams wanted to make a better junior league for the province, so combined teams from their leagues. Eight teams were from the QJHL and two from the MMJHL and another team came from a town in Ontario on the Ontario-Quebec border. Nearly every team was within a close distance of Montreal, the largest city in Quebec, though no team played in Montreal.

In 1972 the QMJHL finally wanted a team in Montreal, and tried to get the Montreal Junior Canadiens, who played in the Ontario Hockey Association, to join. The OHA made a deal with the QMJHL and gave them the Junior Canadiens while creating a new team in a different city to keep an OHA team with the same name.

Member teams

Other websites

Quebec Major Junior Hockey League Official website 
Canadian Hockey League Official website
Internet Hockey Database Archive of standings and statistics

Canadian Hockey League
Sport in Quebec
1969 establishments in Canada
is a tower in Osaka, Japan. It is a well-known landmark and shows advertisements for Hitachi, Ltd.  The tower is 103 meters tall. The main observation deck is 91 meters above the ground. The three characters in the name mean "Reaching Heaven Tower". It is in Shinsekai, part of Naniwa Ward. Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co., Ltd. owns the tower.

History 
The current tower is the second tower on the site. The original tower was built in 1912. The design was based on the Eiffel Tower. The tower had an cable car that connected it to a nearby amusement park called Luna Park. The original was 64 meters tall. It was the second tallest building in Asia at that time. It quickly became one of the most popular locations in the city. Visitors came from all over. 

There was a fire in 1943 which severely damaged the tower. It was not repaired. The tower was taken apart and the steel was used to make things for World War II.

After the war, citizens wanted to rebuild the popular tower. A private company called Tsūtenkaku Kanko Co. Ltd. was set up for this purpose. They hired Tachu Naito to design it. He was nicknamed Japan's "Father of Towers". The new tower opened in 1956.

Signs
In 1957, Hitachi started putting neon sign advertisements on the tower. The advertisements have usually been changed every 5 or 6 years. Hitachi last changed the signs in 2006. New signs are scheduled for autumn 2011. The new signs will use LED lights, not neon. Other lights on the tower also show weather information.

Access
 JR West, Osaka Loop Line and Yamatoji Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
 Nankai Railway, Nankai Main Line and Koya Line, Shin-Imamiya Station, East Exit (10 minute walk)
 Osaka Municipal Subway Sakaisuji Line (brown line), Ebisuchō Station, Exit 3 (3 minute walk)
 Osaka Municipal Subway Midosuji Line (red line), Dobutsuen-mae Station, Exit 5 (10 minute walk)
 Hankai Tramway, Hankai Line, Ebisucho Station (3 minute walk)

Photos of the tower today

Photos of the original tower

Related pages
Tokyo Tower

References

Buildings and structures in Japan
Towers in Japan
Osaka
Buildings and structures completed in the 20th century
Francesco Maria de' Medici (12 November 1660 – 3 February 1711) was an Italian political leader, Cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church and Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro.

Early life
Medici was born in Florence. He was the second son of Ferdinando II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany.

In 1683 he was made governor of Siena.

Cardinal
In 1686, Pope Innocent XII made him a cardinal. In 1709, he was permitted to give up his role as cardinal on 14 July 1709 the same year.

Duke
In March 1694, he inherited to the Duchies of Rovere and Montefeltro.

In 1709, he married Eleonora Luisa Gonzaga.

Medici died at the Bagno a Ripoli in 1711.

Titles and styles
 12 November 1660 – 6 March 1694: His Highness Prince Francesco Maria de' Medici.
 6 March 1694 – 3 February 1711: His Highness The Duke of Rovere and Montefeltro.
 2 September 1686 – 19 June 1709: His Eminence Cardinal Francesco Maria de' Medici.

References

Other websites

 Cardinals of the Holy Roman Church,  Medici, Francesco Maria de' 
 Catholic-Hierarchy, (Layman) Francesco Maria de’ Medici 

1660 births
1711 deaths
Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church
House of Medici
Italian Roman Catholics
People from Florence
Tuscan princes and princesses
Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna of Russia (; 6 April 1875 – 20 April 1960) was a daughter of Tsar Alexander III of Russia and the eldest of  Czar Nicholas II two sisters. She married her cousin Grand Duke Alexander Mikailovich of Russia and had seven children. During her brother's reign, she lived a private life. However, when monarchy fell, she escaped Russia and lived in England.

Early life 
Grand Duchess Xenia Alexandrovna was born on 6 April 1875 at Anichkov Palace in St. Petersburg. Her mother was Empress Maria Feodorovna of Russia.

After her grandfather died, her father became the Russian king. At this time, Xenia was six years old. It was difficult political time because of terrorist threats. Alexander III moved with his family from the Winter Palace to the Gatchina Palace to protect his family.

Xenia, like her brothers, was educated by private tutors. She studied foreign languages very much. Apart from her native Russian, Xenia studied English, French, and German. Xenia also learnt how to cook and make puppets and clothes. She liked to ride, fish, draw, play gymnastics, dance, and perform the piano.

Marriage 

Xenia and her first cousin once removed, Grand Duke Alexander Mikhailovich of Russia, who would also be her husband, used to play together as friends in the 1880s. Alexander was also a friend of her brother Nicholas. In 1886, twenty year old Alexander was in the navy. Eleven year old Xenia sent him a card when his ship was in Brazil, "Best wishes and speedy return! Your sailor Xenia". In 1889, Alexander wrote of Xenia, "She is fourteen. I think she likes me."

At age 15, though Xenia and Alexander wanted to marry, her parents did not want to allow them because Xenia was too young. They were also unsure if Alexander was really very nice. The Tsarina Maria Feodorovna complained that Alexander was too proud and rude. It was not until January 1894 that Xenia's parents allowed them to engage. The couple finally wed on 6 August 1894 at Peterhof Palace. Xenia's younger sister, Olga, wrote about the joy of her the wedding, "The Emperor was so happy. It was the last time I ever saw him like that."

References 

1875 births
1960 deaths
Russian grand dukes and duchesses
House of Holstein-Gottorp-Romanov
Alexei Nikolayevich Kosygin (;  – 18 December 1980) was a Russian man who was Premier of the Soviet Union.  He was a friend of the previous Prime Minister, Nikita Khrushchev. He and Leonid Brezhnev led the country together until he died.

References

1904 births
1980 deaths
Heads of government of the Soviet Union
Recipients of the Order of Lenin
When talking about cars, a tuner is a car with many parts changed so the car can go very fast. The word "tune" here means "to adjust" or "to change". Typically, people call any vehicle that has been modified for performance reasons a tuner car regardless of make or model.

When people want to drive fast cars but don't want to buy a very expensive car, they change some parts for an ordinary car to make it go faster.

Making a tuner 
For basic tuning, the engine intake and exhaust are changed, which means the process that takes air into the engine and out of the engine happens faster. People can also make the frame of the car stronger, to help it go around corners better. A spoiler or wing helps air push the car down onto the ground, which means more grip.

Some types of tuned cars 

 A hot rod is a classic American car with lots of engine upgrades to help it go fast in a straight line.
 A lowrider is a very low car, often with fancy paint and decals. Lowriders are popular in the United States.
 JDM means "Japanese domestic market" and is used for cars that are made for Japan before being brought into other countries.

Related pages
Auto racing

References 

Car classifications
Rage Racer is a 1996 racing video game by Namco where the player controls different cars and wins races in order to become what the game calls "Rage Racer". Four different car manufacturers make cars to drive in the game. Each of the cars has its forte and is sometimes named after it. In the game, the player drives three (four later in the game) courses to try and win a trophy and move to the next class.

Storyline
At the beginning of the game, the game shows a plot of how some elite few "Race Racers" started to race their "worldwide speedway".

Gameplay

Grand Prix
In the Grand Prix mode, the player starts at Class 1. They choose a course and then a car. As the player wins races, they win prize money, or "credits", which are called e.g. in the game. E.g. can be used to buy new upgrades, cars, or courses. If the player loses a race, they lose 1 chance. A player starts with 5 chances per class. If a player loses when they do not have any chances, the game ends. Players can still save, and can still retrieve their credit and cars, but medals and trophies are lost.

Time Trial
Time Trial is a mode where the player races the clock. They choose a car and course, and then are shown the record for the track. Tracks are also divided into "sections", parts of a track.

A player can save or load data with a memory card.

References

Other websites
 Namco Site. 

Racing video games
1996 video games
Watercress (Nasturtium officinale) is a plant which grows in water. It is a member of the Brassicaceae family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

People grow them for eating, often in salad or sandwiches. They have a peppery flavour and are fast-growing. Watercress is related to the cabbage and mustard plants.

Agrology of watercress is both a large scale and a garden scale. However the packaging used by super markets using sealed plastic bags under some pressure. Watercress is also known as tall nasturtium. This plant grows well in cold water. That's why you will find it near water like a ditch.

Watercress packs have a lot of nutrients. Iron, potassium and vitamins C and E are a few. Watercress also helps with skin problems. It keeps the skin very clarified. Watercress is used in many recipes. You can use it to make a sandwich or in soup.

If it is not  harvested, watercress can grow to a height of 50–120 cm. It is a member of the brassicacea family, along with some other leaf vegetables.

New market, Alabama, was once known as "Watercress Capital of the World".

Vegetables
Brassicaceae
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (30 July 1549 – 3 February 1609) was Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1587 to 1609. He succeeded his older brother Francesco I.

Ferdinando was the fifth son of Cosimo I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany and Eleonora di Toledo. 

He was a Cardinal before he became Grand Duke, until he married Christine of Lorraine in 1589. He was succeeded by his eldest son, who reigned as Cosimo II. His wife and daughter-in-law Maria Maddalena of Austria acted as regents for Cosimo II.

Issue

 Cosimo II de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (1590–1621); married Maria Maddalena of Austria and had issue;
 Eleonora de' Medici (1591–1617) died unmarried
 Catherine de' Medici (1593–1629); married Ferdinando Gonzaga, Duke of Mantua, later Governor of Siena;
 Francesco de' Medici (1594–1614) died unmarried;
 Carlo de' Medici (1595–1666) died unmarried;
 Filippino de' Medici (1598–1602) died unmarried;
 Lorenzo de' Medici (1599–1648) died unmarried;
 Maria Maddalena de' Medici (1600–1633) died unmarried;
 Claudia de' Medici (1604–1648); married (1) Federico della Rovere and had issue; (2) Leopold V, Archduke of Austria and had issue.

1549 births
1609 deaths
Ferdinando 1
Cosimo I de' Medici (12 June 1519 – 21 April 1574) was Duke of Florence from 1537 to 1574 and then the first Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany from 1569. He was the son of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere and Maria Salviati.

Marriage and family

In 1539, he married Eleonora di Toledo (1522–1562). She died, with her sons Giovanni and Garzia, in 1562, aged forty. All three of them died from malaria while traveling to Pisa.

Before his first marriage, Cosimo fathered an illegitimate daughter with an unknown woman:

Bia de' Medici (1536 – 1 March 1542) died in infancy.

With Eleonora, Cosimo fathered eleven children:

Maria de' Medici (3 April 1540 – 19 November 1557) died unmarried.
Francesco I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (25 March, 1541 – 19 October 1587) married Joanna of Austria and then Bianca Cappello.
Isabella de' Medici (31 August 1542 – 16 July 1576) marrried Paolo Giordano I Orsini.
Giovanni de' Medici (28 September 1543 – November 1562) Bishop of Pisa.
Lucrezia de' Medici (7 June 1545 – 21 April 1561) married of Alfonso II d'Este, Duke of Ferrara.
Pietro (Pedricco) (10 August  1546 – 10 June 1547) died in infancy.
Garzia de' Medici (5 July 1547 – 12 December 1562) died unmarried.
Antonio de' Medici (1548–1548) died in infancy.
Ferdinando I de' Medici, Grand Duke of Tuscany (30 July 1549 – 17 February 1609) married Christina of Lorraine.
Anna de' Medici (1553–1553) died in infancy.
Pietro de' Medici (June 3, 1554 – April 25, 1604)murdered his wife Eleonora di Garzia di Toledo because of infidelity

After Eleonora's death in 1562, Cosimo fathered two children with his mistress Eleonora degli Albrizzi:
Giovanni de' Medici (1563–1621)
unnamed daughter (1566) died at birth?

In 1570, Cosimo married Camilla Martelli:

Virginia de' Medici (29 May 1568 – 15 January 1615) Cesare d'Este, Duke of Modena.

1541 births
1587 deaths
People from Florence
Grand Princes of Tuscany
The Riau Islands is a province in Indonesia. Tanjung Pinang is its capital city. Its official language is Riau. In 2007, the population was around 1,392,900.

Sources

Other websites
 

Islands of Indonesia
Provinces of Indonesia
Sumatra
East India Company (EIC) was an English joint-stock company. Its headquarters were located in London. It was started for trading with the East Indies, but most trade was with India and China. It was given a charter (authority) in 1600 and traded many things in India.

In the mid-18th century, the company built up its own presidency armies and won the Battle of Plassey, which brought it from trading with India to ruling India.

The company had armed forces and armed ships. It fought against various Indian rulers and struggled against the Dutch East India Company and other European nations. It was ruled by one governor and 24 directors. It became a monopoly in most parts of India.

The company was dissolved in 1874. Its role was taken over by the Government of India (the British Raj). At its height, the Raj covered a huge area from Baluchistan in the west to Burma in the east and Ceylon and a number of other islands.

References 

Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
1600 establishments
1874 disestablishments
17th-century establishments in England
1870s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
1600s establishments in Europe
A variable-width encoding is a type of character encoding scheme in which codes of different lengths are used to encode a character set for representation in a computer. Some kinds of Unicode work this way.

Computer science
Encodings
The earliest known Cro-Magnon remains are between 35,000 and 45,000 years old, based on radiometric dating.  The oldest remains, from 43,000  45,000 years ago, were found in Italy and Britain.  Other remains also show that Cro-Magnons reached the Russian Arctic about 40,000 years ago.

Cro-Magnons had powerful bodies, which were usually heavy and solid with strong muscles.  Unlike Neanderthals, which had slanted foreheads, the Cro-Magnons had straight foreheads, like modern humans.  Their faces were short and wide with a large chin.  Their brains were slightly larger than the average human's is today.

Naming
The name "Cro-Magnon" was created by Louis Lartet, who discovered the first Cro-Magnon skull in southwestern France in 1868.  He called the place where he found the skull Abri de Cro-Magnon.  Abri means "rock shelter" in French; cro means "hole" in the Occitan language; and "Magnon" was the name of the person who owned the land where Lartet found the skull.  Basically, Cro-Magnon means "rock shelter in a hole on Magnon's land."

This is why scientists now use the term "European early modern humans" instead of "Cro-Magnons."  In taxonomy, the term "Cro-Magnon" means nothing.

Cro-Magnon life

 Used bones, shells, and teeth to make jewelry 
 Spun, dyed, and tied knots in flax, to make cords for their tools, make baskets, or sew clothing

Like most early humans, the Cro-Magnons mostly hunted large animals.  For example, they killed mammoths, cave bears, horses, and reindeer for food.  They hunted with spears, javelins, and spear-throwers.  They also ate fruits from plants.

The Cro-Magnons were nomadic or semi-nomadic.  This means that instead of living in just one place, they followed the migration of the animals they wanted to hunt.  They may have built hunting camps from mammoth bones; some of these camps were found in a village in Ukraine.  They also made shelters from rocks, clay, tree branches, and animal skin (leather).

Related pages
 Neanderthal
 Homo sapiens
 Human evolution

References

Evolutionary biology
Humans
Physical anthropology
Cheating in video games is when a player creates an advantage for themself beyond what normal gameplay would allow. In general, cheating is breaking the rules to get an unfair advantage. it actually works with a bit of code structure. In other world, it is included in an existing video game as if it is from that video game and continues to work in this way. If we look at it structuarry, it comes up with a very diffrent work.

These kind of advantages can often be activated by entering codes. A set of cheat codes may have been written into the game's programming by the game's developers. When entered, a code activates a corresponding advantage. Cheat codes can also be created by added software, called a game trainer. Players can also cheat by taking advantage of software bugs in the game.

Cheat codes makes the system do things that are not normal. For example, pressing a certain sequence of buttons may increase a character's hit points in an role-playing game, or make a car drive faster in a racing game.

Another way of video hacks is using applications called exploits. It usually involves injecting DLLs and its working kernel mode in the game application for access to advantages. 

The number of users using competitive video games cheat continues to decrease with the development of anti-cheat systems. We can examine this thesis based on the League of legends.

The reason why the rate of banned players is higher than the rate of cheating is that past activities can be detected.

Other websites
 Official data shared by League of legends game
 Cheating in video games resources
Video game design
Weaning means changing the diet of a baby little by little, from its mother's milk to the food it will eat as an adult.  Since only female mammals make milk, weaning is only a necessary process for mammals.  When a baby does not drink any more breast milk (or milk substitute), the baby has been weaned.

Human weaning
Human babies should start eating small amounts of solid food, along with breast milk or formula, when they are about six months old.  Before this time, a child's digestive system and kidneys are still forming, so the child is not ready for solid food.

Babies do not have teeth and cannot chew their food, so they are usually fed soft, runny food such as cooked mashed fruit or vegetables.  Babies cannot digest some foods which adults can eat, including food with nuts or with large amounts of gluten, salt or sugar.  Also, babies' digestive systems are very sensitive to bacteria, so they should not eat any foods with honey, eggs or shellfish in them because these foods sometimes contain bacteria.

Weaning conflict
Weaning conflict happens when the mother wants to wean her baby, but the baby wants to keep breastfeeding. The mother tries to force the baby to stop breastfeeding, and the baby tries to force the mother to continue.  Some evolutionary scientists think mammal mothers need to wean their babies as soon as possible, so they will have a greater chance of having more babies and spreading their genes.  But mammal babies want to breastfeed as long as they can so they will have a chance to grow strong, and also to enjoy the full care of their mothers.  Weaning conflict happens in several mammal species, including primates and canines.

Related pages
Breastfeeding

References

Mammals
A photocathode is a negatively charged electrode in a light detection device. They are the main type of photomultiplier. That means they take a little light, and make more of it.

There are instruments which need to magnify the amount of light coming in. Examples are astronomical telescopes and military night-sight equipment: binoculars and telescopes on helmets and rifles etc.

The lens of the telescope or binocular passes the light onto a layer of glass coated with a special light-sensitive metal. When this is struck by light, the absorbed energy causes electrons to jump off. This is called the 'photoelectric effect'. The freed electrons are then collected to produce the final image.

Some photocathode materials 
Ag-O-Cs, (silver oxide/caesium, also called S-1). This was the first compound photocathode material, developed in 1929. 
High temperature bialkali or low noise bialkali (sodium-potassium-antimony, Na-K-Sb). This material is often used in oil well logging since it can withstand temperatures up to 175 °C. At room temperatures, this photocathode operates with very low dark current, making it ideal for use in photon counting applications.
GaAs (gallium(II) arsenide). This photocathode material covers a wide spectral response range, from ultraviolet to 930 nm (nm = nanometre, a measure of the wavelength of the light or other electromagnetic radiation).
Cs-Te, Cs-I (caesium-telluride, caesium-iodide). These materials are sensitive to vacuum UV and UV rays, but not to visible light and are therefore referred to as solar blind. Cs-Te is insensitive to wavelengths longer than 320 nm, and Cs-I to those longer than 200 nm.
These devices are mostly based on alkali metals.

Physics
Tools
Alkali metals
The Space Shuttle Enterprise (OV-101) is a spacecraft used by NASA for testing of the space shuttles. Enterprise was built without engines and without the heat protection system needed for it to travel into space and return to the atmosphere. Enterprise began being built in June 4, 1974, and was completed on September 17, 1976. Enterprise was used for flight tests in 1977. Scientists wanted to test how the shuttle could be transported on top of a Boeing 747. They also did three test manned test flights with the shuttle still joined to the Boeing. When these test were finished they did another five tests with the shuttle flying without engines like a glider. The pilots practiced landing the shuttle at the Edwards Airforce Base. The pilots were astronaut Gordon Fullerton, Apollo 13 astronaut Fred Haise, Joe Engle and Dick Truly.   After the test flights, the Enterprise was used for vibration tests at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center in Huntsville, Alabama. After all the tests were finished, some parts of the Enterprise were used in the building of the other shuttles.

The Enterprise was going to be named the "Constitution", but many people wrote to the President and asked for it to be named after the space craft on the TV show Star Trek. Enterprise can be seen today by visitors to the Smithsonian's National Air and Space Museum's Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center near Washington, D.C.

References

Enterprise
A globular protein is one of a common type of protein.

They are one of three types of protein. The others are fibrous and membrane proteins.

Their structure is a result of protein folding. They are made of polypeptide chains folded into a compact sphere shape. 

They are soluble in water because of the hydrophilic ('water-loving') side chains that project from the outside of the molecules. They play an important role in metabolic reactions.

Unlike proteins which only have a structural function, globular proteins can act as:
Enzymes, by catalyzing organic reactions taking place in the organism in mild conditions and with a great specificity. Different esterases fulfill this role.
Messengers, by transmitting messages to regulate biological processes. This function is done by hormones, i.e. insulin etc.
Transporters of other molecules through membranes
 Stocks of amino acids.
Regulation of other molecules is also done by globular proteins rather than fibrous proteins.
Structural proteins, e.g., actin and tubulin, which are globular and soluble as monomers, but polymerize to form long, stiff fibers.

Globular proteins include myoglobin and hemoglobin.

Globulins 
Globulins are all globular proteins except albumins. They have higher molecular weights than albumins. They are insoluble in pure water but dissolve in dilute salt solutions. 

Some globulins have important function as antibodies, others are responsible for the transport of lipids, iron or copper in the blood.

Proteins
The pickerel frog (Lithobates palustris, formerly Rana palustris) is a small frog in North America. It has dark squares on its back. The squares are in lines instead of randomly scattered. Leopard frogs have circular spots. They have an orange or yellow coloration on the inside of their back legs. They are found in the east of North America. They have toxic glands in their skin that can kill other frogs.

Related pages
Bullfrog

Frogs
The Northern green frog is a subspecies of the North American green frog. Its name is either Rana clamitans melanota, or Lithobates clamitans melanota.

It is moderately large. It is found in the northeast United States and some of eastern Canada. Its call sounds like a plucked banjo. It has a fold running from the top of its eyes down the side of its back. The bullfrog does not have these folds. It is normally found in swamps, marshes, and muddy streams.

Related pages
Pickerel frog

References

Frogs
Environmentally friendly (also eco-friendly, nature friendly, and green) are terms that refer to objects that people buy (called goods), services, laws, and rules that either do not harm the environment or do very little harm to it. To make people who buy the goods or services know that they are environmentally friendly, environmentally friendly goods and services often are marked  with eco-labels. But because there is no single type of eco-label, the International Organization for Standardization thinks that these labels do not mean much because they could mean different things.

Etymology 
Environmentally friendly is a term used to refer to goods and services, laws, guidelines and policies claimed to inflict minimal or no harm on the environment. Companies sometimes use these terms to promote goods and services by making environmental marketing claims and with eco-labels. Also ecofriendly, by 1993, from eco- + friendly.

Other websites 
 No Impact Advice on sustainable living practices

References 

Environment
Green politics
Italic script and  type has a long history. It was based on handwriting.

Ludovico Vicentino degli Arrighi (1475–1527) was a papal scribe and type designer in Renaissance Italy. Present day cursive writing style known as "italic" is based upon the style he developed. It has been said that the style of cursive known as "italic" got its name from this Italian designer. Modern day scribes, also known as "calligraphers",  study the work of Arrighi to learn the structure of the style of writing known as "italic" , a modernized version of the Chancery hand which was first perfected by Roman scribes in the early part of the sixteenth century.

In typography, italic type is a cursive font based on a kind of calligraphic handwriting. Such letters normally slant slightly to the right.  

In modern texts, Italics can emphasise key points in a printed text. One manual of English usage described italics as "the print equivalent of underlining".

Calligraphy-inspired typefaces were first designed in Italy, to replace documents written in a handwriting style called chancery hand. As the illustration shows, there were flourishes copied from calligraphy. An alternative is oblique type: the type is slanted but the letterforms do not change shape: this less elaborate approach is used by many sans-serif typefaces.

Usage on the web 
Using italic is usually used as a place holder for a blank piece of information.
There are different ways in making a text italic.

HTML 
In HTML, the editor can add the <i> and the </i> tags to make text surrounded by these tags italic.

Wikitext 
In Wikitext, the editor can just add two apostrophes ('') around the text to become italic.

Related pages 
 Bold
 Underlined

References 

Typography
Writing
Iodic acid is a chemical compound. It is also an acid. Its chemical formula is HIO3. It contains hydrogen and iodate ions. The iodine is in its +5 oxidation state.

Properties
Iodic acid is a white solid that can dissolve in water to make an acidic solution. Chloric acid and bromic acid only exist in solution and break down when crystallized. Iodic acid is a strong oxidizing agent. It can be converted to iodine pentoxide when it is heated gently. If it is heated strongly, it decomposes into iodine, oxygen, and other iodine oxides. 

It can form several things when it is reduced. If there is a lot of reducing agent, it is reduced to iodide. If there is a lot of iodic acid, it is reduced to iodine. If there is a lot of chloride, then it is reduced to iodine trichloride, a yellow liquid.

Preparation
It can be made by electrolysis of an acidic iodide solution.

Uses
Iodic acid is used to make other iodates by reacting bases with iodic acid. It is also used as a strong acid.

Related pages
Periodic acid

Iodine compounds
Acids
The Malays (Malay-; ; Rejang: ꤷꥁꤼ; Jawi: ) are an Austronesian ethnic group in Southeast Asia. They mainly live in the Maritime Southeast Asia region (especially within the Malay Archipelago; consist of Indonesian Archipelago and Philippines archipelago), such as Sumatra, Riau Islands, Singapore, Kalimantan (including Brunei), southern Thailand, and southern Philippines.

Overview 
Malay people were once a tribal group who inhabited the island of Sumatra. According to the Malay Annals, the origin of Malay people are from the area known as Palembang in modern-day South Sumatra.

Sang Sapurba also mentioned in the Malay Annals as the King of Malays who originated from the hill of Siguntang Mahameru area as well.

Malay people transformed from the tribal group into an ethnic group during the glorious era of Srivijaya—the empire that originated from Palembang— when the trading activities grew. Nowadays, Malay people are inhabiting areas that was under the Srivijayan empire rule, with the big population mainly in Sumatra and its surrounding regions such as Bangka Belitung Islands, Riau Islands, Malacca Peninsula ( Kra Peninsula), Kalimantan (including Brunei), southern Thailand, southern Vietnam, and southern Philippines.

Language

Most ethnic Malays speak one or more of the many dialects (versions) of the Malay language, a language of the Austronesian family of languages. In Indonesia, the standardized form of Malay is Indonesian (). In Malaysia, the standard form is called Malaysian (. About 80% of their words mean the same thing in either dialect. These naming policies were created to form national unities in the two countries instead of making the Malays a ruling influence or the ruling class, something that it is in Brunei. In Brunei, Thailand and Singapore it is known as Bahasa Melayu. 

Today, the language is usually written a version of the Roman alphabet, called Rumi. Malay written using the Arabic alphabet is called Jawi, which is mostly used in official and religious contexts. Jawi is more common than Rumi in very conservative Muslim areas like Kelantan in Malaysia and Pattani in Thailand.

References

Ethnic groups in Asia
Bruneian people
Indonesian people
Malaysian people
Thai people
Singaporean people
Patrick Chukwuemeka Okogwu (born 7 November 1988) is a British Grime MC and rapper. He was born in Plumstead, London and is of Nigerian origin. He is better known by his stage name Tinie Tempah. He also founded the record label Disturbing London in 2006. 

Some of his more famous songs are "Pass Out", "Written in the Stars" and "Earthquake".

Tempah released his first album Disc-Overy in 2010. It went straight to number one in the UK Albums Chart. Seven singles were released from the album.

On 4 August 2013, the first single from Demonstration, "Trampoline", was released. 2 Chainz rapped in it. It reached number three in the UK Singles Chart. His second album Demonstration was released 4 November 2013. Twelve of the album's fifteen songs feature other musicians. Tempah won Best UK Hip Hop/Grime Act at the 2013 Music of Black Origin Awards.

References

Other websites 
 Official website

1988 births
Living people
Black British musicians
British rap musicians
Singers from London
The Orang Laut are a group of Malays living in the Riau Islands. Their name means the sea people. They used to be pirates. 

Ethnic groups in Asia