cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Camarasaurus (meaning "chambered lizard") was a large plant-eating sauropod. It was about 18 meters long and weighed about 18 metric tones. Its name comes from its skull, which is in the shape of an arch. It lived during the late Jurassic, between 155 and 145 million years ago. These dinosaurs may have lived in herds.

It was first discovered in 1877 in Colorado by Oramel W. Lucas. Its fossil remains have been found in the Morrison Formation of Colorado, New Mexico, Utah, and Wyoming.

There are four species of Camarasaurus:
 C. grandis ("grand chambered lizard")
 C. lentus
 C. lewisi
 C. supremus ("biggest chambered lizard")

It was shown in the movie When Dinosaurs Roamed America.

Skull 
Camarasaurus is among the most common and frequently well-preserved sauropod dinosaurs. The maximum size of the most common species, C. lentus, was about 15 meters (50 ft) in length. The largest species, C. supremus, reached a maximum length of 23 meters (75 ft) and maximum estimated weight of 47 tonnes (51.8 tons).

The arched skull of Camarasaurus was remarkably square and the blunt snout had many fenestrae (openings). It was sturdy and is often found in good condition by paleontologists. The 19 centimeter long (7.5 in) teeth were shaped like chisels (spatulate) and arranged evenly along the jaw. The strength of the teeth indicates that Camarasaurus probably ate coarser plant material than the slender-toothed diplodocids.

Palaeobiology 

There is a fossil record of two adults and a 12.2 meter (40 ft) long juvenile that died together in the late Jurassic leriod, about 150 million years ago (northeast Wyoming). It is assumed that their bodies were washed to their final resting place, in river mud. This suggests that Camarasaurus traveled in herds or, at least, 'family' groups. Also, recovered camarasaur eggs have been found in lines, rather than in neatly arranged nests as with some other dinosaurs, which appears to suggest that, like most sauropods, Camarasaurus did not tend its young.

References

Other websites 
 Page from DinoData.org

Sauropods
The Great Fire of London happened in Central London in 1666. The fire lasted for just under five days, from 2nd September until 6th September.

It is believed to have destroyed the homes of 70,000 of the 80,000 people that lived in the city. It is not known how many people died in the fire. Only a few deaths are certain, but for many of the victims there were no records. The fire may have cremated many, leaving no recognisable remains. It threatened the aristocratic district of Westminster (the modern West End), Charles II's Palace of Whitehall, and most of the suburban slums, however, it never reached these districts. 

The fire started at the bakery of Thomas Farriner (or Farynor) on Pudding Lane. It began just after midnight on Sunday 2nd September and grew very fast. Firefighters of the time usually made firebreaks by destroying buildings around the fire so it could not spread. This did not happen quick enough. Lord Mayor, Sir Thomas Bloodworth was not certain what to do. By the time he ordered such measures, it was too late. The Tower of London guard used gunpowder to make good firebreaks that stopped the fire from spreading to the east.

The fire pushed north on Monday into the center of the city. Some people thought that foreigners were setting the fires. They believed it was the French and Dutch, who at that time were England's enemies in the Anglo-Dutch Wars. On Thursday, the fire spread over most of the City, destroying St. Paul's Cathedral and crossed over the River Fleet. It was close to setting fire to Charles II's court at Whitehall.

The social and economic problems created from this were very large. Leaving London to go and live elsewhere was strongly encouraged by Charles II. He feared a London rebellion amongst the refugees who had lost their property. Despite numerous radical proposals, London was reconstructed on essentially the same street plan used before the fire.

The fire is said to have also helped to get rid of the Great Plague which had hit London in 1665, and killed about 70,000 of the 90,000 population, who may have died in the fire. We are able to know a lot about the great fire of London because Samuel Pepys wrote in his famous diary at the time. When the fire started, he looked out of his window, saw the fire and started writing about it.

Damages 
The damages have been calculated to 13,500 houses, 87 parish churches, 44 Company Halls, the Royal Exchange, the Custom House, St Paul's Cathedral, the Bridewell Palace and other City prisons, the General Letter Office, and the three western city gates—Ludgate, Newgate, and Aldersgate.

References

Other websites 

 BBC history site
 Channel 4 animation of the spread of the fire

1666
1660s in Europe
17th century in England
Building and structure fires in the United Kingdom
Fires in London
History of London
September events
The Golgi complex, also known as the Golgi apparatus or simply the Golgi, is a cytoplasmic organelle. It is found in eukaryote cells, as in animals, plants, and fungi. 

The complex was discovered by Camillo Golgi in 1898. Golgi, who worked at Pavia, Italy, was ignored. His discovery was said to be dirt on his lenses. Years later, electron microscope pictures showed structures just like in the original Golgi drawings. It is made of several flattened sac-like membranes which look like a stack of pancakes.

The main function of the Golgi apparatus is to process and package macromolecules, such as proteins and lipids. They come to the Golgi after being built, and before they go to their destination. Much of the enzymatic processing is post-translational modification of proteins. The Golgi complex inspects them for flaws and discards extra material added during their manufacture, wraps them up and then targets them for packaging. The Golgi complex is especially active in processing proteins for secretion. The Golgi releases special enzymes called lysosomes, which clean off any extra amino acids. When the package is ready, it is pinched off the Golgi and released into the cytoplasm. 

The Golgi complex is part of the cellular membrane system, and so is the endoplasmic reticulum.

References 

Organelles
Institut Teknologi Bandung (ITB) is a public government-funded, higher education, technology school located in Bandung, West Java, Indonesia. Institut Teknologi Bandung are the one of most popular university in Indonesia, together with Gadjah Mada University and University of Indonesia. The symbol of Institut Teknologi Bandung is Ganesha, a Hindu god representing wisdom.

Other websites
 Homepage of Institut Teknologi Bandung

References

Technical colleges and universities in Asia
Indonesia
A superconductor is a substance that conducts electricity without resistance when it becomes colder than a "critical temperature."  At this temperature, electrons can move freely through the material. Superconductors are different from ordinary conductors, such as copper.  Ordinary conductors lose their resistance (get more conductive) slowly as they get colder. In contrast, superconductors lose their resistance all at once. This is an example of a phase transition. High magnetic fields destroy superconductivity and restore the normal conducting state. Some examples of superconductors are the metals mercury and lead, ceramics and organic carbon nanotubes.

Normally, a magnet moving by a conductor produces currents in the conductor by electromagnetic induction. But a superconductor actually pushes out magnetic fields entirely by inducing surface currents. Instead of letting the magnetic field pass through, the superconductor acts like a magnet pointing the opposite way, which repels the real magnet. This is called the Meissner effect, and it can be demonstrated by levitating a superconductor over magnets or vice versa.

Explanation 
Physicists explain superconductivity by describing what happens when temperatures get cold. The thermal energy in a solid or liquid shakes the atoms so they randomly vibrate, but this gets less as the temperature drops.  Electrons  carry the same negative electric charge which makes them repel each other. At higher temperatures each electron behaves as if it were a free particle. There is also however a very weak attraction between electrons when they are in a solid or liquid.   At rather large distances (  many hundreds of nanometers apart) and low temperatures (near absolute zero),  the attractive effect and lack of thermal energy allows pairs of electrons to hang together. This is called a cooper pair and it is a quasiparticle , that is it acts as if it were a new kind of particle in its own right even though it is made up of two fundamental electrons.  Many overlapping cooper pairs can exist in the same nanometer sized space.  Since paired electrons constitute a boson the motions of all of the cooper pairs within a single superconductor  synchronise  and they function as if they are a single entity.   Small disturbances such as scattering of electrons are forbidden in this state and it moves as one showing no resistance to its motion. It is hence now a superconductor.

History of superconductors

Applications 
 Superconducting quantum interference device (SQUID)
 Particle accelerators
 Small particle accelerators in health
 Levitating trains
 Nuclear fusion
 MRI Scanner
Ect.

References

Electronics
Magnetism
Peter Cushing, OBE (26 May 1913 – 11 August 1994) was an English actor. He is best known for his roles in horror movies and Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope.

Career 
Born Peter Wilton Cushing in London, England. His movie career began in 1939 in a small role in The Man in the Iron Mask (1939), followed by Laddie (1940). He interpreted the role of Osric, in the classic written by William Shakespeare, Hamlet (1948), with Laurence Olivier.

His best roles he played in his career were the Victor Frankenstein, in the British horror movie The Curse of Frankenstein (1957), by Terence Fisher he plays of role brilliantly, Victor creates a monster in the attic of his castle. His other role was that of Doctor Van Helsing in Dracula (1958), in this movie he must fight Dracula. In these two movies he was accompanied by another great actor Christopher Lee. They formed a very successful duo, starring in dozens of Hammer movies as The Hound of the Baskervilles (1959), The Mummy (1959), The Gorgon (1964), Dr. Terror's House of Horrors (1965). They clashed again as Van Helsing and Dracula, in Dracula A.D. 1972 (1972), and The Satanic Rites of Dracula (1974).

Also re-interpret the character of Baron Frankenstein, in The Revenge of Frankenstein (1958), The Evil of Frankenstein (1964), by Freddie Francis, Frankenstein Created Woman (1967), Frankenstein Must Be Destroyed (1969), and Frankenstein and the Monster from Hell (1974), directed by Terence Fisher.

Peter Cushing also teamed with Vincent Price in movies including Scream and Scream Again (1970), Dr. Phibes Rises Again (1972), Madhouse (1974), which plays an evil agent movie., and House of the Long Shadows (1983).  
  
In 1977 he obtained the role of Grand Moff Tarkin, in Star Wars by George Lucas. 

In the last years of his career had appearances in some comedies Top Secret! (1984). 

His last job was in 1986 in the movie Biggles (1986). 

In 1982 he was diagnosed with prostate cancer. He died of the disease in 1994.

Television 
Cushing also made ​television, in mystery series, including Sherlock Holmes (1968), as Sherlock Holmes, The Avengers, Great Mysteries, Space: 1999, The New Avengers, Hammer House of Horror, and the TV movies The Masks of Death (1984), as Sherlock Holmes

Filmography

References 
 
 
 
 Overview of Peter Cushing as Sherlock Holmes at Baker Street Dozen.
 Literature on Peter Cushing
 Peter Cushing Association 

1913 births
1994 deaths
Actors from Surrey
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from prostate cancer
English movie actors
English stage actors
English television actors
Julian McMahon (born 27 July 1968, in Sydney, Australia) is an Australian actor and former model. His father, Sir William McMahon was Prime Minister of Australia from 1971–1972. McMahon is best known for playing Cole Turner on the television series Charmed, Doctor Doom in the 2005-2007 Fantastic Four movie series and Christian Troy on the series Nip/Tuck.

Other websites 

1968 births
Living people
Australian television actors
Charmed
Actors from Sydney
Australian models
Australian movie actors
Coffs Harbour is a city on the north coast of New South Wales, Australia.  It is 540 km north of Sydney and 440 km south of Brisbane. Coffs Harbour is famous for its bananas  and is also an important diving spot. It also has a campus of the Southern Cross University. It is the home of the Big Banana, a tourist attraction and amusement park.

References

Other websites

Cities in New South Wales
Yggdrasil (Old Norse: Yggdrasill) is the name of the immense cosmic tree that serves as the connection between the Nine Worlds in Norse mythology. Known as the World Tree, Yggdrasil was said to lie at the very center of the universe, supported by three roots which extend far away into varying locations. Various creatures dwell within Yggdrasil. Upon the onset of Ragnarök, Yggdrasil will shudder and groan, ultimately crumbling as the universe meets its end.

Yggdrasil and Its Structure 
Yggdrasil's roots extend into three locations: Urðarbrunnr (Old Norse: “Well of Urðr”), Hvergelmir (Old Norse: “bubbling" or "boiling spring"), and Mímisbrunnr (Old Norse: “Well of Mímir"). As seen in the Poetic Edda poem, Grímnismál (Old Norse: "Sayings of Grímnir"), various creatures dwell within the World Tree, including: 

Níðhöggr (Old Norse: Níðhǫggr - “Malice striker”), a massive dragon/serpent-like being that gnaws at its root(s), an unnamed eagle, and the hawk Veðrfölnir (Old Norse: “wind bleached” or “wind-witherer”), who sits between its eyes, along with the four stags Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr, and Duraþrór. 

The Three Norns (Old Norse: Nornir) - Urðr (Old Norse: “fate”), Verðandi (Old Norse: possibly “happening” or “present”), and Skuld (Old Norse: possibly “debt” or “future”) - attend to Yggdrasil, weaving the fates of both gods and men.

References 

Places in Norse mythology
Impeachment is a way to remove government officers from office in some countries. 

Impeachment in the United States is how the House of Representatives brings charges against either the President, the Vice President, or any federal officer for misconduct alleged to have been committed. Most impeachments in the United States have been of judges.

Impeachment is like an indictment (something that the prosecutor needs to get before a trial). Someone is impeached when a legislature votes to do that. Later, there is another vote on whether or not to convict, which is like guilty or not. The second vote may be by the same people who did the impeachment, or someone else as in a bicameral legislature. Several different types of office holders may be impeached, but cases against the President or leader of a country usually attract the most attention.

Two well-known heads of state who were impeached and removed from office were Brazilian president Dilma Rousseff in 2016 and South Korean president Park Geun-hye in 2017. Three American presidents were impeached: Andrew Johnson, Bill Clinton and Donald Trump, Donald Trump was officially impeached two separate times by the house of representatives. None were removed from office. President Richard Nixon resigned from the office of President before the House could impeach him, resulting in him being the only U.S. president to resign.

Related pages 
 List of Category:Impeached officials removed from office

Politics
A trial is where two people or two groups of people argue in a court.

Civil trial 
In a civil trial, there is a plaintiff and a defendant. The plaintiff tries to prove that he or she has a reason why the defendant needs to give him or her money.

Criminal trial 
In a criminal trial, there is a prosecutor and a defendant. The prosecutor works for the government and tries to prove that the defendant committed a crime. It often takes a long time to get a trial scheduled as the courts can be very busy. In the United States, Federal court can take up to 10 months to get a court date.

Judge 
The judge controls the courtroom. He or she decides who speaks when, and they decide what evidence and arguments can be used. Sometimes, a jury is brought in to determine whether the defendant is guilty or not guilty. If there is no jury, the judge or judges decide whether the defendant is proven guilty or not. If the defendant is proven guilty of the crime, the judge will decide the punishment, which is also called the "sentence". If the crime is serious, the defendant may go to prison or, in some countries, be executed. For smaller crimes, there is often a fine—money that must be paid, in addition to having a criminal record.

Differences in each country
Trials are different in places where the laws are different. Different countries, cities and states all have different laws that change how trials happen. Trials in some places are very short. In some places, however, important trials can take as long as a few years while the two sides gather information and put together their arguments.
Belinda Peregrin Schüll born (August 15, 1989 or 1992)A, is a Mexican singer and actress. She is often called just Belinda. Her first album, Belinda (2003), was very popular and sold over 1.1 million copies worldwide. Her second album Utopía (2006) gave her two Latin Grammy Award nominations.

She has also been in many movies, such as the Disney Channel Original Movie The Cheetah Girls 2 (2006). She was also in the telenovela Camaleones (2009) and the TV series Mujeres asesinas 3 (2010). After this, she released her third album Carpe Diem (2010), which had a hit single "Egoísta". Her fourth album Catarsis (2013) went straight to number one in Mexico.

References

A  According to Belinda's official websites, she was born in 1992. However, multiple sources mark "1989" as her birth year. 

1988 births
Living people
Actors from Madrid
Child actors
Child singers
Latin singers
Mexican singers
Musicians from Madrid
Spanish singers
Ngo Dinh Diem or Ngô Đình Diệm ( or ; 3 January 1901 – 2 November 1963) was the first President of South Vietnam.

Unlike most people in Vietnam, he was a Catholic. After he kept favoring people of his religion, he was overthrown and killed on 2 November 1963 by the South Việtnamese army during the Buddhist crisis. The army then set up a military dictatorship.

References

Other websites 

 JFK and the Diệm Coup - Provided by the National Security Archive.
 Diệm Biography  From Spartacus Educational
 Photos of Diệm's family 

1901 births
1963 deaths
Assassinated people
Deaths by firearm
People of the Vietnam War
Presidents (government)
Roman Catholics
Vietnamese politicians
A dwarf is a short, humanlike creature from Norse and Germanic mythologies. They have been used in many fairy tales, fantasy, fiction and role-playing games.

In some stories, dwarfs are mean, living under bridges, and having a bad reputation for stealing treasure.  One example is the Norwegian Troll.  It is an ugly and foolish creature who tells lies.  It causes problems everywhere it goes.  That is how the Internet troll got its name.  In Robert Louis Stevenson's story, "Strange Case of Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde," Edward Hyde is described as "a dwarf."

On the other hand, J. R. R. Tolkien's hobbits and the munchkins in The Wizard of Oz are likeable, honest, good and smart.

Related pages 
 Dvergr
 Goblin

References

Other websites 
Pictures from the "25cm dwarf", discovered in Iran. 
Orange Alternative Website 
Dwarves and Pygmies of ancient Egypt 

Mythology
The Vanir are one of the two tribes of deities in Norse mythology, the other being the Æsir. Native to Vanaheimr, the Vanir are peace-loving gods, associated with nature and fertility, while the Æsir were chaotic and warlike. Members of the Vanir include:
Njörðr - God of the sea and wind, he was chief of the Vanir in the years prior to the Æsir-Vanir War.
Freyr - God of prosperity and sunshine.
Freyja - Twin sister of Freyr, she is the goddess of love and beauty, magic, war, and death. 
Skaði - Goddess of hunting and skiing, she is Freyr and Freyja's stepmother by way of her marriage to Njörðr. 
Gerðr - Freyr's beloved wife, she is a jötunn native to the realm of Jötunheimr. 
Oðr - Freyja's husband, who might be just a doublet of Odin. Nothing is known about Óðr except that he often went away on long journeys, and Freyja wept when she missed him. Freyja's tears become the purest gold and amber.
Gullveigr - A practitioner of dark magic, Gullveigr was a notably powerful sorceress who was burnt and killed three times by the Æsir, which eventually led to the war between the two tribes. Loki ate the burnt heart of Gullveigr and gave birth to a monster; Gullveigr still lived after all those punishments.
Heimdallr - Guardian of the Bifröst. Whether he is Æsir or Vanir is doubtful.
Ullr - God of hunting. In later traditions, Ullr is said to be a stepson of Thor.

A number of them live in Asgard alongside the Æsir as a token of goodwill following the war between the two tribes, which resulted in them uniting into a single pantheon. The goddess Freyja receives half of those slain in battle as a share of power between the two clans.  

Norse gods and goddesses
Plesiosaurus was a large fossil marine reptile, a genus in the order Plesiosauria. 

The first specimen discovered by Mary Anning in 1820-21 was missing its skull. She found it on the 'Jurassic Coast' of Lyme Regis, Dorset, England. In 1823 she found another one, this time complete with its skull. The name Plesiosaurus was given by the Rev. William Conybeare.

Plesiosaurus was a predator, living mostly on fish and belemnites. It would swim through schools of fish and use its long neck and sharp teeth to snap them up.

Plesiosaurus was a fairly typical member of its order, and measured around 3 to 5 metres (10 to 16 ft) in total length. The snout was short, but the jaws were able to open very wide, and had a series of conical teeth in sockets. The neck was quite long, and the short tail was used for steering. Like all plesiosaurs, it used its large paddles to swim.

Only two species are known, and the genus existed for about 25 million years from the beginning of the Jurassic period.

Scientists have wondered whether ancient reptiles like pleisiosaurs were warm-blooded or cold-blooded. Scientists from the University of Plymouth studied many animals of different sizes from insects to whales that dive and hold their breath. They found that larger animals can hold their breath longer than smaller animals because they can store more oxygen. They also found this difference was much bigger for warm-blooded animals than for cold-blooded animals. They said this could be why whales became so large. They think since plesiosaurs were also large, like whales, they were more likely to be warm-blooded than cold-blooded.

Scientists also looked at the phosphate molecules inside plesiosaurs' teeth and saw the oxygen isotopes that suggested they had been warm-blooded.

References

Plesiosaurs
A festival is a gathering of people to celebrate something. It can also refer to a one day or more when people in a country have a holiday so that they can celebrate something.  Festivals may be religious or national. They also may be events which feature different cultural programs such as music, dancing, poetry, movies, etc.

Related pages
Halloween
Christmas
Thanksgiving
New Year
Easter
Pentecost
Eid festival
Divali
Yom Kippur
Guy Fawkes Night
The Oort cloud, or Öpik–Oort cloud, is a cloud of comets and other objects.  Astronomers believe it is way beyond the orbits of Pluto and the Kuiper belt. The Oort cloud is believed to be the source of long-period comets in the Solar System.

The Oort cloud may lie about 50,000 AU, or nearly a light-year, from the Sun. This means the cloud is nearly a quarter of the way to Proxima Centauri, the nearest star to the Sun. 

The Kuiper belt and scattered disc, the other two reservoirs of trans-Neptunian objects, are less than one thousandth of the Oort cloud's distance. The outer limit of the Oort cloud defines the boundary of the Solar System and the region of the Sun's gravitational dominance.

The Dutch astronomer Jan Hendrik Oort published the Oort cloud idea in 1950. The Oort cloud was named after him, as were the Oort comet, and Oort constants.

Structure 
The Oort cloud takes up a lot of space and is thought to have trillions of comets about tens of millions of kilometers apart. 

The Oort cloud is made up of an inner Oort cloud and an outer Oort cloud. The outer cloud is weakly bound to the Sun; long-term comets are thought to come from there. The Inner cloud is also called the Hills cloud and may be the maker of comets.

The objects in the Oort cloud are believed to consist of much ice. Since the object 1996 PW was found to be a rocky body in an orbit typical of long-period comets, it is believed that rocky objects might be in the Oort cloud.

Origins 
The Oort cloud is thought to be the remains of a disk made out of gas which surrounded the Sun long ago.

References

Solar System
The Han dynasty came to power in 202 B.C. They followed the philosophies of Confucianism and legalism. This was called 'the Han synthesis'.

Under this dynasty, China made progress in arts and science. The empire also became larger and larger. China started trading with a number of other countries. They started the Silk Road. Merchants used the Silk Road to reach China. During this dynasty Buddhism was introduced in China. Today, the dominant ethnic group of China calls themselves the Han Chinese since this was the dynasty where many of the norms of Chinese culture found a firm foundation in the culture, including Confucianism and Traditional Chinese characters. The first emperor of the han dynasty is Liu Bang, known in Chinese as Emperor Gaozu of Han.

The Han dynasty ruled China from 206 B.C. to 220 A.D. The new emperor maintained a legalist ideology just like the Qin dynasty but also had ideas of Confucianism to have a centralized system showing benevolence. After eighty years, Emperor Wu of Han launched a period of military expansion.  The Han armies controlled many territories, including Silk Road in Mongolia and Xinjiang.  The Silk Road  helped make a political, economic, military, and culture center, but it was very expensive to manage and further expansion was cut off.  Several factors contributed to the fall of the Han dynasty, including uprisings of desperate and hungry people, the spread of attacks by nomadic groups, and official corruption.

Most of the people of China are Han Chinese.  The name comes from the Han Dynasty.

Literature 
Fairbank, John King and Merle Goldman 1992. China: a new history. 2nd enlarged edition 2006. Cambridge: MA; London: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press.

Other websites 

 Han Dynasty by Minnesota State University 
 Han Dynasty art with video commentary, Minneapolis Institute of Arts

Chinese dynasties
3rd-century BC establishments
3rd-century disestablishments
The Zhou Dynasty replaced the Shang Dynasty in 1046 BCE. The kings of this dynasty made the empire a lot bigger. For the first time in the history of China, many people began moving to far away places inside the empire. The Zhou rulers moved the capital from Henan to a place near present-day Xi'an, near the Yellow River. The Zhou Dynasty also brought the theory of the Mandate of Heaven. This theory said that the fact that rulers were in charge proved that the gods wanted them to be in charge. Almost all dynasties of Chinese rulers after the Zhou continued to believe this theory.

Mature Chinese philosophy developed during the Zhou Dynasty. The greatest Chinese philosophers were Kong Fuzi (Latin: Confucius), founder of Confucianism, and Laozi, founder of Daoism. Other philosophers, theorists, and schools of thought from the Zhou Dynasty were Mozi (Latin: Micius), founder of Mohism, Mengzi (Latin: Mencius), a famous Confucian who expanded upon Kong Fuzi's legacy, Shang Yang and Han Feizi, responsible for the development of ancient Chinese Legalism (the core philosophy of the Qin Dynasty), and Xunzi.

References

Other websites

Chinese dynasties
Frank Anthony "Tony" Iommi (born 19 February 1948, in Birmingham, England) is a British guitarist and songwriter. He is most famous for starting the heavy metal band Black Sabbath. He is the only person who has stayed a member of the band since it began in 1968. He lost two finger tips in a work accident, and made two fake finger tips from a plastic bottle. This helped give Black Sabbath their heavy sound.

In 2003, Iommi was listed at number 86 in Rolling Stone Magazine's "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time" issue.

Along with Jimmy Page of Led Zeppelin, Iommi is oft considered one of the greatest riff writers of all time.  Iommi used several riffs in Black Sabbath's songs.

He was born to an Italian immigrant family and has dual Italian British citizenship. 

In 2006 Tony Iommi was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame.

Notes 

Iommi, Tony
1948 births
Living people
A rebellion is when people refuse to obey orders and fight against authority. Those who do this are "rebels". They may be citizens of a country who try to take over the government by force because they do not trust the current system. Some rebels in history were slaves who fought back against their masters or against slavery in general. Leader of slave rebellions include Spartacus and Nat Turner.

An example would be the Zhou dynasty in China who made the rulers of other Chinese states that they captured live with their own families in the Zhou capital, Anyang. However, they failed to stop rebellion this way because it brought together groups of lords who might rebel under their control. The Zhou dynasty declined because other lords that were ruling parts of China rebelled.

Rebellion is a usual method of secession. 

Rebellion
A battle is a fight between two or more groups where each group is trying to defeat (beat) the others.  Battles are most often fought during wars.  A small battle fought by only a small part of the armies is called a skirmish.  Series of battles are called military campaigns.  The ground on which a battle is fought is called a battlefield.

Battles can very important, for example the 1389 Battle of Kosovo, which was a draw in military terms, and the 1798 Battle of the Nile which the French lost, changed the history of  Europe and the world.

Famous battles

Land battles
Battle of Hastings — 1066
Battle of Kosovo — 1389
Battle of Waterloo — 1815
Battle of Gettysburg — 1863
Battle of Verdun — 1916
Battle of the Bulge — 1944

Naval battles
Battle of Trafalgar — 1805
Battle of Midway — 1942

References
Quetzalcoatlus  was a huge pterosaur, the largest animal ever to fly. It had a 10 to 12 meters wing-span (33/40 feet), but was light in construction (~200 pounds). 

Quetzalcoatlus had an unusually long neck, and when it stood on the ground it was as tall as a giraffe. 

Its fossil record is from the Upper Cretaceous of North America, 70–65.5 million years ago. Quetzalcoatlus became extinct at the K/T extinction event.

Its discovery 
A college student found the first Quetzalcoatlus fossil in Big Bend National Park in Texas. His name was Douglas Lawson, from the University of Texas in Austin. When he was in the park, he saw a bone sticking out of a rock. Since the bone looked hollow, like the bone of a bird, he thought it was part of a flying creature – and he was right. With his professor's help, he kept digging until lots of bones from an arm and wing were found. The rest of the animal's body was missing. Many others have looked for the rest of that huge pterosaur, but it has never been found. Other fossils of Quetzalcoatlus have been found, but none are as big as the one Lawson found.

Flight 
Since Quetzalcoatlus was so large, two researchers suggested it was too heavy to fly. This would have been astonishing, because in the whole fossil record there is no flightless pterosaur. It has been thought their mobility on the ground was too poor for them to survive without flight. However, a recent discussion of this idea concluded they probably could fly after all. Another analysis suggested their flight was quite strong. Since we have only a few bones, the question of weight cannot be settled at present.

Lifestyle 
The feeding habits of Quetzalcoatlus (which had a long beak with no teeth) are unknown. This question, and its flight, are still being discussed. The lack of a more detailed skeleton is the main problem in reaching conclusions. Two theories have been proposed.

One idea is that it ate fish, by flying with its jaw in the water, and snapping up fish when it hit them. Texas was largely covered by the Western Interior Seaway at the time. "Of these proposed lifestyles, in-flight piscivory [fish-eating] appears to have gained the most acceptance, with skim-feeding being a frequently suggested foraging method.

The other theory is that it fed on land, partly as a carrion feeder, like vultures and buzzards, and foraged for small animals. This view is gaining ground, because the jaw does not show the adaptations for skimming found in modern birds who catch fish this way.

In flight, it was certainly a soarer, flying on up-currents of air in a warm environment, and its remains come from a site which was far inland in the Cretaceous.

Media 
Quetzalcoatlus was shown in the movie When Dinosaurs Roamed America eating a dead Triceratops carcass.

References 

Pterosaurs
Bagels are a type of bread made with flour. They look like doughnuts, and they are leavened with yeast. They have a crisp, shiny crust and a dense inside. Bagels are glazed, and in a ring-shaped roll. They are different from doughnuts because they are boiled before baked. Bagels are sometimes called "the cement doughnuts". 
The bagel is regarded as a special kind of Jewish food. They are eaten usually for breakfast or a snack.

Bagels are made from the basic bread ingredients of flour, yeast, salt, and sweet kinds of spices. Flour gives the bread its chewy taste, which can be made more light by eggs, milk, and butter. They are the only bread product that is boiled before it is baked.

Serving 
Bagels are often toasted in a toaster and then paired with foods like cream cheese (a soft cheese that tastes a little sweet) and jam, or with butter. Bagels can also be used to make sandwiches, with meat (for example smoked salmon) and egg and cheese. Bagel sandwiches are usually eaten for breakfast or lunch.

History 
Bagels were formally an obscure ethnic treat found only in the city's Jewish neighourhoods. Bagels were first sold in grocery stores in the 1950s. Frozen bagels were first introduced in 1960.

When Polish Jews went away to America, they brought the beugel with them. The first beugel bakeries were founded in New York City in the 1920s. Later the name was changed and called a bagel. Bagels have been used as a symbol of the continuous cycle of life—without beginning and without end.

In the East End of London, the bagel is known as a beigel, and poplar in many of the areas where many Jewish immigrants first arrived in London in the 19th century, such as Whitechapel and Spitalfields, and Brick Lane in particular, home to the Beigel Bake.

References 

Breads
Breakfast foods
A doughnut (spelled donut in various marketing sectors) is a type of deep fried dessert food made out of dough or batter.

How they are made

Round ringed doughnuts are made by joining the ends of a long, thin piece of dough into a ring or by using a doughnut cutter, which perfectly cuts the outside and inside shape, leaving a doughnut-shaped piece of dough and a doughnut hole from dough removed from the center. This smaller piece of dough can be cooked or re-added to the batch to make more doughnuts. A disk-shaped doughnut can also be stretched and molded into a torus until the center breaks to form a hole. Or, a doughnut depositor can be used to place a circle of liquid dough (batter) into the deep fryer. Doughnuts can be made from a yeast-based dough for more puffy doughnuts or a special type of cake batter. Yeast-raised doughnuts contain about 25% oil by weight, whereas cake doughnuts' oil content is around 20%, but they have extra fat in the batter before frying. Cake doughnuts are fried for about 90 seconds at about 190 °C to 198 °C, turning once. Yeast-raised doughnuts absorb more oil because they take longer to fry, about 150 seconds, at 182 °C to 190 °C. Cake doughnuts normally weigh between 24 g and 28 g, whereas yeast-raised doughnuts normally are 38 g and are mostly larger when finished. Some types of cake doughnuts are also baked,  as opposed to fried, which greatly reduces the fat content.

Types

The two most common types of doughnut are ring doughnuts, which are shaped like rings, and filled doughnuts, which are round and have jam, jelly, custard, whipped cream, or chocolate inside them. There are also "doughnut holes" or "munchkins" which come in the shape of small balls. Most doughnuts have an icing (also called a "frosting") made with icing sugar, water, and flavourings (such as chocolate). Some doughnuts are rolled in sweet foods such as sugar or shredded coconut.

Serving
Doughnuts are often eaten in the morning, along with a cup of hot coffee. Doughnuts are sold at doughnut shops, bakeries, or grocery stores. People also eat doughnuts as a dessert, or as a snack.

Pictures

Related pages

Pastry
Cake
Dough

References

Cakes
Breakfast foods
Sweet breads
The 1936 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XI Olympiad, were held in Berlin, Germany. 

The games were thought to be successful. The costs of the games was mostly paid for by the German government.

Participating nations 
A total of 49 nations sent athletes to compete at the Berlin games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes
 Olympic football tournament 1936 (Austria)
 Jesse Owens

References

Other websites

 Berlin 1936 at Olympic.org

1936 Summer Olympics
Bathurst is a city in the state of New South Wales, Australia. It is about 200km west of Sydney. Bathurst has a campus of Charles Sturt University and a cathedral.

References 

Cities in New South Wales
The following is a list of Pacific typhoon seasons. Unlike Atlantic and Pacific hurricane seasons, they run for the whole year, starting on January 1 and ending on December 31. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the western half of the Pacific Ocean, north of the equator.

1900s
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

1960
1961
1962
1963
1964
1965
1966
1967
1968
1969

1970
1971
1972
1973
1974
1975
1976
1977
1978
1979

1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989

1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999

2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020

Related articles
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons

Pacific typhoon seasons
Pacific typhoon seasons
The Songhai Empire dominated the western Sahel in the 15th and 16th century. 

At its peak the empire was one of the largest in both Islamic and African history. The Songhai people were the ruling elite in the empire. Gao was the capital of the empire. Other important cities in the empire were Timbuktu and Djenné, conquered in 1468 and 1475 respectively. Trade flourished in those towns. 

Initially, the empire was ruled by the Sonni dynasty (c. 1464–1493), but it was later replaced by the Askiya dynasty (1493–1591).

Former empires
Former monarchies of Africa
SeaMonkey is a free and open source Internet application suite, which uses the Gecko rendering engine.  It works on many operating systems.  It is very useful, and includes an e-mail client, a calendar, a HTML editor, an IRC client, and a web browser. It is made by the SeaMonkey Council, formerly by Mozilla Foundation.

History 
On March 10, 2005 the Mozilla Foundation said that they will not develop the Mozilla Application suite, including the Netscape web browser, because Firefox and Thunderbird were more popular. The SeaMonkey Council renamed the project SeaMonkey and continued its development. The newest version of its main release version is 2.46.

Features 
The web browser of SeaMonkey contains a lot of features used in new web browsers like tabbed browsing, pop-up blocking, e-mail, newsgroups, web editing software, spell checking, and an address book.

Optionally included in the SeaMonkey suite is an IRC chat application.

Related pages
List of IRC clients

Other websites 
 Seamokey project site
 SeaMonkey Wiki
 SeaMonkey Download

IRC clients
Web browsers
Mozilla
The Vision of Escaflowne is a Japanese anime television show that aired in Japan on April 2, 1996. It is called Tenkuu no Escaflowne in Japanese which means Escaflowne of the Heavens. It was made by Sunrise and directed by Kazuki Akane. Escaflowne has 26 episodes.

Escaflowne has two mangas based on it, a videogame that was made for Playstation, and a movie.

Characters 
Kanzaki Hitomi
Van Fanel
Allen Schezar
Dilandou Albatou
Folken Fanel
Merle
Dornkirk
Balgus
Millerna Sarah Aston
Dryden Fassa
Naria
Eriya
Jajuka
Susumu Amano
Uchida Yukari

Countries and Places
Gaea
Earth (Mystic Moon)
Fanelia
Asturia
Zaibach
Freid
Atlantis

Episode List 
Episode 1 Faiteful Confession

Episode 2 The Girl From the Mystic Moon

Episode 3 A Gallant Swordsman
 
Episode 4 The Diabolical Adonis

Episode 5 Seal of the Brothers

Episode 6 City of Intrigue

Episode 7 Unexpected Partings

Episode 8 The Day the Angel Flew

Episode 9 Memories of a Feather

Episode 10 The Blue Eyed Prince

Episode 11 Prophecy of Death

Episode 12 The Secret Door

Episode 13 Red Destiny

Episode 14 Dangerous Wounds

Episode 15 Paradise Lost

Episode 16 The Guided Ones

Episode 17 The Edge of the World

Episode 18 Gravity of Destiny

Episode 19 Operation: Golden Rule of Love

Episode 20 False Vows

Episode 21 Reaction of Fortune

Episode 22 The Black Winged Angel

Episode 23 Storm Premonition

Episode 24 Fateful Decision

Episode 25 The Zone of Absolute Fortune

Episode 26 Eternal Love

References

Anime
Firs (Abies) are about 45-55 species of evergreen trees in the family Pinaceae. Fir trees can reach heights of 10–80 m tall and trunk diameters of 0.5–4 m when mature. The difference between firs and other members of the pine family is that their needle-like leaves are attached to the twig by a base that resembles a small suction cup, and by erect, cylindrical female cones 5–25 cm long that release the winged seeds. The male cones are normally much smaller and spread through the tree so that the wind can help pollinate the female cones.

Like all members of the pine family, these trees have a sticky sap called resin.

Fir wood is not good to use in buildings because it is not very resistant to insects and decay. It is usually cut or squeezed into thin sheets or pieces and made into plywood or chipboard for indoor or temporary outdoor use. However, fir trees are used widely in gardening. They can be used as shelter trees to protect other plants from wind or grown alone as decorative trees.

References

Conifers
A confier cone (or pine cone) is an organ on plants in the division Pinophyta (conifers) that contains the reproductive structures. It is the part of a tree that lets the tree reproduce. Its formal name in botany is strobilus, plural strobili.

The familiar woody cone is the female cone, which produces seeds. The male cones, which produce pollen, are usually smaller and much less conspicuous even at full maturity. The individual plates of a cone are known as scales.

The male cone (microstrobilus or pollen cone) is structurally similar across all conifers, differing only in small ways (mostly in scale arrangement) from species to species. Extending out from a central axis are microsporophylls (modified leaves). Under each microsporophyll is one or several microsporangia (pollen sacs).

Conifer cones and their seeds have been used for lots of different purposes. They are often used for decorations. Some seeds, for example, the seeds of pinyon pines, are used in prepared foods and baking. 

Most mature cones are closed when wet and open when dry. In a few species, it takes fire to open the cones.

References 

Conifers
Punch and Judy is a very popular puppet show which children in Britain love to watch.  It is traditionally performed at the seaside in a small booth which can easily be transported.  The characters are all glove puppets.  The story is told by a man who calls himself “The Professor”.  He cannot be seen, but he wears the puppets on his hand like gloves and makes them move.

Characters
Punch wears a jester's motley.  He is hunchbacked and his hooked nose almost meets his curved chin. He has a big stick and hits the other characters with his stick, saying "That's the way to do it!". He speaks in a funny way called a swazzle.  There is also a baby, a crocodile, a policeman and a string of sausages.  The simple kind of humour used is called “slapstick”.

History
The Punch and Judy show has its origins in the 16th century Italian commedia dell'arte.  This sort of comedy always had the same people in the stories (“stock characters”).  The figure of Punch comes from the stock character of Pulcinella, called  Punchinello in English. Punch's wife was originally "Joan".

May 9, 1662 is said by 'Professors' to be Punch's UK birthday, for that was the first known date on which the figure who later became Mr. Punch was seen in Britain. The diarist Samuel Pepys saw a puppet show using an early version of the Punch character near St. Paul's Church in London's Covent Garden.
 
The British show developed into "Punch and Judy".   In other countries the stories developed differently.  In Germany, Punch is called "Kasper" and Judy is "Grete". The characters date back to the 18th century in German-speaking countries. In The Netherlands Punch is called Jan Klaassen and Judy is Katrijn; in Denmark Mester Jackel; in Italy Pulcinella (with Teresina as the female part); in Russia Petruschka; in Romania Vasilache ; and in France Polichinelle.

In 1827, The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Punch and Judy became the first published Punch and Judy script. In 2006, the Punch and Judy show was named one of 12 icons of Englishness by the British government’s Department for Culture, Media and Sport.

References

Comedy

Traditions
Puppets
Boomerang is the name of the 2nd television networkowned by Cartoon Network. Boomerang was one of the two actual spin-offs of Cartoon Network and Adult Swim showing classic animated cartoons and animated television series from the Hanna-Barbera archives. Cartoon Network showing CN originals and modern cartoons, and Adult Swim showing adult-animates cartoons and adult live action for teens and adults.

Formerly a segment of programming within the Cartoon Network, the channel was launched at the end of the 20th century and introduced to satellite in April 1, 2000. When it launched back on April 1, 2000 there were bumpers telling you what was coming up next. The current Boomerang coming up next, idents, promos, blocks, and bumpers were used from (April 1, 2000-present)

Programming 
 Ben 10 (2010 – present)
 Courage the Cowardly Dog (2009 – 2016)
 Dexter's Laboratory (2006 – present)
 The Flintstones (April 1, 2000 – present)
 Felix The Cat (TV Series, 2001 ; 2002)
 Garfield and Friends (2006 - present)
 The Garfield Show (2013 - present)
Looney Tunes (2000 – 2001 ; 2002)
 Peanuts (April 1, 2000 – present)
 The Powerpuff Girls (1998;  2008 – present)
 Scooby-Doo, Where Are You! (April 1, 2000 – present)
 The Smurfs (April 1, 2000 – present)
 Tom and Jerry (April 1, 2000 – present)
 The Tom and Jerry Comedy Show (shown on Tom and Jerry)
 Tom and Jerry Tales (2006;)
 Wacky Races (April 1, 2000– present)
   Camp Lazlo (2013-present)
Snorks (April 1, 2000-present)
Jonny Quest (April 1, 2000-present)
Cartoon Cartoons (Cow and Chicken, Johnny Bravo, What a Cartoon!, and 2 Stupid Dogs) (2009-present)
Popeye, Kenny the Shark, Fantastic Max, Fantastic Four, Thundercats (1985), Teen Titans, Krypto the Superdog (2000-present)
Blocks : Boomerang-A-Long (2000-present)
Boomerang Theater (2000-present)
Wedgies (2008-present)
Boomerang Zoo (2000-present)
Infomercials (2000-present)
Boomerloyalty (2008-present)
Boomeraction (2000-present)

Other websites 
Official website 
BoomerangTV.co.uk - Official UK website
BoomerangTV.de - Official DE website

Cartoon Network
American television networks
2000 establishments in the United States