cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Thomas Tallis (born c.1505; died Greenwich November 23 1585) was the most important English composer of his generation.

We know very little about Tallis’s youth.  He may have started his career as organist at Dover and then Waltham Abbey.  After the Dissolution of the monasteries he had a job at Canterbury Cathedral for a short time. He was soon made a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal. He had a job in the royal household until his death. He worked for four monarchs: Henry VIII, Edward VI, Mary Tudor and Elizabeth I.

Tallis was an organist and composer.  He had to write music for the royal chapels.  He was given the lease of a big house in Kent and a salary of £91 12s a year (12s is 60p in modern money). That was a very good salary in those days.  In 1575, Queen Elizabeth I gave Tallis and William Byrd a licence which meant they were the only people allowed to print and publish music in England (music printing was a very new invention at the time). Tallis owned a house in Greenwich where he died in 1585.

In the early 16th century church music was often very polyphonic. Voices imitated one another and sang different things at the same time. Tallis wrote church music which was much simpler. In a lot of his music the choir sing homophonic music instead of using the older polyphony.  For a short time, during the reign of the Catholic Mary Tudor, polyphonic music was in fashion again.  This was the time when Tallis wrote an antiphon “Gaude gloriosa Dei mater” and a mass musical setting|mass “Puer natus est nobis”.  These two works are once more very complicated polyphonic works.  After that his works become simpler once more, but he was always keen to try out new ideas from the continent of Europe.  He wrote some very fine anthems.  Many of his works are settings of Latin words, but he also made settings of English texts.

One of his works is called Spem in Alium.  The choir divide into forty parts i.e. the choir need at least 40 people to sing it, and each person sings a different line.  It is possible that he wrote it for Queen Elizabeth I’s 40th birthday in 1573, but we cannot be sure.

His Diliges Dominum is a collection of contrapuntal exercises which includes a very famous canon often simply called “Tallis’s canon”.

English composers
Renaissance composers
English organists
1505 births
1585 deaths
Gentlemen of the Chapel Royal
Homophony means music in which the voices or instruments sing or play chords (chords are when two or more notes are played together.)  In homophonic music all the choir (sopranos, altos, tenors and basses) are singing the same words at the same time.  There is a tune on top and the lower parts are the accompaniment.  This is what happens in hymn singing. The opposite is polyphony.  Polyphonic writing is more complicated: the choir sing different melodic lines at the same time (see counterpoint).  The terms "homophony" (literally: "one sound")  and "polyphony" (literally: "many sounds") are mostly used for choir music.

In homophonic music it is easy to hear the words that are being sung.  In polyphonic music it is much harder for the listener to understand the words.  Composers often used polyphony when writing music for the mass because everyone knew the words anyway.  Homophonic music became more important when composers started to write operas and madrigals where a story is being told and the words must be heard clearly. 

Music theory

fr:Homophonie#Musique
Technetium is a radioactive chemical element that has the chemical symbol Tc and has the atomic number 43. It is the lightest synthetic element.

Chemistry of Technetium 
The color of technetium is silvery-grey and is a crystaline metal. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. The chemistry of technetium is similar to rhenium and manganese.

The isotope 99mTc is used in nuclear medicine. It is used for many diagnostic tests. It has a short half-life. 99Tc is used as a source of beta particles without emitting gamma rays. The ion that has oxygen and technetium bonded together (TcO4-) is named the pertechnetate ion. The pertechnetate ion could be used as to prevent anodic corrosion in steel.

History 
Before the element was found, many of the properties of element 43 were predicted by Dmitri Mendeleev. Mendeleev noticed a gap in his periodic table and named the element in the gap eka-manganese. In 1937 the technetium isotope 97Tc was the first element to be artificially produced. This was the reason why he named it Technetium as in Greek, τεχνητος means "artificial". Most technetium made on Earth is a by-product of fission of uranium-235 in nuclear reactors. It is extracted from nuclear fuel rods. On earth, technetium occurs naturally only in uranium ores as a product of spontaneous fission. The amount of technetium in the ore is very small but has been measured. The longest half-life of Technetium is 4.2 million years (98Tc). This means that its detection in red giants in 1952 helped support the theory that stars can produce heavier elements.

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Monasteries are places where monks live. Although the word "monastery" is sometimes used for a place where nuns live, nuns usually live in a convent or nunnery.  The word abbey (from the Syriac/Aramaic word : father) is also used for a Christian monastery or convent.  The monk in charge of an abbey is called an abbot; the nun in charge of an abbey is an abbess.

Several religions have a system of monasteries. Christian monasteries have a chapel for the monks to worship. Monks are not allowed to marry (celibacy). They are also not allowed to own anything. Everything they use, including their clothes, belongs to the monastery. During the Middle Ages after the Roman Empire was defeated, monasteries were some of the few places where knowledge still existed.

Some monasteries were built in places far away from where other people lived. The monks who live there live very isolated lives, growing their own food and looking after one another.  Other monasteries were in or near towns. Monks do a lot of work in the community, including as teaching, medical care or telling people about God. Few monks live isolated lives nowadays.

References

Other websites
Windows Neptune is a version of Microsoft Windows that was being made during 1999 and January 2000. Windows 2000 was released as an operating system for businesses and people that know how to use computers well. Windows Neptune was going to be a version of Windows 2000 that was easier for home users to use. Nobody knows if Microsoft was ever going to release Windows Neptune.  After Microsoft stopped developing it, some of its features were merged with Windows 2000's and a new project, "Whistler", was formed.  "Whistler" was later released as Windows XP.

Only one known confirmed version of Windows Neptune exists. which is Windows Neptune Build 5111. Windows Neptune Build 5111 exists on the Internet, and is a confirmed built. It used to be hard to find, but now it can easily be found.

Other websites 
 Neptune: The Windows that wasn't  on Paul Thurrott's SuperSite for Windows.
 Unofficial site about Windows Neptune

Microsoft operating systems
Alexander Grigoryevich Lukashenko (born 30 August 1954) is the President of the country of Belarus. He has been its leader since 1994. He was the first leader of the country to be chosen by Belarus citizens. 

Before becoming the leader, he belonged to the law making section of the government. He was also in the military of the Soviet Union and ran a factory that made things to help farming.

He has been called "Europe's last dictator".

His re-election in 2020 was seen as controversial with many saying it was rigged and unfair. His re-election caused many to protest against the election results. After the contested election, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Canada, Ukraine and the United States do not recognize him as the legitimate president of Belarus.

In July 2020, he said that he had COVID-19 after telling people that to avoid the disease they should drink vodka and go to a sauna.

Alexander Lukashenko is under the sanctions of the United States, the European Union, the United Kingdom, Switzerland and Canada,

References

1954 births
Living people
Current national leaders
Presidents of Belarus
Specially Designated Nationals and Blocked Persons List
This article is for the dessert, Jelly. See jam for the condiment.
Gelatin or Jelly is a dessert item. Gelatin can come in different taste choices, or flavors, depending on what fruit or artificial flavor. Jelly is a cold and solid food that is normally made from hot water and powder.

Jelly can be added to foods like a peanut butter and jelly sandwich.

Naming and Spelling
Depending on where you live, gelatin may be called different things. In the United States and Canada, jelly is often called 'Jell-O'. Jell-O is a brand of gelatin that has become a generic, or typical, name for a lot of gelatin. Like the United States, in Canada Jell-O is a normal name for gelatin. In Commonwealth Nations like the United Kingdom and New Zealand, almost all gelatin is called jelly. Also, it is spelled gelatine.

'Jell-O Shots'
Sometimes, alcohol is added to jelly. You can make jello shots with almost any type of alcohol. Jello shots can be served in small glasses and can be any color depending on the other ingredients put into the Jell-O shot. The jello shot is also known as the poison rainbow.

Basic English 850 words
Desserts
Biophysics is a science where the laws of physics are used to study biology, the science on life and living things. Unlike biochemistry and molecular biology, sciences where macromolecules or "large" groups of molecules are studied, biophysicists study single or small groups of molecules.

Related pages 
Bionics
Database of Molecular Motions

Branches of biology
Physics
A macromolecule is a molecule with a large number of atoms. The word is usually used only when describing polymers, molecules which are made up of smaller molecules called monomers. All organic monomers are based on carbon, usually with hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. There are inorganic macromolecules based on other monomers.

Examples: 
 Proteins, composed of amino acids.
 Nucleic acids.
 DNA, composed of nucleotides.
 RNA, similarly composed, differently structured
 Carbohydrates, composed of monosaccharide sugars.
 Lipids or fats  composed of fatty acids and triglycerides.
 Nylon, composed of polyamides.
 Polythiazyl, composed of polymeric sulphur nitride (SN)x.

Molecular biology
Biochemistry
Dendrology is the science of trees and other woody plants such as shrubs or lianas. The word "dendrology" comes from Greek words δένδρον meaning "tree" and λόγος meaning "study".

Trees
Entomology is the science of insects. People who study insects are called entomologists. Insects have been studied since prehistoric times, but it was not until as early as the 16th century that insects were scientifically studied.

Some entomologists study how insects are related to each other. Others study how insects live and reproduce because we do not know very much about some kinds of insects. Other entomologists study ways to keep insects away from crops that people use for food. There are billions of unknown species throughout the world and taxonomists categorize the newly found.

Entomologists meet to talk about their study of insects and to share ideas, just as all scientists do.

See also 

 Arachnology

Branches of zoology
Henry III (1 October 1207–16 November 1272) became King of England in 1216 when he was 9 years old, after the early death of his father King John. He would end up ruling as king for 56 years (though he would only effectively rule for around 45 due to his youth in the first years). He would be married to Eleanor of Provence, who bore him 5 children, for 36 years. During his long reign, Henry's kingdom would experience relative peace and prosperity until he began having trouble with his barons (particularly Simon de Montfort) due to his high handed governing style, which compelled the Barons to impose the Provisions of Oxford limiting royal power in 1258.  

The king's breaking of this agreement with the barons a few years later would lead to a civil war called the Baron's war which pitched the royal family against the rebel barons for 3 years (1264-1267), culminating in De Montfort's death at the unusually bloody Battle of Evesham in 1265 and the royal family being able to sweep up the remnants of the opposition by 1267. However, Henry's most visible mark on history would be due to his interest in architecture and decoration: which made him redevelop certain aspects of Westminster Abbey, improve the Tower of London's defenses (while keeping exotic animals from Africa and the Arctic such as lions, an elephant and a polar bear in it). He would even preside over the reburial of his personal hero Edward the Confessor at the consecration of Westminster Abbey in 1269, which was seen as the greatest personal triumph of his reign. Soon after the consecration of his abbey, the aging Henry would began to see a sharp decline in his health, eventually dying in 1272 at the fairly advanced age of 65, with his eldest son Prince Edward ascending the throne as King Edward I of England. The new king would have his late father reburied in 1290 in Westminster Abbey, where he has laid till modern historians discovered his tomb, which revealed that Henry III was about 5’ 6” tall and had a drooping left eyelid.  

1207 births
1272 deaths
House of Plantagenet
13th century in England
The cell nucleus (plural: cell nuclei) contains the cell's genes and controls the cell's growth and reproduction. It has a double layered nuclear membrane round it. The nucleus is usually the most prominent organelle in a cell. The nucleus is small and round, and works as the cell's control center. It contains chromosomes which house the DNA. The human body contains billions of cells, most of which have a nucleus. 

All eukaryote organisms have nuclei in their cells, even the many eukaryotes that are single-celled. Bacteria and Archaea, which are prokaryotes, are single-celled organisms of a different type and do not have nuclei. Cell nuclei were first found by Antonie van Leeuwenhoek in the 17th century.

The nucleus has a membrane around it but the things inside it do not. Inside it are many proteins, RNA molecules, chromosomes and the nucleolus. In the nucleolus ribosomes are put together. After being produced in the nucleolus, ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA into proteins.

When a cell is dividing or preparing to divide, the chromosomes become visible with a light microscope. At other times when the chromosomes are not visible, the nucleolus will be visible.

Nuclear membrane 
Large molecules cannot get through the double-layer nuclear membrane. However, nuclear pores exist. They control the movement of molecules across the membrane. The pores cross both nuclear membranes, providing a channel. The larger molecules are actively transported by carrier proteins, and there is free movement of small molecules and ions. Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes.

Nucleolus 
Within the nucleus is a structure called a nucleolus. It is made at a nucleolus organizer region (NOR). This is a chromosomal region around which the nucleolus forms. Inside the nucleolus ribosomes are made. These are exported through the nuclear pore complexes to the cytoplasm. There they  work to build proteins. They become attached to the endoplasmic reticulum if they are making membrane proteins.

References 

 
Cell biology
Organelles
Scotland Yard is the headquarters of the Metropolitan Police in London.  This police force is responsible for the security in Greater London.

New Scotland Yard is in a 20-storey office block on Broadway and Victoria Street in Westminster, about 450 metres away from the Houses of Parliament. The famous rotating sign, which is seen on television and in films, is outside the main doors on Broadway.

Founded on 29 September 1829, on a street of Whitehall, Scotland Yard was called "New Scotland Yard" when moved, in November 1890, to the Victoria Embankment, beside the Ministry of Defence. In 1967, New Scotland Yard moved to the present 20-story building at 10 Broadway.

Scotland Yard got its name by its previous location which was on Great Scotland Yard. As the Metropolitan police grew more famous, people started referring to the house as Scotland Yard.

Buildings and structures in London
Law enforcement in the United Kingdom
Police stations
Buckingham Palace is a palace in London. It is in the City of Westminster, in central London.

The Palace is the main official residence where the British monarch lives and works. The palace is a setting for state occasions and royal hospitality. It has been a focus for the British people at times of national rejoicing and crisis.

Buckingham Palace was built in 1703 by John Sheffield, 1st Duke of Buckingham and Normandy, as a townhouse residence in London. It was bought by the British royal family in 1761. It became the official London home of the family in 1837 and was greatly expanded in the 19th century. It has 775 rooms, 19 staterooms, and 78 bathrooms. Leading up to it is a ceremonial road called The Mall. A German bomb damaged the Palace during the London blitz.

The Palace's guard is changed every day at 11am.

Note 

Palaces in the United Kingdom
Buildings and structures in London
Royal residences in the United Kingdom
The 2008 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXIX Olympiad, were celebrated in Beijing, People's Republic of China from August 8 to August 24. The opening ceremony began at 08:08:08 pm CST (12:08:08 UTC) at the Beijing National Stadium in Beijing, People's Republic of China. During the games, 10,500 athletes competed in 302 events in 28 sports.

The Olympic games were awarded to Beijing after a vote of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) on July 13 2001. The official logo of the games, titled "Dancing Beijing," features a stylised calligraphic character jīng (京, meaning capital), meaning the host city. The mascots of Beijing 2008 are the five Fuwa, each representing both a colour of the Olympic rings and a symbol of Chinese culture. The Olympic slogan, One World, One Dream, calls upon the world to unite in the Olympic spirit. Several new NOCs were also recognised by the IOC.

The Chinese government used the games to promote China as an important and powerful country, and spent a lot of money on building new facilities and transportation systems for the games. The events were held in 37 venues, including 12 newly-built buildings. In 2007, former IOC president Juan Antonio Samaranch said that he thinks that the Beijing games will be "the best in Olympic history". Although there was some controversy about having the games in China, the IOC's former president Jacques Rogge said that the IOC has "absolutely no regrets" in choosing Beijing to host the 2008 games.

Medal table 
At the end of the Olympics, China won the total gold medal count, while the United States led the grand total medal count.

Here is the top of the medal table at the end of the games.

Medal numbers shown in bold are the highest in their section. China, the host nation is highlighted in lavender.

Notes

References 

 
2008 in China
Pierre de Fermat (17 August 1601 – 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, southern France, and a mathematician. Many people see him as the father of modern calculus.

His method of finding the biggest and smallest ordinates of curved lines also makes him a contributor to differential calculus, which was not known at that time. His studies in the theory of numbers give him the rank of the founder of the modern theory. He also made notable contributions to analytic geometry and probability.

He is also famous for making a simple mathematical statement (known as Fermat's Last Theorem) that he said he could prove, but he never wrote down his proof. Mathematicians tried to prove it for hundreds of years before finally managing it. Fermat probably did not really have a proof for this theorem, and only thought he did.

He proposed his principle on light which states that light selects the path which takes least time to travel.This principle was famous as Fermat principle.

1601 births
1665 deaths
French number theorists
Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz (also Leibnitz or von Leibniz) 1 July 1 (21 June OS) 1646 – 14 November 1716) was a German intellectual who wrote mostly in French and Latin.
He played an important role in both philosophy and mathematics. He invented calculus independently of Newton, and his notation for derivatives is the one in general use since then. He also invented the binary system, foundation of modern computers.

Works
He was taught law and philosophy. He served as secretary to two major German noble houses: one became the British royal family while he served it. Leibniz played a major role in the European politics and diplomacy of his day.

Philosophy
In philosophy, he is most remembered for optimism. He thought our universe is the best possible one God could have made. He was one of the great 17th century rationalists. René Descartes and Baruch Spinoza are the other two. His philosophy also both looks back to the Scholastic tradition and anticipates modern logic and analysis.

Technology
Leibniz also made contributions to physics and technology, and anticipated ideas which surfaced much later in biology, medicine, geology, probability theory, psychology, and information science. He wrote on politics, law, ethics, theology, history, and philology. Sometimes, he even wrote in verse. His contributions are scattered in journals and in tens of thousands of letters and unpublished manuscripts. There is no complete edition of Leibniz's writings, and a complete account of his accomplishments is not yet possible. Leibniz is sometimes known as the last "universal genius".
Leibniz is perhaps most famous for his involvement in development of calculus independent of Isaac Newton and creation of Leibniz Notation which is the standard form of calculus today.

Related pages 

 German philosophy

References 

1646 births
1716 deaths
17th-century German philosophers
18th-century German philosophers
German mathematicians
In Norse mythology, Fenrir (Old Norse: “he who dwells in the marshes”), also known as Fenrisúlfr (Old Norse: “Fenrir's wolf”), or Vanargand ("Monster of the River Van"), is a giant, monstrous wolf, son of Loki and the giantess Angrboða, and the brother of Hel and Jörmungandr. 

Fenrir was tied up by the gods but was destined to break free from his bonds and devour Odin during Ragnarök, after which he is killed by Odin's son, Víðarr. 

Fenrir has two sons, Hati ('hate') and Skoll.

The Legend of Fenrir
Odin found out about a prophecy that the children of Loki and Angora would cause trouble for the gods. He had Fenrir brought to him along with its brother Jörmungandr and its sister Hel. 

After throwing Jörmungandr into the sea and sending Hel into the land of the dead, Odin had the wolf raised among the Æsir. Only the god Týr was brave enough to feed the growing monster. The wolf got stronger and stronger. The gods were scared that he would eventually destroy them. They tried to chain it up. He agreed to be chained two times. Both times he easily broke the chains. 

Odin had the dwarfs make the chain Gleipnir ("deceiver" or "entangler"). It looked like a silken ribbon but was made of six magical ingredients: the sound of a cat's step, the beard of a woman, the roots of a mountain, bear's sensibility, fish's breath, and bird's spittle.

The gods challenged Fenrir to break this chain as well. The wolf saw how thin and well made Gleipnir was and thought it was a trick. He agreed to try and break the chain, but only if one of the gods would put his hand in the wolf's mouth. He believed this would force them to free him if he could not break the chain. Only Týr was willing to put his hand in the wolf's mouth. Fenrir tried to break the chain. The more he tried, the tighter the chain held him. When the gods would not free him, the wolf bit off Týr's hand at the wrist. 

It is said that at Ragnarök, the wolf will break free. He will join forces with the enemies of the gods and will then eat Odin. After that Viðarr, Odin's son, will slay the wolf to avenge his father's death.

Other names and spellings

Fenrisúlfr
Vanargand, (anglicized), "Monster of The River" 
Hróðvitnir, 'the famous wolf'
Fenris Wolf (an English translation of Fenrisulfr)
Fenrisulf (an Anglicized form)
Fenris (not found in the Old Norse sources)
Fenrisulven (modern Norwegian, Swedish and Danish form)pir
Fenrisúlvur (Faroese)

Norse mythology
Legendary creatures
Russell Ira Crowe (born 7 April 1964) is an actor with New Zealand citizenship who lives in Australia. He is most well known for the movie Gladiator.  This movie gave him his fame in America. He won the Academy award (Oscar) for Best actor in 2001, for acting in Gladiator. He also starred as Jor-El in the 2013 movie Man of Steel.

Crowe had attended Auckland Grammar School before moving to Australia.

He is married to Danielle Spencer. She is an Australian singer, songwriter and actress. They have two sons, Charles Spencer Crowe (born 2003) and Tennyson Spencer Crowe (born 2006).

Other websites 

Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Sydney
Actors from Wellington
Australian movie actors
Australian rock musicians
Australian singers
Australian television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
New Zealand movie actors
New Zealand television actors
New Zealand voice actors
New Zealand stage actors
New Zealand singers
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
1964 births
Living people
Renin is an enzyme that is made by the kidneys. It is released into the circulatory system to raise blood pressure. This causes more blood to be sent to the kidneys.

Enzymes
A knight was a professional heavy cavalry soldier in the Middle Ages.  Knights were the best soldiers in the kingdom. Knights fought for lords or nobles, and got land in return. They thought honour was very important, and they had a code of honour called chivalry.  A knight had a coat of arms, also called a crest.

Knights in the Middle Ages 
Knights were first used in the 8th century in the late Roman armies.[citation needed] The era of the knights lasted until the 16th century.  After that, national armies replaced feudal armies. Many knights were recruited as officers in the new armies.

Knights today 
Although they no longer fight as elite warriors, knights still exist.

Today, Queen Elizabeth II names Knights of the Commonwealth Realms.  To knight a person, she taps their shoulders with the flat side of a sword during a ceremony.  Bill Gates, Clint Eastwood, Michael Caine, Elton John, and George H.W. Bush have all been knighted.

Some British orders of knighthood still exist, like the Order of the British Empire. Today, knights are called “Sir” followed by their first name.

Many members of nobility are descended from knights. For example, Wijerd Jelckama is descended from a knight who died at the siege of Antioch in 1199.

Related pages
 Heraldry
 Knight Bachelor

References

Military
Titles
Terence Chi-Shen Tao  (born 17 July 1975) is a Chinese-Australian mathematician who currently resides in the United States. In 2006, Tao won the Fields Medal for his work in number theory. Tao shared the award with three other mathematicians. He also won the FRS in 2007. He is known for his studies in harmonic analysis, partial differential equations, combinatorics, analytic number theory and representation theory. Tao teaches math at UCLA.

Life 
Tao was born in Adelaide, South Australia, Australia. His parents are Han. Tao is the youngest person to be in the International Mathematical Olympiad.

Ever since he was a young child he had shown great skills in mathematics and logic.
His father claimed that at the age of 2, during a family gathering, the infant Tao taught a 5-year-old child mathematics and English. According to Smithsonian Online Magazine, Tao taught himself arithmetic by the age of two. When asked by his father how he knew numbers and letters, he said he learned them from "Sesame Street". Aside from English, Tao speaks fluent Cantonese, but does not write Chinese. He was promoted to a full professor at age 24. He currently lives with his wife and son in Los Angeles, California.

Other websites 
 Terence Tao's home page
 Clay Research Award Announcement 
 Australian wins highest maths prize , by Charisse Ede, August 22, 2006, from AAP
 BBC story
 New York Times story
 Mozart of Maths, Sydney Morning Herald, Deborah Smith, August 26, 2006.
 Maths Architect of Beauty , Seed Magazine, by Jordan Ellenberg, Posted September 21, 2006

Fields Medalists
1975 births
Living people
Scientists from South Australia
Chinese mathematicians
Child prodigies
People from Adelaide
American bloggers
Number theorists
Flatworms (Platyhelminthes, Greek "platy"': flat; "helminth": worm) are a phylum of invertebrates. They are relatively simple animals. They have soft bodies. 

With about 25,000 known species, they are the largest phylum of animals without a body cavity.  Flatworms can be found in marine, freshwater, and even damp terrestrial environments. 

A troublesome terrestrial example is the New Zealand flatworm, Arthurdendyus triangulatus.  It is an invasive species which colonized large areas of Ireland and Scotland. It was brought there by accident in the 1960s. Since then, it has destroyed most of the indigenous earthworms.

Most free-living flatworms found in Britain are very small ranging from 5mm to less than 1 cm. They are usually black and can easily be mistaken for debris. These are mostly found in freshwater rivers or streams and are of the Turbellaria class.

Most flatworms (over 50%) are parasitic on other animals. There are four classes: 
Trematoda (Flukes): internal parasites.
Cestoda (Tapeworms): internal parasites.
Monogenea: external parasites.
and 
Turbellaria: free-living flatworms, sometimes called 'Planarians'. Planaria is actually a genus.

Flatworms are one of the invertebrate groups which are studied in school biology. The main reason for this is that they may infect humans, pets and farmyard animals. Some do enormous harm to humans and their livestock. Schistosomiasis, caused by one genus of trematodes, is the second most devastating of all human diseases caused by parasites, surpassed only by malaria.  Effective treatments are now available for these infections. Also, in first-world countries, regulations on domestic cattle prevent infected meat from reaching the human hosts.

Related pages 
 List of animal phyla
Fasciola hepatica
Planaria

References 

Flatworms
Monogenea are a type of flatworm. They are parasites which means that they always need another creature to live on. They live on the outside of their host. Some parasites, like tapeworms, live on the inside of a larger creature.

Ecology and life cycle 
Monogenea are especially common on the skin, fins and gills of fish. Less commonly, they can be found in the urinary bladder and rectum of cold-blooded vertebrates. No types of Monogenea infect birds, but one (Oculotrema hippopotami) infects mammals. It is a parasite in the eye of a hippopotamus. 

Monogenea are usually hermaphrodites. This means that they have both sexes. First they are males, and only later do they become females as well. They have direct life-cycles with no asexual reproduction (unlike the Digenea). In those types of Monogenea that lay eggs, the young ones grow to a larval stage called an oncomiracidium. It is at the larva stage that they are able to travel from one host creature to another. When they are adults, Monogenea eat the blood, mucus, and epithelial cells of their host creature.

Flatworms
Parasites
Mendoza is a Province of Argentina. It is in the region called Cuyo. The province borders San Juan in the north, San Luis and La Pampa in the east, Neuquén in the south, and Chile to the west.

It is the major wine producer of Argentina and has many other crops. It has the highest mountain in the country, Aconcagua.

Mendoza has a population of 1,579,651 people (2001). Spanish is the main language but many people also speak English, Italian and Portuguese.

Other websites 
 Official site  
 Mendoza Ministry of Tourism and Culture 
 Discover Mendoza - Turism in Mendoza 
 Universidad Nacional de Cuyo  
 Map of Mendoza
 Pictures of Mendoza 
 Mendoza at the Great Wine Capitals 

Provinces of Argentina
Wine regions
A Geiger counter (sometimes called Geiger-Müller counter) is an instrument that measures ionizing radiation such as alpha particles, beta particles, or gamma rays. It is best known as a hand held radiation survey instrument, but it can also be used as a bench instrument or permanently installed.

The original operating principle was discovered in 1908 and since the subsequent development of the Geiger-Müller tube in 1928 the counter has been a very popular instrument due to its robust sensing detector and element and relatively low cost.

Principle of operation
The radiation sensor is a Geiger-Müller tube which gives out an electronic signal when radiation is present. 
The readout is counts or radiation dose. The counts display is commonly "counts per second". Radiation dose rate is displayed in a unit such as the sievert.

The readout can be analogue or digital, and modern instruments have communications with a computer or network.

There is usually an option to produce audible  representing the radiation intensity. This allows the user to concentrate on manipulation of the instrument without looking at the display.

Types and applications
 

For alpha particles and low energy beta particles the "end window" type of GM tube is used as these particles have a limited range even in free air and are easily stopped by a solid material.

Geiger counters can be used to detect gamma radiation, and for this the windowless tube is used. A special type of the Geiger tube is used to measure neutrons.

Physical design
For hand-held units there are two fundamental physical configurations: the "integral" unit, with both detector and electronics in the same unit, and the "two-piece" design which has a separate detector probe and an electronics module connected by a short cable. 
There is a particular type of gamma instrument known as a "hot spot" detector which has the detector tube on the end of a long pole or flexible conduit. These are used to measure  high radiation gamma locations whilst protecting the operator by means of distance shielding.

History
In 1908 Hans Geiger, developed a technique for detecting alpha particles that would later be used in the Geiger-Müller tube. This counter was only capable of detecting alpha particles but in 1928 Geiger and Walther Müller developed the sealed Geiger-Müller tube which could detect more types of ionizing radiation and it became a practical radiation sensor. Once this was available, Geiger counter instruments could be produced relatively cheaply.

Related pages
 Dosimeter - Device used by personnel to measure radiation dose they have received
 Radioactive decay - Description of where much radiation originates from

References

Other websites 

 How a Geiger counter works.

Measuring tools
A world wide area network, or WAN, is made up of several computer networks connected together, often over the Internet. In most cases, the networks in WANs all belong to the all same company or school.

Usage
WANs are used to connect LANs and other types of networks together, so that users and computers in one location can communicate with users and computers in other locations. Many WANs are built for one particular organization and are private. Others, built by Internet service providers, provide connections from an organization's LAN to the Internet. WANs are often built using leased lines. At each end of the leased line, a router connects to the LAN on one side and a hub within the WAN on the other. Leased lines can be very expensive. Instead of using leased lines, WANs can also be built using less costly circuit switching or packet switching methods. Network protocols including TCP/IP deliver transport and addressing functions. Protocols including Packet over SONET/SDH, MPLS, ATM and Frame relay are often used by service providers to deliver the links that are used in WANs. X.25  was an important early WAN protocol, and is often considered to be the "grandfather" of Frame Relay as many of the underlying protocols and functions of X.25 are still in use today (with upgrades) by Frame Relay.

Studies
Academic research into wide area networks can be broken down into three areas: mathematical models, network emulation and network simulation.

Improvements
Performance improvements are sometimes delivered via WAFS or WAN optimization.

Computer networking
Internet
A disc or disk generally refers to a round flat object, although the usage varies between different variants of English. Common types of disc include:

 Flying disc or, more specifically, a Frisbee, a disk-shaped toy
 Intervertebral disc, between the bones in the spines of vertebrates
 Parking disc, or parking disc machine
 Tax disc, a vehicle licence

Audio and video recording media
 transcription disc (gramophone record or "phonograph record" in U.S. English)
 Optical disc, the most common of which are:
 Compact Disc
 Digital Versatile Disc or Digital Video Disc (DVD)
 Blu-ray Disc
 HD DVD

Magnetic recording media
 Hard disk, also known as a hard drive
 Floppy disk, or diskette
 RAM disk
 Laserdisc
 MiniDisc
 Also (perhaps erroneously) to refer to tape drives and flash memory cards for both music and computer data

Science
 Accretion disk, in astrophysics
 Protoplanetary disk
 Debris Disk
 Scattered disc
 Disc (galaxy)

Acronyms
 The DISC assessment (or personal profile system), a psychological test
 DISCs  - Domestic International Sales Corporations in US law
 Death Inducing Signaling Complex
 DİSK, the Confederation of Revolutionary Trade Unions of Turkey

Related pages
 Discus throw
 Disco
 Disc jockey
 Disc brake, a type of brake
Noodles are thin strips of pasta which are made from dough. The dough for the noodles can be made in different ways:
 Egg noodles are made of eggs and wheat flour. Asian egg noodles, Italian type pastas or Reshteh are made this way.
 Wheat noodles- Mee pok, Lamian, Ramen, Udon, Champon, and Yakisoba-type noodles
 Rice noodles - Asian bihun,Vietnamese Phở
 Glass noodles are made of Mung bean or potato starch
 Buckweat noodles - Japanese Soba

Noodles are usually cooked in boiling water. Sometimes, after boiling, noodles are fried in a pan with other ingredients while being moved around in order to be mixed well, which is called stir frying.

Kinds of noodles (especially in Japan)
Ramen
Udon
Spaghetti
Linguine
Soba
Somen
Tsukemen
Cup Noodle

References
Princess Leia Organa, born Leia Amidala Skywalker, is a character from the Star Wars universe. Leia was played by Carrie Fisher in the original three Star Wars movies: A New Hope, The Empire Strikes Back, and Return of the Jedi. She is also a main character in many novels that are set in the Star Wars universe.

Character history

Organa is the daughter of Padmé Amidala and Anakin Skywalker. She has a twin brother, Luke Skywalker. Her mother died giving birth to her and her brother. The twins were taken at birth and given to different families to raise. Leia was raised by the family of Alderaan's Senator Bail Organa as his daughter. 

Leia was in a romantic relationship with Han Solo and both have a child Ben Solo. Kylo Ren becomes evil and becomes the main villain in Star Wars sequel trilogy. 

Fictional characters introduced in 1977
Fictional twins
Star Wars Anthology characters
Star Wars characters
Star Wars Skywalker Saga characters

de:Figuren aus Star Wars#Leia Organa
Paramaribo (, nickname: Par′bo) is the capital city of Suriname. About 250,000 people live in the city. It is at the Suriname River about 15 km before the river flows into the Atlantic Ocean. 

Paramirbo used to be called in French "Bourg nommé des Juifs" because so many Jewish people lived there.

References
Jagdterriers are a breed of dogs. Their full name is Deutscher Jagdterrier. This translates to German terrier to mean a hunting dog. 

Terriers
Erwin Schrödinger (Erwin Rudolf Josef Alexander Schrödinger, 12 August 1887, Vienna-Erdberg  4 January 1961, Vienna) was an Austrian physicist and theoretical biologist. He was one of the founding fathers of quantum theory and won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1933.

Life 
Schrödinger went to the Academic Gymnasium from 1898 to 1906.
Afterwards he studied mathematics and physics in Vienna and wrote his habilitation up from 1910.

He was a soldier in World War I. Afterwards he got professorships in Zürich, Jena, Breslau and Stuttgart. In 1920 he married.
In 1927 he went to Berlin to fellow Max Planck.

After the take-over of power by the Nazis, Schrödinger left Germany and got a new professorship in Oxford.
In 1933 he was awarded the Nobel Prize.
Three years later he returned to Austria and became professor in Graz.
In 1938 he had to leave Austria, because the Nazis had taken over government.
He went to Dublin and became director of the School for Theoretical Physics.

In 1956 he returned to Vienna and got a professorship for Theoretical Physics.
He died of tuberculosis in 1961.

Important work 
Schrödinger's most important work is the wave mechanics – a formulation of quantum mechanics, and especially the Schrödinger equation. He also worked on the field of biophysics. He invented the concept of negentropy and helped to develop molecular biology.

Related pages 
 Schrödinger's cat

Other websites 

 Biography in the Österreichische Zentralbibliothek für Physik (Austrian Central Library of Physics)
 Original sound from the Austrian Mediathek: Erwin Schrödinger, Was ist Materie?
 Are there quantum jumps? (Schrödingers opinion on quantum physics 1950)

1887 births
1961 deaths
Scientists from Vienna
Theoretical physicists
Austrian Nobel Prize winners
Austrian physicists
Dioxins is the name for a group of chemical compounds. These are organic compounds. Polychlorinated dibenzodioxins (PCDDs), or simply dioxins, are a group of halogenated organic compounds which are significant because they act as environmental pollutants. They are very poisonous. Many dioxins cause cancer.
Today, Dioxins are no longer made. They can occur as a by-product of other processes, though. Examples where dioxins can result are the production of PVC or the bleaching of paper. In nature, they are produced in volcanoes and forest fires.

A chemical accident where a lot of dioxin was released was the Seveso disaster.

Chemical compounds
Organometallic chemistry
Arnold Johannes Wilhelm Sommerfeld (December 5, 1868 in Königsberg, East Prussia – April 26, 1951 in Munich) was a German mathematician and theoretical physicist.

Education
Sommerfeld was the son of a practical physician. After finishing school in 1886, he started studying mathematics at the University of Königsberg. In 1891 he wrote his doctorate thesis about arbitrary functions in mathematical physics. Afterwards he had to serve in the army.

Then he went to Göttingen. He became assistant at the institute for mineralogy, but was still interested in mathematical physics.

Works
In 1894 he became the assistant of Felix Klein. The year after he wrote his habilitation about the mathematical theory of optical diffraction and became docent for mathematics in Göttingen.

In 1897 Sommerfeld married. In the same year he became ordinary professor for mathematics at the mining college of Clausthal. Three years later he got a professorship at the Technical University of Aachen.

In 1906 he became professor for theoretical physics in Munich, were he stood for his lifetime. While he was professor in Munich, he travelled twice around the world - in 1922/23 he was guest professor in Wisconsin and travelled afterwards through India, China and Japan, in 1928/29 he made a journey through the USA as a university teacher. 

He started taking out a pension in 1935, but he still worked until 1940. There was a lot of trouble choosing the person who should follow him. Sommerfeld wanted to have Werner Heisenberg to follow him, but in the time of the Nazi regime the job could only go to a person who taught the so-called German Physics, which included a kind of mysticism. Sommerfeld tried to prevent that.

Sommerfeld died in 1951 in a traffic accident.

Works 
Theorie des Kreisels. 4 volumes (with Felix Klein), Leipzig 1897-1910
Atombau und Spektrallinien. Braunschweig 1919
Vorlesungen über theoretische Physik
Vol. 1: Mechanik. Leipzig 1943
Vol. 2: Mechanik der deformierbaren Medien. Leipzig 1945
Vol. 3: Elektrodynamik. Wiesbaden 1948
Vol. 4: Optik. Wiesbaden 1950
Vol. 5: Thermodynamik und Statistik. Wiesbaden 1952
Vol. 6: Partielle Differentialgleichungen der Physik. Leipzig 1945

Other websites 
http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~Sommerfeld/ 
http://www.chemie.uni-bremen.de/stohrer/biograph/sommer.htm 
http://www.wissenschaftsforschung.de/JB98_135-152.pdf

1868 births
1951 deaths
German academics
German mathematicians
People from former German territories
People from Kaliningrad
Road accident deaths
German theoretical physicists
James Clerk Maxwell (born 13 June 1831 in Edinburgh – died 5 November 1879) was a Scottish mathematician, physicist and discoverer of Maxwell's equations.

Early life
Maxwell grew up in a rich religious family. In 1845, when he was only 14, he wrote a paper describing a way of drawing mathematical curves with a piece of string. In 1847 he started studying mathematics at the University of Edinburgh. In 1850 Maxwell changed to Peterhouse and then Trinity College at the University of Cambridge. He won prizes from the university for his work and was given his degree in 1854. From 1855 to 1872 he did research on colour blindness.

Works
In 1856 Maxwell was made a professor of 'Natural Philosophy' (which is what science was called then) at Marischal College, Aberdeen. He worked there until the two colleges in Aberdeen joined together in 1860 and he lost his job. He then became a professor at King's College London. In 1861 he was elected to the Royal Society.

In 1871, became the first Cavendish Professor of Physics at Cambridge. He studied many things, but is known best for his mathematical work on electromagnetism and on the behaviour of gases.

He lived at Glenlair House, his family estate near the village of Parton, Castle Douglas in Kirkcudbrightshire. Maxwell died in 1879 from cancer, and is buried in the graveyard at Parton Church.

Publications 

 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Description of Oval Curves, and those having a plurality of Focus (geometry)|Foci". Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vol. ii. 1846.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Illustrations of the Dynamical Theory of Gases". 1860.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Physical Lines of Force". 1861.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field". 1865.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On Governors ".From the Proceedings of the Royal Society, No.100. 1868.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Theory of Heat". 1871.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism". Clarendon Press, Oxford. 1873.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Molecules ". Nature, September, 1873.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Matter and Motion", 1876.
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "On the Results of Bernoulli's Theory of Gases as Applied to their Internal Friction, their Diffusion, and their Conductivity for Heat".
 Maxwell, James Clerk, "Ether", Encyclopædia Britannica, Ninth Edition (1875–89).

1831 births
1879 deaths
People from Edinburgh
Scottish scientists
British theoretical physicists