cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Bourgeoisie  means a social class of people who own the means of production, making them in the upper or merchant class. Hence, all employers are bourgeoisie. Their status or power comes from employment, education, assets, or wealth and not from aristocratic (political) origin, as a lowly café or factory owner is bourgeoisie. 
The term is widely used in many non-English speaking countries as an approximate equivalent of middle class.   

As the bourgeoisie are not its opposing counterpart proletariat, they don't have to be a labourer doing menial work for money. And if they do any work that gets them money, then it's only because of the many proletariat people beneath them, who generated their wealth through their labour, of which the higher up bourgeoisie person took a cut (commission).

History 
Bourgeoisie is a French word that was borrowed directly into English in the sense that is explained above. 
The French word bourgeois comes from the Old French word burgeis, meaning "an inhabitant of a town". (cf. Middle English burgeis, Middle Dutch burgher and German Bürger). The Old French word burgeis comes from bourg, meaning a market town or medieval village, itself derived from Late Latin burgus, meaning "fortress"

Related pages
 French Revolution
 Elite
 Aristocracy
 Anarchism
 Capitalism
 Leninism
 Marxism

Notes

References 
Hal Draper, Karl Marx's Theory of Revolution, Vol. 2: The Politics of Social Classes. New York: Monthly Review Press, 1979.
Ralph Miliband, Class and class power in contemporary capitalism, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp. 7–62.
Ernest Mandel, Social differentiation in capitalist and postcapitalist societies, in: Stanislaw Kozyr-Kowalski and Jacek Tittenbrun, On Social Differentiation. A Contribution to the Critique of Marxist Ideology, Part 2. Poznan: Adam Mickiewicz University Press, 1992, pp. 63–91.
Erik Olin Wright et al., The Debate on Classes. London: Verso, 1989.
Anthony Giddens, The Class Structure of the Advanced societies, 1981.

Other websites 

The Democratic State – A Critique of Bourgeois Sovereignty

Society
Sociology
In sociology or anthropology, social status is the honor or rank of one's position in society.  People earn social status by their own work. This is call achieved status. Or, people can have a place in a social system by birth. This  inherited position is called ascribed status.

Further reading
 Michael Marmot (2004), The Status Syndrome: How Social Standing Affects Our Health and Longevity, Times Books
 Botton, Alain De (2004), Status Anxiety, Hamish Hamilton
 Social status. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved October  17,  2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online:

Gould, Roger (2002). The Origin of Status Hierarchy. American Journal of Sociology, 107, Retrieved Oct. 26, 2007, from http://www.library.ohiou.edu:5334/ehost/pdf?vid=5&hid=108&sid=f177ce9d-24b5-4e01-819e-b243bd3768e1%40sessionmgr107
Mcpherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. M. BIRDS OF A FEATHER. American Journal of Sociology, 27, Retrieved Sept 27, 2007, from http://www.library.ohiou.edu:5334/ehost/detail?vid=7&hid=109&sid=c920800d-7008-402f-a473-219b2545f452%40sessionmgr102.
Bolender, Ronald Keith (2006). "Max Weber 1864-1920". Retrieved November 1, 2007, from http://www.bolender.com/Sociological%20Theory/Weber,%20Max/weber,_max.htm .
Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: a Social Critique of the Judgment of Taste, translated by Richard Nice. Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1984.

Related pages
 social capital
 social class
 discrimination

Sociology
In sociology, Social class refers to the hierarchical distinctions between individuals or groups in societies or cultures.

There are various ways to divide classes. The working class do hard work for others. Where money is used, they are paid for it, but they seldom have much money. Where money is used little, as in feudalism, or not at all, as in the Inca Empire there are still classes.

Historians usually see two other groups - people who are rich or have a lot of influence, called the upper class, and all the remaining people who are in between, called the middle class.

Not all societies have social classes. Scientists have found no proof for hierarchical power structures during the Stone Age.

Determinants of class
In societies where classes exist, one's class is determined largely by:
 occupation
 education and qualifications
 income, personal, household and per capita
 wealth, including the ownership of land, property, means of production,  et cetera
 family background.

In the United Kingdom there are upper class, middle class, working class and underclass people.

Related pages
Bohemianism
Caste
Constitution
Constitutional economics
Class struggle
Clergy
Household income in the United States
Social status
Social structure
Working class
Upper class

References

Further reading
 Marx, Karl & Engels, Frederick; The Communist Manifesto, (1848). (The key statement of class conflict as the driver of historical change).
 Savage, Mike; Class Analysis and Social Transformation (London: Open University Press, 2000). 
 Sennett, Richard & Cobb, Jonathan;  The Hidden Injuries of Class, (Vintage, 1972) (classic study of the subjective experience of class).
 Wlkowitz, Daniel J.; Working with Class: Social Workers and the Politics of Middle-Class Identity (University of North Carolina Press, 1999).  
 "Class, Status and Party", Max Weber, in e.g. Gerth, Hans and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, (Oxford University Press, 1958). (Weber's key statement of the multiple nature of stratification).
 Wright, Erik Olin; Class Counts: Comparative Studies in Class Analysis (Cambridge University Press, 1997)

Other websites
Class Action: 
 http://www.atimes.com/atimes/Central_Asia/IL06Ag01.html  Dargin, Justin, The Birth of Russia's New Energy Class. The Asia Times (Dec. 6, 2007)
Dictionary of the history of ideas:  Class
Charles Dunoyer And The Theory Of Industrialism and Comte And Dunoyer After The 1830 Revolution: The Impact Of Their Ideas  in The Radical Liberalism Of Charles Comte And Charles Dunoyer  by David M. Hart.
Marxist and Austrian Class Analysis (PDF) by Hans-Hermann Hoppe
Classical Liberal Roots of the Marxist Doctrine of Classes (PDF document), Classical Liberal Roots of Marxist Class Analysis  (MP3 audio file), lecture by Ralph Raico.
Rethinking Cultural and Economic Capital  - Jan Rupp

Anthropology
Socialism
Sociology
Mümliswil-Ramiswil is a municipality in the district Thal in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Nennigkofen is a former municipality in the district Bucheggberg, in the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland. On 1 January 2013 the former municipalities of Lüsslingen and Nennigkofen merged to form the new municipality of Lüsslingen-Nennigkofen.

References 

Former municipalities of Solothurn
Neuendorf is a municipality in the district Gäu in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Niederbuchsiten is a municipality in the district Gäu in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Black bread mold (Rhizopus stolonifer) is a common type of fungus. 

It grows and reproduces the same way that most molds do. In asexual reproduction, the mold makes spores inside a sporangium. When the spores are ready to leave and spread more mold, the sporangium breaks open and lets the spores float out. In sexual reproduction its hyphae touch the hyphae of another Rhizopus mycelium. When they fuse, they make round balls called zygospores. After some time, the zygospore makes another sporangium, which then makes spores. During this sexual  process, genetic recombination takes place, as with all eukaryotes.

The spores land on a place where they can turn into a new mold, and begin to grow. They very quickly start making hyphae, small tendrils that look like roots. Hyphae are not roots, but part of the mycelium. The mycelium is the main part of the mold, and grows inside the bread. Black bread mold grows fast when the temperature is higher than 15 degrees Celsius and lower than 20oC.

Black bread mold is found in all countries of the world. It is often found growing on bread and on soft fruits such as bananas and grapes. Because the mold spores are airborne, the mold can spread easily.

Related pages 
 Mycorrhiza
 Mould
 Slime_mould
 Yeast
 Lichen
 Candida
 Fungus

References

Other websites
 Time lapse video of Rhizopus stolonifer attacking strawberries  at the Cornell Mushroom Blog.
 Black mold - Ill Health Effects & Its Removal- A DIY Guide Toronto

Moulds
Dentistry is a specialty in medicine, which is practiced by a dentist. Dentists find out what's wrong, fix, and help prevent problems with teeth. A dentist has other people that help him with their job. Dental hygienists help people keep their teeth clean. A dental assistant helps the dentist when they are treating a patient. Dental surgeons will perform surgery to fix large or dangerous problems with people's teeth. There are also dentists called orthodontists, who can move people's teeth using braces. Dental surgeons and orthodontists are called specialists.

Dental specialties
 Dental public health - The study of dental epidemiology and social health.
 Endodontics - The study, diagnosis, and treatment of diseases of the dental pulp.
 Oral pathology - The study, diagnosis, and sometimes the treatment of oral and maxillofacial related diseases.
 Oral and Maxillofacial Radiology - The study and radiologic interpretation of oral and maxillofacial diseases.
 Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery - Tooth extractions, dental implants, and facial surgery.
 Orthodontics - The straightening of teeth.
 Periodontics - Dentists which specialize in the treatment of periodontal (gum) disease
 Pediatric dentistry - Dentistry for children...
 Prosthodontics - Dentures, bridges and the restoration of implants. Some prosthodontists train more in "oral and maxillofacial prosthodontics", to learn how to replace missing facial parts, such as ears, eyes, noses, etc.

Other websites
The History of Dentistry
Information for UK dental professionals
The American Dental Association
National Dentist Registry

References

Dentistry
The Toyota Tundra is a full-size pickup truck. It is sold by Toyota in the United States. The Tundra was first sold in 2000. The truck is bigger than the Toyota Tacoma. There are four different versions of the Tundra. These are the original, "base", version and the "SR5", "Grade", and "CrewMax" versions. The Tundra is made in San Antonio, Texas. The design of the truck was changed for 2007. The Tundra was a replacement for the Toyota T100 pickup, a bigger version of the Toyota Hi-Lux.

Tundra
2000s automobiles
Pickup trucks
The Toyota 4Runner is a Sports utility vehicle made by Toyota. Toyota makes the 4Runner in Tahara, Japan as well as the Hino factory. The 4Runner was first sold in 1984 as a camper version of the Toyota Hi-Lux, sharing the same parts and engines. The 4Runner got a bigger V6 engine in 1988. Toyota has redesigned the 4Runner in many years of its life. The 4Runner was sold as a 2-door model alongside the 4-door until 1992. The 4Runner's competition comes from the Nissan Pathfinder, Jeep Grand Cherokee, and Chevrolet Blazer. The 4Runner was a compact SUV until 1996.

4Runner
1980s automobiles
1990s automobiles
2000s automobiles
2010s automobiles
Sport utility vehicles
Rhythmic gymnastics (short: RG) is a type of gymnastics. Rhythmic gymnasts perform on a floor with an apparatus, accompanied by music, in individual or group events. Gymnasts manipulate one or two apparatus: rope, hoop, ball, clubs, and ribbon. Rhythmic gymnastics is a sport that combines elements of gymnastics, dance, and apparatus manipulation. The victor is the participant who earns the most points, determined by a panel of judges, for leaps, balances, pirouettes, flexibility, apparatus handling, execution, and artistic effect.

Rhythmic gymnastics developed from other sports. It is influenced by group gymnastics, classical ballet, German apparatus work, and the Swedish free exercise method.

International competitions are split between juniors, under sixteen by their year of birth; and seniors, for women sixteen and over again by their year of birth. The largest events in the sport are the Olympic Games, World Championships, and World Cups.

Rhythmic gymnastics was officially recognized by FIG in 1963. The first time rhythmic gymnastics was in the Olympics was in 1984 in Los Angeles. That year, a Canadian gymnast called Lori Fung won the individual competition. In 1996, rhythmic gymnastics group competitions were added to the Olympics.

Rope 
The length of the rope depends on how tall the gymnast using it is. They swing the rope, throw and catch the rope, make figure-eights, and more. They also leap and jump through the rope while they are holding it.

Hoop 
The hoop is made of wood. Gymnasts toss it and catch it, spin it, swing it, and roll it in many different ways.

Ball 
Balls used in rhythmic gymnastics are made with rubber or soft plastic. Gymnasts throw balls and catch them, bounce and roll them, balance the ball on their hand, and do waves and circles.

Clubs 
The clubs are another piece of equipment that rhythmic gymnasts use. The clubs look similar to bowling pins or bottles. They are made of wood or plastic. Gymnasts use the clubs to do circles, throws, swings, plus tapping.

Group 
The group routine is a little bit different. It’s not a piece of equipment; it’s just a different kind of routine. In the group event, five rhythmic gymnasts will do a routine together. The gymnasts have to work together to make the routine work. In a group routine, gymnasts will exchange whatever equipment they are using with each other.

References 

Rhythmic Gymnastics. Plymouth State University, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. 
Rhythmic Gymnastics. USA Gymnastics, n.d. Web. 25 Oct. 2012. 
Rhythmic Gymnastics Equipment and History. Olympic.org, n.d. Web. 15 Nov. 2012.

Other websites 

 Fédération Internationale de Gymnastique 
 Rhythmic Gymnastics 
 The Art of Gymnastics - The Israeli site of Rhythmic Gymnastics  
 Men's Rhythmic Gymnastics
 More on rhythmic gymnastics

Gymnastics
In computer science a schema or database schema describes the structure of a database in a formal language that is supported by the database management system. Using the database schema, it is possible to create a blueprint of the database. This blueprint will not contain any data. The database schema uses logical formulas to create integrity constraints. It is not possible to insert data into the database that violates these integrity constraints. All contraints use the same language. 

There are different kinds of database schemas:
The conceptual schema expresses the concepts in the database, and how they relate to each other
The logical schema is a mapping of entities with their attributes, and the respective relations
The physical schema is a particular implementation of a logical schema.

Ideally, a database schema should have the following properties:
It should be complete: all information in the source should be included.
It should be minimal: it should not be possible to leave out a relation, without losing information
It should be normalized: A certain piece of information should be in the schema only once.

Database modeling
Ernst Heinrich Philipp August Haeckel (16 February 1834 – 9 August 1919) was an influential German zoologist, naturalist, and artist. He was also a philosopher and physician, but in those fields he is not regarded as particularly notable. He was an atheist. He left the Lutheran church in 1910. He is regarded as a pioneer of eugenics and Nazi eugenics in Germany.

Works
Haekel was professor of comparative anatomy at the University of Jena, where he worked for 47 years, from 1862 to 1909. Haekel discovered, described and named thousands of new species, mapped a tree of life relating all life forms. He coined many terms in biology, including ecology, phylum, phylogeny,  stem cell, and the kingdom Protista. Haeckel promoted and popularised Charles Darwin's work in Germany and developed the controversial recapitulation theory ("ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny"). This claimed that an individual organism's biological development, or ontogeny, parallels and summarises its species' evolutionary development.

The published artwork of Haeckel includes over 100 detailed, multi-colour illustrations of animals and sea creatures. As a philosopher, Ernst Haeckel wrote Die Welträtsel (1895–1899, The Riddle of the Universe, 1901), and Freedom in Science and Teaching to support teaching evolution.

Haeckel was a member of the nationalist and antisemitic Pan-German League (German: Altdeutscher Verband) and of the peace organization Verband für internationale Verständigung.

Books 
Haekel wrote many books, some of them in multi-volumes. Among the most notable are:

Die Radiolarien, four parts in five volumes. 18621888. (Rhizopoda Radiaria) Eine Monographie. Georg Reimer, Berlin.
Generelle Morphologie der Organismen. 1866. Allgemeine Grundzüge der organischen Formen-Wissenschaft, mechanisch begründet durch die von Charles Darwin reformirte Descendenz-Theorie. Georg Reimer, Berlin.
Das Protistenreich. 1878. Eine populäre Uebersicht über das Formengebiet der niedersten Lebewesen. Mit einem wissenschaftlichen Anhange: System der Protisten. Mit zahlreichen Holzschnitten. Ernst Günther’s Verlag, Leipzig.
Monographie der Medusen. Six parts, some in two volumes. Gustav Fischer, Jena 1879–1881.
The history of creation (1868) 1993, translated by E. Ray Lankester, Kegan Paul, Trench, London, 3rd edition, volume 1. His best-known work, translated into English.
Art forms from the ocean: the Radiolarian atlas of 1862. Prestel Verlag, 2005. A reprint of his artwork for the Radiolaria.

Related pages
List of ecologists

References 

1834 births
1919 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
20th-century German philosophers
German anatomists
Ecologists
Former Christians
German academics
German artists
German atheists
German doctors
German evolutionary biologists
Nationalists
German naturalists
People from Potsdam
People from Prussia
German zoologists
A lunar eclipse is an astronomical phenomenon. It happens when the moon passes through the shadow of the Earth which can only occur during a full moon. Lunar eclipses happen about twice a year, unlike total solar eclipses that are sometimes more than a year apart. They can be seen from a much larger portion of the Earth compared to solar eclipses. Lunar eclipses can last for a few hours, but total solar eclipses last only a few minutes. 

During a lunar eclipse, the Moon looks red-brown. It may be thought that the Moon is completely black because of the Earth's shadow, but no. The reddish-brown colour is because some of the Sun's light bends through the Earth's atmosphere and shines on the Moon. Refraction is greater for red light rays than for others, so red is what strikes the Moon.

Like solar eclipses, there are different types of lunar eclipses. There are total eclipses, where the moon passes completely through Earth's shadow and all of the moon appears reddish-brown. A partial eclipse occurs when only part of the moon passes through Earth's shadow and so only part of the moon appears reddish

Lunar eclipses are safe to view with your naked eyes and also with telescopes

Although it is safe to see the lunar eclipse with your naked eyes one should never see a solar eclipse with the naked eyes as the rays damage the retina of the eye

Astronomical phenomena
Eclipses
Moon
Earth
Maximilian Carl Emil Weber (pronounced: maks ˈveːbɐ) (21 April 1864 – 14 June 1920) was a German political economist and sociologist who was considered one of the founders of the modern study of sociology and public administration.

Works
He began his career at the University of Berlin, and later worked at Freiburg University, University of Heidelberg, University of Vienna and University of Munich. He had influence on German politics of his time, because he was an advisor to Germany's  at the Treaty of Versailles and to the commission that drafted the Weimar Constitution.

Weber is known for his work in the sociology of religion. His most famous work is his essay The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism.

He disagreed with Karl Marx's view that class structure was the way to view how society worked. He believed that human values affected how people acted throughout history.

Other websites 

Texts of Weber works
 Large collection of the German original texts
 Large collection of the German original texts 
 Large collection of English translations 
 Another collection of English translations 
 A comprehensive collection of English translations and secondary literature 
 English translations of many of Weber's works, merged into one very long unformatted file 
 Max Weber Reference Archive

 About Weber
 Biography entry and link section 
 Weber on Ideal Types 
 Max Weber – The person 
 More of Weber on Ideal Types 
 An essay on Max Weber's View of Objectivity in Social Science
 Max Weber: On Capitalism As above, but on capitalism
 Some of Weber concepts in the form of a list 
 Max Weber's HomePage "A site for undergraduates"
 Mises versus Weber on Bureaucracy and Sociological Method by William P. Anderson
 Weber My Premium Essay by William P. Anderson

1864 births
1920 deaths
19th-century German philosophers
20th-century German philosophers
German academics
German economists
German sociologists
People from Erfurt
The Constitution of the German Reich (German: Die Verfassung des Deutschen Reiches), usually known as the Weimar Constitution (Weimarer Verfassung) was the constitution that governed the Weimar Republic (1919-1933).  The constitution technically remained in effect during the Third Reich from 1933 to 1945.

The German state's official name was Deutsches Reich until the adoption of the 1949 constitution.

Origin 
Following the end of World War I, a German National Assembly gathered in the town of Weimar, in the state of Thuringia, in January 1919 to write a constitution for the Reich. The nation was to be a democratic federal republic, governed by a president and parliament.

The constitution was drafted by the lawyer and liberal politician Hugo Preuss, who was then state secretary in the Ministry of the Interior and later became Minister of the Interior.

Other websites

 Selected Articles: http://web.jjay.cuny.edu/~jobrien/reference/ob13.html 
 Entire Constitution: http://www.zum.de/psm/weimar/weimar_vve.php
 The Constitution of the German Reich (Weimar constitution) of 11th August 1919, in full text 
 The portion of a series of lecture on German history pertaining to the Weimar Republic 
 Additional info is here: http://www.johndclare.net/Weimar2.htm

Weimar Republic
Weimar Republic
Guitar Hero III Mobile is a music video game for mobile phones. It was made by MachineWorks Northwest LLC and sold by Hands-On Mobile. It is the newest game in the Guitar Hero series, and was released on December 20, 2007, in North America for people using Verizon Wireless.

Making the game
Guitar Hero III Mobile was programmed by Robinson Technologies (shortened to RTSoft), with help from MachineWorks Northwest LLC. The graphics for the game were made by Anthem Game Group.

Gameplay 
Playing Guitar Hero III Mobile is similar to playing other games in the Guitar Hero series. Mobile uses 3 frets instead of 5. Each column of numbered keys on a phone's keypad is a fret. The numbered keys used are "1", "4", and "7" for green notes, "2", "5", and "8" for red notes, and "3", "6", and "9" for yellow notes. Once the note(s) reach the bottom, the player must play the note(s) by pressing or holding down the number key(s) in order to score points. Players can turn on Star Power to get more points by the "*" (star) button on the keypad or the "OK" button in the center of the directional pad.

Soundtrack 
Guitar Hero III Mobile has 15 songs to play from Guitar Hero II and Guitar Hero III: Legends of Rock. Every month, more songs can be downloaded.

References

Other websites
 Hands-On Mobile 
 Guitar Hero III Mobile product detail page 
 MachineWorks Northwest LLC

2007 video games
Guitar Hero
Avicenna ( 980 – 1037) was a Persian polymath and the most important doctor and Islamic philosopher of his time.

He wrote about 450 works on a wide range of subjects, and about 240 have survived, including 150 on philosophy and 40 on medicine.

His most famous works are The Book of Healing – a philosophical and scientific encyclopedia, and The Canon of Medicine – a medical encyclopedia.

He is also known as Ibn Sīnā and Pour Sina () which means "Son of Sina" in English. His full name in Arabic is  (). In English, he is usually called Avicenna (), his Latinized name.

Early life 
Avicenna was born near Bukhara, which at the time was ruled by Samanid dynasty. His father was a government official and his home served as a meeting place for men of learning. Avicenna had educated teachers while growing up. By age 14 he had mastered many subjects and had already memorized the Quran. From the age of 14 to 18 he taught himself because he could not find a tutor to provide more information than he already knew. He began to practice and learn about medicine at 16. He also learned about law and natural sciences. He was good at all subjects but decided medicine was easier for him than mathematics or metaphysics. Sometime before he turned 18 years old, he cured a Samanid emir. Because of his he was allowed into the royal libraries of the Samanid dynasty. By the age of 18 he had become a master of the most important works of science in his time. Also, his reputation as a doctor had grown. At 20 he was regarded as one of the wisest people of his time.

Writings 
Besides philosophy and medicine, Avicenna's works includes writings on astronomy, alchemy, geography and geology, psychology, Islamic theology, logic, mathematics, physics and poetry.

Later life 
From 1015 to 1022, Avicenna was a high official and doctor to the ruler of Hamedan in western Iran. After the ruler of Hamedan died Avicenna was put in prison. He was released four months later when Hamadan was captured by Alā al-Dawla, the ruler of Isfahan. Alā al-Dawla only captured Hamadan for a short period of time.  Avicenna escaped, disguised as a dervish, to Isfahan to work for Alā al-Dawla as a doctor.  In 1030, the Ghaznavids attacked Isfahan and some of Avicenna's work was lost and possibly stolen. He died during an attack on the city of Hamedan.

References

More reading 
 Avicenna by Lenn E. Goodman (Cornell University Press: 1992, updated edition 2006) – A good introduction to his life and philosophical thought.

Other websites 

 Avicenna an article by Seyyed Hossein Nasr on Encyclopedia Britannica Online
 Philosophy Bites podcast interview with Peter Adamson on Avicenna.
 Avicenna An article by encyclopedia Iranica
 Biography & Works from Routledge
 Ibn Sina (Islamic Philosophy Online)
 Ibn Sina from the Encyclopedia of Islam
 Avicenna/Ibn Sina at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Physician's Day in Iran: A Reference Article on Pur Sina (Avicenna) by Manouchehr Saadat Noury 
 Biography of Avicenna (in English) 
 Biography of Avicenna 
 Catholic Encyclopedia: Avicenna

980 births
1037 deaths
Persian mathematicians
Philosophers
Physicians
Polymaths
History of medicine
Hafith or Hafiz (Arabic: حافظ قرآن or حافظ, plural huffaz), literally meaning 'guardian', is a term used by Muslims for people who have learnt completely the Qur'an by heart.

Overview 

The Islamic prophet Muhammad lived in the 7th century CE, in Arabia. In those times, many people were not literate. The Arabs preserved their histories, genealogies, and poetry by memory alone. When Muhammad proclaimed the verses later collected as the Qur'an, his followers naturally learnt the words by heart.

Related pages
 Qur'an

Other websites 
 Qur'an and Hafiz Number on islam101.com
 Qur'an recitation on YouTube
 Qur'an recitation by a Muslim child on YouTube
 Recitation by Sh. Abu Bakr ash-Shatry 

Quran
Alina Kabaeva (, born May 12, 1983, Tashkent, Uzbek SSR) is a Russian former-rhythmic gymnast. She started competing since she was 12, and stopped when she was 24. She won several medals at World Championships, two Olympic medals (one bronze, one gold) and she came up with some of the flexibility-required moves in the sport. She was trained by Irina Viner. Now she works for State Duma.

1983 births
Living people
Russian gymnasts
The Seikan Tunnel（Ja:青函トンネル）is a railway tunnel in Japan. It connects Hokkaido to Aomori Prefecture. This tunnel is the second longest transport tunnel in the world. The tunnel is 53.85 km (33.49 miles) long. 23.3 km (14.5 mile) of the tunnel is underwater.  There are two stations in the tunnel.

History
The means of transportation from Hokkaido to Honshu was the Seikan ship until Seikan tunnel was completed. It took about 3 hours. However, it had some troubles. For example, the sea route was not safe. The Toyamaru accident in 1954 had 1155 dead and some missing people, caused by Typhoon Number 15 Roke. because of that reason, the plan that constructing Seikan Tunnel from Hokkaido to Honshu was becoming a reality. At first, the east route and west route was considered. In the west route, the deepest depth of water was 140 meters and the nature of the soil was easy to drill rocks, so west route was then chosen.

Techniques
The tunnel can be entered by the Shinkansen (bullet train). The inner structure of the tunnel was planned to have three bullet train's rails. Because half of this tunnel is under the bottom of the sea, the workers who built this tunnel were worried about seawater. So, they used new construction techniques. For example, laser measurement, 2150m horizontal drilling, pouring water glass and cement into soft bedrock. These techniques were paid attention to by all of the world at that time. There is still much water, so the seawater that is collected is placed in the tunnel and is pumped out of the tunnel.

Stations
There are two stations in Seikan tunnel. Tappikaitei Station opened in Aza-Minmayatatsuhama, Sotogahama-machi, Higashitsugaru-gun, Aomori on March 13, 1988.  And Yoshiokakaitei Station opened in Tatesaki, Fukushima-cho, Matsumae-gun, Hokkaido on March 13, 1988. If passengers have a special ticket, they can get off the train at the stations to look around. These are located in 149.5 meters under the seabed and there are 2247 steps of stairs to the surface. Also, these stations have shelters for train fires and blackouts. Tappikaitei Station and Yoshiokakaitei Station became the service stop each on November 10, 2013 and August 27, 2013. However, these stations were closed on March 15, 2014, because the number of passengers who used these stations, was not a lot.

References

Other websites 
Tunnel Website

Tunnels
Buildings and structures in Japan
Hokkaido Prefecture
Aomori Prefecture
Transport in Japan
Jerry Douglas is an American Grammy Award-winning dobro player. Over the years, he has worked with musicians including Ray Charles, Peter Rowan, Béla Fleck, Emmylou Harris, Phish, Chris Thile, Dolly Parton, Paul Simon, Ricky Skaggs, Bill Frisell, John Fogerty, Nanci Griffith, Tony Rice and James Taylor.

Other websites

Official website

1956 births
Living people
Musicians from Ohio
Bluegrass musicians
Country musicians
American jazz musicians
Grammy Award winners
2-1-1 is a special telephone number in the United States and Canada. It was made to be easy to remember. Calling the number lets people get information quickly about health organizations. It can also be called in an emergency.

History
New York Telephone (now part of Verizon) used the 2-1-1 number for many years. It was an automatic, meaning it worked by itself, number for phone numbers that were dialed wrongly. 2-1-1 was used this way from the 1970s through the early 2000s. 

The city of Atlanta started a new way of using 2-1-1 in 1997. This new way of using it was similar to how it is used now. After Atlanta, many other cities and states started to use it as a special number to call in an emergency. 5-1-1 is also used for this.

Other websites
Canada
211Canada.ca
211 Canada Information Weblog
211 Halton Region (Ontario, Canada)
211 Niagara Region (Ontario, Canada) 
211 Simcoe County (Ontario, Canada) 
211 Toronto (Ontario, Canada)
211 Calgary (Alberta, Canada)
Windsor and Essex County (Ontario, Canada) 
CRTC Decision 2001-475 establishing use of 2-1-1 in Canada 
InformCanada National Association
InformOntario Provincial Association
2-1-1 Edmonton 
United States
211 status in the U.S. 
Alliance of Information & Referral Systems
Atlanta United Way page on 2-1-1 
FCC fact sheet on 2-1-1 
National 211.org site homepage
2-1-1 Virginia
211 Palm Beach/Treasure Coast
2-1-1 Big Bend Inc.
2-1-1 Los Angeles County
2-1-1 San Luis Obispo County 
2-1-1 NW Oregon & SW Washington
2-1-1 Missouri

Emergency phone numbers
Telephone numbers in Canada
Telephone numbers in the United States
N11 codes
3-1-1 is a special telephone number used for non-emergency call to municipal services. It is used in several cities in Canada and the United States. 3-1-1 was created to receive many of the calls which commonly were made to 9-1-1 which were common questions and not emergencies.

Availability

United States 
3-1-1 is available in several major American cities, including: Akron, Albuquerque, Austin,  Baltimore, Charlotte, Chattanooga, Chicago, Columbus, Dallas, Denver, Detroit, Hartford, Houston, Kansas City, Las Vegas, Little Rock, Los Angeles, Miami, Milwaukee, Minneapolis, Mobile, Nashville, New York City, Rochester, Orlando, Pittsburgh, San Antonio, San Francisco, San Jose, Somerville, and Washington, D.C..

Canada 
The service is available in the following communities (with starting date):

 Calgary, Alberta (18 May 2005)
 Gatineau, Quebec (22 June 2005)
 Windsor, Ontario (22 August 2005)
 Ottawa, Ontario (19 September 2005)
 St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador (27 June 2006)
 Fort St. John, British Columbia (14 November 2006)
 Greater Sudbury, Ontario (12 February 2007)
 Laval, Quebec (3 October 2007)
 Montreal, Quebec (mid-December 2007)

Other Canadian municipalities are expected to use 3-1-1 in the near future. These include Edmonton, Winnipeg and Toronto.

Telephone numbers in Canada
Telephone numbers in the United States
N11 codes
Oleander, Nerium oleander, is a poisonous shrub. It is commonly used in gardens because of its pink colored flowers. Nerium oleander is native to northern Africa, the eastern Mediterranean basin and southeast Asia. Oleander prefers dry, warm climates and may naturalize in such areas. Recently, scientific studies on cardenolide oleandrin show that it may be used to prevent mutagenesis.

References 

Gentianales
Shrubs
Gabe Witcher is a United States fiddle player and singer-songwriter, famous as a member of Punch Brothers. Witcher has also toured with artists such as Jerry Douglas.

Other websites
Punch Brothers official website

American bluegrass musicians
Musicians from California
Fiddlers
Living people
Year of birth missing (living people)
Toltec is used by historians in different ways. It is either used to refer to certain people that lived in what is Mexico today, before Christopher Columbus came there. Some scholars also use the word to refer to the people that later developed into the Aztec civilisation. These people are only known from Aztec stories. It is not known if they actually formed one people or not.

References

History of Mexico
Native American
Abi Ja'far Muhammad ibn Jarir al-Tabari (838-923 أبي جعفر محمد بن جرير الطبري) was one of the earliest, most important and famous Persian historians and explainers of the Qur'an, most famous for his Tarikh al-Tabari (History of the Prophets and Kings) and Tafsir al-Tabari.

Name 
Tabari (Persian: طبری), Abu Jafar Muhammad ibn Jarir at-Tabari, His name means "father of Jafar, named after the Prophet Muhammad, son of Jarir, from the province of Tabaristan".

Biography 
He was born in Amol, Tabaristan, some twenty kilometres south of the Caspian Sea, in the winter of 838-9. He was precocious. He left home to study in A.H. 236  (850-1) when he was twelve. He retained close ties to his home town. He did return at least twice, the last time in A.H. 290 (903) when his outspokenness caused some uneasiness and led to his quick departure.

Related pages
List of historians by continent

References

Bibliography 
 Bosworth, C.E., Encyclopedia of Islam, "Al-Tabari, Abu Djafar Muhammad b. Djarir b. Yazid"
 Rosenthal, Franz, "The Life and Works of al-Tabari" pp. 5–134 of volume one of the English translation of the History.

Other websites 
 http://www.salaam.co.uk/knowledge/biography/viewentry.php?id=114 
 http://www.answering-ansar.org/biographies/abu_jaffar_muhammad_tabari/ 

838 births
923 deaths
Tabari
Muslims
Historians
Quran
A parliamentary system of government means that the executive branch of government has the direct or indirect support of the parliament. This support is usually shown by a vote of confidence.  A balanced relationship between the executive and the legislature in a parliamentary system is called responsible government.

The separation of powers between the executive and law making branches is not as obvious as it is in a presidential system. There are different ways of balancing power between the three branches which govern the country (the executive (or ministers), the law makers and the judges).

Parliamentary systems usually have a  head of government and a head of state. They change after their terms are over.  The head of government is the prime minister, who has the real power.  The head of state may be an elected president or, in the case of a constitutional monarchy, hereditary.

Examples of a few countries which practice parliamentary systems are India, Italy, Japan, and Latvia to name a few. Parliament is different in every country.

References 
Forms of government
Systems
Democracy
Someone may ask for political asylum when they are frightened to live in their own country. They will then go to another country. If they are allowed to live in the new country this is called political asylum.

People who seek asylum say they are victims of threats, physical harm or denigration of their human dignity as these are violating their human rights.

The political asylum is one of the human rights affirmed by Article 14 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, and a rules of international human rights law. All countries who have agreed to the United Nations Conventions Relating to the Status of Refugees must let people, who do qualify, come into their country.

People who qualify for asylum are those who can show that they might be badly treated in their own country because of their:
 
 Religion, 
 Political opinions
 Membership of a particular social group or social activities or
 Personal lifestyle and sexual orientation.

People often confuse exiling an individual from his/her home country as a migration to a political asylum but that is not as it seems, migrating with one's own will due to personal reasons can be a political migration but not under the sentence of Government.
People who are given political asylum are called refugees. They are often confused with "economic refugees". Economic refugees are people who move from a poor country to a richer one so that they may work and make more money, often to send back to their families.

Related pages

 Deportation
 Exile
 Refugee
 United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees

References

Human rights
Neuendorf-Sachsenbande is a municipality in Wilstermarsch, in the district of Steinburg, in Schleswig-Holstein, Germany. The municipality has an area of . On 31 December 2006, 493 people lived there. The town is has  the lowest point in Germany, which is below sea level.

History 

The town was made on April 15, 2003, when the municipalities of Neuendorf bei Wilster, Sachsenbande, and Bredensee were all joined together.

References

Other websites

Steinburg (district)
Gießen is one of the three Regierungsbezirke of Hesse, Germany.  It is in the middle of the state.

Other websites
Official website

Regions of Hesse
5-1-1 is a special telephone number in the United States and some parts of Canada. It is made to be easy to remember. People can dial the number on a landline phone or on a mobile phone to get information about traffic and travel.

History

In March 2001, there were more than three hundred phone numbers about traffic and travel. This was confusing to many people, because so many numbers existed, or were there, for the same thing. To fix this, the United States Department of Transportation (called the USDOT) asked the Federal Communications Commission (called the FCC) for a special N11 code. On July 21, 2000, the FCC made 5-1-1 the national telephone number for travel information.

References

Other websites

5-1-1 numbers for specific places
Arizona
San Francisco Bay Area
San Diego
Florida
Florida - Tampa Bay Area 
Florida - Southwest Florida Area 
Georgia
Kansas 
Kentucky 
Louisiana
Massachusetts
Minnesota
Montana
Nebraska
North Carolina 
North Dakota 
Northern New England – Vermont
Nevada 
Northern New England – New Hampshire 
Northern New England – Maine
Oregon
Southwest Ohio - Cincinnati, Northern Kentucky
South Dakota 
Tennessee
Virginia

Telephone numbers in Canada
Telephone numbers in the United States
Transport in the United States
Transport in Canada
N11 codes
Fulda () is a Kreis (district) in the north-east of Hesse, Germany.

History 
The district was created in 1821, when the duchy of Stift Fulda became a province of Hesse, and was split into four districts.   The last change to the district was in 1975, when the Hünfeld district was added to the district.

Stiffolder  
Arround 1720 People from Stift Fulda went to Hungary, and settled especially in the Komitat Baranya. This subgroup of the Danube Swabians are called Stiffolder or Stiffoller, Stifuler, etc.

Coat of arms

Towns and municipalities

References

Other websites
 Official website (German)
 All around information portal of Fulda
 360 degree virtual tour through the Hessian Rhön
The Kuril Islands (; ; ), also called the , are a group of islands (archipelago) between Russia and Japan. The northern islands are a part of Russia and the southern islands are a part of Japan. Both countries say that they own four of the islands in the middle of the group. This disagreement is called the Kuril Islands dispute.

Japan is asking for return of Etorofu, Kunashiri, Shikotan and Habomai shoto. They say that these islands are being illegally held by Russia. Several political parties in Japan are asking for return of all Chishima Islands. Russia has said that it would return Shikotan and Habomai shoto in 1956 but Japan did not agree to this agreement because it meant the United States would keep the island of Okinawa.

North-Chishima / North Kurils 

 Shumshu (占守島/)
 Araido (阿頼度島/Atarasov)
 Paramushiru (Paramushiru, Horomushiro / 幌筵島)
 Shirinki( 志林規島/Antsiferov)
 Makanru (Makanru / 磨勘留島 Makanrusi)
 Onnekotan (温禰古丹島/Onekotan)
 Harimukotan (春牟古丹島)
 Ekaruma ( 越渇磨島/Ekarma)
 Chirinkotan (知林古丹島)
 Shiashukotan (捨子古丹島 Shaskotan)
 Raikoke (雷公計島)
 Matsuwa(松輪島 Matuwa)
 Rashowa(羅処和島 Rasowa)
 Ushishiru ( 宇志知島/Uchicir)
 Ketoi ( 計吐夷島/Ketoy)
 Simushiru ( 新知島/Shimushir)
 Buroton (武魯頓島/Buroton)
 Chirpoi (知理保以島/Chirihoy)
 Chirihoinan (知理保以南島/Brat Chirpoyev)
 Uruppu ( 得撫島/Urup)

South Chishima / South Kuril 
 Etorofu (Iturup / 択捉島)
 Kunashiri (Kunashiri / 国後島)

Little Kuril 
Japan does not say these are a part of the Chishima Islands
 Shikotan （色丹島）
 Habomai shoto (歯舞諸島) →　2008.3.21 - Habomai Gunto（歯舞群島）
 Todo（海馬島/Kaiba）
 Taraku(多楽島Polonskogo)
 Shibotsu(志発島/ZelyoniShibotsu)
 Yuri (勇留島)
 Akiyuri(秋勇留島/AnuchinaAkiyuri)
 Harukaru (春苅島/Kharkar)
 Suishō （水晶島/Tanfilyeva )
 Kaigara(貝殻島/Signalny)

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan
 Chishima Islands dispute

Pacific islands
Islands of Japan
Islands of Russia
Territorial disputes
Linda Lingle (born Linda Cutter; June 4, 1953) is an American politician. She was the sixth Governor of Hawaii. She is a Republican.

References

1953 births
Living people
American mayors
Governors of Hawaii
Jewish American politicians
Jewish women politicians
People from Maui
Politicians from St. Louis, Missouri
US Republican Party politicians
Cebuano is a type of language spoken in the Philippines. About 20,000,000 people speak this language. Cebuano is a member of the Visayan language family.

Related pages
Cebuano Wikipedia

References

Austronesian languages
Filipino culture
Unna is a town in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany. It is on an ancient salt-trading route, the Hellweg road.

References

Other websites

Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Unna Rural District
Max Weber (August 2, 1897 – December 2, 1974) was a Swiss politician.

He was elected to the Swiss Federal Council on December 13, 1951 and handed over office on January 31, 1954. He was member of the Social Democratic Party. During his time in office he held the Department of Finance.

Other websites 
Max Weber 

Swiss politicians
1897 births
1974 deaths
Niedergösgen is a municipality in the district Gösgen in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Niederwil is a former municipality in the district of Lebern in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland. In 2011 Niederwil merged into Riedholz.

References 

Former municipalities of Solothurn
Nunningen is a municipality in the district of Thierstein in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Oberbuchsiten is a municipality in the district of Gäu in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Oberdorf is a municipality in the district of Lebern in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Obergerlafingen is a municipality in the district Wasseramt in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Thomas Matthew DeLonge, Jr. (born December 13, 1975) is an American musician. He was the guitarist of Pop-punk band blink-182, until their break up in 2005. He also took a part in a project called Box Car Racer. He plays and records with Angels & Airwaves, his new band that he started after blink-182's break up. In 2009, blink-182 reunited, and they released a new album in September 2011, titled Neighborhoods. In 2012, blink-182 toured Australia for the first time since 2004.

References

1975 births
Living people
American guitarists
Musicians from California
American punk musicians
American rock musicians