cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Drug Enforcement Administration (DEA) is a law enforcement agency that works for the United States Department of Justice that enforces the United States drug laws. The DEA is the agency with most responsible for drug enforcement in the U.S. and also shares its responsibilities with the Federal Bureau of Investigation. It also has complete responsibility (duty to do something) for U.S. drug enforcement investigations in other countries.

History 
The Drug Enforcement Administration was created on 1 July 1973, by Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973, signed by President Richard Nixon on 28 March 1973. It suggested a single federal agency to enforce the federal drug laws as well as to join together and to organize the government's drug control efforts.

In 1999, the DEA opened the Drug Enforcement Administration Museum in Arlington, Virginia. In February 2003, the DEA started a Digital Evidence Laboratory in its Office of Forensic Sciences.

Organization 
The DEA is run by an Administrator of Drug Enforcement who is given the job by the President of the United States and confirmed by the U.S. Senate. The Administrator's direct boss is the Attorney General through the Deputy Attorney General. It has its own training centre called the DEA Academy on the United States Marine Corps base at Quantico, Virginia with the FBI Academy. It has 21 domestic divisions inside the U.S. with 227 field offices and 86 foreign offices in 62 countries. With a budget of over 2.415 billion U.S. dollars, the DEA employs over 10,800 people, including over 5,500 Special agents.

Narcotics registration 
The DEA has a system in place which allows doctors and other people, such as dentists, physician assistants, and nurse practitioners, to prescribe medicines, researchers and manufacturers access to "Schedule I" drugs, as well as Schedules 2, 3, 4 and 5.

Related pages
 List of United States federal law enforcement agencies

References

Other websites 

 DEA official web site
 The History of the DEA from 1973 to 1998
 List of former DEA Administrators
 Agency of Fear - The History of the origins of the DEA in the Nixon White House
 Results of Prohibition The financial costs of drug use and drug prohibition in the U.S., impact on levels of drug use and prices.
 A response to the DEA web site
 
 Major Studies of Drugs and Drug Policy Full text of major government commission reports on the effects of drug enforcement
 The Drug Hang-Up by Rufus King A history of the drug laws with special emphasis on the predecessors to the DEA
 DEA Watch - A dissenting view of the DEA 
 Drug Enforcement Administration Meeting Notices and Rule Changes  from The Federal Register RSS Feed 
 DEA Lookup.com Commercial DEA number database search service
 Office of Diversion Control 
Reorganization Plan No. 2 of 1973 - Appendix to Title 5, U.S. Code 
 Get Smart About Drugs - A DEA Resource for Parents
 DEA Demand Reduction - Street Smart Prevention

1973 establishments in the United States
Drugs
Federal law enforcement agencies of the United States
A ticket of leave was an important document given to convicts who had been sent to Australia. Convicts who were well-behaved were given a ticket of leave. This gave them some rights, and they did not have to stay in gaol. With a ticket of leave, a convict was able to look for work in a particular area but could not leave the area without permission from a court. Every change of employer or district was written on the ticket.

History
Governor Philip Gidley King started the tickets of leave in 1801. It gave prisoners a reason to behave themselves. Also, it helped to provide cheap workers for farmers who were settling in Australia. The government saved money as it did not have to feed and clothe the prisoners.

Those with a ticket of leave were able to marry or to bring their families from Britain. They could buy land but not carry guns or get onto a ship. They were often made to pay back the cost of their travel in the prison ship to Australia. The ticket of leave had to be renewed every year, and those with one had to attend  (where it could be checked they were still living in the area), and church services. Prisoners could lose their ticket and be sent back to prison if they were lazy, if they tried to get paid too much, or if they were rude to the police or soldiers. Sometimes, prisoners who helped the government, by capturing escaped convicts for example, might be given a ticket of leave as a reward.

A convict who kept to the conditions of his ticket of leave was given a conditional pardon after half of the time he was supposed to be in gaol. Then, they were no longer a convict and could do everything except leave the colony. Convicts who did not keep to the conditions of their ticket could be arrested without warning, go to court without being able to appeal, and lose all their property.

The ticket
The ticket itself was a highly detailed document. It listed the convicts' number, the name, the ship in which sent to Australia, the year that they arrived, the captain of the ship, where they came from, their job, the crimes,the place and date of trial, the sentence, the birth date, what they looked like, the area the prisoner was allowed to live in, the court that gave out the ticket, the date the ticket was given, any other conditions of the ticket, and any changes of where they lived. A lot of this information has been kept, which makes them a very important source of information for people looking at family history.

References

Other websites
 Index to Ticket of Leave Passports 
A real Ticket of Leave 
Joseph Wilkes Ticket of Leave, 1869
  Encyclopædia Britannica, 1911

Imprisonment and detention
History of Australia
Documents
Docklands Stadium, known for sponsorship reasons as Etihad Stadium, is a large sport and entertainment complex built in the Docklands area of Melbourne, Victoria. Since March 1, 2009, is has been named after Etihad Airways of Abu Dhabi, one of two national airlines of the United Arab Emirates. Besides its generic name of Docklands Stadium, it has been known under past naming rights deals as Colonial Stadium and the Telstra Dome. The stadium opened on March 9, 2000 after two years of building and a cost of AU$450 million.

The stadium has a capacity of over 56,000, with over 53,000 seated. It is used mainly for Australian rules football, and houses the headquarters of the sport's main competition, the Australian Football League. It is also used for cricket and major concerts. The stadium also has a large opening roof that allows games to be played in any weather, and also has car parking underneath. It is joined to Southern Cross Railway Station by a footbridge. Its playing surface has an area of 19,000 m2. The roof, the largest opening roof in the Southern Hemisphere, takes about 8 minutes to open or close.

The stadium is home to several Australian Football League clubs, including Carlton, North Melbourne, Essendon, St Kilda, and the Western Bulldogs. It was used for several matches in the 2003 Rugby World Cup.

The stadium is also used for music concerts, and performers have included Andre Rieu, Bruce Springsteen, Green Day, Barbara Streisand, Bon Jovi and Ricky Martin.

References

Sports buildings in Australia
Stadiums
Buildings and structures in Melbourne
2000 establishments in Australia
U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) is the largest and primary law enforcement agency of the United States Department of Homeland Security (DHS). Its duty is to protect the nation's border. Its main office is located in Washington, D.C..

ICE is run by an assistant secretary, who is given the job by the President of the United States, confirmed by the Senate, and reports directly to the Secretary of Homeland Security.

Related pages
 List of United States federal law enforcement agencies

References

Other websites

 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
 U.S. Customs and Border Protection
 U.S. Department of Homeland Security
 U.S. Immigration And Customs Enforcement Bureau Meeting Notices and Rule Changes  from The Federal Register
 Federal Law Enforcement Training Center
 ICE detentions and criminal prosecutions of employers hiring illegal employees. 
 ICE worksite enforcement efforts. 
 Most recent detentions and statistics from U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement 
 RSS Feed 
 The Real Political Purpose of the ICE Raids from Dollars & Sense magazine

International agencies like ICE
 Australian Customs Service
 RCMP Customs and Excise Branch - Canada 
 RCMP Immigration and Passport Branch - Canada 
 Serious Organized Crime Agency - UK 
 RCMP Integrated Border Enforcement Teams - Canada

Customs services
Federal law enforcement agencies of the United States
John Joe O'Reilly was born at the Derries, Killeshandra, County Cavan.  After early successes with St Patrick’s College and his club, Cornafean, he captained the Cavan team, which won All-Ireland Senior Football Championships in 1947 (at the New York Polo Grounds) and 1948, having also played on three losing sides in the final. He won 11 Ulster senior football medals, as Cavan took the title each year from 1937 until 1949, except two. He won a National Football League medal and four Railway Cup medals, in 1942 and 1943 (when he was the first ever Cavan captain), 1947 and as captain again in 1950. John Joe O'Reilly was one of only seven men to have had the honour of being presented with the Sam Maguire twice as captain. O'Reilly's father also played in goal for Cavan and his brother, Tom O’Reilly, played on the 1947 All-Ireland winning team and also won Railway Cup medals for Ulster in 1943 and 1944.

A Commandant in the army, John Joe O'Reilly died unexpectedly at the Curragh Military Hospital on November 22, 1952. He was named at centre half-back on the Gaelic Athletic Association's "Team of the Millennium" in 1999.

References

1919 births
1952 deaths
People from the Republic of Ireland
The E.N.D (an abbreviation of The Energy Never Dies) is the fifth studio album by American hip hop group the Black Eyed Peas. It was released on June 3, 2009. The album's music was different to the group's previous hip hop and R&B sound as it was a bit more "futuristic" sounding and was heavily rooted in dance music.

Track listing

Charts and certifications

Weekly charts

Certifications

Year-end charts

Chart procession and succession

|-

|-

|-

|-

References

The Black Eyed Peas albums
2009 albums
Hip hop albums
Dance albums
NYPD Blue is an American television police drama set in New York City, inside the fictional 15th precinct of Manhattan. Each episode usually shows a single day and has more than one story.

The show was made by Steven Bochco and David Milch. Its episodes were shown on the ABC network from its beginning on September 21, 1993 to March 1, 2005.

Cast

Cast list

Other websites
 Official websites for the show from ABC , Court TV ,TNT  and Bravo!
 Series ending commentary from MSNBC , Slate , and the Christian Science Monitor
 Alan Sepinwall/Amanda Wilson entire series information and episode summary & review
David Milch's Active Imagination , a May 2002 interview with Milch
 
 

1993 American television series debuts
2005 American television series endings
1990s American drama television series
1990s American workplace television series
1990s crime television series
2000s American drama television series
2000s American workplace television series
2000s crime television series
American crime drama television series
American police television series
American workplace drama television series
Detective television series
Emmy Award winning programs
Golden Globe Award winning programs
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Television series set in New York City
English-language television programs
The Philippines has varied university grading systems. Most colleges, universities, particularly public institutions, follow the grade point system scale of 5.00 - 1.00, in which 1.00 is the highest grade and 5.00 is the lowest possible grade.

Grade point scale (5.00 - 1.00)

Pamantasan ng Lungsod ng Maynila also employ a specific grading category for retention. This system uses the General Weighted Average (GWA) per semester as a basis whether or not a particular student shall be retained at the course or college he or she is enrolled to. Some colleges have higher GWA requirement for retention, but most of them demands a GWA of at least 2.50 per semester. A few graduate schools, on the other hand, employ the Pass or Fail system.

Datamex Institute of college in Information Technology

Notable exceptions include De La Salle University & FEU-East Asia College, which follow the 1.000 - 4.000 grading system, which patterns those of American universities. This system uses the 4.0 grade point equivalence as the highest grade, while 0.0 grade point equivalence is considered the lowest possible grade. 0.0 grade point equivalence is considered a failing mark.

ABE International Business College "Manila 'Main' Campus"

The Grading System let's you see the "Grade Range". This is essential for High School Graduates to know in which Grade Range they are in.

Grade point scale (1.000 - 4.000) 

Other universities, such as the Ateneo de Manila University and its sister schools, use the letter grade system with varied grade equivalence range.

Letter grade system 

More importantly, Philippine universities do not have standard grade equivalence. Different universities have varied equivalence range, while passing grades are subject to imposed academic quality of an institution.

Related pages
 General Weighted Average

Grading
Fire and Ice is the second book in the Warriors novel series. It was written by Victoria Holmes, Kate Cary, and Cherith Baldry under the pen name Erin Hunter. The book was published by HarperCollins Publishers in 2003.

2003 books
Warriors books
The Australian Customs and Border Protection Service is the Australian Federal Government agency with the duty of protecting the Australian border, helping with the movement of legal international travellers and goods, and collecting border related duties and taxes.

The Service has nearly 6,000 people working for it in Australia and other countries and is based in Canberra, Australia.

Protecting Australia by stopping illegal and possibly harmful goods, such as drugs and weapons, is a main concern and many methods and equipment are used to help with this task. This includes using intelligence, and computers, detector dogs, Smartgate, x-rays, Closed Circuit Television (CCTV) and other methods. 

In doing its job, Customs works with other government agencies such as the Australian Federal Police, the Australian Quarantine and Inspection Service, the Department of Immigration and Citizenship, the Department of Defence and the Australian Fisheries Management Authority.

Australia’s borders extend into the 200 nautical mile Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ).

The Australian TV series Border Security: Australia's Front Line shows the work of the Australian Customs Service at airports, sea borders and inside Australia.

Equipment
 Glock pistols, personal body armour, batons, capsicum (OC) spray, and handcuffs.

Other websites
 Australian Customs Service
 Border Protection Command

References

Other websites
 Protecting our borders
 A Week in the Life of Customs
 Arming of front-line Customs officers 

Customs
Customs services
Canberra
Law enforcement in Australia
A landing zone is a "safe" area in which a helicopter or other type of vertical take-off device would land. They are mostly used in war.

Aviation
The Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA) () is the Canadian government agency with a duty to act as border guards and customs services.

The agency was started on December 12, 2003 (the same day Paul Martin became Prime Minister of Canada), by an order-in-council joining Canada Customs with border and law enforcement agents from the Department of Citizenship and Immigration Canada (CIC) and the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA).

Related pages
 Australian Customs and Border Protection Service
 U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement
 CANPASS

Notes

Other websites
Canada Border Services Agency Official site
Border Crossing Information
Border Crossing Information (French)
Smart Border 30-Point Action Plan 
Canada Nexus Border crossing system  Educational Video - ID Cards RFID Chips
Integrated Border Enforcement Teams 
IBETs 2006 Joint Cross-Border Operations 
CBSA Detector Dog Service 
Chapter 5—Keeping the Border Open and Secure—Canada Border Services Agency 
Be Aware and Declare! What you can and cannot bring into Canada 

Border Services Agency
Canada
Border Services Agency
Serial communication is a term used to describe systems used for telecommunications, as well as certain technologies used for computing. When using serial communication, only one bit is transferred at a time, for example over a communication channel or computer bus. This is different to parallel communication, where several bits are sent at the same time. Many computer networks, as well as many lines where data is transferred over a long distance use serial communication.

Examples for serial communication
Morse code signalling
RS-232, a low-speed serial port used on some PCs; RS-423 and RS-485 are variations of this
USB is a standard to connect peripherals to computers
Ethernet, one of the most widely used standards for Computer Networks 
FireWire, another standard like USB
Fibre Channel, high-speed, for connecting computers to storage, like harddisks
Serial Attached SCSI
Serial ATA

Communication
Computer buses
Abel Pardo (born in 1974 in León, province of León, Spain), also known as Auslli, is a Neo-Nazi politician and a Leonese language writer.

Laureated in Italian Language and Culture by ICON and Advanced Studies Diplomat in Romance Languages by the Open University of Catalonia, Abel Pardo wrote in  (1996),  (2006) and El Dialecto Leonés (2006), when he collaborated with tales about modern and ancient themes, and was the prologuer in the 2003 edition of Brañas d'antanu ya xente d'anguanu.

As an Italian language and culture for foreigners bachelor, Abel Pardo is the author of the first works about contractive language between Leonese language and Italian, being the author of "Linguistica Constrativa Italiano-Leonese" (Contractive Linguistic Italian-Leonese) presented and approved in the University of Pavia Italy as a bachelor final project .

Translator 
Abel Pardo also developed a certain activity as a translator into Leonese language. He translated the leaflet Campus Stellae (1999). He collaborated with "La Nuesa Tierra" newspaper with more than 200 articles in Leonese language, and with Logos Group (Italia) where he's official Leonese language translator. As city councilor of León, he promoted Leonese language bilingualism, starting Leonese language courses in the city of León for the first time and created with the University of León the title "Monitor de Llingua Llïonesa" for teaching Leonese language in official courses.

He also has written scientific works about Leonese language and New Technologues as "Nuevas Teunoloxías y Llingua Llïonesa" (New Technologies and Leonese language), the first pre-doctorate work presented and approved in Leonese language in one university, presented in the Open University of Catalonia or "El Llïonés y las TICs" in the scientific magazine Mikroglottika.

Collective books 
 Cuentos de Lleón (1996)
 Brañas d'antanu ya xente d'anguanu (prologue) (2003)
 Cuentos del Sil (2006)
 El Dialecto Leonés (2006)

Translations 
 Campus Stellae (1999)

Scientific works 
 Nuevas Teunoloxías y Llingua Llïonesa (2006)
 Linguistica contrastiva Italiano-Leonese (2006)

Scientific publications 
 El Llïonés y las TIC's  (2007) in Mikroglottika 
 Linguistica contrastiva italiano-leonese: Vocalismo (2007) in Mikroglottika

References

Spanish writers
1974 births
Living people
Newspeak is a concept from the book 1984 by George Orwell. It is based on English, which is referred to as Oldspeak in the novel, and it is the language that was created by Oceania and is the only language whose vocabulary grows smaller each year. For example, the word for "bad" becomes "ungood" in Newspeak, becoming a word simply meaning the opposite of "good", with the prefix "un-" meaning "not". In the novel, this language was designed by Party members as a means to limit human thought to absolute lowest level, that way they would be made to never be able to question whatever the Party tells the society.

References

Constructed languages
The Juncaceae, the rush family, is a family of rather small plants that often look like a type of grass. They often grow on wet, infertile soils. There are about 400 species organised into eight genera. Juncus is the most well-known and largest genus in the Juncaceae family.

They are part of the monocot flowering plant families, which means that their seeds only have one leaf to start off new growth. 

Rushes are found all around the world. They are commonly found in wet marshy areas, as the plant prefers moist soil. However, seedlings can survive dormant once well established even in the driest of places. Seeds spread by water or birds and other animals. They can live for up to 50 years lying dormant in droughts.

Rushes is a basic food of many animal diets. They are also used as bedding and nesting material for many different types of birds and mammals. Rushes have been used throughout history by humans for various purposes such as weaving matts, medicine and animal feed. Today they are still used in some places for making sleeping mats but are mostly used as a decorative plant around ponds.

References 

Poales
The Prayer of Azariah and Song of the Three Holy Children are two sections that are in some Bibles inside chapter three of the Book of Daniel. These sections are sometimes called Additions to Daniel.

In chapter three of the Book of Daniel, King Nebuchadnezzar II of Babylon builds a statue from gold, and he tells everyone to worship it. Some Jews living in Babylon named Azariah, Hananiah, and Mishael refuse to worship the statue. The king gets mad so he has them put into a big furnace to kill them. An angel protects them from the fire, and the king decides to let them go.

That story is in all Hebrew and Christian Bibles. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox and Oriental Orthodox Bibles have a longer version of the story.

In the longer version of the story, Azariah's prayer is put after the three men are put into the furnace, starting at verse 24. In the prayer, Azariah says that he and the other people of Judah (part of ancient Israel) have sinned against God. He says that they are sorry and asks for God's protection.

The Song of the Three Holy Children is another part of the longer version of the Book of Daniel. It is sung by Azariah, Hananiah, and Daniel, who praise God and want everyone else to join them in prayer.

Other websites
 in the NAB
 in the NIV, a translation lacking this section for comparison.
Text and commentary in the NETBIBLE

Old Testament books
Arcadia is a city of Trempealeau County in the state of Wisconsin, United States.  Arcadia is found along the Trempealeau River. About 2,400 people were living in Arcadia as of 2000.

Cities in Wisconsin
Trempealeau County, Wisconsin
Godwin's Law (also known as Godwin's Rule of Nazi Analogies) is a saying made by Mike Godwin in 1990. The law states: "As a discussion on the Internet grows longer, the likelihood of a person/s being compared to Hitler or another Nazi, increases." That means that as more people talk on the Internet for a longer time, it becomes more and more likely that someone will talk about Hitler or the Nazis.

In 2019, Bret Stephens demonstrated both the Streisand Effect and Godwin’s Law, by publishing a column in the New York Times, where he compared his experience on Twitter to the plight of Jews under Hitler’s regime.

Related pages
 Association fallacy
 Troll (Internet)
 Infinite monkey theorem

References 

Internet
Nazism
De Wahl's rule is a rule of word formation, developed by the linguist Edgar de Wahl and applied in a constructed language Occidental (known also as "Interlingue") created by him. It is useful to create certain grammatical forms from others (for example substantives from verbs).

Rule 
Infinitives of verbs in the language Occidental have usually the ending -ar or -er. The root is obtained in the following manner: 
If, after removing -r or -er from the infinitive, the root finishes with a vowel, one should add -t or should change the ending y into t: crea/r, crea/t-, crea/t/or; atiny/er, atin/t, atin/t/ion
If the ending consonant of the root is d or r, one should change it into s: decid/er, deci/s-, deci/s/ion
in remaining cases, with six exceptions, the removing the ending gives the demanded root: duct/er, duct-, duct/ion.

These six exceptions are: 
 ced/er, cess-
 sed/er, sess-
 mov/er, mot-
 ten/er, tent-
 vert/er, vers-
 veni/r, vent-
and the verbs formed from them with prefixes.

Because the rule composes from three parts, it is often known as "three de Wahl's rules".

One creates the substantives and adjectives by removing the endings and thus obtaining the root. After adding -r or -er, one obtains an infinitive in a majority of cases: decora/t/ion, decora/t-, decora/r.

Application
This rule was applied in the language Occidental. After a possible modification one can apply this rule to create new forms of a word especially in Romance languages or in languages which borrowed vocabulary from Romance languages.

References
  Henry Jacob, Occidental (1922) by Edgar de Wahl 
  Henry Jacob, The Preparatory Work for an International Technical Terminology reprint of The British Steelmaker, December 1945

Linguistics
Constructed languages
Bree may refer to:

People
 Bree Amer, Australian television personality
 Bree Olson, American pornographic actress
 Bree Sharp, American singer and songwriter
 Bree Turner, American actress
 Bree Walker, American television news anchor
 Bree de Wilder, English musician
 Brianna (given name), a female given name

Places
 Bree, Belgium
 Bree, County Wexford, Republic of Ireland
 Maasbree, Netherlands, formerly called "Bree"
 Brée, a commune in the Mayenne department in France

Fictional characters and places
 Bree (Middle-earth), a fictional village in J. R. R. Tolkien's Middle-earth
 Bree (Narnia), a fictional talking horse from the Narnia novel The Horse and His Boy by C. S. Lewis
 Bree Timmins, a character on the Australian soap Neighbours
 Bree Van de Kamp, a character on the American television series Desperate Housewives
 Bree Avery, fictional main character from the web video series lonelygirl15
 Bree, A newborn vampire in the novel Eclipse, from the Twilight Series

Related pages
Brie, a soft cheese
Brianna (disambiguation), for a list of people named Brianna
Breeing, a vocal technique
is a puzzle video game made by Nintendo for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy video game systems, released in 1990. It is like the game Tetris.

1 Player Gameplay 
The gameplay of 1 player Dr. Mario is to make sure vitamins of the same color are lined-up together to defeat viruses. There are three colors of vitamins (red, blue, yellow). The goal is to clear all the capsules without going to the top. The player can pick any default level from 0-20, with a set number of viruses to clear depending what level the player is on. The virus count goes as high as 84, and does not increase after you pass level 20. There are over 40 levels in the game.

The player can also set up the skill level and music (Fever, Chill).

2 Player VS Gameplay 
The gameplay of 2-Player Vs. is to defeat your opponent by killing all the viruses first, or making your opponent lose.  By clearing viruses enough, halves of vitamins fall onto the opponents screen.  They must wait until all the vitamins fall down before they make their next move.

Reviews 
Dr. Mario was rated the 134th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power's Top 200 Games list. Dr. Mario was also rated by ScrewAttack as the seventh best Mario game of all time. Overall, Dr. Mario has scored a press average of 7.6 on GameStats.

References 

1990 video games
Nintendo Entertainment System games
Game Boy games
Mario video games
Puzzle video games
A convergent plate boundary is the boundary that occur when two plates collide each other either a continental plate with continental plate or oceanic plate. This causes very large earth movements. Plate collision can produce earthquake, volcanoes, mountains formation, and other geological event. The Himalayas were formed by such a collision.  Earthquakes and volcanoes are common near convergent boundaries. This is because of pressure, friction, and plate material melting in the mantle.

The diagram shows some differences between the two types of subduction. 
 Oceanic crust moves under. A deep ocean trench forms at the coast, and an arc of mountainous volcanoes forms inland. Seen along the west edge of the Americas.
 Continental crust moves under. The edge of the continental plate folds into a huge mountain range. Behind it is a high plateau. The Himalayas and the Tibetan plateau are a perfect example of this.

References 

Plate tectonics
The Scottish Tramway and Transport Society was set up on the 27th June 1951. It was called the "Scottish Tramway Museum Society". It had that name until 1983 when it changed to the current one. It was made by people interested in trams and tramways. They wanted to preserve a Glasgow "Room and Kitchen" type single deck tramcar. There is now one at the Glasgow Museum of Transport. 

Light rail in the United Kingdom
Tram transport in the United Kingdom
Organisations based in the United Kingdom
1951 establishments in the United Kingdom
Alexandre Guilmant (born Boulogne-sur-Mer, 12 March 1837; died Meudon 29 March 1911) was a French organist and composer.

Life

Early life and career
Alexandre Guilmant was born in Boulogne-sur-Mer. His father was an organist and organ builder, and gave young Alexandre lessons. Otherwise Alexandre was largely self-taught. He did study with Belgian teacher Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens, but by that time he was already a very good organist. From the 1860s he travelled widely in Europe, playing organs and becoming famous. Later he also visited the United States. In 1871 he became organist of the Trinité church in Paris. He kept this job until 1901.

His teaching
Guilmant became well known in France as a teacher. Together with two other musicians, Charles Bordes and Vincent d’Indy, he started the Schola Cantorum, a private college where students could study music. He taught the organ there. Earlier he had succeeded Charles-Marie Widor as organ teacher at the Paris Conservatoire. His Conservatoire pupils included Joseph Bonnet, Nadia Boulanger and Marcel Dupré.

Influence as organist
Guilmant did not just play the organ for church services. He became very famous for giving organ recitals. Often he played on organs which had been constructed by the brilliant organ builder Aristide Cavaillé-Coll. He helped to make these organs popular in France, and they were a very important influence on the way that organists composed music for their instrument.

Both Guilmant and Widor produced large works for the organ which they called “symphonies”. These usually had at least four movements each, and gave the player opportunities to use many different sound effects.

His compositions

Guilmant wrote eight organ symphonies, as well as a symphony for organ and orchestra, and several shorter works for the same combination. He composed a great many miniatures, not just for organ but also for harmonium. This was useful for musicians in smaller churches which had a harmonium instead of a big organ. He wrote a book on how to play the organ, and for many years he edited collections of organ music which had been written by earlier composers.

References
The New Grove Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; 

1837 births
1911 deaths
20th-century French composers
French organists
The New American Bible is a Roman Catholic translation of the Bible into English. It was translated from the Bible's original languages and first made in 1970.

Other websites
The New American Bible  online edition

Bible versions
The Radcliffe Line became the international border between India and Pakistan (which also included what is now Bangladesh) during the partition of India. The line divided Bengal into Indian held West Bengal and East Bengal which became East Pakistan in 1956. The line was decided by the Border Commissions headed by Sir Cyril Radcliffe, who was to divide equitably  of territory with 88 million people.
The line took effect on 17 August 1947 after the Partition of India. When the partition was implemented, there were some problems:
The Chittagong Hill Tracts had a moslty Buddhist population, but they were given to East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).
To counterbalance the relatively small share of Gurdaspur district awarded to Pakistan, Radcliffe attempted to instead transfer Ferozpur and Zira tehsils in Muslim-Majority Ferozpur District to Pakistan. This was opposed by the Maharaja of Bikaner because Harike headworks on the confluence of the Sutlej and the Beas rivers, from where a canal originated, was the only source of water for his desert state was in Ferozepore. It was only after he threatened Lord Louis Mountbatten, that he would accede his princely state to Pakistan if Firozpur was awarded to West Punjab province, that the award was changed at the last minute and all of Firozpur District was awarded to East Punjab in the Republic of India.
The Gurdaspur District was moslty Muslim, but was given to India.
Sometimes the line  divided villages, so one part of the village was in each country. At other instances, it went through houses, different rooms of the same house were in different countries.

Related pages
 Punjab (India)
 Bengal (India)

Geography of Pakistan
Geography of India
Geography of Bangladesh
Pakistan Movement
Partition of India
An emission nebula is a cloud of plasma emitting light in many colors. The glowing is caused by a star being near the nebula. There are many types of emission nebula. H II regions are caused when stars are forming and are very hot, causing the plasma to heat up. Planetary nebulae are made when where a dying star has thrown off its outer layers. This causes the core of the star to heat up the plasma.

General information
A nebula's color depends on what chemicals are in it, and how ionized it is. Because most of the universe is made of hydrogen, many emission nebulae appear red. Hydrogen glows red when it is hot. If the nebula is very hot, other types of gas will be heated and the it might also glow blue and green. By looking at which colors are glowing in a nebula, one can figure out what it is made of.

Emission nebulae sometimes look like they have dark areas in them. This is because clouds of dust block the light when it is traveling between the nebula and the Earth.

Related pages
Reflection nebula
Planetary nebula

Nebulae
A Variable nebula is a reflection nebula that gets brighter and darker because of changes in its star.

Nebulae
Ionization is the physical process of giving or taking away electrons from an atom. That makes the atom into an ion, because ions have electrical charge. 

In the process of ionization, an electrically neutral atom becomes either positively or negatively charged. Some substances are easier to ionize than others. This depends on the ionization energy. Ionizing radiation is a common cause, but ionization can also be done artificially.

References 

Physics
Nucleosynthesis is the physical process where lighter elements are changed into heavier elements. This usually happens in the center of a star, both during its life and especially during its violent death. It is also thought that this happened at the beginning of the universe, in the big bang.

Astrophysics
Charles Messier (June 26, 1730 – April 12, 1817) was a French astronomer who is remembered for publishing a list of famous objects in space that came to be called the 103 "Messier objects".

Messier's life
Messier was born in Badonviller in the Lorraine region of France. Six of his brothers and sisters died as children and in 1741, his father died. Charles became interested in astronomy after he saw the great six-tailed comet in 1744 and by a solar eclipse on July 25, 1748.

In 1751 he started working for Joseph Nicolas Delisle, the astronomer of the French Navy, who told him to write down everything he saw.

Messier discovered thirteen comets :

 C/1760 B1 (Messier)
 C/1763 S1 (Messier)
 C/1764 A1 (Messier)
 C/1766 E1 (Messier)
 C/1769 P1 (Messier)
 D/1770 L1 (Lexell)
 C/1771 G1 (Messier)
 C/1773 T1 (Messier)
 C/1780 U2 (Messier)
 C/1788 W1 (Messier)
 C/1793 S2 (Messier)
 C/1798 G1 (Messier)
 C/1785 A1 (Messier-Mechain)

Related pages
 Messier object
 List of Messier objects
 Messier marathon

References

Other websites
 Amateur Photos of Charles Messier Objects 
 Messier Marathon  Tries to find as many Messier objects as possible in one night.
 New General Catalog and Index Catalog revisions
 Clickable table of Messier objects 

1730 births
1817 deaths
French astronomers
Astronomical spectroscopy is the science of using spectroscopy to figure out what elements astronomical bodies, such as stars, planets and nebulae, are made of. It can also be used to work out how those objects are moving, using doppler shift.

The study of spectroscopy and spectra is used in astronomy to help scientists study the whole spectrum of electromagnetic radiation, including visible light, which radiates from stars and other hot celestial objects. Spectroscopy can be used to find properties of distant stars and galaxies. It can find out their chemical composition, temperature, density, mass, distance, luminosity, and relative motion using doppler effect measurements.

Chemical properties of stars 

Isaac Newton used a prism to split white light into a spectrum of color, and Fraunhofer's high-quality prisms allowed scientists to see dark lines of an unknown origin.

It was not until the 1850s that Gustav Kirchoff and Robert Bunsen explained the dark lines. Hot solid objects produce light with a continuous spectrum, and hot gasses emit light at specific wavelengths. However, hot solid objects surrounded by cooler gasses show a near-continuous spectrum with dark lines corresponding to the emission lines of the gasses. By comparing the absorption lines of the
Sun with emission spectra of known gasses, the chemical composition of stars can be discovered.

References 

Astrophysics
Spectroscopy
Luminosity is the amount of power given off by an astronomical object.

Stars, galaxies and other objects emit energy in the form of radiation. It is measured in joules per second, which are equal to watts. A watt is one unit of power. Just as a light bulb is measured in watts, the Sun can also be measured in watts. The sun gives off . This amount of power is known as 1 sol, the symbol for which is .  

There are other ways to describe luminosity. The most common is apparent magnitude, which is how bright an object looks to an observer on Earth. It only applies to light, that is, visible wavelengths. Apparent magnitude is contrasted with absolute magnitude, which is an object's intrinsic brightness at visible wavelengths, irrespective of distance.  The apparent magnitude is the less, for objects more than 32.6 light years away.

When talking about the total power output across all wavelengths, that is called bolometric magnitude.  

Laws of physics
Solar mass is a unit of measurement of mass. It is equal to the mass of the Sun, about 332,950 times the mass of the Earth, or 1,048 times the mass of Jupiter. Masses of other stars and groups of stars are listed in terms of solar masses. Its mathematical symbol and value are:

 (kg being kilograms)

Astronomy
Units of measurement
Carbonation is the process of carbon dioxide dissolving in a liquid. For example, carbon dioxide is added to flavored water under pressure to make it "fizz" as a carbonated water soft drink.

Geology
When rain passes through the atmosphere, it takes in or mixes with carbon dioxide, turning it into a weak carbonic acid.  When the rain falls in limestone, it dissolves the calcium carbonate in the rock, turning it into calcium bicarbonate and taking it away.  Holes and large cracks can form in the rock.  Such a place is called karst.  If a stream or river passes through it, it could be swallowed up by a hole called a swallow hole.  It  can go through a series of underground caves and may appear on the surface again.  An example of a karst area is the Burren National Park, in County Clare, Ireland.

Chemistry

Carbon dioxide is weakly soluble in water, therefore it separates into a gas. The process of carbon dioxide bubbling out (effervescing) from a solution is represented by the following chemical reaction. This shows aqueous carbonic acid converts to carbon dioxide and water:

Biochemistry

Carbonation also describes the incorporation of carbon dioxide into chemical compounds. Carbon-based life originates from a carbonation reaction that is most often catalysed by the enzyme RuBisCO. This carbonation process is so important that a significant fraction of leaf mass consists of this carbonating enzyme.

References

Matter
Physics
Geochemistry
A Feynman diagram is a diagram that shows what happens when elementary particles collide.

Feynman diagrams are used in quantum mechanics. A Feynman diagram has lines in different shapes—straight, dotted, and squiggly—which meet up at points called vertices. The vertices are where the lines begin and end. The points in Feynman diagrams where the lines meet represent two or more particles that happen to be at the same point in space at the same time. The lines in a Feynman diagram represent the probability amplitude for a particle to go from one place to another.

In Feynman diagrams, the particles are allowed to go both forward and backward in time. When a particle is going backward in time, it is called an antiparticle. The meeting points for the lines can also be interpreted forward or backwards in time, so that if a particle disappears into a meeting point, that means that the particle was either created or destroyed, depending on the direction in time that the particle came in from.

All the lines and vertices have an amplitude. When you multiply the probability amplitude for the lines, the amplitude for the particles to go from wherever they start to wherever they meet, and to the next meeting point, and so on, and also multiply by the amplitude for each meeting point, you get a number that tells you the total amplitude for the particles to do what the diagram says they do. If you add up all these probability amplitudes over all the possible meeting points, and over all the starting and ending points with an appropriate weight, you get the total probability amplitude for a collision in a particle accelerator, which tells you the total probability of these particles to bounce off one another in any particular direction.

Feynman diagrams are named after Richard Feynman, who won the Nobel Prize in Physics. His diagrams are very simple in the case of quantum electrodynamics (QED), where there are only two kinds of particles: electrons (little particles inside atoms) and photons (particles of light). In QED, the only thing that can happen is that an electron (or its antiparticle) can emit (or absorb) a photon, so there is only one building block for any collision. The probability amplitude for the emission is very simple—it has no real part, and the imaginary part is the charge of the electron.

References 

Nuclear physics
Diagrams
Raymond VII of Saint-Gilles (July 1197 – 27 September 1249) was Count of Toulouse, Duke of Narbonne and Marquis of Provence from 1222 until his death.

He was the son of Raymond VI of Toulouse and Joan of England. During the Albigensian Crusade in May of 1216, he set out from Marseille and besieged Beaucaire, which he captured on August 24. He fought to get the county of Toulouse back from Simon de Montfort, 5th Earl of Leicester and later Simon's son Amaury VI of Montfort.

When Raymond died, Alphonse became count of Toulouse, and after Alphonse's death the county was captured by France. Raymond VII was buried beside his mother Joan in Fontevrault Abbey.

1197 births
1249 deaths
Nobility
Trimbach is a municipality in the district of Gösgen.  It is in the canton of Solothurn in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities of the canton of Solothurn
Stoke may refer to the following:

Place names

United Kingdom
Stoke is one of the most common place names in the United Kingdom and in historical documents.

Originally from the Old English  'stoc' meaning 'place', it came to be used in two special senses, i) a religious place and ii) a secondary settlement (see Roome )

It can refer to any of the following places:
Stoke-on-Trent, Staffordshire
Stoke-upon-Trent, a town in the city of Stoke-on-Trent
Stoke, Chester, Cheshire
Stoke, Crewe and Nantwich, Cheshire
Stoke, Devon
Stoke, Hampshire
Stoke, Hayling Island, Hampshire
Stoke, Kent
Stoke, Suffolk in Ipswich
Stoke Abbott, Dorset
Stoke Ash, Suffolk
Stoke Bardolph, Nottinghamshire
Stoke Bishop, Bristol
Stoke Bliss, Herefordshire
Stoke Bruerne, Northamptonshire
Stoke by Clare, Suffolk
Stoke-by-Nayland, Suffolk
Stoke Canon, Devon
Stoke Charity, Hampshire
Stoke Climsland, Cornwall
Stoke d'Abernon, Surrey
Stoke Doyle, Northamptonshire
Stoke Dry, Rutland
Stoke Edith, Herefordshire
Stoke Ferry, Norfolk
Stoke Fleming, Devon
Stoke Gabriel, Devon
Stoke Gifford, Bristol
Stoke Golding, Leicestershire
Stoke Goldington, Milton Keynes
Stoke next Guildford, Surrey
Stoke Hammond, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Heath, Shropshire
Stoke Heath, Worcestershire
Stoke Holy Cross, Norfolk
Stoke Lacy, Herefordshire
Stoke Lyne, Oxfordshire
Stoke Mandeville, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Newington, London
Stoke on Tern, Shropshire
Stoke Orchard, Gloucestershire
Stoke Poges, Buckinghamshire
Stoke Pound, Worcestershire
Stoke Prior, Herefordshire
Stoke Prior, Worcestershire
Stoke Rivers, Devon
Stoke Rochford, Lincolnshire
Stoke Row, Berkshire
Stoke Row, Oxfordshire
Stoke St Gregory, Somerset
Stoke St Mary, Somerset
Stoke St Michael, Somerset
Stoke St. Milborough, Shropshire
Stoke-sub-Hamdon, Somerset
Stoke Talmage, Oxfordshire
Stoke Trister, Somerset

New Zealand
Stoke, New Zealand

Sports
Stoke City F.C.

Related pages
Stokes (in particular, stoke is an erroneous singular of stokes (sing. and pl), a unit of kinematic viscosity)
Stoked, a film
Bon Scott (9 July 1946 – 19 February 1980) was a Scottish-Australian singer-songwriter. He was the lead singer of hard rock band AC/DC from 1974 until he died of alcohol poisoning in 1980.

Biography
Scott was born in Forfar, Scotland and brought up in Kirriemuir, Scotland. He and his family moved to Fremantle, Australia in 1952. He left school when he was 15 and spent a short time in a juvenile institution. In 1964, he formed a band called The Spektors. They later became a different band called The Valentines. When the Valentines broke up in 1970, Scott joined a band called Fraternity. Fraternity left Australia and went to Europe, but came back soon after. Scott then joined a band called the Mount Lofty Rangers. In 1974 he had a motorcycle accident and was in hospital for a few months. After he left hospital he joined AC/DC.

Career
AC/DC's first two albums were High Voltage and T.N.T.. They were only released in Australia. Their first worldwide album was released in 1976. It had songs from both High Voltage and T.N.T., and was also called High Voltage. They released another album that year called Dirty Deeds Done Dirt Cheap. Their next albums were Let There Be Rock, Powerage, and a live album called If You Want Blood You've Got It. AC/DC's last album with Scott as their singer was Highway to Hell.

Death
Scott died of alcohol poisoning in London on 19 February 1980. He was 33 years old at the time. Brian Johnson became AC/DC's new lead singer. There is a bronze statue of Bon Scott in Fremantle. Shortly after his death, AC/DC released a tribute album to Scott, Back in Black.

References

Other websites
 Bon Scott story 
 Bon Scott's death

1946 births
1980 deaths
AC/DC
Accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Australian drummers
Australian rock singers
Australian singer-songwriters
British rock drummers
British rock singers
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United Kingdom
Entertainers from Western Australia
Scottish rock musicians
Scottish singer-songwriters