cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Sumer is the earliest known civilization in southern Mesopotamia (in modern-day southern Iraq). They may have been one of  the first civilizations in the world, as were Ancient Egypt and the Indus Valley.

Sumer started around 3500 BC. The Sumerian civilization grew along the Tigris and Euphrates. This land was good for growing food. Sumerian culture is famous for its written cuneiform script - where letters were formed by pressing a triangle shaped reed into wet-clay tiles. They are also credited with creating the wheel, and dividing a day into 24 hours, and each hour into 60 minutes.

The earliest texts come from the cities of Uruk and Jemdet Nasr and date back to 3300 BC. Early cuneiform script writing emerged in 3000 BC.

Sumerian communities were organized into city-states, each ruled by a priest or king, until Akkad conquered them in the third millennium BC. One of the most famous Sumerian cities was Ur (not the same city as Uruk, but near it).

Relations with the Akkadians 
During the 3rd millennium BC, a close cultural symbiosis developed between the Sumerians, who spoke a language isolate, and Akkadian-speakers, which included widespread bilingualism.

The Sumerian city of Eridu, on the coast of the Persian Gulf, may have been the world's first city.

The Sumerians lost their identity with their language around 2000 BC, because a large group of different people, the Amorites, moved into their region. The Sumerian language continued as a religious language taught in schools in Babylonia and Assyria, for as long as cuneiform was used.

Clothing
The Sumerians made their clothing by using the natural resources that were available to them. Clothing was made from wool or flax which Sumerians could raise and harvest. How thick or how coarse the clothing was related to the season in which it was worn. Heavier clothing was worn in the winter, lighter clothing in the summer.

Men were bare-chested and wore skirt-like clothes that tied at the waist. Women usually wore dresses that covered them from their shoulders to their ankles. The right arm and shoulder were left uncovered. Men were either clean shaven or had long hair and beards. Women wore their hair long, but they usually braided it and wrapped it around their heads. When entertaining guests, women placed headdresses in their hair.

Although both rich and poor Sumerians wore the same style of clothing, the richer Sumerians wore clothing that was made out of expensive and luxurious materials. Rich women and princesses also wore clothing that was colorful and bright.

Both men and women wore earrings and necklaces. During celebrations, even more jewelry was worn. The wealthier Sumerians often wore beautiful gold and silver bracelets and earrings. Sumerians also wore necklaces with bright, precious stones. Some of these stones were lapis lazuli and carnelian.

Related pages 
Ur
Uruk

References 

Mesopotamia
Cingular Wireless was a mobile phone company from United States. Cingular is now  owned by AT&T.  AT&T Mobility LLC (usually called AT&T) is fully owned by AT&T and provides wireless service to more than 120 million users in the United States, Puerto Rico and the U.S. Virgin Islands. AT&T Mobility is the second largest mobile phone company in the United States behind Verizon Wireless, which has more than 130 million users.

American telephone companies
Mobile phones
Companies based in Atlanta, Georgia
2001 establishments in the United States
Diogenes (Διογένης) is a Greek name. It can refer to different people:

Diogenes of Sinope (412-323 BC), better known as Diogenes the Cynic or simply Diogenes
Diogenes Apolloniates (about 460 BC), philosopher
Diogenes the Stoic (Diogenes of Seleucia on the Tigris) (c. 150 BC)
Diogenes Laertius (between 200-500 AD), historian
Diogenes of Oenoanda (2nd Century AD), Epicurean
Diogenes of Judea (about 100-76 BC), general and advisor for Hasmonean king Alexander Jannaeus
Diogenes of Babylon, Greek philosopher
Diogenes (duke of Syrmia), duke of Syrmia (11th century)
Mystery Science Theater 3000 (MST3K) was a comedy television series. It was made in the U.S. state of Minnesota from 1988 to 1999. The series was at first made for a local station in Minnesota. It was later moved to Comedy Central, and then The Sci-Fi Channel. The series was about a man (originally Joel Robinson, played by Joel Hodgson, the show's creator, and later Mike Nelson, played by Michael J. Nelson, the show's head writer), who is put in a spaceship by an evil scientist. He was forced to watch some of the worst movies ever made. Joel makes some robots to keep him company. Two of the robots, named Crow T. Robot (played by Trace Beaulieu and, later Bill Corbett) and Tom Servo (played by Josh Weinstein and later Kevin Murphy), watch the movies with him. While the movie is shown, the three make jokes and comments about the movie they watch.

Other websites 
Satellite News - The Official Mystery Science Theater 3000 Web Site
Complete episodes on Google video
MST3K Wiki

1988 American television series debuts
1999 American television series endings
1980s American television series
1990s American television series
American comedy television series
Netflix original shows
English-language television programs
Blaze Starr (born Fannie Belle Fleming; 10 April 1932 – 15 June 2015) was an American stripper and burlesque star. In the 1950s, she became well known in the United States. Besides her burlesque dancing, her affair with Governor Earl Long of the state of Louisiana got her more popularity.

Early life
Starr was born in rural Wayne County, West Virginia. She lived in Washington, D.C. and in Baltimore, Maryland during her youth.

Affair with the Governor
When Blaze Starr first met Governor Long in 1958, her first feeling was fear. She was afraid she was going to jail when the Governor of Louisiana walked in with the police during a dance. When the Governor and the police gave Blaze a standing ovation, she was dumbfounded. Blaze had never known a politician who went to a show bar for any reason other than to cause the dancers trouble. After her show, the Governor asked for her to come to his table. They became friends.

Their relationship quickly grew into a love affair. Soon coworkers, reporters, and voters all knew of the affair. Mrs. Blanche Long, the Governor's wife, told hospital people that Earl was crazy and had him put away. She thought this would make Earl end the affair with Blaze. The affair continued until the day Earl died in 1960.

Her life was exciting and full of adventures. In the 1950s, stripping was more of an art form. It was not just women taking off their clothes to get men into bed. Blaze was close to her family. Blaze met her perfect match when she met Earl. He accepted her life style and she accepted his. They fulfilled each other's needs for companionship, compassion, and love.

Death
Starr died on June 15, 2015 at her home in Wilsondale, West Virginia.  She was 83 years old. She had been worried about the health of her dog, whom she adopted as a stray. Her sister, Cathy Fleming, believed this stress, along with a "severe heart condition", killed her. Her dog died hours later.

References

Other websites
Blaze Star Gems  (official site)

1932 births
2015 deaths
Actors from West Virginia
American adult models
Comedians from West Virginia
American erotic dancers
Cosmetics (also called makeup, make up, or make-up) are products used to make the human body look different. Often cosmetics are used to make someone more attractive to one person, or to a culture or sub-culture. In Western culture, women are the main users of cosmetics. Their use by men is less frequent, except on stage, television and movies. Cosmetics are widely used in the world of acting.

All cosmetics are temporary. They need to be renewed after a certain time. Cosmetics include lipstick, powders (e.g. blush, eyeshadow), and lotions as well as other things.

Facial cosmetics 
Most cosmetic products and methods are intended to improve the look of the face. There are two categories: those which improve the basic quality of the skin, and those which sit on the skin during active social life.

Skin care 
The purpose here is to clean the skin, improve its basic quality, and prepare it for the application of make-up. Products are of these types:
Cleansers, used to remove make-up and clean the skin. 
Toners, used to remove oil from the skin and close the pores on the skin.
Moisturizers, used to make the skin soft and to reduce evaporation of water from the skin.
Primers, used to prepare the surface for the later application of make-up.
Concealers, to mask flaws or slightly modify the colour of the skin.
Foundation, a product which holds face-powder in place. More generally, it create an even, uniform colour, covers flaws and adjusts the natural skintone.

Make-up 
These are the cosmetics which the viewer actually sees on the face (or other parts of the body). They are some or all of these:
Rouge or blusher: talcum-based reddish powder, to give a more youthful appearance. Used mainly to emphasize the cheekbones, sometimes to redden the cheeks. Very ancient, used by the ancient Egyptians.
Face powder. Or translucent powder applied with a powder puff, brush or sponge, it comes in all shades to match skin.
Lipstick.
Eye make-up.
Hand care: manicure and nail polish

History of cosmetics 
The word cosmetics comes from the Greek κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), "skilled in ordering or arranging".

Archaeological confirms use of cosmetics in ancient Egypt and Greece. Cosmetics used included:
 Castor oil used by ancient Egypt as a protection balm.
 Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rosewater, used by Romans.
 Vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century.
 Nivea Creme was the first stable water-in-oil emulsion, 1911.
The Ancient Greeks also used cosmetics. Cosmetics are mentioned also in the Old Testament. Men who think makeup is dishonest sometimes call makeup fakeup.

Related pages
Perfume
Hair coloring
Nail art
Eye makeup
Body art

References
A cantata is a type of singing which is done accompanied by an instrument(s). By contrast, a cappella specifically refers to unaccompanied singing. The word(cantata) etymologically comes from the Italian word “cantare” which meant “to sing”.  The word “cantata” was used mainly in the 17th and 18th century to describe music with religious words that were sung by a choir or by soloists or both, accompanied by instruments. The most famous cantatas are those by Johann Sebastian Bach. Nearly all his cantatas are sacred(written for church services). Very often he used Lutheran hymn tunes (chorales) for the first and last movements. In between there are movements for solo singers: recitatives and arias. A famous example is Bach's cantata no 80 which is based on the chorale “Ein feste Burg ist unser Gott(“A safe stronghold our God is still”). The whole work is about being safe in the hands of God. This is what the sermon would have been about. The congregation would join in singing the chorale towards the end of the cantata.

Other composers, such as Alessandro Scarlatti (1660-1725) wrote cantatas which were secular(not religious). The word “cantata” has also been used in the 20th century by composers such as Igor Stravinsky (1882-1971) and Benjamin Britten (1913-1976).

Thus the term came to apply to any and all forms of accompanied songs.

Musical forms
A clavichord is a musical instrument like a small keyboard. It was very popular for many years, especially in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries.

Sound 
The clavichord is a very quiet instrument. It is not suitable for playing with other instruments because it is so quiet. But it sounds very beautiful in slow, expressive music. It is used as a practice instrument by harpsichord players, or by organists who wanted to practice at home instead of in a (often very cold) church. They were so small that they could be lifted up and put on a table. They could be put one on top of another so that an organist could practise music written for a two-manual organ. Sometimes, they even had pedals for organists to practice this skill.

Uses 
Many German composers like Johann Sebastian Bach wrote music for the “Clavier”. This meant any keyboard instrument: harpsichord, clavichord or organ. The player could choose which they wanted to use.

When the piano suddenly became popular – in the 1760s and 1770s – people started to forget about harpsichords and clavichords. Today a few people make harpsichords and clavichords again so that people can play Renaissance and Baroque music - the music from when the clavichord was popular.

Other websites

Keyboard instruments
Early musical instruments
String instruments
Percussion instruments
Harmony means playing several notes together to make “chords”.  The word comes from the Greek harmonia meaning "to join things up" .  A tune by itself can sound nice, but it can be “harmonized” by adding an accompaniment of chords.  Studying how to do this is called harmonization.  Music students learn which chords sound nice after one another.  These are called “chord progressions”.  Many music theorists have written books about harmony.

Music which is made of a tune with harmony underneath is called “homophonic”.  In a way it is the opposite of polyphonic which means that each part (each voice) is a tune in itself. However, even polyphony needs to make pleasant harmony. Harmony as we know it in European music had become fully developed by the Baroque period (17th century).

One can play a chord with three notes using the 1st, 3rd and 5th notes of the scale of whatever key the music is in.  This gives a chord which sounds like the “home chord”.  This means that at least three notes are needed for harmony.  In most homophonic music there are four: for example a choir will normally divide into soprano, alto, tenor and bass, or a string quartet will divide into violin 1, violin 2, viola and cello.

Harmony which uses just the notes of the key (e.g. just using white notes for C major) is called “tonal harmony”.

Harmony which adds lots of extra sharps and flats is called “chromatic harmony”.

If music is not in any key at all, like in some music by Arnold Schoenberg, it is “atonal”.  Harmony can be atonal.

music theory
This article is about the weapon. For other meanings, see Bow (disambiguation).

A bow is a weapon used to shoot arrows. It is used in hunting, sport, and a long time ago, war.

Using a bow is called archery. A person who uses a bow is an archer and a person who makes bows is a bowyer.

A bow is  a long curved stick and a string which is tied to both ends. Ancient bows were made of natural materials like wood or bone and sinew, but today they are often made of plastic and similar materials.

To shoot a bow, the arrow is put on the bow, with one end to the string, which is pulled back. When the string is let loose, it throws the arrow forwards.

There are many different types of bows, for example the longbow or the automatic crossbow
and the compound bow.  

There are many different ways that people protect themselves from arrow attacks. The Roman Army, for instance, had the testudo formate, or tortoise formation. They first made the shields lock into a somewhat tortoise like formation, which provide a shell that was make out of shields. The arrows would eventually run out, and the Romans would charge.   

Archery
Weapons
Nuclear physics is the part of physics that studies the nucleus of the atom. Everything on the earth is made up of atoms; they are the smallest part of a chemical element that still has the properties of that specific element. When two or more atoms combine they create what we know as the molecule, which is the smallest part of a chemical compound which still has the properties of that specific compound. Understanding the structure of atoms is key in studies such as physics, chemistry, biology, etc.

Atoms

Structure 
Atoms are made up of electrons, neutrons, and protons. The protons and neutrons are in the center of the atom, which is called the nucleus. The protons and neutrons are the heaviest part of the atom and make up most of its mass. The electrons move around the nucleus very quickly, making what is called an electron cloud. The electron cloud has a very small mass, but it makes up most of the space of the atom. The electrons have a negative charge, and the protons have a positive charge. Due to the charges in the atom, that is how the atom stays together, by attraction of the electric charges present in the atom.

Properties 
Atoms have different features that single out one atom from another, and show how each atom can change in different conditions. These properties include atomic number, mass number, atomic mass and weight, and isotopes.

Forces acting 
In an atom there are three fundamental forces that keep atoms together. electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force. The electromagnetic force keeps the electrons attached to the atom. The strong nuclear  force keeps the protons and neutrons together in the nucleus. The weak nuclear force controls how the atom decays.

Quantum 
In the early 20th century, scientists had trouble explaining the behavior of atoms using their current knowledge of matter. So to deal with this they made a brand new way to view matter and energy, and they called it quantum theory. Quantum theory explains how matter acts both as a particle and a wave.

Radiation 

Atoms emit radiation when their electrons lose energy and drop down to lower orbitals. The difference in energy between the orbitals determines the wavelength of the given radiation. This radiation can be shown by visible light or shorter wavelengths.
Not to be Confused with Seljuk Sultanate of Rûm
The Seljuk Empire was an empire of the Seljuk Turks and a Muslim dynasty. It ruled parts of Central Asia and the Middle East from the 11th to the 14th centuries. It was founded by Tughril Beg in 1037. The Seljuk Empire stretched from Anatolia to Pakistan. It was replaced by the Khwarezmian Empire in 1194.

The Seljuk Empire united the eastern Islamic world, and fought in the Second Crusade. The Seljuk Empire made several long lasting changes. These affected the region even after the empire was gone. Among them was making Farsi the language for history and events. They also shifted the center for the Arabic language culture from Baghdad to Cairo.

References

Other websites
 
 

Former monarchies of Asia
Former empires
History of Iran
Medieval Azerbaijan
Former countries in Asia
Former countries in the Middle East
Royal dynasties
11th-century establishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Asia
Central Asia is a region in Asia. The countries in Central Asia are Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, Turkmenistan (which are mainly Turkic states) but also includes Tajikistan, and parts of China and Mongolia. Caucasia is also part of Central Asia. The United Nations also includes Afghanistan as part of Central Asia.

History 
People have lived in the region of Central Asia since prehistoric times. Most of the region was part of the Silk Road. It was a part of the Persian Empire until Alexander The Great captured it. When he died, the land was given to his general Seleucus. Seleucus slowly lost it to the Parthians.  When the Parthians (the Parthians were Persians) lost power, the Sassanids added it to their own Persian empire. However, a couple years later, during about the 600's A.D, Arab armies spreading the faith of Islam quickly captured it. A while later, an Iranian dynasty got semi- autonomy under the Abbasid Caliphate of Baghdad. They were known as the Samanids. The Samanids controlled most of Central Asia and Northwestern Iran. They had power over this area during the 10th century. With them, Central Asian cities, such as Bukhara and Samarkand, grew in culture. 

However, Turkic armies from this area took the region away from them. They were known as the Seljuk Turks. At the same time, Timur captured it. After his death, the Timurids ( the name of the people of the dynasty Timur founded) could not hold unto their empire. They lost it to the Mongols. When the Mongols captured it, burned it to the ground. A while later, some rulers decided to make their own empires under that of the Mongols. These empires were known as Khanates. During the 19th century the Russian Empire conquered these lands. Many years later in 1991, all of the countries of Central Asia declared independence.

Economy 
Uzbekistan has much cotton. Kazakhstan is rich because it has sold oil, gas and metals to Europe and China. Turkmenistan has adjusted better to independence from the Soviet Union than the other Central Asian countries, but it has been run by a dictatorship. Other than Kazakhstan, most of Central Asia are mostly underdeveloped.

Related pages
 Dagestan
 East Turkestan (Xinjiang, China)
 Kashmir (Northern Pakistan and India)
 Kazakhstan
 Kyrgyzstan
 Tajikistan (South-central Asia)
 Tatarstan
 Turkmenistan (South-central Asia)
 Uzbekistan
 Mongolia (and Inner Mongolia, China)
 Soviet Union
 Soviet Central Asia

 General Map of Central Asia: I from 1874

References
Turkestan (Turkish: Türkistan, Kazakh: Түркістан, Uzbek: Turkiston, Turkmen: Türküstan, , Chinese: 突厥斯坦, literally "Land of Turks") is a region of Central Asia around the Caspian Sea and Aral Sea. Much of it is currently in China. During the 20th century, much of it was in the Soviet Union.

The main ethnic groups in the area are Turks, Chinese, Mongols and Persians.

Related pages 
 Turkic peoples

Other websites 
Welcome to Turkistan 

Regions of Asia
Central Asia
Nationalism
The cathode ray tube or CRT was invented by Karl Ferdinand Braun. It was the most common type of display for many years. It was used in almost all computer monitors and televisions until LCD and plasma screens started being used.

A cathode ray tube has an electron gun. The cathode is an electrode (a metal that can send out electrons when heated). The cathode is inside a glass tube. Also inside the glass tube is an anode that attracts electrons. This is used to pull the electrons toward the front of the glass tube, so the electrons shoot out in one direction, making a cathode ray. To better control the direction of the ray, the air is taken out of the tube, making a vacuum.

The electrons hit the front of the tube, where a phosphor screen is.  The electrons make the phosphor light up.  The electrons can be aimed by creating a magnetic field.  By carefully controlling which bits of phosphor light up, a bright picture can be made on the front of the vacuum tube.  Changing this picture 30 times every second will make it look like the picture is moving. Because there is a vacuum inside the tube (which has to be strong enough to hold out the air), and the tube must be glass for the phosphor to be visible, the tube must be made of thick glass.  For a large television, this vacuum tube can be quite heavy.

The cathode ray tube was invented in 1897, and used as an oscilloscope (a machine to show waves).  Later, along with other inventions and improvements, it was used for the first modern electronic television by Philo T. Farnsworth in the 1920s. The CRT was the main type of television screen until the liquid crystal display became popular in the early 2000s.

Related pages
 Liquid crystal display
 Vacuum tube

References 

Display technology
Television technology
Electronic components
Recitative (Italian: “recitativo”) is music which is telling a story quite quickly, as if it were being spoken, "talky".  The word means: “to recite” i.e. to tell a story.

Recitative is used in opera, oratorio and cantatas.  When opera was invented around 1600 the composers needed to tell the story in music.  In recitative the story is sung quickly, with maybe just a harpsichord playing a few chords.  After a while, the situation in the story has changed, and the singer can sing an aria which is more interesting musically.

When recitative is just accompanied by a keyboard instrument it is called “recitativo secco” (dry recitative).  Sometimes the orchestra joins this.  This is called “recitativo accompagnato” (accompanied recitative).  There are no bar lines in recitative because there is no regular beat.

Recitative is simple musically, it can sometimes describe the words being sung in quite interesting or amusing ways.  Sometimes this might be improvised by the harpsichordist.

In the 19th century the difference between aria and recitative gradually disappeared.  Wagner wrote operas where everything had musical interest and the various sections flowed into one another.

musical forms
The partition of India divided British India into the countries of India and Pakistan (East and West Pakistan) in 1947. That was part of the end of British Raj, British rule in the Indian subcontinent. One reason for partition was the two-nation theory, which was presented by Syed Ahmed Khan and stated that Muslims and Hindus were too different to be in one country. Pakistan became a Muslim country, and India became a majority-Hindu but officially-secular country.

The main supporter for partition was Muhammad Ali Jinnah; he became the first Governor-General of Pakistan.

Millions of people moved across the new Radcliffe Line between the two newly-formed states. The population of British India in 1947 was about 570 million. After partition, there were 370 million people in India, 170 million in West Pakistan and 30 million people in East Pakistan.

Once the lines had been established, about 14.5 million people crossed the borders to what they hoped was the safety of their religious majority. The 1951 Pakistani Census showed the number of displaced there at 7,226,600. They were presumably Muslims who had entered Pakistan from India. Similarly, the 1951 Indian Census showed 7,295,870 displaced people, apparently Hindus and Sikhs who had moved to India from Pakistan. Both numbers add up to 14.5 million. Other people came from China to take advantage of the open border.

The newly-formed governments were unable to deal with the forced migration of such huge numbers. Massive violence occurred on both sides of the new border. Hundreds of thousands died; some estimates are in the millions.

The partition caused a lot of uncertainty in many parts of the new nations, especially in the region of Jammu and Kashmi, parts of which went to both countries, which went to war several times to try to take the whole region.

Further reading

References 

20th century in Bangladesh
A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body. Most animals have tails, like cats, dogs, whales, fish, cheetahs, and monkeys. 

Basic English 850 words
Animal anatomy
Ganesha or (Ganesh) is the elephant-headed god in Hinduism. He is the son of Shiva and Parvati.

Ganesha is a very popular god in Hinduism, and was one of the most worshipped. Hindu tradition states that Ganesha is a god of wisdom, success and good luck. He is also the giver of different types of favors. The Hindu tradition calls Ganesha as the Vighneshvara. "Vighneshvara" in Sanskrit language means one who was the lord of obstacles or difficulties. Thus, the Hindu tradition states that by worshiping Ganesha, one can remove all obstacles and difficulties.

His worship to God 
There are many temples (mandirs) of Ganesha, however in many Hindu temples there are statues and carvings. But, in most of the temples of Hindus, people worship Ganesha. Hindu Tradition gives Ganesha an important place. The tradition says that Hindus should worship their religious functions and ceremonies because he is the god of all obstacles. Generally, many Hindus also worship Ganesha before starting any new thing. Thus, for example, before occupying a new household

Birth

There are many stories of lord Ganesha's birth. The popular and widely-held version is as follows:

A story says that one day, Goddess Parvati was taking a bath at home. She did not want anyone to disturb her. She created a boy with her powers, and told him to guard and not let anyone in. When Lord Shiva came home, he wanted to come inside but the boy would not let him. Lord Shiva asked his army to make him go away, but his army failed. Finally, Shiva just cut the boy’s head off. When Parvati had heard what had happened, she was angry. She pleaded with Shiva to save him. Lord Shiva sent his army to go find a head for Ganesha. His army came back with an elephant head.

Images

Any picture, image or portrayal in any form of Ganesha generally has the following characteristics or features:
He has the head of an elephant.
He is shown with a big body, showing that the entire universe is inside him.
His colour is red, orange, or yellow.
Generally, he has four arms, and sometimes three eyes.
He carries a mala (garland) and certain other items like a lotus flower.
He sits generally with a bowl of sweets (laddus or modaks) before him.
A mouse or rat will be near Ganesha. He uses a mouse (rat) as his mount (vahans).
He is often different in each picture, unlike most Hindu gods.

Other names 

Ganesha has several other names. Some of his names are:

Gajanana
Heramba
Pillaiyar
Vinayaka
Ekdanta
Vakratunda
Krishnapingaksha
Gajavaktra
Bhalchandra
Lambodara
Vikatmev
Vighnaraj
Dhumravarna
Ganesh
Ganapati
Supradipa

References

Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend () by Anna Dallapiccola
 Ganpati Bappa Morya
Shri Ganesha Pancharatnam Lyrics 

Hindu mythology
Indie is a word that is short for independent. When people talk about indie in music, they mean music that is made by people independently from major record labels (mainly rock and roll groups and artists). Indie music could also be very experimental, meaning that people try out things like new or different sounds.  The styles can range from rock music to house music to pop music.

Examples of what could be described as indie music include indie rock and indie pop.

The group of stereotypical teens who tend to listen to indie music are called indie kids.

Independent artists

Arcade Fire
Archers of Loaf
Blood Red Shoes
Death Cab for Cutie
Franz Ferdinand
Pavement
Modest Mouse
Sonic Youth
DaForce Dawg
Foals
The Maccabees
Chad Valley
Raquels
The Pierces
Wiz Khalifa
The Cults
Radiohead
Frank Ocean
Billie Eilish
Tanupriya Kalita

References 

Music industry
Club Deportivo Chivas USA was an American football (soccer) team that played in Major League Soccer (MLS) in Carson, California. They began play in 2005, and played at the home of the Los Angeles Galaxy.

When the team was formed, it was planned to be a "little brother" to the very popular Mexican team C.D. Guadalajara. "Chivas", the Spanish word for "goats", is the nickname of C.D. Guadalajara. The team was originally owned by two Mexican businessmen, one of whom also owned C.D. Guadalajara. Due to falling attendance and ownership failures, MLS bought the team back in February 2014, with plans to sell it to new owners who would give the team a new name. In September 2014, the team was sold to a new group. As part of the sale, Chivas USA was dissolved at the end of the 2014 season. A new team, Los Angeles FC, will start play in 2017 replacing the old Chivas USA.
 
American soccer teams
2004 establishments in California
2014 disestablishments in the United States
2010s disestablishments in California
Abu Musab al-Zarqawi (October 30, 1966 - June 7, 2006) was the leader of the Iraq branch of al-Qaeda, a terrorist group in the Middle East. He was born in Zarqa, Jordan. He was killed by a bomb that was fired by the USAF into the house he was in at the time in Hibhib, Iraq.

References 
 Zarqawi beheading victims

1966 births
2006 deaths
Al-Qaeda people
Jordanian people
Salta is a province in the north of Argentina. It has a population of 1,000,000.

It is famous for its wonderful natural views and the old architecture in the provincial capital, Salta City.

Other websites 

Official Page 
Tourist Secretary 
Salta  
Universidad Nacional de Salta 
Welcome Salta  

Provinces of Argentina
Fermat's primality test is an algorithm. It can test if a given number p is probably prime. There is a flaw however: There are numbers that pass the test, and that are not prime. These numbers are called Carmichael numbers.

Concept 
Fermat's little theorem states that if p is prime and , then 

.

If we want to test if n is prime, then we can pick random a'''s in the interval and see if the equation above holds.  If the equality does not hold for a value of a, then n is composite (not prime).  If the equality does hold for many values of a, then we can say that n is probably prime, or a pseudoprime.

It may be in our tests that we do not pick any value for a such that the equality fails.  Any a such that 

when n is composite is known as a Fermat liar.  If we do pick an a such that 

then a is known as a Fermat witness for the compositeness of n.'' is the modulo operation. Its result is what remains, if p is divided by n. As an example,

.

What this test is used for
The RSA algorithm for public-key encryption can be done in such a way that it uses this test. This is useful in cryptography.

Computer science
Prime numbers
South Ossetia (, less commonly ), officially the Republic of South Ossetia – the State of Alania, or the Tskhinvali Region, is a de facto, disputed territory recognised as part of Georgia in the Caucasus region.

South Ossetia was a Soviet oblast (region) with some self-rule and controlled big parts of the region. When it declared its independence in 1990, Georgia tried to take back the region by force and it led to the 1991-1992 South Ossetia War. Georgia tried to retake South Ossetia again in 2004 and in 2008. In 2008, Ossetia's fighters were backed by Russian troops and they gained full control of the region, but its separation from Georgia has only been recognized by three other countries (Russia, Nicaragua and Venezuela) and Abkhazia (a similar place), and it is de jure (officially) a part of the Georgian region (mkhare) of Shida Kartli.

Internationally regarded as a Russian occupied territory of Georgia, Georgia itself refuses to recognize rebel South Ossetia as an independent state; the government calls it by the medieval name of Samachablo or, more recently, Tskhinvali region (after the republic's capital).

South Ossetia is a geographical state that borders North Ossetia-Alania to the north which is not an independent entity due to it being part of Russia.

South Ossetia relies heavily on Russian aid.

Sometimes, South Ossetia, Transnistria, Nagorno-Karabakh, and Abkhazia are named collectively as post-Soviet "frozen conflict" zones.

Geography 
South Ossetia is situated at central Caucasus, a border between Asia and Europe. It occupies a part of Greater Caucasus range and the foothills of Kartalin Valley. South Ossetia is a very mountainous region.

Related pages
 North Ossetia
 Valery Gergiev

Notes 

 
Autonomous republics of Georgia (country)
A soprano is a female singer with a high voice. Young boys who sing, and also girls, are usually called trebles. The word “soprano” can also refer to the top line of choir music. This would be sung by sopranos or trebles. Soprano is also used as a name for high pitched instruments, such as a soprano saxophone.

In opera there are different kinds of soprano voices:
 A dramatic soprano will sing big, dramatic roles such as Aida in Verdi's opera Aida. 
 A coloratura soprano will have a light voice which can bounce up to very high notes (the Queen of the Night in Mozart’s Magic Flute goes up to top F (2 ½ octaves above middle C). 
 A soubrette is usually the maid or a young girl who flirts.
 A lyric soprano role needs a beautiful smooth voice, e.g. Mimi in Puccini's La Boheme.
 A heavy dramatic soprano is needed in many of Wagner's operas, e.g. Isolde in Tristan und Isolde or Brunnhilde in Der Ring des Nibelungen.
 In the 17th and 18th centuries many of the soprano roles were written for male sopranos. Called a castrato, they were men who had their testicles removed before puberty so that their voices would remain high pitched.

Vocal ranges
The word alto can mean: someone who sings lower than a soprano.  Usually females with lower voices are called contraltos.  A male alto is a man who sings in a special way called falsetto.  In England male altos sing in church and cathedral choirs.  In some countries like Germany it is tradition to have boy altos in cathedral choirs.  These will probably be boys whose voices will soon be breaking and are starting to get lower.

One of the most famous contraltos was Kathleen Ferrier.  There are not so many female singers who call themselves contraltos these days.  It has become more fashionable to be a mezzo-soprano.  It is partly because it has become fashionable to use men for the alto parts in music by Bach and other Baroque composers, like it would have been performed in those days.

Operatic roles which need a contralto include Lucretia in Britten's Rape of Lucretia and Erda in Wagner's Der Ring des Nibelungen.

The word alto'' can also mean: the second line down in 4 part choir music.  In old music the alto line was written in a special clef called the “alto clef”, which is the same as the “viola clef” (a C clef in which the middle line is middle C).

Altos in modern music    
Adele
Sade Adu   
Fiona Apple
Sara Bareilles    
Anita Baker    
Toni Braxton
Cher
Fairuz
Fergie 
Judy Garland   
Lisa Gerrard
Lucy Lawless   
Annie Lennox
Joni Mitchell
Ily Matthew Maniano
Tina Turner
Lady Gaga       
Norah Jones
Judith Holofernes

Vocal ranges
A tenor is a man with a high singing voice. In opera the role of the young male is usually sung by a tenor.  Depending on characteristics such as: volume, color and style, the tenor voice is classified in following groups:

 The light tenor. This is also called tenor leggero. An example is Peter Pears, who sang the tenor solos in Benjamin Britten’s operas. 
 The lyric tenor. The lyric tenor is a tenor with a well timbered voice, such as "The Three Tenors" (Luciano Pavarotti, Jose Carreras and Plácido Domingo).
 The spinto tenor. They have special abilities in the high tones, such as Franco Corelli and Enrico Caruso.
 The dramatic tenor. They have a high volume and a dark voice. An example is Mario Del Monaco.

A “Heldentenor” (German for “hero tenor”) is someone with a big tenor voice. This is suitable for heroic parts like the heroes in most of Wagner's operas. Lauritz Melchior, Max Lorenz and Jonas Kaufmann are famous heroic tenors.

The Mozart tenor with characteristics including all of the previous mentioned must be able to perform within the strict borders which are laid out by the Mozart style. Anton Dermota, Fritz Wunderlich and Francisco Araiza are the three leading people as Mozart tenor.

When writing four-part choir music the tenor line will be the third line down, between alto and bass. It is usually written in the treble clef, but will sound an octave lower than written.  Sometimes, it is written in the "C-clef", which is also called a tenor clef.

In barbershop singing, the tenor part is a harmony part sung predominantly higher than the melody.

Vocal ranges
Harry Potter and the Order of the Phoenix is the fifth book in the Harry Potter series by J.K. Rowling. The book was released on 21 July 2003. It is about Harry's his fifth year at Hogwarts school of Witchcraft and Wizardry. Lord Voldemort has come back. Except for Albus Dumbledore, most people do not believe him. A movie based on the book was released in 2007.

Plot

The fifth book deals with Harry trying to make everyone else realise that Lord Voldemort has come back. Dumbledore, the Order, and Harry's friends are the only people that believe that he has returned. At the end of the book, Harry, Ron Weasley, Hermione Granger, and some of their friends go to the Ministry of Magic (the headquarters of the people who lead the magical world) because Harry thinks his godfather is in danger. It turns out it was a trick using mind magic, and his godfather (Sirius Black), is murdered by Bellatrix Lestrange. They are attacked by some of their enemies. At the end, Voldemort comes, but Dumbledore saves Harry from him, and all the other wizards see Voldemort and know Harry is telling the truth. Harry is then returned to Hogwarts where Dumbledore tells him everything that he needs to know about the prophecy and why Voldemort tried to murder him when he was a child.

Other websites 
 Extended plot wikibook
 

2003 books
Harry Potter books
Movies about giants
48 states of the United States (except New Jersey and Virginia) have a state song, chosen by the state legislature as a symbol of the state.  Some states have more than one official state song.

Songs, List of U.S. state
Lists of songs
The Pleiades (also known as M45 or the Seven Sisters) are a group of stars in the night sky. You can see them in the constellation Taurus, the bull. Charles Messier gave it the name M45. They are named after the Pleiades in Greek mythology.

This an open star cluster of middle-aged hot B-type stars in the constellation of Taurus. It is one of the nearest star clusters to Earth, and is the cluster most obvious to the naked eye in the night sky. The cluster is dominated by hot blue and extremely luminous stars that have formed within the last 100 million years. 

Open star clusters
Deimos (or Mars II) comes from the Greek word for terror. It is the smaller moon of Mars.  Its orbital period is 30.3 hours, which is 1.263 days.

Deimos is only 15 kilometers in diameter. It is covered with craters, as Earth's moon and other bodies without an atmosphere are.

Discovery and naming 
Deimos was discovered by Asaph Hall at the United States Naval Observatory in Washington, D.C. on 12 August 1877.

It is named after the god Deimos in Greek mythology, who was one of Mars' sons, and means Panic.

Physical characteristics 
Deimos is not spherical with triaxial dimensions of 15 × 12.2 × 11 km. Deimos is made up of rock rich in carbonaceous material. It is has lots of craters. Escape velocity from Deimos is 5.6 m/s. The apparent magnitude of Deimos is 12.45.

Exploration 
The Soviet Phobos program sent two probes to Phobos. In case Phobos 1 succeeded, Phobos 2 could have been sent to Deimos. Both probes launched successfully in July 1988.

In 1997 and 1998, the proposed Aladdin mission was selected. The plan was to visit both Phobos and Deimos, and launch projectiles at the satellites. The probe would collect the dust kicked into space as it made a slow flyby. These samples would be returned to Earth for study three years later.

Also, the sample-return mission called Gulliver to Deimos, in bringing 1 kilogram (2.2 pounds) of material from Deimos to Earth.

Another concept of sample-return mission from Phobos and Deimos is OSIRIS-REx 2, which would use heritage from the first OSIRIS-REx.

In March 2014, a mission was proposed to place an orbiter on Mars orbit by 2021 and study Phobos and Deimos. It is called Phobos And Deimos & Mars Environment (PADME).

References

Moons of Mars
Charon is a moon of the dwarf planet Pluto. It is half as wide as Pluto and is much like the dwarf planet itself. It was discovered many years after Pluto. They are sometimes considered a binary system, as Charon does not orbit Pluto, and Pluto does not orbit Charon. They orbit a barycentre in space.

Naming
The moon is named after Charon in Greek mythology, a boatman who would carry the souls of dead people across the river Acheron to the underworld.

Discovery 

Charon was found by astronomer James Christy on June 22, 1978, when he was looking at highly blown up picture of Pluto on a photographic plate that taken a couple of months before. Christy noticed that a slight bulge was able to be seen every now and then. This finding was made public on July 7, 1978. Later, the bulge was confirmed on plates dating back to April 29, 1965.

Later observations of Pluto were able to figure out that the bulge was due to a smaller body. The orbit of the bulge fit in with Pluto's rotation period, which was already known from Pluto's light curve. 

Any final doubts were erased when Pluto and Charon entered a five-year period of mutual eclipses between 1985 and 1990. This happens when the Pluto-Charon orbital plane is edge-on as seen from Earth, which only happens at twice in Pluto's 248-year orbital period. It was very lucky that one of these intervals happened to occur so soon after Charon's discovery.

Pictures 

Pictures showing Pluto and Charon as separate disks were taken for the first time by the Hubble Space Telescope in the 1990s. Later, after a new technology called adaptive optics was discovered, it was possible to see Pluto and Charon as separate disks using ground-based telescopes.

References

Other websites 

 Charon Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 James W. Christy and Robert S. Harrington, "The satellite of Pluto," The Astronomical Journal 83 (1978) 1005
 Marc W. Buie, Phases of Charon as seen from Pluto, Lowell Observatory
 Buie, Surface of Charon and Pluto
 Hubble reveals new map of Pluto, BBC News, September 12, 2005
 IAU Circular No. 3241 describing the discovery
 Measuring the Size of a Small, Frost World  (ESO press release January 2006)
 M. J. Person et al.: Charon’s Radius and Density from the Combined Data Sets of the 2005 July 11 Occultation (submitted to the Astronomical Journal, February 3, 2006)
 Cryovolcanism on Charon and other Kuiper Belt Objects 

Pluto's moons
In mythology, Charon was the ferryman of Hades. He was the son of Erebos and Nyx. 

Charon took the newly dead people across the river Acheron or Styx to the Greek underworld, if they paid him three obolus (a Greek silver coin). Because of this, people in Ancient Greece were always buried with a coin under their tongue and one on each eye to pay Charon. Those who could not pay him had to wander the banks of the Acheron until they found a pauper's entrance to Hades.

The largest moon of the planet Pluto is named Charon after this mythological person. 

Greek gods and goddesses
Afterlife
Eros is the god of love, lust, and sex in Greek mythology.

According to Hesiod's Theogony, Eros came from the Chaos. Later it was said that he was the son of Ares and Aphrodite.

His lover is Psyche.

Eros has a bow and golden arrows with whom he can shoot at people so they will fall in love, but he has also leaden arrows which make people hate others.

There is a famous statue which many people think is to Eros, but is actually to Anteros in London in Piccadilly Circus.

From the name Eros we get the word erotic, meaning: to do with sexual love (passionate and physical). There is also a noun: eroticism.

Eros is the son of Aphrodite. 

Eros' main myth is: "the myth of Eros and Psyche" in which Eros and Psyche fall in love after psyche is put through tasks by Aphrodite.

Related pages

 Cupid, the version of Eros in Roman mythology
433 Eros

Greek gods and goddesses
A wheelwright is someone who builds or repairs wheels. In the olden days there were lots of carts. The wheels were made of wood. It was a difficult job to make them, so the cartwright made the cart and the wheelwright did the specialized job of making the wheels. In ancient times some wheels were made of bone in order to look beautiful.

The word wheelwright is not often used for people who make wheels today. Wheels are made in factories and lots of people on the production line each have their bit to do.

Occupations

pt:Anexo:Lista de municípios de Santa Fé#Comunas
A throne is the official chair or seat upon which a monarch (royal ruler) is seated on state or ceremonial occasions. The word "throne" can also refer to the monarchy itself.

References 

Royalty and nobility
Monarchy
Sir Ian Terence Botham (born 24 November 1955) is an English retired cricketer. He also played football. He was an all-rounder, being good at both batting and bowling. He was also very good at catching the ball when he was fielding. He played over 100 test matches for England. He is a very popular man in England. One reason for this is that he helped England to beat Australia in a series of test matches called "The Ashes" in 1981. This series is sometimes called "Botham's Ashes". Now he works on television. He has done some long walks to raise money for charity. He was knighted in 2007.

References

1955 births
Living people
English cricketers
English footballers
Sportspeople from Cheshire