cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Professional Golfers' Association, (with or without the apostrophe), is the usual term for a professional association in men's golf. It is often abbreviated to PGA. There are several PGAs around the world. These include:

 Professional Golfers' Association (Great Britain & Ireland)
 Professional Golfers' Association of America

The women's version is Ladies Professional Golf Association. It is commonly abbreviated to LPGA. The United States association is called the LPGA. Other women's bodies have names based on where they are located. For example, LPGA of Japan or LPGA of Korea. 

The organisations which run the world's two leading professional golf tours have the letters PGA in their names. They are now independent of the Professional Golfers' Associations that created them: 
 The PGA Tour runs the PGA Tour, Champions Tour and Nationwide Tour.
 The PGA European Tour runs the European Tour, Challenge Tour and European Seniors Tour.

At first, PGAs were the main groups for all forms of professional golf in their area. Now some of them, including those of the United States, the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and Ireland, are focused on the needs of the professional golfers who work as club or teaching professionals. They do not have as much to do with tournament professionals.

Golf
Fromage frais is a dairy product of French and Belgian origin.

Fromage frais is a creamy soft cheese. It is made with whole or skimmed milk and cream. It is like cream cheese, but with less fat (fewer calories and less cholesterol). When people need fromage frais but cannot get it, they can use low fat cream cheese.
Pure fromage frais has very little fat. Cream is often added to make it taste better. This adds more fat. 8% of the weight of fromage frais with cream can be fat.

There are two ways to serve fromage frais. It can be served as a dessert similar to yogurt, often with added fruit. It can be used in savory dishes. In restaurants it is often served with honey. Restaurants call this fromage blanc au miel.

References

Other websites 
What is fromage frais (with or without fat?)

Cheeses
"Stupid" is a song written by Sarah McLachlan and produced by Pierre Marchand for McLachlan's eighth album Afterglow (2003). It was released as the album's second single in Australia and the United States in mid-2004.

The music video features McLachlan in different time periods and was directed by Sophie Muller.

The song became McLachlan's highest-charting single release in Australia, debuting at number thirty-seven in early June 2004. It spent seven weeks on the Australian ARIA Singles Chart, two of which were in the top fifty.

A remix of the song, titled "The Mark Bell Mix" was featured on So You Think You Can Dance.

Track listing
CD single
 "Stupid" — 3:26
 "Stupid" (Hyper remix) — 3:26
 "World on Fire" (Junkie XL club mix) — 12:21
 Enhanced with "Stupid" music video

Charts

Release history

Notes

2004 songs
Portia Lee James DeGeneres (born Amanda Lee Rogers; January 31, 1973), known professionally as Portia de Rossi (), is an Australian-American actress, model and philanthropist. She is best known for the television work on series such as Ally McBeal and Arrested Development.

Early life
She was born in Horsham, Victoria, Australia. She is the daughter of Margaret, a medical receptionist, and Barry Rogers. Her father died when she was nine. She grew up in Grovedale, a suburb of Geelong, Victoria. She modelled for print and TV commercials as a child. In 1988, at the age of 15, Rogers adopted the name Portia de Rossi, by which she remains best known; in 2005, she explained that she wanted to reinvent herself, using the given name of Portia, a character from William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice and an Italian last name.

Personal life
She wrote a book about her battle with anorexia called Unbearable Lightness: A story of loss and gain. At one stage she weighed only , was eating only 300 calories a day, and taking 20 laxative pills a day.

She is openly lesbian. She married comedian Ellen DeGeneres in Los Angeles in 2008.

References

1973 births
Living people
Actors from Victoria (Australia)
American LGBT people
American television actors
Australian LGBT people
Australian television actors
Lesbians
LGBT actors
People from Geelong
Animal colour (or coloration) is produced by light reflecting from an animal's surface. The ways animals produce colours include pigments, chromatophores and other structures, and bioluminescence.

Since sight is usually so important to animals, and is so often used by predators as a long-range way to find prey, an animal's colour must serve one or more functions. These functions, such as finding prey, or evading capture, or finding a mate, are absolutely essential for life and survival. Therefore, animal colour is determined by natural selection because it affects the survival of animals and their offspring.

Some of the most obvious functions of colour are:
 Camouflage: enabling an animal to remain hidden from view
 Signalling to other animals
 Warning colouration: signalling to other animals not to attack
 Mimicry: taking advantage of another species' warning coloration
 Sexual selection: finding a mate
 Other kinds of signalling
 Diversion
 Startle defence: unexpected flashes of colour or eyespots
 Dazzle: confusing a predator by moving a bold pattern (such as zebra stripes) rapidly
 Physical protection: such as humans in tropical climates have dark skin pigments which protect against sunburn and skin cancer.
 Incidental colouration. This is common in plants, which have green leaves because chlorophyll is green. In animals it is rare, such as having red blood (haem, needed to carry oxygen, is red). However, when the red shows on the surface it is often due to selection, as in human red lips.

Overwhelmingly, the most common function of colour is in predator-prey relationships. "Anti-predator adaptations occur in every biome of the world and in almost every taxonomic group".

Animal colour has been a topic of interest and research in biology for a long time. According to Charles Darwin's 1859 theory of natural selection, features such as colouration evolved by providing individual animals with a reproductive advantage. For example, individuals with slightly better camouflage than others of the same species would, on average, leave more offspring.

Startle and dazzle defences 
Animals can have a camouflage defence at distance, but when faced by a predator they may switch to a 'flash' defence to gain time and distract the predator. The predator often blinks or turns its face away in self-defence. This is a reflex act which is there to protect its vital facial area. In the second the predator blinks, the prey flies or jumps, and lands in camouflage again. This pattern of colour plus behaviour is quite common. It is called deimatic defence by textbooks, from the Greek for 'dread' or 'to frighten'.

Related pages 
Camouflage
Defence against predators
Mimicry
Sexual dimorphism
Warning colouration

References 

Evolutionary biology
Ecology
Tinker Tailor Soldier Spy is a 2011 British-French spy movie. It was directed by Tomas Alfredson.

The movie is based on the 1974 novel Tinker, Tailor, Soldier, Spy by John le Carré. It is set in London in the early 1970s. The story follows the hunt for a Soviet double agent at the top of MI6.

The novel had already been the basis of a 1979 BBC Television miniseries with Alec Guinness in the lead role.

Related pages 
Kim Philby

Other websites
 

2011 movies
2010s spy movies
2011 thriller movies
British spy movies
British thriller movies
English-language movies
French thriller movies
German thriller movies
American thriller movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in London
Movies set in the 1970s
Movies directed by Tomas Alfredson
Cats & Dogs is a family action comedy movie from 2001. It had a sequel called Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore (2010).

Sources

Other websites

 
 
 
 
 

Family movies
2000s action movies
2001 comedy movies
2001 movies
Movies about animals
American movies
Cats & Dogs: The Revenge of Kitty Galore is a 2010 family action comedy movie. It was directed by Brad Peyton. It is the sequel to Cats & Dogs.

Sources

Other websites
 
 
 
 
 

2010 movies
2010s action movies
2010s comedy movies
Family movies
Movies about animals
American movies
A thermosetting polymer, also known as a thermoset, is polymer material that irreversibly cures. The curing may be done by: 
 heat (generally above ) 
 a chemical reaction (two-part epoxy, for example) 
 irradiation such as electron beam processing

Thermoset materials are usually liquid or malleable before curing, so they can be molded into their final form. Others are used as adhesives. Others are solids. Some solid thermosetting polymers are used as molding compound in semiconductors and integrated circuits (IC). Once hardened a thermoset resin cannot be reheated and melted back to a liquid form.

Process
The curing process transforms the resin into a plastic or rubber by a cross-linking process.  Energy and/or catalysts are added that cause the molecular chains to react at chemically active sites (unsaturated or epoxy sites, for example), linking into a rigid, 3-D structure. The cross-linking forms a molecule with a larger molecular weight, resulting in a material with a higher melting point.  During the reaction, the polymer's molecular weight increases to the point that its melting point is higher than the surrounding ambient temperature. So, the material forms into a solid material.

Uncontrolled reheating of the material results in reaching the decomposition temperature before the melting point is reached.  So, a thermoset material cannot be melted and re-shaped after it is cured.  This implies that thermosets cannot be recycled, except as filler material.

Properties
Thermoset materials are generally stronger than thermoplastic materials due to this three dimensional network of bonds (cross-linking). Thermoset materials are also better suited to high-temperature applications up to the decomposition temperature. However, they are more brittle. Many thermosetting polymers are difficult to recycle.

Related pages
 Vulcanization
 Fusion bonded epoxy coating
 Thermoplastic

References 

Polymers
Emperor Taizong of Tang (born Li Shimin, January 23, 599 – July 10, 649) was the second emperor of the Tang Dynasty of China. He was the emperor who conquered all of China under Tang control. His ancestral name is Taizong. His rule of the Tang Dynasty earned him the nickname of "Rome of the East" by the Romans. His throne name was Zhenguan. This was considered one of the best times of rule in China. Taizong had three siblings: two brothers and a sister. They were: Li Jiancheng, Li Yuanji and Princess Pingyang. 

599 births
649 deaths
Emperors and Empresses of China
The Death of General Wolfe is a painting by Anglo-American artist Benjamin West.  

The painting shows the death of British General James Wolfe during the Battle of Quebec of the Seven Years' War in 1759. The painting is an oil on canvas of the Age of Enlightenment. West made the painting in 1770. It is now in the National Gallery of Canada in Ottawa.

Related pages
 The Death of the Earl of Chatham

References

18th-century paintings
American paintings
Framly Nainggolan (born in Jakarta, Indonesia, July 29, 1984) is an actor from Indonesia. He played in several movies such as Jenglot Pantai Selatan (2011). He is the winner of the competition of L-Men Of The Year 2005.

Filmography 
 Jenglot Pantai Selatan (2011)

References

Other websites 
 Profile at Indonesianfilmcenter.com 

Indonesian actors
1984 births
Living people
People from Jakarta
The Death of the Earl of Chatham is the title of a 1781 oil-on-canvas painting by Boston-born American artist John Singleton Copley. 

The painting shows the fallen body of William Pitt, 1st Earl of Chatham on 7 April 1778, during a debate in the House of Lords on the American War of Independence. The painting includes fifty-five portraits.

Related pages
 The Death of General Wolfe

References

18th-century paintings
American paintings
The TCP/IP model (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) is a model with four layers which is for both modelling current Internet architecture, as well as providing a set a rules that govern  all forms of transmission over a network. DARPA, an agency of the United States Department of Defense,created it in the 1970s. It evolved from ARPANET, which was an early wide area network and a predecessor of the Internet. The TCP/IP Model is sometimes called the Internet Model or less often the DoD Model.

This model was being made at the same time as the OSI Model was created. The TCP/IP model is not the same as the OSI Model, however it was influenced by the model, which is why many names of the different layers are the same.

The TCP/IP model describes a set of general design guidelines and implementations of specific networking protocols to enable computers to communicate over a network.  TCP/IP provides end-to-end connectivity specifying how data should be formatted, addressed, transmitted, routed and received at the destination.  Protocols exist for a variety of different types of communication services between computers.

TCP/IP has four abstraction layers as defined in RFC 1122: link layer, IP layer, transport layer and  application layer. People often compare this layer architecture with the seven-layer OSI Reference Model; using terms such as Internet reference model. This is incorrect, however, because it is descriptive while the OSI Reference Model was intended to be prescriptive, hence being a reference model.

The TCP/IP model and related protocols are maintained by the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF).

Internet protocols
Christopher Alan "Chris" Pallies (November 7, 1957 – March 5, 2019) better known by his ring name, King Kong Bundy, was an American stand-up comedian, actor and professional wrestler who was best known for wrestling with World Wrestling Federation. He won a Slammy Award in 1987 for the Bobby "The Brain" Heenan Scholarship Award. While he was signed to the WWF, Bundy had numerous feuds with Andre the Giant, Hulk Hogan and The Undertaker.

Bundy died at his home in Glassboro, New Jersey on March 5, 2019, aged 61.

Championships
Bundy held many championships during his professional wrestling career:

AWA Superstars of Wrestling
AWA Superstars of Wrestling Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Heavyweight Championship  (1 time)
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with Rick Rude

Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA National Tag Team Championship (1 time) - with The Masked Superstar

International Pro Wrestling
IPW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Maryland Championship Wrestling
MCW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

NWA New York
NWA New York Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

Top Rope Wrestling
TRW Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

World Class Championship Wrestling
NWA American Heavyweight Championship (2 times)
NWA American Tag Team Championship (2 times) - with Bill Irwin (1) and Bugsy McGraw (1)

World Wrestling Federation
Slammy Award for Bobby "The Brain" Heenan  Scholarship Award (1987) with Haku, Tama, André The Giant, Hercules, and Harley Race
World Wide Wrestling Alliance
WWWA Heavyweight Championship (1 time)

References

Other websites
King Kong Bundy's WWE alumni profile

1957 births
2019 deaths
Sportspeople from New Jersey
Former WWE wrestlers
American professional wrestlers
Apostatic selection is frequency-dependent selection by predators. It applies when prey are two or more forms (morphs) which look quite different. This is a kind of polymorphic species, where the predator learns to select the more common form. Then there is an advantage in looking different, and this advantage keeps the frequency above the mutation rate. The second form, or 'morph', becomes better known by predators as its number increases. So the population tends to have a kind of balance between the frequency of the two morphs.

Apostatic selection is similar to the idea of prey switching. Apostatic selection is the term used when the different forms are genetic morphs. In comparison, 'prey switching' is used when describing the predator's choice between different species.

References 

Evolutionary biology
Ecology
The term above mean sea level (AMSL) is the elevation or altitude used by engineers to determine the coverage area a station will be able to reach.  It is also used in aviation, where most heights are recorded and reported in AMSL (see flight level), and in the atmospheric sciences.

Definition
A "mean sea level" is imaginary. It is not possible to know the average sea level for the entire planet. The sea level also changes over time when measured in the same place. The sea moves, high and low pressure zones affect the height, tides change the sea level, and local difference in gravity all affect the sea level. People can only pick a spot and calculate the mean sea level at that point and use it as a datum. For example, the British Ordnance Survey uses a datum based on the measurements of mean sea level at a gauge at Newlyn, Cornwall from 1915 to 1921 for their maps of Great Britain. This datum is actually about 80 cm different from the mean sea level reading on the other side of the country. An alternative is to base height measurements on an ellipsoid of the entire earth. GPS and other satellite systems do this. In aviation, the ellipsoid known as World Geodetic System 84 is increasingly used to define mean sea level.  Another alternative is to use a geoid based datum such as NAVD88.

References

Physical geography
Geodesy
The protozoan Trichomonas gallinae is a cosmopolitan parasite found in birds. It most often infects pigeons and doves, but can also affect other birds such as domestic and wild turkeys, chickens and birds of prey. The disease in pigeons is commonly called canker. A similar parasite in falcons is called "frounce".

References

Parasites
Chromatophores are pigment-containing and light-reflecting cells found in amphibians, fish, reptiles, crustaceans, and cephalopods. They are largely responsible for generating skin and eye colour in cold-blooded animals.

Some species can rapidly change colour so as to keep in camouflage, or to signal. They do this by moving pigment and reflective plates in chromatophores. This process is called physiological colour change. Cephalopods such as octopus have complex chromatophore organs controlled by muscles to achieve this. The display is under central nervous control based usually on input from the eyes.

Vertebrates such as chameleons get a similar effect by cell signalling. Such signals can be hormones or neurotransmitters. They may be started by changes in mood, temperature, stress or visible changes around the animal.

Cephalopod chromatophores 

Colleoid cephalopods have complex organs which they use to change colour rapidly. This is seen in squid, cuttlefish and octopuses.  Each chromatophore unit is a single chromatophore cell and muscle, nerve, glial and sheath cells. Inside the chromatophore cell, pigment granules are in an elastic sac. To change colour the animal changes the sac form or size by muscular contraction. This changes its appearance. This differs from the mechanism used in fish, amphibians and reptiles, because the shape of the sac is being changed rather than pigment being moved in the cell. However, a similar effect is achieved.

Octopuses can operate chromatophores in complex, wavelike displays, giving rapidly changing colour schemes. The nerves that operate the chromatophores are thought to be positioned in the brain in a pattern similar to that of the chromatophores they each control. This may explain why, as the neurons are activated one after another, the colour change occurs in waves. 

Like chameleons, cephalopods use colour change for social interaction. They are also among the most skilled at camouflage, with the ability to match both the colour and the texture of their local environment with remarkable accuracy.

References 

Ecology
Physiology
Tree ferns are a large group of ferns with tree-like form. They are part of a subclass of ferns which is monophyletic by DNA sequence analysis.

The tree-ferns and some other ferns with creeping rhizome stems make up the Cyatheales group of ferns (as a sub-class or order). The tree-like habit has evolved a number of times in this group. They can grow up to 20 metres tall, with their large fronds at the top.

Tree ferns are found growing in tropical and subtropical areas as well as temperate rainforests in Australia, New Zealand, and other island groups nearby. A few genera extend further, such as Culcita in southern Europe. Like all ferns, tree ferns reproduce by means of spores developed in sporangia on the undersides of the fronds.

The fronds of tree ferns are usually very large, and multiple-divided fronds. The young fronds of tree ferns emerge in coils that uncurl as they grow.

Unlike flowering plants, tree ferns do not form new woody tissue in their trunk as they grow. Rather, the trunk is supported by a fibrous mass of roots that expands as the tree fern grows.

It is not certain how many species of tree fern there are but it is likely to be around a thousand. New species are discovered in New Guinea with each botanical survey. Many species must have become extinct in the last century as forest habitats were cut down by people.

References 

Pteridophyta
George Eastman (July 12, 1854 - March 14, 1932) was an American inventor and businessman.

Eastman was born in Waterville, New York. He founded the Eastman Kodak Company and invented roll film. This made photography popular and led to other men inventing film stock. His Kodak company still runs today, but more focused on printers and printing.

Eastman shot himself dead in Rochester, New York.

References 

American inventors
Businesspeople from New York
Suicides by firearm in the United States
1854 births
1932 deaths
Pervasive developmental disorder is an autistic spectrum disorder. The full name for this condition is pervasive developmental disorder-not otherwise specified. It is also known as atypical autism.

Nervous system
Sonic Youth is an American rock band from New York City. The band was formed in 1981. In the beginning of their career, the band was associated with the underground art and music scene in New York City, No Wave. Sonic Youth was part of the first wave of American noise rock groups, but made their own interpretation of hardcore punk sound. Critics consider Sonic Youth as an important element in the rise of indie rock movements. The band members are: Thurston Moore (guitar and vocals), Kim Gordon (bass, vocals, and guitar), Lee Ranaldo (guitar and vocals), Steve Shelley (drums), and Mark Ibold (guitar and bass).

Discography 

Sonic Youth (1982)
Confusion Is Sex (1983)
Bad Moon Rising (1985)
EVOL (1986)
Sister (1987)
Daydream Nation (1988)
Goo (1990)
Dirty (1992)
Experimental Jet Set, Trash and No Star (1994)
Washing Machine (1995)
A Thousand Leaves (1998)
NYC Ghosts & Flowers (2000)
Murray Street (2002)
Sonic Nurse (2004)
Rather Ripped (2006)
The Eternal (2009)

References

Other websites 

Sonic Youth – official website 
Sonic Youth live recordings archive 

1980s establishments in New York (state)
2011 disestablishments in the United States
American punk bands
American rock bands
Indie rock bands
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups established in 1981
Musical groups from New York City
Leroy "Goldy" Goldsworthy (October 18, 1908 – March 16, 1980) was an American ice hockey player. He played 11 seasons in the NHL. Goldsworthy won the Stanley Cup while a member of the Chicago Black Hawks in 1934. Goldsworthy along with Rosario Couture were given the task of helping identify the body of their Black Hawks teammate Jack Leswick when Leswicks body was pulled out of the Assiniboine River in August 1934.

Other websites
 
 

1908 births
1980 deaths
American ice hockey players
Boston Bruins players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Detroit Red Wings players
Montreal Canadiens players
New York Americans players
New York Rangers players
Stanley Cup champions
Sportspeople from Minnesota
Jemaah Islamiah  (, al-Jamāʿat ul-Islāmíyatu, meaning "Islamic Congregation", frequently abbreviated JI), is a Southeast Asian militant Islamic organization. It wants the creation of an Islamic caliphate (Daulah Islamiyah)  in Southeast Asia. It would include Indonesia, Malaysia, the southern Philippines, Singapore and Brunei.  JI was added to the United Nations 1267 Committee's list of terrorist organizations linked to al-Qaeda or the Taliban on 25 October 2002 under UN Security Council Resolution 1267.

References

Islamic organizations
Terrorism
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Indonesia
Smosh is a web-based comedy duo. The members are Ian Hecox and Anthony Padilla who have been on YouTube since 2005. Today they have over 5 different channels, over 300 videos on their main channel and over 10 million subscribers.

History
Smosh started as early as 2001 when Anthony created a website named smosh.com and started adding flash videos. Shortly after Ian joined him.

They both started their famous YouTube channel Smosh in November 2005 uploading the Pokemon Theme Song which eventually gained 25 million views which was, at the time, the most viewed video on YouTube, however six months later into the fame the video was removed for copyright reasons.

Later on in March 2007 though, a user named Andi2000 re-uploaded the video and today, it has 15 million views. Smosh also re-made the video in November 2010 changing the lyrics a little bit so it wouldn't be removed again.

In 2009 smosh.com had a major redesign. Adding a games section and an extras and bloopers for their skit. 2010 also a new iSHUT UP app available on the App Store and Google Play and three new web-series': Ask Charlie, Lunchtime with Smosh and Ian is Bored.

In January 2013 Smosh became the most subscribed channel on the internet beating Ray William Johnson.

Nowadays, there skits are more general and advanced.

Channels

Smosh
The head channel where Padilla and Hecox post new skits every Friday.

IanH
IanH is their second channel which was originally just Hecox's personal channel for unscripted vlogs and such. It's now known for Ian is Bored, where the two do random things and sometimes also do mail times and foreign food tests, Lunchtime with Smosh, where Padilla and Hecox go out to various restaurants to eat different foods and answer twitter questions and Smosh Pit Weekly, a show that features different pieces and internet memes, hosted by the alternative worker, Mari Takahashi. Smosh Pit Weekly is posted every Saturday, while Ian is Bored is posted every second Monday with Lunchtime with Smosh during the other Mondays.

AnthonyPadilla
Padilla's personal channel, where he does unscheduled vlogs.

WatchUsLiveAndStuff
Padilla and his girlfriend Kalel made this channel on June 9, 2013 and have been posting vlogs on here since.

AskCharlie
Based on the January 2010 skit Charlie the Drunk Guinea Pig. This is a channel where Charlie answers questions asked by users. This show ran from January 2010 until December 2011 before he was killed off because it was too hard for Smosh to keep up.

ElSmosh
ElSmosh is the Spanish version of Smosh where Padilla and Hecox post the Spanish version of Smosh Pit Weekly, El Smosh Pit de la Semana, on Wednesdays, and post a Spanish skit on Sundays, both two days after the English version.

Shut Up! Cartoons
An animated web-series animated by different animators, post different videos Monday, Wednesday, Friday and Sunday.

SmoshGames
Smosh's gaming channel, with two new videos every day except for Saturday when they only post one video.

SmoshCast

Podcast created by Smosh as part of being bought by Mythical Entertainment

References

Internet celebrities
Comedians from California
Podcasters
Geophysics () is the physics of the Earth and its environment in space. It is also the study of the Earth by measuring things and collecting data. Sometimes geophysics means only studying the geology of the earth such as its shape, gravitational and magnetic field, internal structure and composition. It is can also mean how those create plate tectonics, magmas, volcanism and rock formation.

Some geophysicists now also study the hydrological cycle including snow and ice. They study how the oceans and the atmosphere move. They study electricity and magnetism in the atmosphere, ionosphere, and magnetosphere. How the earth and sun affect each other is also part of geophysics.

Geophysics was only recognized as a special area of study in the 19th century. But, there were geophysicists in ancient history. The first magnetic compasses were made in the fourth century BC and the first seismoscope was built in 132 BC. Isaac Newton applied his theory of mechanics to the tides and the precession of the equinox. Instruments were developed to measure the Earth's shape, density and gravity field, as well as parts of the water cycle. In the 20th century, geophysical methods were developed for remote exploration of the solid Earth and the ocean.

Studying geophysics may help with problems such as mineral resources, reducing natural hazards, and protecting the environment. Geophysical survey data help find petroleum reservoirs, mineral deposits, groundwater, and archaeological relics. Such data can also tell the thickness of glaciers and soils, and tell which areas have environmental damage that should be fixed.

Notes

References

Other websites 
 A reference manual for near-surface geophysics techniques and applications
 Commission on Geophysical Risk and Sustainability (GeoRisk), International Union of Geodesy and Geophysics (IUGG) 
 Study of the Earth's Deep Interior, a Committee of IUGG
 Union Commissions (IUGG)
 USGS Geomagnetism Program

subfields of geology
Subfields of physics
is the capital city of  Yamanashi Prefecture in Japan.

It has been recognized as a special city since 2000.

History

Kōfu's name means "capital of Kai Province". During the Sengoku period, it was the stronghold of Takeda Shingen.

Special places 
 Kai-Zenkō temple
 Maizuru Castle Park
 Takeda Shrine
 Yumura Spa
 Yamanashi Science Museum

People from Kōfu
 Hidetoshi Nakata, football player who last played with Bolton Wanderers in the Premier League. He retired following World Cup 2006.
 Naoko Takeuchi, Creator of Sailor Moon and other comics.

Sports
A J-League football team, Ventforet Kofu is based in Kōfu. Their home ground is the Kose Sports Stadium.

Sister cities
  Cheongju, South Korea
  Chengdu, China
  Des Moines, Iowa, USA
  Lodi, California, USA
  Pau, France, France
  Yamatokoriyama, Nara, Japan

References

Other websites
 Kōfu official website - Japanese
 Yamanashi International Association - English

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Yamanashi Prefecture
is a city on Awaji Island in Hyōgo, Japan. The city was founded on February 11, 1940.

Sumoto city is famous for many foods, for example: Awaji onions, Naruto oranges, and Kobe Beef.

Bicycle rental scheme
Sumoto runs runs a cheap electric bike rental program with Awaji and Minami Awaji. It is to help visitors stay for more than one day and explore the island.

References

Other websites
 Sumoto official website

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Hyōgo Prefecture
The mourning collared dove (Streptopelia decipiens) is a pigeon that lives in Africa, south of Sahara. Despite its name, it is not a close relative of the North American mourning dove (Zenaida macroura). This species is found most near water.

References

Doves
The Netherlands Bridge League (; NBB) is an association of bridge clubs in the Netherlands. It was founded in 1930.

Other websites 
Official website

1930 establishments in Europe
Bridge federations
Sport in the Netherlands
1930s establishments in the Netherlands
Lugo is a city of the autonomous community of Galicia (Spain). It is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. Lugo is the only city in the world to be surrounded by completely intact Roman walls.

The city is in the northwest of Spain. It is capital city of the Province of Lugo. 

Capital cities in Spain
Municipalities in Galicia
Cities in Galicia
World Heritage Sites in Spain
Milton "Milt, Curly" Brink (November 26, 1910 – October 31, 1999) was an American ice hockey player. He played 5 games in the NHL, all with the Chicago Black Hawks. Brink spent most of his ice hockey career in the American Hockey Association where he played a combined 5 seasons.

Career statistics

Other websites
 

1910 births
1999 deaths
American Hockey Association (1926–42) players
American ice hockey players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Sportspeople from Minnesota
People from Hibbing, Minnesota
Ice hockey centres
Andrew John Hilbert (born February 6, 1981) is an American former professional ice hockey forward who played in the National Hockey League. He was drafted with the 37th overall pick by the Boston Bruins in the 2000 NHL Entry Draft. Hilbert has also played 3 seasons with the Boston Bruins, 1 season with the Chicago Blackhawks, 1 season with the Pittsburgh Penguins and 1 season with the Minnesota Wild.

Other websites 

1981 births
American Hockey League players
American ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Michigan
Boston Bruins players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Living people
Minnesota Wild players
New York Islanders players
Pittsburgh Penguins players
United States Hockey League players
Ice hockey centres
A Hilbert space is a mathematical concept covering the extra-dimensional use of Euclidean space—i.e., a space with more than three dimensions. A Hilbert space uses the mathematics of two and three dimensions to try and describe what happens in greater than three dimensions. It is named after David Hilbert.

Vector algebra and calculus are methods normally used in the two-dimensional Euclidean plane and three-dimensional space. In Hilbert spaces, these methods can be used with any finite or infinite number of dimensions. A Hilbert space is a vector space that has the structure of an inner product that allows length and angle to be measured. Hilbert spaces also have to be complete, which means that enough limits have to exist for calculus to work.

The earliest Hilbert spaces were studied in the first decade of the 20th century by David Hilbert, Erhard Schmidt, and Frigyes Riesz. John von Neumann first came up with the name "Hilbert Space". Hilbert space methods made a big difference to functional analysis.

Hilbert spaces show up a lot in mathematics, physics, and engineering, often as infinite-dimensional function spaces.  They are especially useful for studying partial differential equations, quantum mechanics, Fourier analysis (which includes signal processing and heat transfer). Hilbert spaces are used in ergodic theory which is the mathematical basis of thermodynamics. All normal Euclidean spaces are also Hilbert spaces. Other examples of Hilbert spaces include spaces of square-integrable functions, spaces of sequences, Sobolev spaces made up of generalized functions, and Hardy spaces of holomorphic functions.

References

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 ; originally published Monografje Matematyczne, vol. 7, Warszawa, 1937.
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Other websites

 Hilbert space at Mathworld
 245B, notes 5: Hilbert spaces by Terence Tao

Calculus
Quantum mechanics
Christian Laflamme (born November 24, 1976 in St-Charles, Quebec) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey defenceman that played a combined 10 seasons in the NHL. He was drafted with the 45th overall pick by the Chicago Blackhawks in the 1995 NHL Entry Draft. Laflamme played 3 seasons with the Chicago Blackhawks before being traded along with Daniel Cleary, Ethan Moreau and Chad Kilger to the Edmonton Oilers for Boris Mironov, Dean McAmmond and Jonas Elofsson. He only played 2 seasons with the Oilers before being traded along with Matthieu Descoteaux to the Montreal Canadiens for Igor Ulanov and Alain Nasreddine. After playing 2 seasons with the Canadiens, he signed a contract with the St. Louis Blues.

Other websites 
 

1976 births
American Hockey League players
Beauport Harfangs players
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Chicago Blackhawks players
Ice hockey people from Quebec
Edmonton Oilers players
Living people
Montreal Canadiens players
St. Louis Blues players
Verdun Collège Français players
Colson Baker (born Richard Colson Baker; born April 22, 1990), known professionally as Machine Gun Kelly (abbreviated as MGK), is an American singer, songwriter, rapper and actor. 

He is currently signed to Sean Combs' Bad Boy Records and Interscope Records. He was also named the Hottest Breakthrough MC of 2011 by MTV on December 14, 2011. His song "Invincible" featuring co-writer and singer Ester Dean is the official theme song of WrestleMania XXVIII.

Since May 2020, he has been in a relationship with actress Megan Fox. On January 12, 2022, Fox announced that the two were engaged.

Discography

Studio albums

References

Other websites

 
 
 

1990 births
Living people
Rap musicians from Ohio
Actors from Cleveland, Ohio
People from Shaker Heights, Ohio
Karl Dykhuis (born July 8, 1972 in Sept-Îles, Quebec) is a Canadian retired professional ice hockey defenceman that played a combined 14 seasons in the NHL. He was drafted with the 16th overall pick by the Chicago Blackhawks in the 1990 NHL Entry Draft. He played 2 seasons with the Chicago Blackhawks, 5 with the Philadelphia Flyers, 2 with the Tampa Bay Lightning and 5 with the Montreal Canadiens. He was named the QMJHL Defensive Rookie of the Year and was named to the QMJHL All-Rookie Team in 1989. He was also a World Junior U20 Gold Medalist in 1991.

Other websites 

1972 births
American Hockey League players
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Chicago Blackhawks players
Hull Olympiques players
Ice hockey people from Quebec
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
Living people
Longueuil Collège Français (QMJHL) players
Montreal Canadiens players
Philadelphia Flyers players
Tampa Bay Lightning players
Verdun Collège Français players
Makinohara is a city in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is a coastal city on the island of Honshū next to Suruga Bay. Nearby cities are: Omaezaki, Kikugawa, Shimada, and Yoshida.

Sister cities
 - Kelso, Washington, USA
 - Matsukawa, Nagano (Shimoina), Japan
 - Sannohe, Aomori, Japan
 - Hitoyoshi, Kumamoto, Japan

People from Makinohara
 Takuma Edamura - professional soccer player
 Mika Motosugi - actress, member of C.C.Girls J-Pop group
 Umetaro Suzuki - scientist

Other websites

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Shizuoka Prefecture
Yokkaichi  is a Japanese city in Mie Prefecture on the island of Honshū. It is a port near Nagoya.

It has been recognized as a special city since 2000.

History

In the Edo period, Yokkaichi-juku was 43rd of the 53 shogunate-maintained waystations (shuku-eki) along the Tōkaidō road which connected Edo and Kyoto.

In 1936, Yokkaichi hosted an international trade fair called "Exposition of Yokkaichi City".

Sister cities
Yokkaichi has 2 sister cities.
  Long Beach, California (USA) - Since October 7, 1963
  Tianjin (China) - Since October 28, 1980

People from Yokkaichi
Katsuya Okada - Foreign Affairs Minister
Takuya Okada - past chairman of AEON Group
Katsuaki Watanabe - president of Toyota Motor Corporation

Gallery

Related pages
 The Fifty-three Stations of the Tōkaidō

References

Other websites 

 Yokkaichi City website 
 Hiroshige prints, Yokkaichi 

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Mie Prefecture
Abiko (我孫子市, Abiko-shi) is a city in Chiba Prefecture, Japan. It is next to the Tone River.

Neighboring cities
 Inzai, Chiba
 Kashiwa, Chiba
 Toride, Ibaraki
 Tone, Ibaraki

Education

Universities
 Chuo Gakuin University
 Kawamura Gakuen Women's University

People from Abiko
 Aoki Isao (青木 功) - Professional golfer and member of the World Golf Hall of Fame
 Kiyoshi Matsumoto (松本清) - Business person, founder of the Matsumoto Kiyoshi drugstore chain, past mayor of Matsumoto, Chiba

Other websites

  Abiko official website

Cities in Chiba Prefecture
Shimada is a city in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is on the island of Honshū.

Geography
Shimada is on the Shida Plain. Several rivers pass through Shimada including the Tochiyama River and the Õi River.

Sister cities
 Himi, Toyama, Japan, from April 15, 1987
 Huzhou, Zhejiang, China, from May 1987
 Brienz, Switzerland, from August 10, 1986
 Richmond, California, USA, from December 1961. Shimada and Richmond have a student exchange program.

People from Shimada
 Yuki Iwata (岩田 ユキ) - movie director

Other websites

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Shizuoka Prefecture
Ōnojō is a city in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan. It is on the island of Kyūshū.

People from Ōnojō
 Aska - musician
 Yu Eto - footballer
 Yuichi Honda - baseball player

Other websites

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Fukuoka Prefecture
Asakuchi (浅口市, Asakuchi-shi) is a city in Okayama Prefecture, Japan. It is on the main island of Honshū.

Famous people from Asakuchi
 Hideo Nakata (Japanese: 中田 秀夫) - movie director, Ring (movie)

Other websites

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Okayama Prefecture
Thomas Funck (26 October 1919, Linköping, Östergötland, Sweden – 30 December 2010) was a Swedish writer of children's literature. He is known for his stories about Charlie Strap and Froggy Ball.

Filmography
 Charlie Strap, Froggy Ball And The Their Friends (movie) (, 1956, voice)
 Charlie Strap And The Froggy Ball (movie) (, 1987, voice)
 Charlie Strap And The Froggy Ball Flying High (movie) (, 1991, voice)

1919 births
2010 deaths
Swedish writers
Gordon Allan Wilson (born August 13, 1932) is a retired professional ice hockey player. He played two games in the National Hockey League.  He played with the Boston Bruins.

Other websites

1932 births
Living people
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
People from Thunder Bay
Percy Dwight Wickman (June 10, 1941 – July 3, 2004) was a Canadian politician and well-known activist for people with disabilities who was born in Thunder Bay, Ontario.

Wickman served as an alderman on Edmonton City Council from 1977 to 1986. He made the news when he was elected as Liberal MLA for Edmonton-Whitemud after unseating Alberta premier Don Getty in the 1989 election, despite the fact Getty had otherwise won a majority government. In 1993 election and 1997 election Wickman was re-elected as the MLA for Edmonton Rutherford. Wickman retired from politics in 2001.

Wickman died in 2004 due to a paraplegic-related illness.

Other websites
Embarrassment for Getty CBC Archives
Death of Percy Wickman 

1941 births
2004 deaths
Canadian politicians
People from Thunder Bay
Robert Douglas Whistle (born April 30, 1961) is a Canadian former professional ice hockey defenceman who played for the New York Rangers and St. Louis Blues of the National Hockey League (NHL).

Playing career
Whistle was signed as a free agent by the New York Rangers on August 13, 1985. He played 32 games for the Rangers before getting traded to St. Louis for Tony McKegney and Bruce Bell. After playing 19 games for the Blues, he was traded to the Washington Capitals. However, he played for their farm team the whole season, and he retired at the end of that season.

Career statistics

Other websites

1961 births
American Hockey League players
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
New York Rangers players
People from Thunder Bay
St. Louis Blues players
Ontario Hockey League players
James Whalen (April 29, 1869 – June 4, 1929) was a Canadian businessperson and entrepreneur based in Port Arthur, Ontario, now part of Thunder Bay, Ontario, with interests in the forest industries, shipbuilding, dredging, and towing. He began as a timber contractor in the 1890s, he built an impressive business empire in various Great Lakes marine businesses. With the help of his brothers he was less successful in entering the competitive British Columbia pulp and paper business that went bankrupt in 1925.

He was born in Collingwood, Ontario, April 29, 1869, to Joseph Whalen and Alice Broad, and died in Duluth, Minnesota June 4, 1929. His marriage to Laurel Conmee in 1896 allied his fortunes to her father, the formidable Ontario politician and contractor James Conmee.

He constructed the eight storey Whalen building in Port Arthur in 1913.

Companies associated with James Whalen
Western Dry Dock and Shipbuilding Company
Port Arthur Shipbuilding Company, PASCO
Great Lakes Dredging Company
Canadian Towing and Wrecking Company
Dominion Towing and Salvage Company
Whalen Pulp and Paper Company (British Columbia)
Canada West Coast Navigation Company
Canada Pebble Company

References

1869 births
1929 deaths
Canadian businesspeople
People from Thunder Bay
Institut supérieur de gestion, commonly named ISG, is a European higher studies establishment. The school is in three places, in Paris (France), in New-York (USA) and in Tokyo (Japan). ISG delivers Bachelor's degree, Master's degree and MBA.

ISG is specialist in the fields of economics, social sciences and management.

Since the 10th of April 2012, the school is member of the Conférence des Grandes Écoles.

References

Schools in France
Paris
1967 establishments in Europe
The Western Dry Dock and Shipbuilding Company operated at Port Arthur, Ontario, now part of Thunder Bay, on Lake Superior from its organization in October 1909 until its reorganization in November 1916 as the Port Arthur Shipbuilding Company. It was probably a subsidiary of the Cleveland-based American Ship Building Company until entrepreneur James Whalen took control in 1916. Whalen was president from 1909–1916.

Its dry dock and shops were located at Bare Point at the extreme eastern end of the Thunder Bay harbour. They were constructed in 1910. The first launching of a vessel was June 27, 1911, a scow or barge for the Great Lakes Dredging Company.

During the First World War, the company also produced shells and munitions for the Imperial Munitions Board. It also built Big Bull tractors in 1915.

Ships built by the company

 Hamiltonian (steel package freighter, 1912)
 Calgarian (package freighter, 1913)
 Noronic (passenger steamer, 1913)
 Nasookin (passenger steamer, 1913)
 Sicamous (passenger steamer, 1914)
 W. Grant Morden (lake bulk carrier, 1914)
 Blaamyra (ocean freighter, 1916)
 Thorjerd (ocean freighter, 1916)

References

Companies of Canada
Thunder Bay
is an abandoned Japanese town in Fukushima Prefecture on the island of Honshu.

History
The Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant was built in Futaba.  

The area was evacuated because of the Fukushima nuclear disaster in 2011.

In 2013, the future is uncertain for the people of Futuba.  According to the town's spokesman, 
"Futaba evacuees are so worried, because the government has not come up with a plan for the town yet, especially regarding compensation and housing. People don’t realize what it means for people to lose their hometown. It took several hundred years to create Futaba, yet it does not exist anymore. It’s all gone. Even if the level of radiation decreases in the future, we cannot go back to the town anymore, and if we merge with another municipality like Iwaki in Fukushima Prefecture, it would mean borrowing the institutions that city already has."

The people who used to live in Futuba are called "nuclear refugees".

People from Futaba
 , Olympic cyclist

Gallery

Related pages
 Kawauchi, Fukushima
 Namie, Fukushima
 Ōkuma, Fukushima
 Tamura, Fukushima
 Tomioka, Fukushima

References

Other websites

  Nuclear Nation, documentary film

Towns in Fukushima Prefecture