cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Orlando Gibbons (born: Oxford, baptised 25 December 1583; died Canterbury, 5 June 1625) was an English composer and organist.  He was one of the most important composers of his day.  He is famous for his church music and organ music.  He lived in the late Tudor and early Jacobean periods.

Gibbons was born in Oxford where his father was a city wait.  The family moved to Cambridge and his brother Edward, who was 15 years older than Orlando, became Master of the Choristers at King’s College.   Between 1596 and 1598 Orlando sang in the choir of King's College, Cambridge where his brother was master.  He entered the university in 1598 and got the degree of Bachelor of Music in 1606. He married and had seven children.

James I made him a Gentleman of the Chapel Royal, where he was organist from at least 1615 until his death. In 1625 he became senior organist at the Chapel Royal, with Thomas Tomkins as junior organist. He was also keyboard player (mainly harpsichord) in the privy chamber of the court of Prince Charles (later King Charles I), and organist at Westminster Abbey.  He died an early death in Canterbury of apoplexy, and a monument to him was built in Canterbury Cathedral.

Gibbons wrote a lot of keyboard works, around thirty fantasias for viols, some madrigals (the best-known being The Silver Swan), and many popular anthems.  He was very good at writing counterpoint as well as lovely melodies.  His famous verse anthem This is the record of John is often sung by choirs at Advent. It has a lovely solo for a  countertenor who takes it in turns with the full chorus.  Gibbons wrote two settings of the Evensong service: a long one with several verses, and the Short service. His full anthems include O Lord in thy wrath, and the Palm Sunday setting of O clap your hands together for 8 voices.

References 

1583 births
1625 deaths
Baroque composers
English composers
English organists
People from Oxford
Renaissance composers
Waits or waites were British town musicians. From medieval times up to the early 19th century, every important British town and city had a band of waites. Some other countries in Europe also had waits.  They were called Stadtpfeifer in Germany and Pifferi in Italy.

The duties (things they had to do) varied in different towns and at different times in history.  One of their most important jobs was to play at certain times of day so that people knew what the time was.  They often played from the top of church towers.  Sometimes they were also guards, watching from the towers so that they could spot any danger.  They were like watchmen, making sure everything was all right (there was no police at that time).  They woke people up in the mornings by playing music in the streets.

The instruments they played also varied.  Mostly they were loud wind instruments such as the shawm.  It was a paid job.  The waits wore smart liveries and silver chains of office with the town's arms.

In Germany the Stadtpfeifer would also play at church services.  They would play shawms or  trombones on normal days, but trumpets and drums on feast-days.

In Britain there were no more waits after 1835. The name “waits” is still used in “Christmas Waits” (any group of people singing carols at Christmas).

References 

Music
History of Europe
The oath was a pledge signed by 576 members out of 577 of France's Third Estate and a few members of the First Estate on June 20, 1789 in a tennis court near the Palace of Versailles. 

The meeting hall of the Estates General had been locked accidentally, but the Third Estate thought that this was an invasion of their rights, and were very angry with the king. They stood in a nearby indoor tennis court. They made a solemn vow that they would not move until "the voice of the country was heard" and their requests were met. They were joined by the nobles and clergy.

The vote had always been taken by class, and usually, the clergy and the nobility voted to support whatever the king wanted, so the vote of the middle class did not matter. The middle class argued that voting should be "by poll" not by order, because they had more representatives than the first two estates combined. They also wanted the Estates General to meet as one body, so that voting would be by poll, rather than by class.

A week later, the king agreed and the Estates General met as the "National Assembly".

Related pages
 French Revolution

1789
French Revolution
A pie chart is a type of chart with the shape of a pie or circle. It presents the relationship of different parts of the data. One would easily see the biggest or smallest share of the total data, by simply looking at the pie chart.

History

The earliest known pie charts were in William Playfair's Statistical Breviary of 1801, in which two are used.

This invention was not widely used at first. The French engineer Charles Joseph Minard was one of the first to use it. In 1858 he used them in maps to add information in a third dimension.

Some have said that Florence Nightingale invented it, but they were ignorant of Playfair's creation.

Nightingale was one of the first to use graphics to get important statistics to the reading public.
The polar area diagram is similar to a usual pie chart, except sectors are equal angles and differ rather in how far each sector extends from the center of the circle.
The polar area diagram is used to plot cyclic phenomena (e.g., count of deaths by month).
For example, if the count of deaths in each month for a year are to be plotted then there will be 12 sectors (one per month) all with the same angle of 30 degrees each. The radius of each sector would be proportional to the square root of the death count for the month, so the area of a sector represents the number of deaths in a month.
If the death count in each month is subdivided by cause of death, it is possible to make multiple comparisons on one diagram, as is seen in the polar area diagram used by Nightingale.

Limitations 

Pie charts are not the most accurate way to show data: that has been known for some time. Pie charts should be used only when the sum of all categories is meaningful, for example if they represent proportions.

Pie charts are rare in scientific writing. They are more common in business and economics. One reason for this may be that it is more difficult to compare the size of items in a chart when area is used instead of length. Stevens' power law says that it is harder to see small differences using visual area than when using length. This means that length is a better scale to use, because differences can be seen more easily.

This can be shown with the image to the right. The pie chart and the bar chart have the same data. Most people have difficulty putting the slices in the pie chart in order by size from biggest to smallest. When using the bar chart, it is much easier to tell the difference between bars that are very similar in size.

Notes

References 
 Cleveland, William 1985. The elements of graphing data. Pacific Grove, California: Wadsworth. 
 Phillip I. Good and James W. Hardin. 2003. Common errors in statistics (and how to avoid them). Wiley.

Other websites 

 Draw any pie chart
 Warning against using pie charts
 Polar area diagram

Pie
Le Monde (English: The World) is a French daily evening newspaper.  It is amongst the newspapers most read in France. Its political opinion is slightly left-wing. In many countries outside France, this is the only French newspaper available.

The newspaper should not be confused with the monthly publication Le Monde diplomatique. Le Monde has 51% ownership of the monthly. Despite this, the monthly has a different editorial staff.

Le Monde was founded by Hubert Beuve-Méry. This was at the request of General Charles de Gaulle after the German army was driven from Paris during World War II. The newspaper took over the format of Le Temps, because the reputation of the latter had suffered during the Occupation. Beuve-Méry reportedly asked for total editorial independence as the condition for his taking on the project. Its first edition appeared on December 19, 1944. Le Monde has been available on the Internet since December 19, 1995. It is the principal publication of Groupe Le Monde.

In 2004, it had a circulation of 371,803 copies.

Other websites 
 Le Monde 

French-language newspapers
Begging the question requires two or more ideas. Each of these ideas may or may not be true. The speaker of these ideas tries to show that one idea is true by saying a second idea proves it, but the second idea is true only if the first idea is true already.

Begging the question is commonly known as circular reasoning, though they are not exactly the same.

Begging the question is a fallacy.

Examples 
 "If such actions were not illegal, then they would not be prohibited by the law." (The sentence means "If that wasn't okay, then it wouldn't be okay.")

 "We know God exists because we can see the perfect order of His Creation, an order which demonstrates supernatural intelligence in its design." ("We know God exists because God created us" or "God couldn't create us if God didn't exist")

Modern usage 
"This begs the question" has recently been used to mean "this raises the question."  This usage is often criticized as inappropriate.

References 

Logical fallacies
Ciwan Haco (born 1957) is a Kurdish singer. He was born near Qamishlo in Syria. After finishing high school, he left for Germany in order to continue his studies. He studied music at the University of Bochum for three years. After university, he started his career as a singer. He combined Kurdish folk music with western style pop music, rock, blues, and jazz. He has released 14 albums. He become well-known on the kurdish music scene after he sang for more than 200.000 people in Batman, south Turkey, in 2003. Haco lives in Sweden with his wife. He has two children, Lorin, 7, and Rosa, 5.

1957 births
Living people
Kurdish people
Singers
Amita Marie "Tata" Young (born December 14, 1980 in Bangkok) is a Thai singer, model and actress, partly from American descent. 

She became a singer when she was 15. Her first album was called Amita Tata Young and it was very successful. It sold more than a million copies in less than 5 months. In 2004, she made an English album called I Believe. It sold many copies and made her famous in other countries as well.

In 2006  she made her second English album called "Temperature Rising", which made her even more popular, especially in Asia. In 2008 Tata Young released a Thai language album called "One Love".

Her most recent album Ready for Love was released in 2009.

1980 births
Living people
Tata Young
Thai singers
Tata Young
Bollywood playback singers
Stevens' power law is a proposed relationship between the magnitude of a physical stimulus and the intensity or strength that people feel.

Most people think that it describes a wider range of sensations than Weber-Fechner law. But critics argue that the validity of the law is not sure.

The theory is named after psychophysicist Stanley Smith Stevens (1906–1973).  Although the idea of a power law had been suggested by 19th century researchers, Stevens is credited with reviving the law and publishing a body of psychophysical data to support it in 1956.

The general form of the law is

where   is the magnitude of the physical stimulus,  is the psychophysical function capturing sensation (the subjective size of the stimulus),  is an exponent that depends on the type of stimulation and  is a proportionality constant that depends on the type of stimulation and the units used.

The table to the right lists the exponents reported by Stevens.

References 

 Ellermeier, W., Faulhammer, G. (2000). Empirical evaluation of axioms fundamental to Stevens's ratio-scaling approach: I. Loudness production. Perception & Psychophysics, 62, 1505–1511.
 Green, D. M., & Luce, R. D. (1974). Variability of magnitude estimates: a timing theory analysis. Perception & Psychophysics, 15, 291–300.
 Luce, R. D. (2002). A psychophysical theory of intensity proportions, joint presentations, and matches. Psychological Review, 109, 520–532.
 Narens, L. (1996). A theory of ratio magnitude estimation. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 40,  109–129.
 Smelser, N. J., & Baltes, P. B. (2001). International encyclopedia of the social & behavioral sciences. pp. 15105–15106. Amsterdam; New York: Elsevier. .
 Steingrimsson, R., & Luce, R. D. (2006). Empirical evaluation of a model of global psychophysical judgments: III. A form for the psychophysical function and intensity filtering. Journal of Mathematical Psychology, 50, 15–29.
 Stevens, S. S. (1957). On the psychophysical law. Psychological Review 64(3):153–181. PMID 13441853.
 Zimmer, K. (2005). Examining the validity of numerical ratios in loudness fractionation. Perception & Psychophysics, 67, 569–579.

Psychology

it:Soglia percettiva
A logic gate is an electronic component that can be used to conduct electricity based on a rule. The output of the gate is the result of applying this rule to one or more "inputs".  These inputs may be two wires or the output of other logic gates.

Logic gates are digital components. They normally work at only two levels of voltage, a positive level and  zero level. Commonly they work based on two states: On and Off. In the On state, voltage is positive. In the Off state, the voltage is at zero. The On state usually uses a voltage in the range of 3.5 to 5 volts. This range can be lower for some uses. 

Logic gates compare the state at their inputs to decide what the state at their output should be. A logic gate is on or active when its rules are correctly met. At this time, electricity is flowing through the gate and the voltage at its output is at the level of its On state.

Logic gates are electronic versions of Boolean logic. Truth tables will tell you what the output will be, depending on the inputs.

AND logic gate 

AND gates have two inputs. The output of an AND gate is on only if both inputs are on. If at least one of the inputs are off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if A and B are both in an On state, the output (out) will be an On state. If either A or B is in an Off state, the output will also be in an Off state. A and B must be On for the output to be On.

OR logic gate 

OR gates have two inputs. The output of an OR gate will be on if at least one of the inputs are on. If both inputs are off, the output will be off. 

Using the image at the right, if either A or B is On, the output (out) will also be On. If both A and B are Off, the output will be Off.

NOT logic gate 

The NOT logic gate has only one input. If the input is On then the output will be Off. In other words, the NOT logic gate changes the signal from On to Off or from Off to On. It is sometimes called an inverter.

XOR logic gate 

XOR ("exclusive or") gates have two inputs. The output of a XOR gate will be true only if the two inputs are different from each other. If both inputs are the same, the output will be off.

NAND logic gate 

NAND means not both. It is called NAND because it means "not and." This means that it will always output true unless both inputs are on.

XNOR logic gate 

XNOR means "not exclusive or." This means that it will only output true if both inputs are the same. It is the opposite of a XOR logic gate.     

 
Electronic circuits
The Plaza Mayor of Madrid was built in the 1400's on the same location as the old Plaza del Arrabal (square outside the walls). It was used as a market in the Middle Ages. It is also called the Plaza de la Constitución.

In the 1560s, King Philip II and his architect, Juan de Herrera planned to change it into a proper square for the Courts. The first part to be finished was the Casa de la Panaderia (bakery) in 1590. Gómez de Mora gave it the rectangular form. The ground is still cobbled. It finally opened in 1620 under the rule of King Philip III.

The statue in the middle is King Philip III on horseback made by Juan de Bologna. The statue was moved from the Casa de Campo to the Plaza Mayor in 1848.

In the 1700's, it was used for the crowning of kings, bullfights, carnivals and even executions. People watched from the balconies around the square. 

The Plaza has been damaged by three fires. Juan de Villanova had the plaza built again in 1853 and that is what is seen today. People can enter the plaza through nine different arches.

References

Other websites 

 Casa de la Panaderia. High resolution photo
 360° view of Plaza Mayor, Madrid
 Plaza Mayor, description and pictures 
Plaza Mayor Information and photos.
Plaza Mayor in English Visitor and student information, history, present day uses and photos.

Madrid
Town squares
1400s establishments
15th-century establishments in Spain
The Palacio Real de Madrid (Royal Palace of Madrid) is the official home of the King of Spain. It is located in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the largest palaces in western Europe.

King Felipe V had the palace built to replace the Alcazar that was burned down. It is made of limestone and granite. It was supposed to look a little like the Palace of Versailles in France. Juan Bautista Sachetti was in charge of building the palace. They started to build it in 1738. Carlos III moved into the palace in 1764. It took a hundred years to decorate all the rooms.

Spanish kings lived there until 1931 when King Alfonso XIII was forced to leave Spain. The Royal Palace is still used for special ceremonies. Letizia was supposed to walk on a red carpet from the Royal Palace to the cathedral for the wedding with Prince Felipe but it rained so she was taken in car.

Fifty of the rooms in the palace are open for public visits. Visitors enter the palace from the Plaza de la Armería. Some of the rooms that can be seen are: the 'porcelain' room, 'throne' room and 'clock' room. There is a royal army museum in the palace.

Location
The Almudena Cathedral is nearby the palace.

The Royal Alcazar of Madrid was originally on the site.

References

Palaces in Spain
Buildings and structures in Madrid
Plaza is a Spanish word related to "field" which describes an open public space in a city, such as a city square. In Spanish America, the plaza mayor of each city had three things: the cathedral, the cabildo or administrative center, and the audiencia or law court. The plaza might be large enough to serve as a military parade ground. At times of crisis or fiesta, it was a space where many people could be together at once. Similar to Italian piazzas, plazas are still a center of community life, like the market-place.

Most colonial cities in Spanish America were planned around a square plaza de armas, where troops could gather.

A plaza de toros is a bullring.

Shopping center
The first shopping center in the United States, opened in Kansas City, Missouri in 1922, was called "Country Club Plaza" and had Spanish-style architectural details. More recently, plaza has been used to describe a shopping center, similar to a shopping mall. Calling a shopping center a plaza is to give the idea of a center of cultural life.

Related pages

Plaza Mayor of Madrid

Spanish culture
Lyrics are the words to a song. A person who writes lyrics is called a lyricist.

The lyrics of a song will usually have a meaning. Some times the meaning is easy to find but other times it can be very difficult to know what the lyrics mean. Some lyrics are so strange that it is nearly impossible to understand them. In such cases, people tend to look more at the form, articulation, meter, and symmetries of the lyrics instead of looking at their meaning.

There are many websites that have the lyrics to songs. This may be a bad thing since many web sites include copyrighted lyrics without permission from the copyright holder. The United States Music Publishers' Association (MPA), which represents sheet music companies, created a campaign against such sites in December 2005. MPA president Lauren Keiser said that the sites are "completely illegal" and that he wanted to see some site operators put in prison.

Etymology and usage
"Lyric" is from the Greek; a lyric was originally a song sung with a lyre.

A lyric poem is one that expresses a subjective, personal point of view.
 I would be the Lyric
 Ever on the lip,
 Rather than the Epic
 Memory lets die.
 –Thomas Bailey Aldrich

The word lyric was used for the "words of a popular song" about 1876  for the first time. The plural lyrics was used only in referring to the words of several songs. That it is used for the words of a single song as its lyrics became increasingly common (probably because of the association between lyrics and the plural form words), and is common in modern usage of today's society. Use of the singular form lyric is still grammatically acceptable.

References 

Poetry
Writing

hu:Líra (műnem)
A service of worship is a religious meeting where people of a church come together, usually in a cathedral or church building, in order to worship God. It may also be called a church service or prayer service or just service.  It is the usual term used in the Christian religion for such a meeting.  The term is also used sometimes in Judaism, although prayer service or just service are more common.

Christianity

In the Christian churches services are normally held on Sundays, although there may be services on other days as well, especially in large churches or cathedrals.

In the Protestant church services are usually led by a pastor, although sometimes they may be led by laymen (people who are not priests). In Catholic churches and some others, they are called "Mass". 

Services often include Holy Communion or Eucharist.  Matins is a morning service which does not include communion.  An evening service is called Evensong.

Church services are also held for weddings, funerals, or other special occasions.

Services may include prayers, singing, sermons (preaching) and readings from the Bible.

Judaism
In Judaism, each prayer service is built around two main elements:  Shema and Amida.  But there are 3 prayers required for each day.

The three daily prayers in Judaism are Shaharit (Shacharit) for morning prayer, Minha (Mincha) for afternoon prayer and Arvit or Maariv for evening prayer.  The basics of each prayer consist of the Shema (although the afternoon prayer does not require Shema), and the Amida (standing prayer) which is the definitive prayer of each service.  Fundamentally, when a Jew says "prayer", he or she means Amida.  Everything else (which is largely Psalms) is just detail.
The Shema. The Shema includes three paragraphs from the Torah:  , , and .  These three paragraphs include the most basic ideas about Judaism, God, and God's relationship with the Jewish people.
The text of the Shema says it should be said "when you go to bed" and "when you wake up".  Because of this, Shema is said at the morning and evening prayer services, but not the afternoon service.
The Amidah. The Amidah ("standing prayer") is a group of blessings about everything in the relationship between God and Jews.  After the Temple in Jerusalem was destroyed, prayer became a substitute for sacrifices.   Because of this, Amidah is said at the same time of day as sacrifices:
Morning and afternoon every day, at the time of the daily burnt-offering
Evening every day, at the time when remaining pieces of the day's sacrifices were burned
Musaf. Late morning on Shabbat, Rosh Chodesh (day of new Jewish month) and major Jewish holidays, because additional sacrifices were offered then
Ne'ilah. Late afternoon at the end of Yom Kippur
Jewish prayer services are held whenever the Amidah prayer is said.  In the morning and evening, they also include Shema.

References

Worship

lt:Apeigos
Bandidos is a motorcycle club with a worldwide membership. The club was formed in 1966 by Don Chambers in Texas. Its slogan is "We are the people our parents warned us about". Bandidos is estimated to have 2 400 members in 195 chapters, located in 14 countries.

The Bandidos are involved in transporting and distributing cocaine and marijuana, and are involved in the production, transportation and distribution of methamphetamine, according to the DOJ.

The Bandidos are most active in the Pacific, Southeastern, Southwestern and the West Central regions of the U.S. The Bandidos are growing in each of these regions.

References

Other websites 
Bandidos MC

Motorcycle clubs
Blood and Honour is a Neo-Nazi music promotion network. The group organises concerts and distributes records by Rock Against Communism bands. Ian Stuart Donaldson, singer of the band Skrewdriver, was the founder of Blood and Honour. The name Blood and Honour is taken from the motto of the Hitler Youth, Blut und Ehre.

Other websites 
 Blood & Honour International
 Blood & Honour UK
 Blood & Honour UK - Central Division
 Blood & Honour Radio
 Blood & Honour USA
 Blood & Honour Australia
 Blood & Honour Croatia 
 Blood & Honour Finland 
 Blood & Honour Greece 
 Blood & Honour Netherlands 
 Blood & Honour Hungary 
 Blood & Honour Vlaanderen 
 Blood & Honour Ukraine 

Rock Against Communism
Perry Rhodan is a German science fiction series, published since 1961.

Perry Rhodan picks up nearly every theme that has ever appeared in science fiction. People from outside have criticised the series, but its commercial success during several decades has become a literary phenomenon in itself.  If nothing else, Perry Rhodan provides a mirror of the 1960s Cold War, 1970s New Age, and 1980s peace movement in its story line.  The series has an important influence on German writers in the field. The writing of the series still goes on.

History

Written by an ever-changing team of authors, Perry Rhodan is issued in weekly  in the traditional German Heftchen (pulp booklet) format.  The series was created in 1961 by K. H. Scheer and Clark Darlton.  Initially, it should have thirty volumes, but it became an long lasting success and passed 3100 installments in January 2021.

Story

Perry Rhodan is one of four fictional astronauts of the USA. In 1971, they fly to the moon, where they meet an extraterrestrial space-ship. From its owners they get technology, which they use to end the cold war and to unite the people of the Earth. Then "Terra", the Earth, becomes a power in intergalactical politics.

Other websites 
 Perry Rhodan Official Homepage (German)
 Perrypedia German Wiki-project about Perry Rhodan's Universe
 Cedric Beust's Issue Summaries (1-2500)  (English)
 Series summary (1-1799) (English)
 Mission Stardust (aka …4…3…2…1…morte) at the Internet Movie Database
 VPM's English-language Perry Rhodan site
 Technology of the Perry Rhodan Universe
 Official French Homepage
 French Fan Homepage 

Science fiction books
Series of books
Wieluń is a city in the central part of Poland in Łódź Voivodeship. Around 27,000 people live here. The city was started in 1283.

Twin towns 
Wieluń is twinned with:
  Adelebsen, Germany
  Osterburg, Germany
  Ochtrup, Germany
  Letterkenny, Ireland

Other websites 
Official city webpage

Cities in Poland
Nasjonal Samling (Norwegian for "National Gathering" or "National Unity") was a fascist party in Norway, active in the period 1933–1945. The party was founded by Vidkun Quisling and a group of sympathisers. The party's paramilitary wing was called Hirden (the Hird).

Political parties in Norway
1940s in Norway
1933 establishments
1945 disestablishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Norway
1930s establishments in Europe
World War II
For the Wikipedia style guide, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style.
A style guide (also known as style manual) is a set of rules for language usage and design of documents (records). Some style guides are about things related to graphic design, such as arranging words and white space on a page. Website style guides often help with visual or technical things. Literary style guides help with choosing the best words, common errors in grammar, punctuation and spelling; and help for how to express ideas in a precise, fair and forceful way.

Some modern style guides are for use by all people. These are usually more about language than about how it should look.

Style guides do not stop a writer from using his own unique style, but some writers believe style guides are too restrictive.

Like language itself, many style guides change as time passes. For example, the Associated Press stylebook is updated every year.

Writing
Language
Graphics
The Plaza de Toros de Las Ventas is a building in Madrid, Spain used mainly for bullfighting. Sometimes it is just called Las Ventas.  It is made of red brick and ceramic tiles.  It was built in 1929 by José Espelious and Muñoz Monasterio.  The first bullfight was June 17, 1931. It is also used for concerts.

Most fights start at 7 p.m. when the sun is not too hot.  Tickets are sold for 'sol' or 'sombra'.  The 'sombra' tickets for seats not in the sunlight cost more.

Sports buildings
Buildings and structures in Madrid
1929 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Spain
The yellow spot or macula is an oval yellow spot near the centre of the retina of the human eye. It has a size of 1.5 millimeters.

It is specialized for seeing things with highest clearness or visual acuity.

It is the area of best vision where maximum amount of cone cells are present.It is also known as fovea centralis and Macula Lutea.
Most of the sensory cells are present at this spot. It is another name for the macula. It is subdivided into the umbo, foveola, foveal avascular zone, fovea, parafovea and perifovea areas. It has a diameter of 5.5mm in humans. They contain the pigment Iodopsin and respond to bright light and colour, because of which we can see stuff clearly around us. It lies at the back of the eye almost center of the horizontal axis of the eyeball.

It is responsible for the central, high-resolution, colour vision that is possible in good light; and this kind of vision is impaired if it is damaged. It is about 6mm in diameter. The yellow spot is the most sensitive spot on the retina, the sharpest image of the object forms only here.

Eye anatomy
The retina is the thin layer of cells that lines the back of the eyeball in humans and in many animals. It is made mainly of neurons and its role is to sense the light which gets into the eye and send information about it to the brain.

Most information about light that leaves the retina travels through the optic nerve, and is used by the brain to recognize what you're seeing.  Information about light which travels through the retino-hypothamalic tract is for adjusting circadian rhythms to the 24-hour day. 

The center of the human retina, called the fovea centralis, or just fovea, has the most rod cells and cone cells for receiving light. Even though the fovea takes up only 1.5 square millimeters, it plays the most important roles in vision.  It is only around 1% of the human retina, but the fovea sends about as much information to the visual cortex as the rest of the retina combined. 

Eye anatomy
The Exploited is a Scottish punk metal band. The band was formed in 1979 in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Current lineup
 Wattie Buchan - Vocals
 Irish Rob - Bass
 Willie Buchan - Drums
 Matt McGuire - Guitar

Discography

Studio albums
Punks Not Dead - 1981
Troops of Tomorrow - 1982
Let's Start a War (Said Maggie One Day) - 1983
Horror Epics - 1985
Death Before Dishonour - 1987
The Massacre - 1990
Beat the Bastards - 1996
Fuck the System - 2003

Singles
"Army Life" - 1980  (EP)
"Exploited Barmy Army" - 1980 (EP)
"Dogs of War" - 1981
"Dead Cities" - 1981 (EP)
"Attack/Alternative" - 1982
"Computers Don't Blunder" - 1982
"Troops of Tomorrow" - 1982
"Rival Leaders" - 1983 (EP)

Split albums
Don't Let 'Em Grind You Down (W/Anti-Pasti) - 1981
Britannia Waives The Rules (W/Chron Gen & Infa Riot) - 1982
Apocalypse Punk Tour 1981 (W/The Anti-Nowhere League, Chron Gen, Anti Pasti & Discharge) - 1992

Live albums
On Stage - 1981
Apocalypse Tour (Limited Edition) - 1981
Live At The Whitehouse - 1985
Live And Loud - 1987
Live Lewd Lust - 1989
Don't Forget The Chaos - 1992
Live In Japan - 1994
Live at the White House-1996
25 Years of Anarchy and Chaos-2005

EPs
Jesus Is Dead - 1986 (12")
War Now - 1988 (12")

Videography
Live At The Palm Cove - 1983
Sexual Favours - 1987
The Exploited: 83-87 (1993)
Live In Japan - 1993
Alive At Leeds - 1995
Rock and Roll Outlaws - 1995
Buenos Aires 93 (1996)
Beat 'Em All - 2004

Best of collections
Totally Exploited - 1984
Castle Masters Collection - 1990
Apocalypse '77 - 1992
Singles Collection - 1993
Dead Cities - 2000
Punk Singles & Rarities 1980-83 (2001)
The Best Of The Exploited - Twenty Five Years Of Anarchy And Chaos (2004)
Complete Punk Singles Collection - 2005

Compilation albums
"Oi! - The Album" - 1980
"Lords Of Oi!" - 1997

Scottish rock bands
British punk bands
4Kids Entertainment (commonly known as 4Kids) was an American movie and television production company. They specialized in the creation and distribution of children's entertainment around the world. The company is most well known for the large number of Anime and animated television series it has provided to television stations. These series included Yu-Gi-Oh! and Sonic the Hedgehog. 4Kids Entertainment dubbed Pokémon until 2006. The company was first created in 1970 as Leisure Concepts, Inc.

4Kids Entertainment has provided a number of series for the Fox television network. These series have been shown on the network using the name 4Kids TV.

4Kids Entertainment filed for bankruptcy twice. They first filed for bankruptcy in 2011, and again in 2016.

History

In 1970, the company was originally called Leisure Concepts, Inc. It was created by Mike Germakian and Stan Weston.

List of shows

Criticism
4Kids Entertainment gets most of its Anime series from Japan. Before showing the series in the United States and United Kingdom, the series are edited. This editing includes changing the words from Japanese to English. It may also include changing other things which could be thought to be bad. For example, cigarette smoking is often removed before being shown in the United States. Changing the names of items from Japanese items to American items is also often done. This is done so the person watching can understand the show more easily. 

Many times the story of an episode is changed completely to make it better for children. Some people believe all the changes to the Anime is a bad thing. They say that the series should be shown exactly the same as it was originally created. They feel 4Kids made "Americanized kiddy version" of the original series and that it is not right to do this.

Other websites 
 4Kids Corporate 
 4Kids Home Video 
 Defunct website

References

1970 establishments in the United States
Companies based in New York City
Entertainment companies
Cubism was one of the most significant art movements of the 20th century. It began in France about 1907, and flourished from 1910 through the 1920s. It was pioneered by Georges Braque and Pablo Picasso.

Pablo Picasso's 1907 painting Les Demoiselles d'Avignon was an early Cubist work. Georges Braque's 1908 Houses at L’Estaque (and related works) prompted the critic Louis Vauxcelles to refer to "bizarreries cubiques" (cubic oddities).

The first organized group exhibition by Cubists took place at the Salon des Indépendants in Paris in the spring of 1911. It included works by Jean Metzinger, Albert Gleizes, Fernand Léger, Robert Delaunay and Henri Le Fauconnier, but no works by Picasso and Braque were exhibited.

According to one art historian, there were three phases of Cubism. There was "Early Cubism", (from 1906 to 1908) when the movement was initially developed by Picasso and Braque. In the second phase, "High Cubism", (from 1909 to 1914), Juan Gris emerged as an important exponent after 1911. Finally "Late Cubism" (from 1914 to 1921) was the last phase of Cubism as a radical avant-garde movement. Douglas Cooper's emphasis on the work of Braque, Picasso, Gris (from 1911) and Léger (to a lesser extent) was an intentional value judgement.

Its methods 
Cubism is a style of art which aims to show all of the possible viewpoints of a person or an object all at once. It is called Cubism because the items represented in the artworks look like they are made out of cubes and other geometrical shapes. Cubism was first started by Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque. Analytical Cubism is the first type of cubism. Most analytical Cubists painted and drew in monochrome (only one colour) so that the person who was looking at the painting did not pay attention to colour, but only to the shapes and the forms that were being shown.

This was changed in 1912 when Picasso first started painting with colours and using collages. Collage is when you glue together different cut-up pieces of paper to make an artwork. This new form of Cubism was called Synthetic Cubism. Picasso invented collage because he was tired of the way he was making his art, and wanted to try out something new.
Pablo Picasso created over 20,000 pictures. From 1912 to 1919 was Picasso's Synthetic Cubism Period.

References
Types of Cubism

There were two main types of Cubism:

 Analytical Cubism - The first stage of the Cubism movement was called Analytical Cubism. In this style, artists would study (or analyze) the subject and break it up into different blocks. They would look at the blocks from different angles. Then they would reconstruct the subject, painting the blocks from various viewpoints.

 Synthetic Cubism - The second stage of Cubism introduced the idea of adding in other materials in a collage. Artists would use colored paper, newspapers, and other materials to represent the different blocks of the subject. This stage also introduced brighter colors and a lighter mood to the art.

Art movements
Visual acuity (VA) is acuteness or clearness of vision, especially form vision, which depends on the sharpness of the retinal focus within the eye, the sensitivity of the nervous elements, and the interpretative faculty of the brain.

VA is a quantitative measure of the ability to identify black symbols on a white background at a standardized distance when the size of the symbols is varied. The VA represents the smallest size that can be reliably identified. VA is the most common clinical measurement of visual function.

Some people may suffer from other visual problems, such as color blindness, reduced contrast, or inability to track fast-moving objects and still have normal visual acuity. Thus, normal visual acuity does not mean normal vision. The reason visual acuity is very widely used is that it is a test that corresponds very well with the normal daily activities a person can handle, and evaluate their impairment to do them.

References

Other websites 
 20/20 Eyesight is Not Necessarily Perfect  Catalog of Stories by Parents of Children Who Tested 20/20, Optometrists Network
 Visual acuity measurement  The Ophthalmology Teaching Website, Faculty of Medicine, University of Toronto
Visual Acuity of the Human Eye 
Golovin-Sivtsev Table for testing visual acuity  - used in the USSR and post-Soviet states
Visual Acuity  Chapter from the Webvision reference, University of Utah
Blur simulator (for eyeglass prescriptions)

Optometry
Bob Baker (October 26 1926 - April 23 2002) was an American boxer who fought professionally from 1949 to 1960. He was one of the world's leading bulky heavyweight boxers in the 1950s. Bob "The Grinder, Big Bob, The Behemoth" Baker was born in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania. After serving 3 years in the navy, he fought out of Pittsburgh. His most notable accomplishments include the 1949 Pennsylvania Intercity Golden Gloves championship in the heavyweight division. In 1947, he won Pittsburgh Golden Gloves Championship. His amateur record is respectable 33-2. In 1948, Coley Wallace won an unpopular split decision vs. Marciano in the semifinal of the New York Golden Gloves Tournament of Champions and then he won the final of that tournament by an unpopular very close split decision vs 'Big' Bob Baker.
In 1948, Wallace & Baker met again in the final match. This time Baker won & became 1948 Golden Gloves champion again.

Baker started his professional career with 26 undefeated fights before drawing against bulky Kid Riviera but only 10 days later lost to another top boxer, Clarence Henry.

From April 1955 until February 1956, Bob Baker was ranked as the leading challenger to Rocky Marciano's heavyweight title by IBC-International Boxing Club, however Ring Magazine still rated him as #2. On Wednesday, December 7th 1955, Baker beat Nino Valdez in a rematch, again by unanimous decision. The winner of that fight was scheduled to fight Marciano.

After 13 straight wins (Baker's dozen), Baker lost to Tommy Hurricane Jackson on February 3 1956, in New York's Madison Square Garden. It was a conytorversial split decision win for Jackson. In May 1956, Baker easily defeated John Holman. Baker also lost another controversial split decision rematch with Jackson on September 26 1956. Both fights should have been draws.Opinions on both Baker-Jackson fights were divided in many publications with most of them giving the fight to Baker. United Press scored the fight 7-5 for Baker. A poll of all 13 ringside writers favored Baker 9-4.

After 1956, Baker's success was limited. His most notable victory was a sound unanimous decision defeat of solid Canadian George Chuvalo, the future Canadian heavyweight champion, by unanimous decision on September 9 1957. Chuvalo was also a multiple time championship contender in the 1960s and 1970s.

Baker died on April 23 2002, from acute heart failure, in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He is survived by his son Bob Baker jr.

Other websites
 Baker's Boxing Record 
 Ring Magazine's 1950s heavyweight ratings

American boxers
Sportspeople from Pennsylvania
1926 births
2002 deaths
Her Excellency the Rt. Hon. Michaëlle Jean (born September 6, 1957, in Port-au-Prince, Haiti) is a Haitian-born Canadian politician and journalist. She was the Governor General of Canada, replacing Adrienne Clarkson on 27 September 2005, until 1 October 2010 when David Lloyd Johnston took over. She is the Secretary General of Organisation internationale de la Francophonie since 2015 and multilingual who speaks English, French, Italian, Spanish, Portuguese and Haitian Creole.

Jean was formally appointed Special Envoy for Haiti for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization on November 8, 2010, for a four-year term.

References

Canadian journalists
Haitian people
1957 births
Living people
Order of Canada
Governors General of Canada
Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Port-au-Prince
Pascal Duquenne is a Belgian actor. He was born in Vilvoorde, Flanders, Belgium on 8 August 1970. He was diagnosed with Down syndrome.

It was Jaco van Dormael who noticed him (as Ducquenne was playing theatre). Dormael offered him his first roles in movies.

In 1996 Pascal Duquenne and Daniel Auteuil were awarded a prize (for best male interpretation) at the Cannes Film Festival. Duquenne received the prize for the role of a boy who has Down syndrome. The movie was called Le Huitième Jour (The Eighth Day).

He also has acted in other movies. Currently he lives in Brussels.

Films he acted in
 Toto le hèros (Toto the Hero), by Jaco van Dormael (1991)
 Le Huitième Jour (The Eight Day), also by van Dormael (1995)
 Lumière et compagnie (Light & Co.); a documentary made by about 40 authors (1996)
 The Room, by Giles Daoust (2006)
 Un Noël pas comme les autres  (A Christmas not like the others), by Nancy Franck (1997, Television)
 An episode of the Series Commissaire Moulin (2004, Television)

References

1970 births
Living people
Belgian movie actors
Belgian stage actors
Belgian television actors
Belgian voice actors
People from Flemish Brabant
The New Year is an event that happens when a culture celebrates the end of one year and the beginning of the next year. Cultures that measure yearly calendars all have New Year celebrations. On January 1, 1600 Scotland, was the first country to adopt January 1 as the first day of the New Year. Now, many countries celebrate the New Year on 1st of January.

Related pages

 New Year's Eve
 New Year's Day
Happy New Year 2019 Wishes
Happy New Year 2019 Greetings
Happy New Year 2019 Quotes
Happy New Year 2019 Messages
Happy New Year 2019 GIF's
Happy New Year 2019 Images
Happy New Year 2019 Status
Happy New Year 2019 Eve

Holidays
Polyethylene (also called polyethene, usually shortened to PE) is a thermoplastic. It is used in consumer goods, typical examples are transport wraps, and garbage bags. Other uses include pre-fabricated plastic parts, plastic tubes, and insulation of electric cables. Plastic wrap is usually less adhesive than PVC, but this can be remedied by adding linear low-density polyethylene (LLDPE), which also increases the film's tensile strength. The world makes over 80 million tonnes of polyethylene per year.

References

Thermoplastics
Polyvinyl chloride, also called Polychloroethene or PVC, is a thermoplastic. It turns soft when heated and hard when cooled. Polyvinyl chloride is made by polymerization of the monomer vinyl chloride (chloroethene) CH2=CHCl. PVC can be made softer and more flexible by adding plasticizers. Phthalates are often used to soften PVC in this way.

Vinyl polymers are the most common type of plastic. "Vinyl" is actually Ethylene, a gas that is used to make those plastics including PVC. In popular usage, "vinyl" is often short for PVC, but there are two other vinyl polymers which are more common. The most common is polyethylene, the second-most common is polypropylene. Another, less used, is polystyrene.

Uses 

Softened PVC is used in clothing, upholstery, electrical cable insulation, and other products instead of rubber. In the 1950s PVC became the usual material of phonograph records. Some audiophiles use the word "vinyl" to mean records made of PVC. It is used for electrical insulation of wires and cables, production of sheets, pipes (mainly chlorinated polyvinyl chloride), window frames, films, films for stretch ceilings, artificial leathers, polyvinyl chloride fiber, polyvinyl chloride foam, linoleum, dirt-resistant mats, shoe plastics, furniture edges, etc.

About half of the polyvinyl chloride resin manufactured each year is used to make pipes. PVC pipes are 66% of the newer water pipes in the US.  PVC pipes are 75% of new sewer pipes. PVC is useful because of its light weight, high strength, and low reactivity. Also, PVC pipes can be glued together, or they can be connected by heating (similar to joining HDPE pipe). Both kinds of connections make permanent joints that do not leak.

PVC plastics can be recycled.  Their recycling code is "3".

References

Thermoplastics
Chlorine compounds
The Supreme Leader of Iran is the head of state of the Islamic Republic of Iran. 

The Supreme Leader is also the highest ranking Islamic cleric in the country.

The position of Supreme Leader was created after the Islamic Revolution of 1979 in Iran.

The Supreme Leader is more powerful than the President of Iran and chooses the heads of many powerful posts in the military, the government, and the judiciary.

Ayatollah Khomeini (died 1989) and Imam Khamenei have become Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic so far.

References

Related pages 
 President of Iran

Iran
Heads of state
Religious leaders
1979 establishments in Asia
1970s establishments in Iran