cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Births 
 April 5 – Booker T. Washington, American inventor, educator, and writer (d. 1915)
 July 10 – Nikola Tesla, Croatian physicist (d. 1943)
 July 26 – George Bernard Shaw, Irish writer (d. 1950)
 August 3 – Alfred Deakin, 2nd Prime Minister of Australia (d. 1919)
 December 28 – Woodrow Wilson, 28th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1924)
Events 

 January/October: The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia.
 October 24 –  Switzerland is recognized as an independent country by the other countries of Europe.
 Saint-Barthélemy was claimed by France.
 The Eighty Years' War between the Netherlands and Spain ended.

Deaths 
 March 12 – Tirso de Molina, Spanish dramatist and poet (b. 1571)
Ribosomes are important cell organelles. They are tiny molecular robots which make proteins. They do RNA translation, building proteins from amino acids using messenger RNA as a template. Ribosomes are found in all living cells, prokaryotes as well as eukaryotes.

A ribosome is a mixture of protein and RNA that starts being made in the nucleolus of a cell. The nucleolus is in the  nucleus. The nucleus is protected by the nuclear envelope, and lets things out through the nuclear pores. Ribosomes move from the nucleolus into the cytoplasm. Most ribosomes sit on the endoplasmic reticulum, but are also found throughout the cytoplasm.

The job of the ribosome is to make new proteins. It does this by moving along a strand of messenger RNA and building a protein based on the code it reads. Making a protein this way is called translation. 

We need up to 10 million robots (ribosomes) in every cell. To get this number, cells have many copies of rRNA genes. We inherit about 400 rRNA genes across five different chromosomes.

Structure 

Ribosomes are made out of two things: a small ribosomal subunit that reads the mRNA, while the large subunit joins amino acids to form a polypeptide chain. Each subunit is composed of one or more ribosomal RNA (rRNA) molecules and a variety of proteins.

Eukaryotes have 80S ribosomes, each consisting of a small (40S) and large (60S) subunit. Their small subunit has a 16S RNA sub-unit (consisting of 1540 nucleotides) bound to 21 proteins. The large subunit has a 5S RNA (120 nucleotides), a 28S RNA (4700 nucleotides), a 5.8S RNA (160 nucleotides) subunits and 46 proteins.

References 

Organelles
William Henry Hartnell (8 January 1908 – 23 April 1975) was an English actor. He best known for playing the First Doctor on Doctor Who from 1963 to 1966.

Biography 
He was born in St Pancras, London. In 1932, he was in a movie called Say It With Music. He was in more than sixty movies. He usually played funny characters until 1944, when he was a sergeant in a movie called The Way Ahead. After that, he played a lot of policemen and soldiers. He was the main character in a movie called Carry on Sergeant in 1958. From 1957 to 1961, he appeared on a television show called The Army Game and in 1963, gave up movies and became the first Doctor in Doctor Who. Doctor Who was a new television show.

Hartnell was in Doctor Who for three years. In 1966, he got sick. He forgot some of his lines, and argued with the people who made the show. Then he left Doctor Who. Patrick Troughton became the new Doctor.

Hartnell's health got worse and in December 1974, he went to hospital. On 23 April 1975, he died in his sleep at the age of 67.

According to some of his colleagues on Doctor Who, he could be a difficult person to work with. Others, though, such as actors Peter Purves and William Russell, and producer Verity Lambert, spoke glowingly of him after more than 40 years. Carole Ann Ford, who played the Doctor's granddaughter Susan, has said she and Hartnell "got on terribly well", saying "It upsets me when I hear people saying he was difficult to work with, he was very sweet" Hartnell also adored Verity Lambert, and had great respect for Waris Hussein. Hartnell also admired singer Paul Robeson. In his Desert Island Discs interview, Hartnell stated that Paul Robeson was his hero and described him as having a voice like crushed velvet.

References 

English movie actors
English television actors
Deaths from stroke
1908 births
1975 deaths
Thomas Stewart Baker (born 20 January 1934), who is known professionally by his credited stage name as Tom Baker, is an English character actor and writer. He is perhaps best known for his work by playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running BBC science fiction television programme, Doctor Who.

Early life
Baker was born in Liverpool. His father was a sailor, and was Jewish. His mother was Roman Catholic. Baker was not very academic and struggled at school. He failed the eleven plus exam. Baker became a monk when he was 15. When he decided to change his life, he first worked in the Royal Army Medical Corps, and then as a construction worker.  He took up acting first as a hobby, then professionally.

Career
His first big part was as Grigori Rasputin in the 1971 movie, Nicholas and Alexandra. Baker is best known for playing the Fourth Doctor in the long-running science fiction television series Doctor Who. He played this role from 1974 to 1981. When he got the job, he was working on a building site, because it was hard to find work as an actor.

He is famous for playing the Doctor longer than any other actor. His version of the character is probably the best remembered by many people. As he thought of himself as a role model for children, he would always pretend to be the Doctor in real life, and sign autographs for them. He did not like to see too much violence in Doctor Who. He once changed the script so the Doctor threatened a character with a jelly baby instead of a knife.

He was a narrator for the comedy sketch show Little Britain.

Baker has had many jobs as a voiceover artist.  He is very recognized for his voice. In a 2005 survey of British adults, Baker's voice was the fourth most recognisable after the Queen, Tony Blair and Margaret Thatcher.

Works

Movies

Television

Video games

Radio

References

Other websites

Actors from Liverpool
English movie actors
English television actors
English voice actors
1934 births
Living people
Dusty Springfield (16 April 1939 – 2 March 1999) was a English pop singer. Her real name was Mary Isobel Catherine Bernadette O'Brien. Her musical career lasted from the late 1950s to the 1990s. She recorded over 200 songs during this time. She became one of the most successful female singers in Britain. She made soul music. Between 1963 and 1989, she had six top 20 singles on the United States Billboard Hot 100 chart and 16 on the United Kingdom Singles Chart. She is a member of both the US Rock and Roll and UK Music Halls of Fame. She is famous as a pop icon of the Swinging Sixties.

Springfield was born in London. She learned to sing at home. She liked American jazz music, and wanted to sound like that. In 1958, she joined her first professional group, The Lana Sisters. Two years later, she formed a singing trio, The Springfields. Her solo career began in 1963. Her first successful song was "I Only Want to Be with You". Other successful songs followed: "Wishin' and Hopin'" (1964), "I Just Don't Know What to Do with Myself" (1964), "You Don't Have to Say You Love Me" (1966), and "Son of a Preacher Man" (1968).

Later, she worked in Memphis, Tennessee on a soul album with Atlantic Records. The album was called Dusty in Memphis. It was released in 1969. It has been ranked among the greatest albums of all time by the magazine Rolling Stone, and in polls by VH1 artists, New Musical Express readers, and Channel 4 viewers. The album was also awarded a spot in the Grammy Hall of Fame.

Springfield was openly bisexual.

In March 1999 Springfield was going to go to Buckingham Palace to be given her award of Officer, Order of the British Empire. Springfield was given the award early in January 1999 in hospital.

Springfield died of breast cancer on 3 March 1999. Her name was added to the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame two weeks later, on 16 March.

References

Other websites 

1939 births
1999 deaths
Bisexual people
British soul musicians
Cancer deaths in England
Deaths from breast cancer
English LGBT people
English pop musicians
LGBT singers
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Singers from London
The Offspring is an American punk group formed in 1984 in Garden Grove, California. Their music has covered both punk rock and pop punk.

Current members 
 Dexter Holland (singer and guitarist)
 Kevin "Noodles" Wassermann (guitarist)
 Greg Kriesel (bassist)
 Pete Parada (drummer)

History 
The band was founded by Dexter Holland and Greg Kriesel after a concert of Social Distortion as "Manic Subsidal". As soon as Kevin "Noodles" Wassermann joined the band as their second guitarist in 1985, they changed their name to "The Offspring".

It would not be until ten years after forming that The Offspring saw its first piece of commercial success in its third album, Smash, which was released in 1994. Regarded by many as The Offspring's classic release, and Epitaph Records' best-selling album, Smash produced four successful hit singles: "Come Out and Play" (which reached #1 on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart), "Self Esteem", "Gotta Get Away" and the radio-only single "Bad Habit". From there, The Offspring became one of the most important punk bands of the 1990s, along with ALL, Bad Religion, Face to Face, Green Day, Guttermouth, Lagwagon, NOFX, Pennywise, Rancid, Social Distortion, The Vandals, and many others.

Their most recent album was released April 16, 2021.

Discography 
 The Offspring (1989)
 Baghdad (1991, EP)
 Ignition (1992)
 Smash (1994)
 Ixnay on the Hombre (1997)
 Americana (1998)
 Conspiracy of One (2000)
 Splinter (2003)
 Greatest Hits (2005, compilation)
 Rise and Fall, Rage and Grace (2008)
 Days Go By (2012)
Let the Bad Times Roll (2021)

References 

1984 establishments in the United States
1980s American music groups
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
American punk bands
Musical groups established in 1984
Musical groups from Huntington Beach, California
The tomato (Solanum lycopersicum) is a culinary vegetable/botanical fruit, or specifically, a berry (but not a fruit as ordinary people use the word).

It is shiny and smooth. It has many small seeds. It is also very good for health.  Most tomatoes are red. The tomato is green when it is unripe. It slowly changes color from green to red as it gets ripe, and as it gets ripe it gets bigger and bigger. There are many different types of tomatoes. Some kinds of tomato are yellow or orange when they are ripe. Tomatoes are used a lot in Italian food. They are also used to make ketchup. Tomatoes are called fruit, because they contain seeds. Tomato seeds are dispersed by being eaten by animals. After being eaten the seeds pass through the animal's digestive system.  Although tomatoes are botanically fruits, many people consider them vegetables and treat them as such in cooking.

History
The tomato is native to western South America. Wild versions were small, like cherry tomatoes, and most likely yellow instead of red. The Spanish first showed tomatoes to Europe, where they became used in Spanish and Italian food. The French and northern Europeans wrongly thought that they were poisonous because they are a member of the deadly nightshade family. The leaves and immature fruit contains tomatine, which in large amounts would be toxic. However, the ripe fruit contains no tomatine.

As food
The tomato is grown and eaten around the world. It is used in many ways, such as raw in salads or in slices, stewed, a part of a wide variety of dishes, or processed into ketchup or tomato soup. Unripe green tomatoes can also be breaded and fried, used to make salsa, or pickled. Tomato juice is sold as a drink, and is used in cocktails such as the Bloody Mary.

Related pages
 List of fruits

References

Other websites 
 "Is a tomato a fruit or a vegetable?"
 Tomato history and nutrition
 health benefits of tomato
The pineapple is a fruit. It is native to South America, Central America and the Caribbean. The word "pineapple" came from European explorers, who thought the fruit looked similar to a pine cone. The pineapple is also a tropical plant and it must not be kept under 10 degrees. It takes a long time for the pineapple to grow. It mainly depends on the location and the growing conditions it gets. If the temperature is warm, the pineapple will grow faster. On average, it takes about two to three years to grow. If the fruit travels by boat, the fruit must be picked before ripening, since the trip takes a long time. Sometimes, pineapple has to travel by boat to be accessible to all. It is different for air travel. The pineapple can be picked when it is grown, since travel time is short. In most countries, they call the pineapple ananas.

Nutrition
A pineapple contains fiber and vitamin C. The stem of the pineapple has an enzyme having healing effects, anti-inflammatory effects and it may reduce edema. The enzyme from the pineapple is also beneficial for a person who wants to go on a good diet. Pineapple contains a lot of manganese and the body needs manganese to build strong bones.

Varieties

In the world, there are a lot of varieties of pineapples. In fact, there are more than one hundred varieties and they grow in different sizes too. Four of those are the main varieties:
Sugarloaf pineapple: It usually grows in Mexico and Venezuela. The flesh is white and there is no woodiness.
English Pineapple: It is found in Central America's countries. The yellow of this pineapple is pale and it has the shape of a square.
Queen pineapple: It grows in the Hluhluwe region of South Africa. It is less sweet, the flesh is rich and yellow. The flavor of this variety is mild.
Smooth Cayenne pineapple: This variety comes from Hawaii. It contains high sugar and acid content. The leaves are spineless and they have a cylinder shape.

Symbolism 

Early Europeans commonly called any kind of fruit an apple, and that is why the Spanish thought pineapples looked like pine cones. Pineapples have nothing to do with pine cones and apples, but because of the similar shape between the pineapple and the pine cone, most people change it into symbolism. Both have been used for symbolizing fertility. The pineapple symbolized friendship and hospitality to the Caribs. These people usually hung pineapples outside their huts to show their welcome.

References

Poales
Tropical fruit
The term pear may refer to a number of fruits produced and consumed around the world, growing on a tree and harvested in the Northern Hemisphere in late summer into October. Its shape is a teardrop, the flavor of pears is best when they are cool. They are juicy. Pears do not ripen well on trees. They can be soft in the center. They can be baked, canned, frozen, or eaten fresh. They can be made into jams, jellies or juice. They can also be made into pies and put into salads or baby food. They are eighty three percent water. It has a green, red, yellow, or brown skin. The pear originated from Europe, Africa and Asia. Pear trees grow in heavy soil.

Pears are in the subfamily Maloideae with apples. It is a subfamily of  the family Rosaceae.

Description
The pear comes from the tree Pyrus communis, also called the common pear tree. The tree can be  high. They live an average of 65 years. It starts as a pyramid-shaped tree. As it grows becomes rounded. It ends up becoming oval. This tree has gray bark covered with cracks. Its leaves are dark green and  long. The flowers are pink or white and up to  long.

The pear needs soil that is neither too dry nor too wet. It grows best in temperate and humid climates. 

According to Pear Bureau Northwest, about 3000 known varieties of pears are grown worldwide.

History
The pear comes from Eastern Europe and Western Asia. It grew during the Neolithic era. Its standard form is the result of different hybridizations from wild specimens.

The pear was also cultivated by the Romans, who ate the fruits raw or cooked, just like apples.

Images

Related pages
 List of fruits

References
A melon is any kind of edible, fleshy fruit in the Cucurbitaceae family. Many different cultivars have been produced, especially of muskmelons. Botanically speaking, the melon is a fruit, but some kinds are often considered vegetables. Most melons belong to the genus Cucumis, but there are also some that belong to Benincasa, Citrullus and Momordica. The muskmelon belongs to Cucumis, while the watermelon belongs to Citrullus.

The word melon comes from the Latin , which itself comes from the Greek  ().

History
Melons come from Africa and southwest Asia. They gradually began to appear in Europe toward the end of the Roman Empire. Melons were introduced to America by early settlers, who grew honeydew and casaba melons as early as the 1600s. A number of Native American groups in New Mexico have a tradition of growing their own kinds of melon cultivars, derived from melons originally introduced by the Spanish.

Nutrition
Melons are a nutritious food. The seeds of cantaloupe were used in China to moderate fevers and the digestive system. Elsewhere, seeds were ground into a powder and used to treat tuberculosis. Cantaloupes are particularly beneficial to people with heart disease, as they have large of amounts of an anticoagulant known as adenosine. They also have high levels of potassium, which benefits those with high blood pressure. Due to their high water content, all melons are considered diuretics.

There is also evidence that suggests that eating melons can lower the risk of cancer. USDA researchers discovered that melons have lycopene, an antioxidant found in a select group of fruits and vegetables. Lycopene treats and prevents cancer by trapping free-radicals in cells.

References

Other websites

 
 
 . List of photographed varieties of melons.
 

 
Cucurbitaceae
A raspberry is an aggregate fruit, meaning it has many parts joined together. It is similar to a blackberry, but the fruit is hollow on the inside. There are many different species of raspberry plants, but only a few of them have fruit that are sold in stores. Leaves of the raspberry plant are also used fresh or dried in herbal teas. The raspberry is red when ripe, and is also a source of nectar for juices. Raspberries are a popular fruit in some parts of the world.

Plants
A raspberry plant typically grows in fields or in forest clearings where fire or wood-cutting has produced open space. As a cultivated plant in moist temperate regions, it is easy to grow. It has a tendency to spread unless cut back.

Two types of raspberry plants can be bought in stores: the older summer-bearing type and double- or "ever"-bearing plants. Raspberry plants make stalks each year. The fruit grows on these stalks. These stalks last for 2 years. Both the summer and everbearing plants create the fruit in the summer of the second year of the stalk. The stalks of the everbearing plant also creates fruit in the fall of the first year.

Species
The raspberry fruit that are sold in stores come from plants that are hybrids between two species, Rubus idaeus, European red raspberry, and Rubus strigosus, American red raspberry. Fruit from Rubus occidentalis, black raspberry, are sometimes available, and hybrids with red fruit exist. These three species are in the same subgenus, Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus.

Other raspberry species in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:
 Rubus crataegifolius (Korean raspberry)
 Rubus gunnianus (Tasmanian alpine raspberry)
 Rubus leucodermis (Whitebark or Western raspberry, Blue raspberry, Black raspberry)
 Rubus parvifolius (Australian native raspberry)
 Rubus phoenicolasius (Wine raspberry or Wineberry)
 Rubus rosifolius (West Indian raspberry)
 Rubus ellipticus (Yellow Himalayan Raspberry)
 Rubus strigosus (American raspberry)

Other raspberry species that are not in Rubus subgenus Idaeobatus include:
 Rubus arcticus (Arctic raspberry)
 Rubus deliciosus (Boulder raspberry)
 Rubus nivalis (Snow raspberry)
 Rubus odoratus (Native Flowering raspberry)
 Rubus sieboldii (Molucca raspberry)

Rubus
A plum is a sweet fruit that grows on a plum tree. The scientific name for the tree is Prunus domestica. When the fruit is dried, it is called a prune. The color "plum" takes its name from the fruit.

Prunus domestica is the European plum. Most of the plums we eat are grown on varieties of this tree. Greengages and damsons are varieties of plum.

The plant is usually  a large shrub  or a small tree. It has attractive white blossom in spring. The branches often have thorns. The fruit can be up to 8 cm across, and is usually sweet (dessert plum).  Some varieties are sour and require cooking with sugar. The fruit  has a single large seed inside.

Some plum trees need another plum tree growing nearby to fertilise the flowers. Without this the plum tree may not produce any fruit.

Plum colored plums are called purple plums and are a deep purple color; other plums are reddish purple. Some other plums can be yellow, red, green or even white. The fruit has a groove running down one side, and a smooth stone (seed). The flesh of the fruit is brownish and is very juicy. The skin can be eaten. It can also be used to make jam and the juice can be used to make wine. It is closely related to the apricot.

Cultivation 
There are many cultivars of plum. 
Plums come in a wide variety of colors and sizes. Some are much firmer-fleshed than others, and some have yellow, white, green or red flesh, with equally varying skin color. These are some of the best-kown:
 Damson (purple or black skin, green flesh, clingstone, astringent) 
 Greengage (firm, green flesh and skin even when ripe)
 Yellowgage or golden plum (similar to greengage, but yellow)
 Victoria plum (yellow flesh with a red or mottled skin)
 Satsuma plum (firm red flesh with a red skin)
 Mirabelle plum (dark yellow, mostly grown in northeast France)

Related pages 
 Plum (color)
 Fruit trees

References

Other websites 

 Prunus americanum images at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu
The peach is a species of the Prunus persica, and is a fruit tree of the rose family Rosaceae. They grow in the warm regions of both the northern and southern hemispheres.

Description 

Peach blossoms are small to medium-sized. The tree is sometimes up to 6.5 m (21 feet) in height. When it is grown by people, the height it is usually kept between 3 and 4 m (10 and 13 feet) by pruning. Its leaves are green and pointy. They usually have glands that make a liquid to attract insects.

Peaches are also called stone fruits because they have a shell of hard wood around their seed, called a stone or a pit. The skin of a peach is an orange or yellow color, and it is covered in small hairs called peach fuzz. A peach without the fuzz is usually called a nectarine. The inside of a peach is a golden color. It tastes sweet and sticky. Because of this, peaches are often part of desserts.

Symbolism 

The peach first came from China. It has been grown from at least since 1000 B.C.E. In Chinese culture, the peach tree is considered to be the tree of life and peaches are symbols of immortality. Peach blossoms are carried by Chinese brides. It is also considered as the "National fruit of Afghanistan" and the "Provincial fruit of Balochistan, Pakistan" respectively.

Lifespan of a peach 

Because of the cold winter, diseases, and pests, peach trees can usually only live about 10 to 12 years. However, if a peach tree is fertilized properly, and taken care of in the right way, it may live more years.

Pests

Brown rot 
Brown rot is a very dangerous kind of peach disease. It can attack the blossoms and stop the fruit from developing. If it is not stopped quickly, good quality fruit can not be produced from the peach tree.

Peach leaf curl 
Peach leaf curl, which is another very serious disease, makes the leaves curl up and begin to die in spring. It can be stopped if it meets fungicide.

Bacterial spot 
Bacterial spot gives harm to the leaves, twigs and fruit. By the time the disease is recognized, it is often too late to stop it. However, some kind of sprays may be used early in the next season to protect the peach tree.

Cankers 
Cankers is a kind of disease that infects the twigs and branches. They make large amounts of amber-colored gum spill out from the infected branch. Later, the bark will crack open completely and the tissue of the twig turns black. Cankers can be removed by pruning.

Insects 
There are several kinds of insect pests that can be great trouble to the peach. The Oriental fruit moth can make the peaches filled with worms and young growing tips may die. The plum curculio lays its eggs on the fruit, and makes them drop off or become filled with worms. Insects like the tarnished plant bug and the stink bug eat up the fruit that is still developing. Borers attack the base of the trunk and the branches.

Gallery

References 

Prunus
Fruits
Plants of Pakistan
A lychee (pronounced LIE-chee) is a tropical fruit in the genus Litchi. It is grown in some parts of India like Uttar Pradesh and Bihar apart from southern China. Lychees from India are distinctly different from the ones grown in China- apart from being larger and juicier, their outer shell is reddish unlike the brown color lychees in China. Since it is tropical, it will only grow in a warm, wet climate. 

The inside of a lychee is a clear, pinkish-white color. The outside of the fruit is a hard spiky shell. Its seed is brown in color and very hard. The seeds are poisonous and should not be eaten. The lychee has a sweet taste, and may be frozen, made into sauces, jam, puree, or preserves. When frozen, the lychee tastes similar to sorbet.

References
2. Off season production of litchi in South India for crop diversification and income enhancement of farmers - Indian Institute of horticulture research. 

Tropical fruit
Sapindaceae
The date palm is a tree. It has been cultivated for a very long time because of its fruit.  The tree is between  high. It has long leaves that look like feathers. Such leaves are called pinnate. The leaves can grow to  in length. The leaves have visible spines. There are about 150 leaflets. Each leaflet can be up to  in length and  in breadth. The full span of the crown of the tree is .

The tree has one or more trunks. All the trunks come from a single system of roots.

Production 
World production of dates was approximately 6.7 Mio tonnes in 2004 (FAO statistics). The major producers are:
 Egypt: 1,100,000 t (16.2% of world production)
 Iran: 880,000 t (13.0%)
 Saudi Arabia: 830,000 t (12.3%)
 United Arab Emirates: 760,000 t (11.2%)
 India: 710,000 t (10.6%)
 Pakistan: 650,000 t (9.6%)
 Algeria: 450,000 t (6.6%)
 Sudan: 330,000 t 
 Oman: 240,000 t 
 Libya: 140,000 t 
Tunisia: 150,500 t
 Others: 1,140,000 t
 Iraq used to be a major producer of dates but in recent years production and exports have fallen considerably.
 Kuwait
The First International Date Conference was held in Tripoli in 1959.  In that conference, it was decided to develop a special program under the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations to promote the commercial use of substandard or physically defective dates.

Fruits
Arecaceae
Plants of Pakistan
Blueberry refers a wild section of purple or blue berries. It grows in a type of woody plant called a shrub. Many types of blueberries grow in North America and eastern Asia. Blueberries are more common between May and October.

Blueberry has a sweet taste, with a little acidic hint. Wild blueberries have a stronger taste.  Blueberries are good for making jelly, jam, pie, muffins, and many other foods.The most widely cultivated species of blueberry is Vaccinium corymbosum. Some similar kinds of berries are called blueberry or huckleberry in different places.
A skull, or cranium, is a set of bones that make up the head of a vertebrate and keep in place all body parts in the head. It supports the structures of the face and forms a protective cavity for the brain.

As well as protecting the brain, the skull fixes the distance between the eyes and between the ears. This allows stereoscopic vision, and helps the brain judge direction and distance of sounds. In some animals, the skull also has a defensive function (e.g. horned ungulates). The frontal bone is where horns are mounted.

The skull is made of a number of joined (fused) flat bones. In humans, the adult skull is normally made up of 28 bones.

Structure
Skulls can be classified based on fenestras which are window or opening in a skull. There are 5 types of fenestras which are:
 Antorbital fenestra
 Mandibular fenestra
 Quadratojugal fenestra
 Subsquamosal fenestra
 Temporal fenestra

References

Other websites

 Skull Module (California State University Department of Anthology)
 Human skull base 

 
Head (body part)
Mark Allan Hoppus (born March 15, 1972) is an American musician, singer-songwriter, record producer, and former television personality

He was born March 15, 1972 in Ridgecrest, California. He is most famous for being a member of the band Blink 182. 

Hoppus played the bass guitar and sang. After Blink 182 broke up, he started another band, called "+44", with Blink 182's drummer, Travis Barker. When he was younger he played in bands called Pier 69 and the Attic Children. He has a wife named Skye and a son named Jack. Today he continues to play for Blink 182 alongside Travis Barker & Matt Skiba.

In June 2021, Hoppus was diagnosed with stage-4 lymphoma.

References

American rock guitarists
musicians from California
American punk musicians
1972 births
Living people
People with cancer
Singer-songwriters from California
American rock singers
American record producers
Television personalities from California
Sandstone is a sedimentary rock. It is a rock made of compacted sand. Sand is small grains of rocks and minerals (such as quartz and feldspar). These are the most common minerals in the Earth's crust.

Sandstone which is resistant to weathering is used for building in many countries. It can be a hard rock. For example, paving slabs can be made out of hard sandstone. 

Sandstone is converted into quartzite through heating and pressure. This happens when rocks are squeezed and heated under a mountain chain.

Origin 
Sandstone forms in two stages. First, layers of sand build up as sediment, either from water or from air (as in a desert). 

Then sand particles are compacted by pressure of overlying deposits, and cemented ('glued' together). The 'cement' is either calcite (calcium carbonate), quartz (silica), or clay. Iron oxide often makes sandstone a reddish colour.

Related pages 
Old Red Sandstone was laid down in marine conditions. It is a sort of dirty dark red. Devonian period.
New Red Sandstone was laid down in desert conditions. It is a rock which is fairly bright orange-red in colour. Permian period.

Notes
A pseudonym (soo-do-nim) or alias is a fake name a person uses instead of their real name. Many people use pseudonyms, including authors (pen names) and performers (stage names). People use pseudonyms for several different reasons: to hide identity, gender, and/or race. People (such as rappers) also use pseudonyms to match their stage personality better. Pseudonyms can include stage names, screen names, ring names, pen names, nicknames, aliases, superhero identities and code names.

Pseudonym comes from the Greek word  (pseudṓnymon), which means "false name".

Use and Examples of Pseudonyms
There are three main types of pseudonyms: pen names, stage names and user-names. Pen names are used by authors, usually to hide identity. Many famous books, such as The Outsiders and A Series of Unfortunate Events, have been written by authors using a pseudonym. Daniel Handler wrote A Series of Unfortunate Events under the pseudonym Lemony Snicket both because he wanted to make the author a character in the story and because he wanted to hide his real name. When she published The Outsiders, Susan Eloise Hinton decided to use her initials, S. E., instead of her first and middle names, because she did not want readers to guess her gender. The Brontë sisters (Anne, Emily and Charlotte) used pseudonyms to hide the fact that they based many of their characters on their neighbors.

Musicians, actors and performers also use pseudonyms, called stage names, both to hide their identity and to give themselves a "cooler" name. For example, rapper Sean Combs is currently known by Diddy, but used to call himself P Diddy and Puff Daddy. He says that he changed his name from P Diddy to Diddy because the name "caused confusion and he wanted to 'simplify things'." 

Many people on the Internet use pseudonyms. There are many names for these pseudonyms, including user-names, user IDs and handles. These pseudonyms help people stay anonymous on the internet, and they also protect people from identity theft and phishing. When people log into an account on sites like Wikipedia, MySpace or Facebook, their user-name helps identify them without entering their real name. If people used their real name instead of a user-name, it would create confusion for two people with the same name. Usernames make this simple, because people create their own user-names. Also, if someone used their real name, it would make it easier for people to guess their passwords and for other people to find them in real life.

Sometimes criminals would use a pseudonym. For example, com man Jefferson R. Smith was also known as Soapy Smith.

Related pages
 Pen name 
 Stage name

Reference
A stage name is a name an entertainer like a movie star or a musician takes in the place of their real or birth name, they might like this name better than their real one or it's easier for people to remember. Professional wrestlers use stage names also, in their case it is called a "ring name".
Actors and actresses choose stage names for a variety of reasons. Their real names may be the same as or similar to those of other people, or they may be difficult to say or spell.

Famous examples

Related pages
 Pen name

Names
Fermat's Last Theorem is a very famous idea in mathematics. It says that:

 If  is a whole number larger than 2, then the equation  has no solutions when x, y and z are natural numbers.

This means that there are no examples where ,  and  are natural numbers, i.e. whole numbers larger than zero, and where  is a whole number bigger than 2. Pierre de Fermat wrote about it in 1637 inside his copy of a book called Arithmetica. He said "I have a proof of this theorem, but there is not enough space in this margin". However, no correct proof was found for 357 years. It was finally proven in 1995. Mathematicians everywhere think that Fermat, in fact, did not have a good proof of this theorem.

Overview 
Fermat's Last Theorem is a more general form of the Pythagorean theorem, which is an equation that says:

 

When ,  and  are whole numbers this is called a "Pythagorean triple". For example, , and since  we can say  is a Pythagorean triple. Fermat's Last Theorem rewrites this as

 

and claims that, if you make the  a larger whole number than 2, then ,  and  cannot all be natural numbers. For example,  and , and so  is an example that confirms this.

Proof 

The proof was made for some values of , such as , ,  and , which was managed by many mathematicians including Fermat, Euler, Sophie Germain. However, since there are an infinite number of Pythagorean triples, as numbers count upwards forever, this made Fermat's Last Theorem hard to prove or disprove; the full proof must show that the equation has no solution for all values of  (when  is a whole number bigger than 2) but it is not possible to simply check every combination of numbers if they continue forever.

An English mathematician named Andrew Wiles found a solution in 1995, 358 years after Fermat wrote about it. Richard Taylor helped him find the solution . The proof took eight years of research. He proved the theorem by first proving the modularity theorem, which was then called the TaniyamaShimura conjecture. Using Ribet's Theorem, he was able to give a proof for Fermat's Last Theorem.  He received the Wolfskehl Prize from Göttingen Academy in June 1997: it amounted to about $50,000 U.S. dollars.

After a few years of debate, people agreed that Andrew Wiles had solved the problem. Andrew Wiles used a lot of modern mathematics and even created new maths when he made his solution. This mathematics was unknown when Fermat wrote his famous note, so Fermat could not have used it. This leads one to believe that Fermat did not in fact have a complete solution of the problem.

References

More reading

Other websites 

Theorems in number theory
The Clinton-Lewinsky scandal was an American political sex scandal in 1998. United States President Bill Clinton was said to have had oral sex with 22 year old Monica Lewinsky. 

Lewinsky said that she had sex with Bill Clinton nine times from November 1995 to March 1997. According to her published schedule, First Lady Hillary Clinton was at the White House for some of the time on seven of those days. The scandal happened after Linda Tripp leaked the secret phone calls between Clinton and Lewinsky.

Clinton did not admit his affair until the annual White House prayer on September 11, 1998, in the presence of several ministers, priests and his wife, Hillary Clinton, in his "I have sinned" speech. The speech was hand-written by Clinton himself and was delivered on the day of publication of the first report by Independent Counsel Ken Starr, which threatened to impeach President Clinton in the grounds of perjury and his sexual affair with former White House intern, Monica Lewinsky. Clinton was eventually impeached, but not removed from office.

References 

1998 in the United States
Bill Clinton
Political scandals in the United States
Events 
 July 3 – In the Battle of Adrianople, Constantine the Great defeats Licinius, who flees to Byzantium.
Warren Gamaliel Harding (November 2, 1865 – August 2, 1923) was the 29th president of the United States from 1921 until his death in 1923.  Before becoming president, he was a senator and the assistant governor of Ohio. Before he was in government, he was an important newspaper manager. He was a Republican.

Presidency
After World War I, he was elected on the promise to return the United States back to normal.  He supported limited government in the economy.  During his term, he lowered taxes and believed that the economy should not be regulated too much.

Warren G. Harding made the mistake of appointing his friends to high political positions. As a result, they corruptly abused their power for their personal gain and several scandals happened during his presidency, including the infamous Teapot Dome scandal based in Teapot Dome in Wyoming and involving Secretary of the Interior Albert Fall. Other untrustworthy people included Edward Doheny and Harry Sinclair.

Death
He died in office of a heart attack in 1923 while he was visiting Alaska.

Personal life 
Harding cheated on his wife with Carrie Phillips, a family friend. She supported Germany during World War I. In fact, many people thought she was a spy.

He also cheated with Nan Britton, who was over 30 years younger than him. He fathered a child with Britton. Afterward, she wrote a book called The President's Daughter, telling her story, but most people didn't believe her. However, in 2015, DNA testing confirmed that she was telling the truth about the baby.

What happened after his death
His vice president Calvin Coolidge became president after he died.

Historians generally consider him one of the worst presidents because of all the scandals he was a part of.

Other websites 
 Harding's White House biography 

1865 births
1923 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
United States senators from Ohio
 
US Republican Party politicians
20th-century American politicians
Lieutenant Governors of Ohio
Honduras is a country in Central America. Its capital is Tegucigalpa. Most people of Honduras speak the Spanish language (while English has mostly widely spoken). 7,483,763 people live in Honduras and it is  in size. It is next to El Salvador. To one side is the Caribbean Sea and to the other in the Pacific Ocean.

The ethnic makeup of Honduras is 90% mestizo, 7% amerindian, 2% black, and 1% white.

Honduras has the world's 4th highest murder rate.

Departments

Honduras is divided into 18 departments. The capital city is Tegucigalpa in the Central District.

Atlántida
Choluteca
Colón
Comayagua
Copán
Cortés
El Paraíso
Francisco Morazán
Gracias a Dios
Intibucá
Islas de la Bahía
La Paz
Lempira
Ocotepeque
Olancho
Santa Bárbara
Valle
Yoro

Related pages
Honduras at the Olympics
Honduras national football team
List of rivers of Honduras

References

 
 
Spanish-speaking countries
West Germany (German: West Deutschland) is the common English name for the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG; , BRD; ), retrospectively designated the Bonn Republic. It was a country in Central Europe. It was created on May 23, 1949. It ended on October 3, 1990 due to German Reunification. During the Cold War, West Germany was part of the Western bloc. It was created from the eleven states in Allied-occupied Germany after World War II. The capital city was Bonn.

West Germany was very important in the Cold War. The last capital city of Germany Berlin was also split into West Berlin and East Berlin.

History
After World War II, Germany was split into four zones. These zones were controlled by the British, French, Americans, and Soviets (Russians). From 1946 to 1949, the British, French, and American zones combined (came together) to create West Germany. The Soviet zone became East Germany. The two zones would not come together again until 1990.

Konrad Adenauer was called in as chancellor from 1947 until 1962. He was not meant to be the chancellor for a long time, but he stayed longer than expected. As chancellor, he helped West Germany recover (get better) from World War II and improved the economy.

After Adenauer left, he was followed by Ludwig Erhard, who was also followed by Kurt Georg Kiesinger. In 1968 the West German student movement protests began.

In 1969 Willy Brandt became chancellor. Under him, West Germany was nicer to the Eastern countries, and he managed to sign agreements with East Germany, Poland, and Czechoslovakia, who had been more hostile to West Germany. Brandt had to resign in May 1974 when it was found out that one of his staff members was a spy.

Helmut Schmidt served as chancellor until 1982. He helped launch the European Monetary System (EMS). Schmidt was followed by Helmut Kohl, who was chancellor when the Berlin Wall collapsed and Germany reunified in 1990.

Notes

References

Other websites

History of Germany
Cold War
Henry Louis Gehrig (born Heinrich Ludwig Gehrig; June 19, 1903June 2, 1941) was an American baseball player.  Due to his reliability and stamina, he was nicknamed the Iron Horse.  He played with Babe Ruth and the New York Yankees who were thought the best team of that time. He played with the Yankees for most of his playing time which started in 1923 and ended in 1939. He played in 2,130 games without a rest, which was the most of any player until Cal Ripken, Jr. in 1995. When he stopped playing as well, he went to a doctor who found out Gehrig had amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS – which is now sometimes called Lou Gehrig's disease). The doctor told Gehrig he had only a short time to live. On July 4, 1939, there was a celebration of Gehrig by the other Yankees, and Gehrig gave a speech that became well-known. When he spoke that day he said he was "the luckiest man on the face of the earth". The mayor of New York City congratulated him for his teamwork. He died less than two years later in New York City.

References

Other websites

1903 births
1941 deaths
American baseball players
Deaths from motor neurone disease
Disease-related deaths in New York City
New York Yankees players
Sportspeople from New York City
National Baseball Hall of Fame members
Fair use is the idea that it should be okay for a person to reuse something that another person has created, in certain amounts and for certain purposes, without breaking the law.

Usage
In most countries, art and other made-up things, like stories, books, TV shows, and pictures, are owned by the person that first made them. This person can let someone else own the things they make, sometimes for money. The person that owns these things has a copyright for them, which means that person can decide who can copy their work. If someone else copies that work without asking the owner first, that person is breaking the law. The owner can take the person to court and try to get money from them because of what they did.

Since a lot of creative work is popular, people want to talk about them, and they may want to talk about them on TV or in a book. This might mean that they want to use a little bit of it when they talk about it. The idea of "fair use" was added to most copyright laws to make sure that it would be OK do to this, as long as only a little bit of someone's work is used.

Software programs
Since a lot of creative work is now on computers and on the Internet, it is very easy to copy things and send them to lots of people. To make sure that people cannot always do this, there are computer programs that try to stop people from copying other people's work (known as digital rights management). One problem with these programs is that they also mean that you cannot copy even a small part of someone's work, so you cannot do "fair use" without cheating the program. In some countries, cheating those software programs is also breaking the law.

Copyright
Intellectual property law
Soil erosion is the washing or blowing away (by water or wind) of the top layer of soil (dirt). This is a serious problem for farmers.  If the soil has eroded, the crops that make food will not grow very well. 

Soil erosion was a big problem in the Midwestern United States in the 1930s dust bowl.

Erosion also leaves large sinkholes in the ground, which can weaken buildings and even cause them to collapse.   Urban areas are usually protected from soil erosion, so not many buildings collapse from erosion.

Steps for conserving soil from eroding 
Soil erosion can be conserved in several ways: 

 A wind break is a line of plants that are planted to stop or slow the wind.  A thick row of bushes or shrubs planted next to a field of crops can stop the wind from blowing the soil away.  This method also helps against water erosion, as the soil gets caught up against the roots of the bushes, rather than washing away.
 Terraces are level places that have been made on hill sides. They are used for Terrace farming.
 If the crops are growing on a slope, then one should plant them in contour lines that run across the slope, rather than up and down. So, if the slope goes downhill to the south, then the plants should be in rows that run from east to west.
 Groynes (wooden planks) along the beaches can resist erosion, or sea walls against cliffs can protect the cliffs.

Agriculture 
Soil