cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Bread is a type of baked food. It is mainly made from dough, which is made mainly from flour and water. Usually, salt and yeast are added. Bread is often baked in an oven. It can be bought all over the world.

Bread can be toasted or used to make sandwiches.  Pizza is a food-based on bread. There are many different kinds of bread. 

The two main types of bread are:
 Leavened bread is made by adding yeast or other leavening agents to the dough. The yeast produces gas that makes the dough lighter. Leavened bread can be made into larger loaves baked in an oven. This is the main type of bread eaten in Europe, America, and many parts of Asia.
 Unleavened flatbread is baked from a dough of water and flour, with no yeast. It is baked in flat rounds like tortilla or chapati. This type of bread cannot be made thick as it would be too dense to eat. Unleavened bread is eaten throughout Greece, Africa, parts of Asia, and as the Central America such as Pitta bread or tortilla. Baking can be done on a metal plate or hot stone, or in an oven.

The color and taste of the bread depending on the kind of flour used and the style of baking. Flour made from the whole grain gives darker bread. Flour made just from the polished wheat grain gives a very white bread. Rye and barley flour give darker types of bread. The type of flour also changes how long the bread can be kept before going bad. Some strains of wheat are resistant to fungus, but may not produce bread as tasty as a weaker strain.

Religious breads 
Christianity and Judaism have rules about the use of bread in their religions. Unleavened bread (matzo) is eaten by Jews during the Passover. The Catholic celebration of the Eucharist uses unleavened wafers.

Orthodox churches forbid the use of unleavened bread for the Eucharist (Old Testament) and permit leavened bread only as a symbol of the New. This was one of the three points of contention that brought about the schism between Eastern and Western churches in 1054.

Types of bread 

Bagel
Baguette
Croissant
Injera
Khachapuri
Lavash
Markouk in Egypt and the Levant
Matzo in all Kosher communities
Naan
North American biscuit
Pita
Pizza dough
Pretzel
Rice bread
Roti
Rye bread (Includes Pumpernickel)
Scone
Sprouted bread
Tortilla
White Bread
Wholemeal bread

Bread is an important part of life in many countries because so many people eat it. In many cultures, bread is so important that it is part of religious rituals. 

Cake is made in a similar way to bread but sugar, fat, and milk are added to the dough and often more ingredients.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Shinto () is a form of Japanese animism. It has many kami, translated as gods or nature spirits. Some "kami" are just spirits of certain places, and some are the overall "kami" (like "Amaterasu", the Sun goddess). The word "Shinto" comes from the Japanese words "", shin—the word for spirit or god, and "", tō—the word for "the way" or "path". So, Shinto means "the way of the gods." 

State Shinto was the main religion of Japan before World War II. During the period 1868 to 1945 the Japanese government used Shinto for propaganda. All Japanese were forced to register with their local shrine. All Shinto priests worked for the government. War was seen as a sacred duty. The Emperor of Japan was seen as a god. Japanese Buddhism was also involved with the war effort (See Zen at War).

Shinto has many rituals and customs, and some are done every day. Festivals are frequent. Some people mix Shinto and Buddhist rituals and beliefs. 

 Although Jinja-Honcho manages almost all shrines, some, such as Yasukuni, are run separately.

 Amaterasu, the Sun Goddess, is seen as the holiest of all Shinto kami. Her shrine is in Ise, Japan.

Other page 
Shinto shrine

Other websites 
 Kokugakuin University Encylopedia of Shinto
Gmail is a free e-mail service that is run by Google. It can be accessed on the web, by POP3, or by IMAP. Some of the competitors to Gmail are Yahoo! Mail, Hotmail/Windows Live Mail, and Inbox.Com. The space given to any Gmail member is increased a small amount every second, and as of July 26, 2012, Google provides each account with about 10272 MB of space.

Google Apps 
Google Apps is a service from Google that was created in February 2006 as Gmail for your domain. It is to allow system administrators of a company or organisation to create email accounts for their own domain.

Trademark issues 
In the United Kingdom (UK), the trademark "Gmail" was owned by another company before Gmail by Google was started. Thus, the United Kingdom uses a domain of "googlemail.com" for their users, and the logo has the words of "Google Mail" instead of the normal "Gmail".

In September 2009 Google began to change the branding of UK accounts back to Gmail following the resolution of the trademark dispute.

References

Other websites
 Gmail Website

Mail
E-mail
Analysis is the process of breaking a complex topic or substance into smaller parts to gain a better understanding of it. The technique has been applied in the study of mathematics and logic since before Aristotle (384–322 B.C.), though analysis as a formal concept is a relatively recent development.

The word comes from the Ancient Greek ἀνάλυσις (analusis, "a breaking up", from ana- "up, throughout" and lysis "a loosening").

In this context, Analysis is the opposite of synthesis, which is to bring ideas together.

The following concepts are closely related to this basic idea:
 Mathematical analysis is the name given to any branch of mathematics that looks at what functions are, how they behave, and what things can be done with them.
 Analytical chemistry looks at the qualities of substances, and their composition.

Some definitions 
The process of breaking up a concept, proposition, or fact into its simple or ultimate constituents. Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy. 2nd ed, 1999, ed. Robert Audi.
Resolution into simpler elements by analysing. 2. (Maths) Use of algebra and calculus in problem-solving. Concise Oxford Dictionary. 1976, ed. J.B. Sykes.
The isolation of what is more elementary from what is more complex by whatever method. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology. 1925, ed. James Mark Baldwin, Vol. I
The original Greek sense [was] a ‘loosening up’ or ‘releasing’. Geometry assumes a proposition to be true and searches for another known truth from which the proposition may be deduced. Physical science resolves complex wholes into their elements. A Kant Dictionary, 1995, by Howard Caygill.
The process of breaking a concept down into more simple parts, so that its logical structure is displayed. Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy. 1996, Simon Blackburn
Philosophical analysis is a method of inquiry in which one seeks to assess complex systems of thought by ‘analysing’ them into simpler elements whose relationships are thereby brought into focus. Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 1998, entry under ‘Conceptual Analysis’ by Robert Hanna

References

Philosophy
Research methods
Foolishness is when someone acts without wisdom or sense. A foolish decision is one made without careful reasoning or judgement. An act of foolishness is called folly. A person who shows foolishness may be called a fool. It is different to stupidity, which is the lack of intelligence.

A fool's errand is a useless piece of work.

A fool's paradise a happy state for which there is no good reason.

The wise fool is a common literary character, a person who appears at first to be unintelligent but then reveals him or herself to possess a grest deal of wisdom. An example of this is Sancho Panza in Cervantes' Don Quixote. Sancho is an uneducated peasant who at first seems to have little sense or experience. However, as the tale unfolds, he reveals himself to possess a wealth of common sense, first expressed through endless proverbs, but then through his own skill. In this sense he provides a comic juxtaposition to Quixote himself, who is highly educated but insane; both of them supply what the other lacks.

References

Related pages 

 Silliness

Knowledge
Basic English 850 words
Matsuo Munefusa, known as Matsuo Bashō (, 1644 - November 28, 1694) was a Japanese poet. He is known as the greatest maker of haiku, a kind of poetry with 17 syllables. The Japanese written language was difficult to master, but haiku was easy for him to write. Matsuo's haikus included characteristics of nature and the four seasons. The reader has to use their imagination to understand his poems.

According to Japanese custom, he is usually called Basho without his family name, and his signature as a poet does not include his house name. He signed usually "はせを". He is one of the greatest writers of the Edo period, and he raised the haiku form to its highest level.

He was born in Iga, now a part of Mie prefecture in a samurai (Japanese warrior) family. After many years of samurai life he found that poetry would be his life work, and gave up being a samurai. He started his life as a poet when he served his lord as a samurai. Matsuo became educated in classical Japanese poems. First he named himself Tosei (桃青) meaning "unripe peach in blue". Basho took this name because he admired a Chinese poet, Li Po whose name means plum in white.

He quit samurai life 1666, and in 1675 he moved to Edo, today called Tokyo. There, in 1678, he got to be a haiku master ("Sosho") and began the life of a working poet. In 1680, he moved to Fukagawa, where he had a house. This was just outside of Edo. One of his followers gifted him a banana plant (basho-an). He planted the plant and called himself Basho because it became his favorite tree in his garden.

In his life, Basho visited many places. Those travels were important for his writings. He visited his disciples (followers) and taught them by making renga, a series of haiku, with them. He also visited famous places in Japanese history. These visits made his writing much stronger.

His most famous book is Oku no Hosomichi ("The Narrow Road Through the Deep North"). This book was written after a trip. On the trip, Basho and his disciple left Edo on March 24, 1689. They went around Tohoku and Hokuriku, and returned to Edo in 1691. The trip in this book ends in Ogaki, Mino (Gifu prefecture today) with one of his haiku where he hinted that he wanted to visit Ise shrine after staying in Ogaki. Matsuo was considered to have written some of the most beautiful travel diaries ever written in Japanese.

Basho died because of disease in early autumn of 1694 in Osaka, while staying at a house of his disciple on a trip.  Before his death, he made a haiku as his last words:

Tabini yande / yume ha kareno wo / kake meguru
On travel I am sick
My dream is running around
a field covered with dried grass

Notes

1644 births
1694 deaths
Japanese poets
Colonization is the act of one country settling another place, in order to become the new rulers of the new country, and to live in the new country. An early example is the settlers who went from the cities of Ancient Greece to start new cities.

In 1492, Christopher Columbus landed in The Americas.  This is how the Europeans learned that North America and South America were there.  The Europeans colonized the Americas.  Because of this, and the killing of many Native Americans, most people now living in North America are the descendents of Europeans.

Sometimes, science fiction stories talk about space colonization on space stations or planets other than Earth.  Some science fiction stories like The Matrix speak of the robots the human beings made, taking over, and colonizing Earth.

Related pages
Colony

Politics
An electrical cell is a device used to generate electricity, or to make chemical reactions  by applying electricity. A battery is one or more cells, connected. This cell is also known as electrochemical cell.

Cells producing electricity 
The simple electrical cells were first developed in 1800s. They are also called galvanic cells, because an Italian scientist named Luigi Galvani invented these cells.

Special chemical reactions which occur inside the electrical cell, result in oxidation and reduction of the substances inside the cell. This produces electrical energy. Normal batteries work like this.

Some electrical cells produce electricity without using chemical energy. For example, solar cells produce electricity when they are exposed to sun light.

A plate of zinc and a plate of copper immersed in a dilute solution which contains acid or salt is an example of the chemical reaction based cell. The solution acts as an electrolyte (electric conductor). When the two plates are connected to a current meter with a wire, electric current will pass; this is because oxidation and reduction processes take place in this chemical reaction turning the zinc plate to a negative electrode and the copper plate to a positive electrode, and so the electrons flow from zinc to copper.

Cells using electricity 
Some chemical reactions need high energy to happen. An example is the breakdown of water into hydrogen and oxygen. An electrical cell (or an "electrolytic cell") is used for these reactions. It is a container which has to have a chemical reaction involving electrodes. The chemical substances are exposed to electrical power, and the electrolysis reaction happens inside the electrical cell.

Two pieces of metal are placed in water that has a little electrolyte such as hydrochloric acid, sulfuric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or sodium hydroxide added to it. An electric current is applied and gas comes out of each electrode. Some greenish-brown color may be seen too if iron was used. 

There may also be a chemical reaction which will result in the explosion of the iron and has a strong blast radius (safety goggles recommended).

Related pages
 Battery

References 

Tools
Electricity
Dry cells are a type of chemical cells. Dry cells are commonly used today in the form of batteries. Dry cells are used in many electrical appliances.

Types of dry cells
Primary cells
Zinc-carbon cells, also known as Leclanche cells
Alkaline cells
Lithium cells
Mercury cells
Silver oxide cell
Secondary cells
Nickel-cadmium cell
Lithium-ion cell
Nickel metal-hydride cell

Primary cells are not rechargeable. They have to be thrown away after their chemicals are used.

Secondary cells are rechargeable. They can be used again.

Related pages
Battery
Rechargeable battery
Table of batteries

References

Electronics
Physical chemistry
Batteries
The Sahel is a narrow belt of land in North Africa. It is a strip of land about 5500 kilometers long and 450 kilometres wide. It lies at the southern edge of the Sahara Desert 

The Sahel has a tropical semi-arid climate. It is between the dry desert land to the north and the forest areas to the south. The temperature is high throughout the year. There is little rainfall in the Sahel (between 100-150 mm and 600mm). It comes during summer months and may be unreliable. It may be very dry in some years, especially if a large area of low pressure, which brings rain, is not carried North over the Sahel by strong winds.

The Sahel is the Arabic word for 'edge' or 'shore'.

The Sahel is facing a big problem, desertification.
The distribution of rainfall in the Sahel region is uneven. The rainfall in the region has been below average since 1970. The Sahel is becoming drier on the whole. The problem of drought affects most of the countries in the Sahel. As a result, crops and animals die. There is no vegetation to protect the soil, which is then removed by flash floods and strong wind. This leads to soil erosion. Finally, the desert spreads towards the surrounding areas.

With better medical services, the birth rate increases and the death rate decreases in the Sahel. As a result, the population in the Sahel is growing. To meet the ever-increasing demand for firewood, a lot of trees have been cut down. More land has become barren. This is called deforestation. 

Furthermore, people farm intensively in order to grow more crops, the soil becomes infertile with a lack of nutrients. If this process continues for a long time, no crops can be grown. This is called overcultivation. 

People keep animals for food due to the lack of good soil, the animals will have to eat grass and etc. But as the animals eat the grass, they also dug up the soil. As people keep too many animals, the demand for grass is too great. Soil erosion is caused while the animals keep digging the soil up as they eat, and the wind and rain blow away the soil. This process is called overgrazing. 

Modern solutions can be used to give a better agricultural result in the Sahel. We can try drip irrigation or hybrid. We should stop using excessive water and consider our actions, to save the Sahel and lake Chad before it is too late.

References 

Geography of Africa
Biomes
A chemical change (chemical reaction) is a change of materials into other materials with different properties.

Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, or,  chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions.

Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples  include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.                 

Compare: physical change. The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.    

More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.   

Chemical reactions
Global is a prefix which means that it applies to the entire world rather than any special place or people.

It is used to mean "universal".

Geography

da:Global
de:Global
en:Global
sv:Global
Marco Polo was born in 1254 and died on January 8,1324. He was an Italian trader and explorer. He was one of the first Europeans to explore Central Asia and East Asia. Many other explorers, including Christopher Columbus, looked up to him. He could speak four languages.

Marco Polo was known for the book, Travels of Marco Polo, where he talked about Asia.

Early life 
Marco Polo  was born in Venice, one of the most successful trading cities. Polo's mother died when he was very young and he was raised by his aunt and uncle.  His father and uncle returned from their Silk Road travels when Marco was about 15 years old.  Two years later, the three of them started their journey to Cathay (China).  His family were well-known merchants, not explorers.  He learned about writing, reading, and arithmetic, and how to do business.

Travels 
Polo went on a 24-year trip to China with his father and uncle during the Mongol Dynasty. He left Venice at the age of 17 on a boat that went through the Mediterranean Sea, Ayas, Tabriz and Kerman. Then he travelled across Asia getting as far as Beijing. On the way there he had to go over mountains and through terrible deserts, across hot burning lands and places where the cold was horrible. He served in Kublai Khan's court for 17 years. He left the Far East and returned to Venice by sea. There was sickness on board and 600 passengers and crew died and some say pirates attacked. Nevertheless, Marco Polo survived it all.

Some scholars believe that while Marco Polo did go to China, he did not go to all of the other places described in his book.  He brought noodles back from China and the Italians invented different sizes and shapes and called it pasta.  Polo returned to Venice with treasures like ivory, jade, jewels, porcelain and silk.

His father had borrowed money and bought a ship.  He became wealthy because of his trading in the East.  His nickname was Marco Il Milione, due to an ancestor of his called Emilione.

"Travels of Marco Polo" 
Soon after Polo returned from his journeys he fought in a war against Genoa, got captured and put in prison. When he was in prison, he became friendly with a fellow prisoner, Rusticello, who was a writer of romances and novels. He told the writer about all his adventures, which became a book called The Travels of Marco Polo. The published version was written by Rustichello da Pisa, based on what Polo had told him. It became famous throughout Europe. In the book he said that Kublai Khan's wealthy new empire had a postal system.  He also talked about the Chinese people.  China used paper money that was made from mulberry bark.

References 

1254 births
1324 deaths
Italian explorers
European geographers
People from Venice
Herpes zoster (also known as shingles or zona) is a disease in humans.  The same virus that causes chickenpox also causes shingles. The symptoms are pain and a rash with blisters. The shingles vaccine reduces the risk of shingles. Antivirus medicine can reduce the seriousness and duration of shingles if started within 3 days of the rash.

General information 
Shingles is a viral disease produced by the varicella zoster virus (VZV), the same virus that causes chicken pox. Its symptoms include pain and a blistering rash that occurs along the nerves that contain dormant virus. You can not catch shingles. However, you can catch chicken pox through direct contact with someone who has shingles, by touching the area of the rash. Most people who get shingles are old.  It sometimes infects younger people, or people with a weakened immune system.  Stress may trigger shingles.  The disease starts with tingling, itchiness, or pain on an infected person's skin.  After a few days, the disease causes a blistering rash.  This rash may be on the trunk or face.  The rash  grows into small blisters filled with fluid.  These blisters dry out and crust over for several days.  The rash causes anything from mild itching to extreme pain.  The rash stays in one region of the body.

The shingles virus is contagious from person to person only by direct contact.  For this reason, persons with shingles are advised to limit contact with those who are not immune to chicken pox, those with increased risk are young children and pregnant women.  Contracting chickenpox when one is pregnant can be dangerous to the unborn child.

If people have had chickenpox, they cannot get chickenpox from someone else again.  However, it is thought that contact with a shingles patient may trigger a person's own dormant chickenpox virus to become shingles.

Treatment 
Doctors recommend antiviral drugs, steroids, antidepressants, anticonvulsants, and topical agents to treat shingles.  The antiviral drugs acyclovir, valacyclovir, and famcyclovir can reduce the severity of shingles.

Prognosis 
Shingles can be very painful and itchy.  It is not very dangerous to healthy people, and it usually ends without major problems. The rash and pain last 3 to 5 weeks. Sometimes, serious problems like temporary, partial facial paralysis, ear damage, or
encephalitis may occur. Persons with shingles on the upper half of the face need immediate medical attention: the virus may cause serious damage to the eyes. Most people who have shingles have only one attack of the disease in their lifetime. However, people with AIDS, cancer or weak immune systems may have multiple attacks.

References

Other websites 
 NIH Facts About Shingles
 NINDS Shingles Information Page

Diseases caused by viruses
Heinrich Rudolf Hertz (22 February 1857 – 1 January 1894) was a German physicist. In 1888 he discovered the radio waves previously predicted by Maxwell's equations. He also proved that light is a kind of electromagnetic waves. The unit for frequency is named after him.

Hertz was born in Hamburg in 1857. He studied engineering in Frankfurt and later at the University of Munich. He completed his PhD at the University of Berlin. He taught and continued research at the University of Bonn and University of Kiel.

He died from blood poisoning in 1894.

References

Other websites

1857 births
1894 deaths
German academics
German physicists
People from Hamburg
Events 
 The Periodic table was developed.

Births 
 January 1 – Sigma Nu, First Anti-Hazing Honor/Social Fraternity
 January 4 – Tommy Corcoran, baseball player
 January 10 – Grigori Rasputin, Russian mystic
 January 15 – Stanisław Wyspiański, Polish dramatist, poet, painter, and architect
 February 11 – Helene Kroller-Muller, Dutch museum founder and patron of the arts
 February 14 – Charles Wilson, Scottish physicist, Nobel Prize laureate
 March 3 – Michael von Faulhaber, German cardinal and archbishop
 March 12 – George William Forbes, New Zealand Prime Minister and first leader of the New Zealand National Party
 March 14 – Algernon Blackwood, English writer
 March 18 – Neville Chamberlain, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 April 2 – Hughie Jennings, baseball player
 April 5,6 – Tom Adam, Named number one in the world
 April 11 – Gustav Vigeland, Norwegian sculptor
 April 27 – May Moss, Activist
 May 5 – Hans Pfitzner, German composer
 May 20 – John Stone Stone, American physicist and inventor
 June 27 – Hans Spemann, German embryologist, won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine
 August 10 – Lawrence Binyon, English poet and scholar
 September 3 – Fritz Pregl, Austrian chemist, Nobel Prize laureate
 September 17 – Christian Lous Lange, Norwegian pacifist, won the Nobel Peace Prize
 September 21 - Carlo Airoldi, Italian marathon runner
 September 23 – Mary Mallon, "Typhoid Mary"
 October 2 – Mahatma Gandhi, Indian political leader, Father of the Nation
 October 25 – John Heisman, American football coach
 November 11 – Victor Emmanuel III of Italy, King)
 November 25 – Herbert Greenfield, Premier of Alberta, Canada
 December 16 – Hristo Tatarchev, Bulgarian revolutionary, leader of the revolutionary movement in Macedonia and Eastern Thrace
 December 22 – Edwin Arlington Robinson, American poet
 December 30 – Stephen Leacock, British-Canadian writer and economist
 December 31 – Henri Matisse, French painter

Deaths 
 July 18 – Laurent Clerc, co-founder of the first American school for the deaf.
 January 1 – Martin W. Bates, U.S. Senator from Delaware (b. 1786)
 January 30 – William Carleton, Irish novelist (b. 1794)
 February 15 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu (b. 1796).
 March 8 – Hector Berlioz, French composer (b. 1803)
 March 24 – Antoine-Henri Jomini, French general (b. 1779)
 April 20 – Carl Loewe, German composer (b. 1796)
 June 16 – Charles Sturt, Australian explorer (b. 1795)
 June 20 – Hijikata Toshizou, Japanese military commander (b. 1835)
 August 31 – Mary Ward (scientist), first car accident victim
 September 12 – Peter Roget, British lexicographer (b. 1779)
 October 13 – Charles Augustin Sainte-Beuve, French literary critic (b. 1804)
 October 23 – Edward Smith-Stanley, 14th Earl of Derby, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom (b. 1799)
 December 18 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, American composer and pianist (b. 1829)

Hit songs 
 "Little Brown Jug" by R.E. Eastburn
 "Now the Day is Over" by Joseph Barnby
 "Shoo, Fly! Don't Bother Me!" by T. Bringham Bishop
 "Sweet Genevieve" by Henry Tucker
Year 1687 was a common year that started on a Wednesday when using the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 March 19 – The men under explorer Robert Cavelier de La Salle murder him while searching for the mouth of the Mississippi River.
 April 4 – King James II of England issues the Declaration of Indulgence, suspending laws against Catholics and non-conformists.
 May 6 – Emperor Higashiyama succeeds Emperor Reigen on the throne of Japan.
 July 5 –  Isaac Newton's three laws of motion (Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica) is published.
 August 12 – Battle of Mohács, fight between Sultan Mehmed IV's Ottoman Turks and Emperor Leopold I's Austrian Habsburgs' forces commanded by Charles of Lorraine.
 September 28 – The Parthenon explodes, while being used as a gunpowder store.
 December 31 – The first Huguenots set sail from France to the Cape of Good Hope.

Undated 
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mehmed IV (1648-1687) to Suleiman II (1687-1691).

Births 
 January 27 – Johann Balthasar Neumann, German architect (died 1753)
 March 7 – Jean Lebeuf, French historian (died. 1760)
 June 24 – Johann Albrecht Bengel, German scholar (died 1757)
 September 7 – Durastante Natalucci, Italian historian (died 1772)
 October 4 – Robert Simson, Scottish mathematician (died 1768)
 October 21 – Nicolaus I Bernoulli, Swiss mathematician (died 1759)
 November 7 – William Stukeley, English archaeologist (died 1765)
 December 5 – Francesco Geminiani, Italian violinist and composer (died 1762)
 December 26 – Johann Georg Pisendel, German musician (died 1755)
 date unknown Shahzada Assadullah Khan Abdali, Persian Governor of Herat (died 1720)

Deaths 
 January 13 – Jean Claude, French Protestant clergyman (born 1619)
 January 28 – Johannes Hevelius, astronomer (born 1611)
 March 19 – René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle, French explorer (born 1643)
 March 22 – Jean-Baptiste Lully, French composer (born 1632)
 March 28 – Constantijn Huygens, Dutch poet and composer (born 1596)
 April 12 – Ambrose Dixon, Virginia Colony pioneer (born c.1628)
 April 16 – George Villiers, 2nd Duke of Buckingham, English statesman (born 1628)
 September 1 – Henry More, English philosopher (born 1614)
 September 12 – John Alden, Mayflower pilgrim (born c.1599)
 September 28 – Francis Turretin, Swiss theologian (born 1623)
 October 13 – Geminiano Montanari, Italian astronomer (born 1633)
 October 21 – Edmund Waller, English poet (born 1606)
 November 14 – Nell Gwyn, English mistress of Charles II of England (born 1650)
 December 16 – Sir William Petty, English philosopher (born 1623)
Events 
  André-Marie Ampère discovered the attraction between current-carrying wires.
  The law of electric current and magnetic field was developed.
Events 
 Heat was discovered to be transferred from hot to cold objects.
 Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded.
 Brauerei C & A Veltins brewery founded
 Thomas Jefferson University founded
Events 
 The first photograph was taken.

 John Adams second president, and third president Thomas Jefferson both died same day Independence Day.

Births 
 January 12 – William Chapman Rawlston, banker and financier
 January 26 – Louis Favre, Swiss engineer (d. 1879)
 February 16 – Joseph Victor von Scheffel, German poet (d. 1886)
 February 16 – Julia Grant, First Lady of the United States (d. 1902)
 March 4 – Theodore Judah, railroad engineer (d. 1863)
 March 24 – Matilda Joslyn Gage, pioneering feminist (d. 1898)
 March 29 – Wilhelm Liebknecht, German journalist and politician (d. 1900)
 April 6 – Gustave Moreau, French painter (d. 1898)
 May 3 – King Charles XV of Sweden and Norway (d. 1872)
 May 4 – Frederic Edwin Church, American painter (b. 1900)
 June 24 – George Goyder, Surveyor-General of South Australia (d. 1898)
 July 4 – Stephen Foster, American songwriter and poet (d. 1864)
 September 17 – Bernhard Riemann, German mathematician (d. 1866)
 November 13 – Charles Frederick Worth, English couturier (d. 1895)
 November 24 – Carlo Collodi, Italian writer (d. 1890)

Deaths 
 July 4 – John Adams, President of the United States
 July 4 – Thomas Jefferson, President of the United States

Books 
Biographical Sketches and Interesting Anecdotes of Persons of Color – Abigail Mott
The Broken Heart – Catherine Gore
Cinq-Mars – Alfred de Vigny
Deeds of the Olden Time – Anne Hatton
Gaston de Blondeville – Ann Radcliffe
Granby – T.H. Lister
Die Harzreise (The Heart's Journey) – Heinrich Heine
Henry the Fourth of France – Alicia Lefanu
Honor O'Hara – Anna Maria Porter
The Last Man – Mary Shelley
The Last of the Mohicans – James Fenimore Cooper
Tales Round a Winter Hearth – Jane Porter & Anna Maria Porter
Vivian Grey – Benjamin Disraeli
Woodstock – Sir Walter Scott
Events 
 People see individual particles of water move.

Births 
 February 5 – Peter Lalor, leader of miners rebellion at Eureka Stockade, Ballarat, Australia

Deaths 
 March 26 – Ludwig van Beethoven

New Books 
 Book of Songs  (poetry) – Heinrich Heine
 Herzog Theodor von Gotland (play) – Christian Dietrich Grabbe
 Hope Leslie – Catharine Maria Sedgwick
 Intrigue – Henrietta Rouviere Mosse
 I Promessi sposi (The Betrothed) – Alessandro Manzoni
 The Lettre de Cachet – Catherine Gore
 The O'Briens and The O'Flaherties – Sydney Owenson
 The Prairie – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Red Rover – James Fenimore Cooper
 The Reign of Terror – Catherine Gore
 The Wolf of Badenoch – Sir Thomas Dick Lauder
Events 
 Fresnel developed the theory of light diffraction.
 Napoleon loses the Battle of Waterloo and is sent to Saint Helena.

Births 
January 10 – John A. Macdonald, first Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1891)
February 15 – Constantin von Tischendorf, German Biblical scholar (d. 1874)
April 1 – Otto von Bismarck, German statesman (d. 1898)
 April 1 – Edward Clark, Governor of Texas (d. 1880)
April 6 – Robert Volkmann, German composer (d. 1883)
April 24 – Anthony Trollope, British writer (d. 1882)
August 5 – Edward John Eyre, explorer
October 16 – Francis Lubbock, Governor of Texas (d. 1905)
October 31 – Karl Weierstraß, German mathematician (d. 1897)
November 2 – George Boole, English mathematician and philosopher (d. 1864)
December 10 – Augusta Ada King (née Byron), Countess of Lovelace, early English computer pioneer (d. 1852)
November 12 – Elizabeth Cady Stanton, American women's rights activist (d. 1902)
December 21 – Thomas Couture, French painter (d. 1879)

Deaths 
January 8 – Edward Pakenham, British general (killed in battle) (born 1778)
January 16 – Emma, Lady Hamilton, English mistress of Horatio Nelson (born 1765)
February 24 – Robert Fulton, American inventor (born 1765)
February 26 – Prince Josias of Coburg, Austrian general (born 1737)
March 4 – Frances Abington, English actress (born 1737)
March 5 – Franz Mesmer, German developer of hypnotism (born 1734)
April 21 – Joseph Winston, American patriot and Congressman from North Carolina (born 1746)
June 1 – Louis Alexandre Berthier, French marshal (born 1753)
June 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Brunswick, German noble and general (killed in battle) (born 1771)
June 18 – Thomas Picton, British general (killed in battle) (born 1758)
June 18 – Claude-Etienne Michel, French general (killed in battle) (born 1772)
June 18 – Guillaume Philibert Duhesme, French general (killed in battle) (born 1766)
August 2 – Guillaume Marie Anne Brune, French marshal (murdered) (born 1763)
August 6 – James A. Bayard (elder), U.S. Senator from Delaware (born 1767)
September 9 – John Singleton Copley, American painter (born 1738)
September 20 – Nicolas Desmarest, French geologist (born 1725)
October 13 – Joachim Murat, French marshal and King of Naples (executed) (born 1767)
December 3 – John Carroll (priest), first American Roman Catholic Archbishop (born 1735)
December 7 – Michel Ney, French marshal (executed) (born 1769)
December 29 – Saartjie Baartman, sideshow performer
Deep house is a type of house music. It has influences from disco music and jazz music. The BPM of deep house is usually 100 - 128. 

Music genres
Cytokines are a group of signalling molecules made by cells. They help to control the immune system and fight disease. They are similar to hormones and, as we learn more about each, distinctions between the two are fading.

Cytokines carry signals locally between cells, and these signals have an effect on other cells. They are made of proteins, peptides, or glycoproteins. The cytokines are a large family of polypeptide regulators that are produced throughout the body by many groups of cells.

Some well-known cytokines include interferon, prostaglandin and interleukins. Cytokines can be detected using the ELISA and ELISPOT techniques.

Cytokines work by signal transduction. Each cytokine has a matching cell-surface receptor. Then cascades of signals inside the cell changes cell functions. This may include the regulation of several genes, the production of other cytokines, or an increase in surface receptors for other molecules.

Related pages 
Cytokine storm
Signal transduction

References 

Proteins
Immunology
Cell biology
Bristol is a city and ceremonial county in England. It is home to nearly 430,000 people. The River Avon runs through it to the Severn estuary.

Geography 
It is between the counties of Gloucestershire and Somerset. In 1373, King Edward III ordered that it should be a county itself forever. However, it lost county status in 1974, the year after its 600-year celebrations. It became the largest district within the new Avon county. Avon was never popular and was abolished in 1996, when county status returned to Bristol, which became a unitary council.

History 
The Bristol name means "the place where the bridge is" in Old English. It has been a port for 800 years. Now, ships are too big to reach it. It has a new seaport at Avonmouth.

Historical sites 
It has many historic churches and other buildings. The Clifton Suspension Bridge crosses high above the river. The University of Bristol is also in Clifton.

Bristol was a centre for the slave trade.  During the 2020 George Floyd protests, a crowd pushed down the statue of 17th century slave trader Edward Colston and threw it in the harbour.

Bristol was badly damaged during World War II. It now has many new factories and offices. The Concorde supersonic airliner was made here.

It is also the birthplace of the music genre trip hop., with 3 trip hop bands originating there: Massive Attack, Portishead (named after a North Somerset town) and Tricky.

Notable people 
Some of the most notable people who are currently living, or who are from the city include:

 Banksy - graffiti artist 
 Stephen Merchant - writer and comedian 
 Russell Howard - comedian and television presenter

References

Other websites

 

Unitary authorities
 
Ceremonial counties of England
Ports and harbours of the United Kingdom
Events 
 Charles Darwin proposes the natural selection of species.
 A civil war between conservatists and liberals starts in Mexico.
 The British Empire or rule, begins in India after the surrender and exile of the last Mughal emperor, Bahadur Shah II

Births 
 January 7 – Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, Russian-born advocate of the Hebrew language (d. 1922)
 January 10 – Heinrich Zille, German illustrator and photographer (d. 1929)
 January 11 – Harry Gordon Selfridge, American department store magnate (d. 1947)
 March 10 – Kokichi Mikimoto, Japanese pearl farm pioneer (d. 1954)
 March 18 – Rudolf Diesel, German inventor (d. 1913)
 March 23 – Ludwig Quidde, German pacifist, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1941)
 April 23 – Max Planck, German physicist, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1947)
 June 16 – King Gustaf V of Sweden (d. 1950)
 June 16 – William Dickson Boyce, founder of the Boy Scouts of America (d. 1929)
 July 9 – Franz Boas, German anthropologist (d. 1942)
 August 1 – Hans Rott, Austrian composer (d. 1884)
 August 11 – Christiaan Eijkman, Dutch physician and pathologist, recipient of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine (d. 1930)
 August 27 – Giuseppe Peano, Italian mathematician (d. 1932)
 September 18 – Kate Booth, the oldest daughter of William and Catherine Booth (d. 1955)
 October 3 – Eleonora Duse, Italian actress (d. 1924)
 October 27 – Theodore Roosevelt, 26th President of the United States, recipient of the Nobel Peace Prize (d. 1919)
 November 20 – Selma Lagerlöf, Swedish writer, Nobel Prize laureate (d. 1940)
 November 30 – Jagdish Chandra Bose, Indian physicist (d. 1937)
 December 22 – Giacomo Puccini, Italian composer (d. 1924)
 December 25 – Herman P. Faris, American temperance movement leader (d. 1936)
Events 
 January 1 – Queens and Staten Island join with New York City.
 March 26 - the first electric tram in Moscow.
 Thomson measures the charge and mass of an electron.
 August/early September-The 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane hits the Bahamas, Florida and North Carolina

Births 
 May 10 – Fred Astaire
 May 24 – Kazi Nazrul Islam
 August 28 – Chang Myon
 July 7 - George Cukor
 July 11 – E.B. White
Bright Eyes is an American indie rock music band. The people in the band are Conor Oberst, a singer-songwriter; Mike Mogis, a musician and producer; and other friends and session musicians from Omaha, Nebraska, USA.

Oberst's singing style and the words to the songs are called desperate or on the verge of tears. Many people think his songs are always about himself, but Oberst has said that they are not. For example, one song, "Padraic My Prince", tells the fictional story of a mother drowning her son in a bathtub. In interviews, Oberst has said that he sings about such things to make rich emotions.

Discography

Albums
Letting Off the Happiness (1998)
Fevers and Mirrors (2000)
A Collection of Songs: Recorded 1995-1997 (2000)
Lifted or the Story Is in the Soil, Keep Your Ear to the Ground (2002)
Vinyl Box Set (7 LP's) (2003)  This collection contains Oberst's first five releases plus bonus material.
I'm Wide Awake, It's Morning (2005)
Digital Ash in a Digital Urn (2005)
Cassadaga (2007)
The People's Key (2011)

EPs/Singles
Every Day and Every Night EP (1999)
"Don't Be Frightened Of Turning The Page" (2001)
"Oh Holy Fools: The Music of Son, Ambulance & Bright Eyes" (2001) 
"Drunk Kid Catholic" CDS (2001)
There Is No Beginning To The Story EP (2002)
Lover I Don't Have To Love CDS (2002)
Home: IV EP (2004)
One Jug of Wine, Two Vessels EP (2004)
"Lua" (2004)
Take It Easy (Love Nothing) (2004)
Four Winds EP (2007)

American rock bands
Indie bands
Electronic music bands
Musical groups from Nebraska
Musicians from Omaha, Nebraska
Musical groups established in 1995
1995 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Nebraska
The Greek language is an Indo-European language. It is the official language of Greece (Hellas) and Cyprus. It was first spoken in Greece and was also once spoken along the coast of Asia Minor (now a part of Turkey) and in southern Italy. It was also widely used in Western Asia and Northern Africa at one time. In Greek, the language is called Ελληνικά (elliniká).

Greeks write their language using the Greek alphabet. The Latin alphabet (used to write English and many other languages) came from the Greek alphabet. Many other alphabets around the world also came from the Greek one.

Greek has an unbroken history of being a written language for over 3,000 years. This is longer than any other Indo-European language spoken today. This history is often divided into three parts, ancient Greek, medieval Greek, and modern Greek. The years 330-1453 are called medieval Greek because that's the time of the Byzantine Empire.

Over 13 million people in the world speak Greek as of 2021. These speakers mostly live in Greece (almost 11 million) and Cyprus (over 1 million). There are also people in other countries around the world who speak the language. This is largely because people left Greece and emigrated, meaning they moved to other countries. Countries like the United States and Australia have a large Greek diaspora.

Related pages 
 Greek numbers
 Ancient Greek language

References

Other websites 

 Greek Dictionary , from Webster's Dictionary .
 Ancient Greek Dictionaries , descriptions of both online dictionaries (with appropriate links) and Greek.
Kami-shibai (Japanese: 紙芝居) is a storytelling performance with picture cards, and is a traditional Japanese entertainment for children. In Japanese "Kami" means paper and "shibai" means drama or enternainment. The performer tells a story and shows pictures from scene to scene. Kami-shibai is a bidirectional media which is comprised of actions and reactions between a performer and audiences. With the spread of television, kami-shibai went out of date. 

The origins of kamishibai are not clear, but its roots can be taced back to various picture storytelling traditions in Japan such as etoki and emaki scrolls and other forms of visual storytelling which date back centuries. However, the form of Kamishibai that one thinks of today developed around 1929 and was quite popular in the 30s, and 40s, all but dying out with the introduction of television later in the 1950s. 

Typical kamishibai consists of a presenter who stands to the right of a small wooden box or stage that holds the 12-20 cards featuring the visuals that accompany each story. This miniature stage is attached to the storyteller’s bicycle. The presenter changes the card, varying the speed of the transition to match the flow of the story he is telling.

References 

Japanese culture
Entertainment in Japan
was a novelist, poet, and servant of the Imperial Court during the Heian period of Japan. She is well known as the author of The Tale of Genji, written around year 1003.

Murasaki Shikibu is a nickname; her real name is unknown.

Life 
Murasaki was born in Kyoto. She was born into the Fujiwara family. Her father, Fujiwara Tametoki, was not a very nice father and when Murasaki got older he confessed that he regretted she was not a boy.

In the year 997, Murasaki married her second cousin, Fujiwara Nobutake, at age 20. In 999, they had a daughter, Kenshi, who also became a poet. Fujiwara Nobutake died about 1001.

Murasaki started as a writer soon after her husband's unexpected death. She was recognized immediately, and she was asked to the imperial court as a tutor to Empress Shoshi ( Joto Mon'in, 988–1074), daughter of the statesman Fujiwara Michinaga (966–1027). Murasaki joined the court of Empress Shōshi in 1006, probably for her skills as an author.

Murasaki started writing her diary in 1008, and finished in 1010. Her diary describes her Chinese lessons with her brother Nobunori (980?–1011), daily life and how much she missed her husband after his death.

She died in Kyoto, around the year 1020.

The Tale of Genji 
The Tale of Genji is split into 54 different books, and is made up of 795 different poems. It is one of the earliest novels in Japanese, and is often thought of as the first novel in the world. It is a classic of Japanese literature. The masterpiece was about the court life of Prince Genji, and his wife, Aoi in 10th-century Japan. Prince Genji was the illegitimate son of an emperor, and the text is about his relationships in court. The Tale of Genji included many beautiful scroll paintings.

References

970s births
1020s deaths
Japanese poets
Writers from Kyoto Prefecture