cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The African wildcats (Felis silvestris lybica) are small, fierce cats that live in forests, grasslands, and brush lands in Africa and the Middle East. They are the closest living relatives of the domestic cat.

It is a wildcat subspecies which occurs across northern Africa and extends around the edges of the Arabian Peninsula to the Caspian Sea. It is the most common and widely distributed wild cat, and is listed as Least Concern by IUCN since 2002.

The African wildcat appears to have diverged from the other subspecies about 131,000 years ago. Some individual African wildcats were first domesticated about 10,000 years ago in the Middle East, and are the ancestors of the domestic cat. Remains of domesticated cats were found in human burials in Cyprus, done by Neolithic farmers about 9,500 years ago. Hybrids between domestic cats and African wildcats are still common today.

Description 
African wildcats are generally crepuscular, hunting at dawn and dusk. They are diurnal (most active during the day) during very cold weather. They are very good climbers. African Wildcats live for 12 to 15 years. They are about 50 percent larger than domesticated (tame) cats.

Diet 
African wildcats are carnivores, like all cats. These fast, solitary hunters eat small to medium-sized mammals, birds, reptiles, frogs, invertebrates, and eggs.

References 

Felines
Marin Marais (31 May 1656, Paris – 15 August 1728, Paris) was a French composer and viol player. He is regarded as one of the great French musicians of the Baroque.

Marais, the son of a poor shoe maker, was educated in a choir school were he was taught to play the viol. He then learnt from Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe, a famous bass viol player. In six months he was said to be better than his teacher. In 1675, aged 19, he joined the orchestra of the Paris Opera. This was where he met Jean-Baptiste Lully, who was the director of the Opera. Lully taught him to compose music. Marais often conducted the operas Lully had written.

Marais was hired as a musician in 1676 to play at the royal court of Versailles. He did quite well as court musician. In 1679 he was appointed "ordinaire de la chambre du roy pour la viole", a title he kept until 1725.

He was a master of the basse de viol. He wrote a lot of music for that instrument, he was the most important French composer for it. He wrote five books of Pièces de viole (1686-1725). Most of the pieces in the book are suites with basso continuo. These were quite popular in the court, and for these he was remembered in later years as he who "founded and firmly established the empire of the viol" (Hubert Le Blanc, 1740). His other works include a book of Pièces en trio (1692) and four operas (1693-1709). Alcyone (1706) is well known for its storm scene. Marais became the conductor of the Paris Opera in 1706, but after the failure of his 1709 opera, Sémélé he gradually withdrew from public life. He married Catherine d'Amicourt, on 21 September 1676. They had 19 children together. Two of the children, Vincent Marais and Roland Marais also became famous musicians, as well as his grandson, Nicolas Marais.

Titon du Tillet wrote about Marais in his book Le Parnasse françois. He describes a piece from Marais' fourth book called The Labyrinth, which goes through lots of keys. The notes which are often dissonant, sometimes fast, sometimes slow, describe a man caught in a labyrinth. Eventually the man comes out of it happily and the music finishes with a gracious and natural chaconne. Another piece called La Gamme [The Scale], very gradually goes up the steps of the octave and then down again.

Facsimiles of all five books of Marais' Pièces de viole are published by Éditions J.M. Fuzeau. A complete critical edition of his instrumental works in seven volumes, edited by John Hsu, is published by Broude Brothers.

References in Film
Marais and his music were featured in the movie Tous les matins du monde (1991). The movie shows a detailed, imagined life of Monsieur de Sainte-Colombe. Marais' music is heard a lot, including his longer work Sonnerie de Ste-Geneviève du Mont-de-Paris (1723). A recording of the Sonnerie performed on a Fairlight synthesizer was used in the cult classic film Liquid Sky.

References

1656 births
1728 deaths
French composers
Baroque composers
French musicians
Bognor Regis is a  town in Arun, West Sussex, England, UK. In 2001 there were 22,555 people living in Bognor Regis.

It had a beach, where Butlins is situated.

References 

Towns in West Sussex
Folkestone is a seaside town in Kent, England, United Kingdom. It has a Eurostar train terminal near it, in Ashford. But the channel tunnel is in Folkestone. It is has a pebble beach and sandy beach and there are cliffs.

Towns in Kent
Ports and harbours of the United Kingdom
Aviemore (;   "The big [mountain] face") is a town in Highlands of Scotland, UK. It is also a tourist area.

Geography

Climate

Aviemore has an oceanic climate (Köppen: Cfb). It has cool temperatures and rainfall throughout the year. The highest temperature ever was  on 28 June 2018.

References

Towns in Scotland
Highland
John Ireland (born near Manchester, 13 August 1879; died Washington, Sussex, 12 June 1962) was an English composer. He is particularly remembered for his Piano Concerto and for his church music, especially the anthem Greater love hath no man, the song The Holy Boy and the hymn tune to My song is love unknown.  He had an unhappy childhood, and he always felt unsure of himself and rather lonely.

Life 

John Ireland was born in Bowdon, Greater Manchester.  His father, who was 70 years old, was  a publisher who owned a newspaper.  He had married for a second time after his wife had died, and John was the youngest of five children from the second marriage.  His mother was 30 years younger than her husband.   When John was 14 his mother died, and his father died the next year.

John Ireland studied piano and organ at the Royal College of Music. Later he also had composition lessons from Charles Villiers Stanford. He later became a teacher at the College himself.  His pupils included the composers Alan Bush and
Geoffrey Bush (who were not related), Ernest Moeran and Benjamin Britten.  Geoffrey Bush later helped to prepare a lot of Ireland’s works for publication.   Ireland mostly made his living as an organist and choirmaster.

Ireland enjoyed going to the Channel Islands.  He liked the landscapes there. He was evacuated from them just before the German invasion during World War II.

John Ireland married once, but his marriage only lasted a few months.

On 10 September 1949, his 70th birthday was celebrated in a special Prom concert.  The soloist in the Piano Concerto  was the pianist Eileen Joyce, who later made the first gramophone recording of the concerto.

Ireland retired in 1953.  He moved to a tiny village in  Sussex, where he lived in an old windmill which had been changed into a home.

He died  aged 82 in Washington, Sussex of heart failure.

Music 

John Ireland was never much influenced by folksong like many other English composers of his time.  His music is more related to Impressionism.  He liked the music of French composers such as Debussy and Ravel as well as Igor Stravinsky and  Bartók.  His Piano Concerto is one of his best works. It shows that he developed his own personal style of harmony.  Most of his other good works are short pieces, including many for piano solo. His best-known piece is the song The Holy Boy.  It is heard in many different arrangements. His songs to poems by A. E. Housman, Thomas Hardy, Christina Rossetti, John Masefield, Rupert Brooke and others, are among some of the best English art songs.. He also wrote hymns, carols, and other sacred choral music; among choirs he is probably best known for the anthem Greater love hath no man, often sung in services that remember the victims of war.  Another choral work, These things shall be expresses his deepest hopes for mankind, although in his last years he said that he hated the work.

References 
 The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, 1980;

Other websites 
The John Ireland Trust 

1879 births
1962 deaths
20th-century English composers
English organists
Bo'ness (short for Borrowstouness) is a town in the Falkirk council area of Scotland, UK. Bo'ness is well known for its iron. Even if Bo'ness is the form of name it's known for and being used on road signs, its original name Borrowstounness.

Name history 
The usage of the name dates back to the early 1400s when the Burgh of Linlithgow built a harbour on a broad promontory (or "ness"). The "burgh's town on the ness" then became Borrowstounness. It eventually became known as Bo'ness.

References 

Towns in Falkirk council area

Other websites 

 Bo'ness official railway
Harry Smith (born August 2, 1985) is a Canadian professional wrestler of English descent who currently works for New Japan Pro Wrestling under the name Davey Boy Smith, Jr..

He also worked for World Wrestling Entertainment. He wrestled on the ECW brand using the name David Hart Smith, as a member of The Hart Dynasty, alongside Tyson Kidd and Natalya.

He has wrestled on its Raw brand and in Florida Championship Wrestling under the name DH Smith ("D" for Davey Boy Smith, and "H" for the Hart family). On August 5, 2011, WWE released him from his wrestling contract. He currently holds the PWA World Heavyweight title.

His grandfather is Stu Hart who was a wrestling promoter. His father was Davey Boy Smith. His first public wrestling match was at age 10.  He started wrestling professionally on February 22, 2002 at age 16 and has been continuing since then.

In wrestling
Finishing moves

Camel clutch — 2007–2008
Running powerslam — 2007-present
Saito suplex — 2008-present
Sharpshooter — 2010-present

Signature moves
Arm drag
Big boot
Bulldog Bite (Standing or seated dragon sleeper)
Brainbuster
Elevated Boston crab
Guillotine leg drop
Jackhammer
Multiple suplex variations
Back
Delayed vertical, sometimes from the second rope
German
Northern Lights
Triple belly-to-belly
Powerbomb
Scoop powerslam

With TJ Wilson/Tyson Kidd
Hart Attack

Managers
Diana Hart
Nattie Neidhart / Natalya
Bret Hart

Nicknames
"The Canadian Bulldog"
"Bulldog"

Entrance music
"Rule, Britannia!" (2007)
"New Foundation" by Jim Johnston (2009–2010)
"Attitude" by Chris Goulstone (2010–2011)

References

Hart family members
1985 births
Living people
Canadian professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from Calgary
Former WWE wrestlers
East Lothian is a council area in Scotland, UK.

The administrative centre is Haddington.  The largest town is Musselburgh.

Places of interest
Aberlady Bay
Dirleton Castle
Gifford
Hopetoun Monument
Muirfield (Scotland)
North Berwick Harbour
Pencaitland
Torness Nuclear Power Station

Scottish Council Areas
Counties of Scotland
Frank Bridge (born Brighton, 26 February 1879; died Eastbourne,  10 January 1941) was an English composer, violist and conductor.  His music often sounded quite modern to the people of his day.  He wrote many excellent works including chamber music as well as orchestral music.  One of his composition pupils was Benjamin Britten.  Later Britten remembered his teacher by using one of Bridge’s tunes and making them into a piece of music called Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge.

Life
Bridge was born in Brighton and studied at the Royal College of Music in London from 1899 to 1903.  One of his teachers was  Charles Villiers Stanford. He played the viola in several string quartets and conducted many orchestras.  He learned difficult music very quickly, and sometimes Henry Wood asked him to take his place when he was not well enough to conduct himself.  After a while he spent most of his time composing. He privately taught several pupils, including Benjamin Britten, who later helped to make his teacher's music better known and honoured him in his Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge for string orchestra (1937), based on a theme from the second of Bridge's Three Idylls for String Quartet (1906). 

Bridge died in Eastbourne.

Music
Bridge’s early works show the influence of Johannes Brahms and Charles Villiers Stanford.  He wrote some excellent chamber music and songs.  The Phantasie Quartet and the String Quartet no 1 show his talent.  His later pieces such as the third (1926) and fourth (1937) string quartets have quite complicated harmonies and show his interest in the music of Schoenberg as well as the harmonies of Maurice Ravel and Alexander Scriabin. His most important orchestral works include The Sea and Summer.  He wrote some lovely chamber music for the cello as well as many songs.  In his later years his harmonies become quite advanced, for example a favourite chord of his can be found by playing a C minor chord and a D major chord together.  In his longer pieces the speed of the music often changes and he avoids repeating himself exactly.  

For a long time after his death his music was hardly ever played, but more recently musicians have discovered the greatness of his compositions.  Pianists like to play the popular piano piece called Rosemary.

20th-century English composers
1879 births
1941 deaths
Violists
South Ayrshire is one of 32 council areas of Scotland, UK. The largest town is Ayr.

Scottish Council Areas
Clackmannanshire is a British county and a council area in Scotland. It lies north of the River Forth, between Perthshire to the north and Fife to the south.

Clackmannanshire is the smallest county in the United Kingdom. The second smallest, Kinross-shire, lies net to it.

Some villages/places in the county: Clackmannan, Alloa, Dollar, Tillicoultry, Tullibody

Scottish Council Areas
Counties of Scotland
British shires
Selby is a town in North Yorkshire, England, UK. There was a great fire there in 1906. It is not far from the border with the East Riding of Yorkshire.

Towns in North Yorkshire
Burnley is a town in Lancashire, England, UK. It is not far from the border with West Yorkshire.

Industry
Burnley is a large market town in the north west of England. It has a population of about 70,000. It lies approximately 34 km north of Manchester and 40 km east of Preston at the confluence of the River Calder and River Brun. Burnley grew larger during the industrial revolution when it was home to many cotton mills and was one of the world’s largest producers of cotton cloth.

Location
Burnley lies along the M65, east of Accrington, Blackburn and Preston where it joins the M6. Lots of people use this motorway to go to these, and other large settlements like Manchester. It is surrounded by other small towns such as Padiham, Todmorden and Nelson. Many people come to Burnley from these settlements to shop and work. Burnley has a range of shops including:

Those that sell convenience goods, like newspapers and bread
Larger stores selling comparison goods such as furniture and other household items
Some clothes shops, for example: 
Next
Marks and Spencer

Since the mills closed, Burnley has become one of the poorest towns in Britain. Houses in Burnley are on average the cheapest in the UK.

People
Burnley has produced many celebrities, including Ian McKellen and Ryan Simonds. 

Towns in Lancashire
Street is a town in Somerset, England, UK. It is to the south of Glastonbury. The River Brue makes the boundary with Glastonbury.

References

Towns in Somerset
Mendip
Southport is a coastal town in Merseyside, England, UK. It is on the border with Lancashire.

Towns in Merseyside
Puck may refer to:
 Puck (mythology), a nature spirit

Characters 
 Puck (Shakespeare), from A Midsummer Night's Dream
 Puck, the narrator of the book Puck of Pook's Hill (1906) by Rudyard Kipling
 Puck, a character in the Japanese anime/manga Berserk
 Puck (comics), a diminutive superhero in Marvel comics
 Puck, a trickster in the animated television show Gargoyles
 Peter Puck, the name of a hockey-puck-shaped cartoon character
 Puck, a minor character appearing in Final Fantasy IX
 Puck the talking dog, a character in  Ouida's 1870 novel Puck who narrates and makes comments on British society.
 Puck (The Faerie Dragon), a hero in the video game Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne's custom map, "Defense of the Ancients"
 Puck, a character in the novel series "The Sisters Grimm"

People
 Theodore Puck (1916-2005), American geneticist 
 Wolfgang Puck (born 1949), an Austrian celebrity chef and restaurateur
 Kirby Puckett
 Axel (Puck) Munthe, Swedish physician and author
 David "Puck" Rainey a cast member from MTV's reality television show, The Real World

Places
 Puck (moon), a moon of Uranus
 Puck, Poland, a town in Poland
 Puck Building, a block in Manhattan, New York City, USA
 Bay of Puck, a shallow western part of the Bay of Gdańsk in the southern Baltic Sea

Others
 Puck (band), South African based electronic band
 Puck (sports), the object used for scoring goals in ice hockey, roller hockey, underwater hockey, air hockey, carrom and novuss
 Puck (goat), a specially captured wild goat crowned "King Puck" at Puck Fair every year in Ireland
 Puck (magazine), a 19th century US periodical
 Puck (literary magazine), a late 20th century US periodical
 Puck, an amount of tamped coffee within an espresso machine's portafilter
 Puck, a pointing device used with a graphics tablet
The WWE Tribute to the Troops is a televised event held every year since 2005 by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE) in December around Christmas and Hanukkah. The wrestlers and employees of the WWE travel to Iraq and Afghanistan to honor the United States military. The event features wrestlers from Raw, SmackDown, and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) brands competing in matches against each other. They hold a televised episode of Raw on an open field for any troop member to attend for free. Along the travel, wrestlers and employees stop at autograph sessions and local hospitals to visit those who fight and may have been injured in war. Walter Reed Army Medical Center and Bethesda Naval Hospital are among the hospitals visited by the WWE employees. The WWE most recently held its fifth annual event, and has their next visit planned for December 2008.

In 2004, USO of Metropolitan Washington awarded the WWE the first Legacy of Hope award for their extensive support of their troops and the USO’s Operation Care Package program. In 2006, WWE received the Secretary of Defense Exceptional Public Service award. It was presented to WWE Chairman, Vince McMahon and other wrestlers. Upon receiving the award, McMahon handed it to wrestler, John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL), noting that the idea of the Tribute to the Troops was his original idea. WWE also received recognition from General Casey, the Commander of Multinational Forces Iraq. The WWE generally stays for three days.

Overall, WWE has traveled to Iraq and Afghanistan six consecutive times since 2003. The events are held in December every year, as they are intended to be a holiday treat for the troops. Not every WWE wrestler and employee attends the trips, but any wrestler willing to go may attend, with their brand not considered a factor.

Related pages
WWE Raw

References

Other websites
2005 Official website
2006 Official website
2007 Official website

World Wrestling Entertainment television programs
Bruce George Gamble (May 24, 1938 – December 30, 1984) was a Canadian professional ice hockey goaltender who played 10 seasons in the NHL between 1962 and 1972.

Resources

Other websites
 Goaltenders.info profile of Bruce Gamble 
 Find A Grave Memorial

1938 births
1984 deaths
Boston Bruins players
Canadian ice hockey goaltenders
Ice hockey people from Ontario
People from Thunder Bay
Philadelphia Flyers players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Stanley Cup champions
American Hockey League players
Memorial Cup winners
Central Professional Hockey League players
The 1937–38 NHL season was the 21st season of the National Hockey League (NHL). Eight teams each played 48 games. The Chicago Black Hawks were the Stanley Cup winners as they beat the Toronto Maple Leafs three games to one in the final series.

Regular season

Final standings
Note: GP = Games played, W = Wins, L = Losses, T = Ties, Pts = Points, GF = Goals for, GA = Goals against, PIM = Penalties in minutes

Note: Teams that qualified for the playoffs are highlighted in bold

Scoring leaders
Note: GP = Games played, G = Goals, A = Assists, PTS = Points, PIM = Penalties in minutes

Stanley Cup playoffs

Playoff bracket

NHL awards

All-Star teams

References
Hockey Database
NHL.com

1937 in North America
1938 in North America
Falsifiability  is a concept from philosophy of science that says that it is possible to prove that a theory is wrong. There are different ways in which it can be done. The easiest way to do it is to find an example where the theory should apply, but somehow does not. As an example: Swans are birds related to ducks and geese. Today, several species of swans are known. For most people in Europe, a swan is a large white bird: The only species of swan that occurs in Europe is white. Several hundred years back, people in Europe therefore thought that all Swans were white.  In 1697, the Dutch explorer Willem de Vlamingh found black birds that looked like swans, during an expedition on the shores of Swan River, in Australia.  Later, it turned out these birds were indeed swans. With his discovery, de Vlamingh had falsified the theory that all Swans were white. 

There are some special cases, where a statement or theory cannot be falsified: 

Kurt Gödel showed that certain propositions inside a system of logic cannot be proved inside that system.
Closely related to this is the fact that some statements are undecidable (This statement is false, see paradox). Undecidable statements cannot be falsified 

Falsification is to prove that a theory is wrong. This is done in the following way: There is a set of statements (which are logically sound, and do not contradict each other) called theory. If a single logical statement can be found, which is also logically sound, and which contradicts one of the statements in the theory, then the theory is proven wrong. This can be done with observation, as in the example with the Swans above. It can also be done using mathematical logic, using  induction.

Karl Popper had the opinion that only theories that are falsifiable are scientific.<ref>Thornton, Stephen,  "Karl Popper," Stanford Encyclopedia of PhilosophyWinter 2011);  "Science, Pseudo-Science, and Falsifiability,"  1962; retrieved 2012-5-8.</ref> Falsifiability is then a line between science and other kinds of knowledge: if it can be refuted, it is science; it if cannot, then it is not science. Many working scientists think Popper was right.

Not everyone agreed with this: Pierre Duhem and Paul Feyerabend had different ideas. Feyerabend's Against method (1975) argued that there was no one scientific method. Instead, whatever works, works and anything goes. This is called epistemological anarchy''. 

Duhem's idea was more subtle. He thought that for any given set of observations there is a huge and uncountable number of explanations. According to Duhem, an experiment in physics is not just an observation, but an interpretation of observations by means of a theoretical framework. Furthermore, no matter how well one constructs one's experiment, it is impossible to subject an isolated single hypothesis to an experimental test. Instead, it is a whole interlocking group of hypotheses, background assumptions, and theories that is tested. This thesis has come to be known as holism. According to Duhem, it makes crucial experiments impossible.

Related pages 
Hypothesis
Philosophy of science
Raven paradox

References

Philosophy of science
Kenosha is a city in Kenosha County in the state of Wisconsin. It is part of the Chicago Metropolitan Area, but is nearer to Milwaukee than it is to Chicago. It is the fourth biggest city in the state after Milwaukee, Madison, and Green Bay.

Cities in Wisconsin
County seats in Wisconsin
Kenosha County, Wisconsin
Suburbs of Chicago, Illinois
Locality of reference is a phenomenon that can be seen in Computer science. It says that the same value, or the place where it is stored is accessed often. There are two different kinds of locality of reference:
Temporal locality: If a value is referenced, there is a high probability it will be referenced again a short time from now
Spatial locality: A value is stored in a certain location in storage (memory, disk,..). If this location is referenced, it is very probable that locations that are physically close to it will be referenced as well.

Reasons
There are many reasons why locality of reference occurs:
Predictability: Well-written programs only behave in a predictable way.
Structure of the program: Often programs act on several items, one at a time. This item will be accessed more than once as computation or processing is done.
Linear data structures: Programs may have loops that act on arrays or lists. They reference an item by its index in the array or list.

Uses
Programs can be optimised in certain ways, to make them run faster:
Increase the locality of reference by changing the program
Hardware can be built to exploit the locality of reference. 
Caching is very successful because of locality of reference.

Computer science
Edward N. "Ed" Rappaport, Ph.D. is the acting director of the National Hurricane Center.  He replaced former director Bill Proenza on July 9, 2007.

References

American meteorologists
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Live from Le Cabaret is a hit live album by Rock-Pop band Maroon 5. The album was exclusively released on iTunes on July 8, 2008.

The recording of Live from Le Cabaret 
This album was released on July 8, 2008. It was recorded in Montreal, Quebec. The album was originally 1:05:37 long. The album is the third known recorded by Maroon 5.

Songs performed 
The songs performed on Live from Le Cabaret are songs from Maroon 5's past studio albums. Songs from their debut studio album called Songs About Jane like "Harder to Breathe", "This Love", "She Will Be Loved", "Shiver", and "Sweetest Goodbye". Songs are also included from Maroon 5's second hit studio album called It Won't Be Soon Before Long like "Makes Me Wonder", "Little of Your Time", "If I Never See Your Face Again", and more.

Track listing 
 "If I Never See Your Face Again"
 "Makes Me Wonder"
 "Harder to Breathe"
 "The Sun"
 "Secret"
 "Shiver"
 "Won't Go Home..."
 "Sunday mornin"
 "Little Of Your Time"
 "Sweetest Goodbye"
 "She Will Be Loved"
 "This Love"

2008 albums
Pop albums
Thermodynamic entropy is a measure of how organized or disorganized energy is present in a system of atoms or molecules. It is measured in joules of energy per unit kelvin. Entropy is an important part of the third law of thermodynamics.

Imagine that a group of molecules has ten units of energy. If the energy in those molecules is perfectly organized, then the molecules can do ten units of work. However, if the energy became less organized (so, the entropy increased), the molecules might only be able to do six units of work, even though they still have ten units of energy in them.

When total entropy is reached, there is no more energy to spend. A good example of this is a cup of hot tea. The tea has a lot of energy compared to the room the tea is in. Over time the heat in the tea will spread into the room. The tea will become colder. This is because the energy (heat) in the tea moves to the surrounding area. Once the tea became cold, there is no more heat that can be spread. The tea has reached total entropy.

There are two types of these "rooms": An open system and a closed system. An open system means that energy (like heat) can freely flow in and out of the room. A closed system means that the room is closed off from the outside; no energy can go in or out.

In the case of the tea, the room was a closed system; no energy could enter it. But we can also make it an open system by placing a heater into the room. If we turn on the heater, we can use the heat from it to reheat the cup of tea. New energy has been brought into the room. The entropy has thus decreased. The heat that went from the heater into the tea can then move into the room again until total entropy has been reached. This is what the second law of thermodynamics is about.

A real life example of an open system is the Earth. It gets a lot of energy from the Sun every day. This allows plants to grow and water to stay liquid. If we took away the Sun, plants would die and water would freeze because the surface of our planet would be too cold.

Thermodynamics
Bolognese sauce is a sauce made with meat that is then mixed with pasta before eating. It is called Ragù alla bolognese in Italy. The sauce came from Bologna in Italy.
Most Italian people eat their Bolognese sauce with tagliatelle, a broad, flat type of pasta. It can also be served with ribbon or tube shaped pasta.

Spaghetti alla Bolognese recipes 

In 1982, the Bolognese delegation, said that the recipe must only be made of beef, pancetta (a type of bacon), onions, carrots, celery, tomato paste, meat broth, red wine and milk or cream. There are different recipes of Bolognese sauce. Some of the recipes contain chopped pork or pork sausage. Mushrooms are sometimes added.

Spaghetti Bolognese is popular outside of Italy where the sauce is put on a plate of spaghetti with a little bit of grated cheese put on. In China Bolognese sauce is served with noodles and it is called Chinese spaghetti.

However, these different ways of making the recipe are never eaten in Bologna. They do use the recipe together with béchamel sauce to make lasagna.

References and further reading 
 Kaspar, Lynne Rossetto (1st Edition: September 21, 1992) The Splendid Table: Recipes from Emilia-Romagna, the Heartland of Northern Italian Food, Morrow Cookbooks. .

Other websites 

Sauces
Bologna
A command economy is where the big decisions are made and owned at the centre by the government.  A planned economy is where the big decisions are made at the centre by the government. 

In an economic system the main decisions are, for example, allocating resources like labour, capital and oil. Prices, too, are controlled. In a command economy, these decisions are taken by a central body, usually the government. This system contrasts that of a market economy where all the economic actors involved take decisions. The benefit of a planned economy is that the planning body has (supposedly) perfect information, and can make a better decision than in the market economy. Countries at war sometimes command their people to make things the war needs; the major powers in World War II did this.

Friedrick von Hayek, a 20th-century economist, thought that it is not possible for the planning body to have perfect information. For this reason, the decisions taken by this body will be wrong, as it is not possible to foresee all possible events. Once the decision has been taken there is only a small margin to vary the production; this means that a planned economy cannot adapt to a change as rapidly as a market economy. According to Ludwig von Mises, there is no competition, and there are no reasons to innovate or to look for different solutions to a problem, in a planned economy.

Planned economies have sometimes been successful. After World War I and the Russian Civil War the Soviet Union was very undeveloped, but the command economy was able to resume pre-war industrial growth, to build houses and to bring electric power distribution to millions. In a few decades the country became strong and started space travel.

Communism is a type of government system that would use a command economy. The only country that now employs a pure command system is North Korea. All the other communist countries that operated under the command system have converted to a mixed economy that resembles the market system. Formerly, the Eastern Bloc and China were command economies, and are now mixed economies where the government still has a major influence.

References 

Economic systems
A flageolet is an old woodwind instrument.  It belongs to the end-blown flute family.  It started to be used in the 16th century for folk music.  Soon there were two kinds: the French kind and the English.    The French flageolet had four holes in the front and two in the back.  The English flageolet had six holes in the front.

The flageolet is quite similar to the recorder.  In the 18th century it changed because a narrow mouthpiece made of ivory or bone was added at the top.  This led into another section which bulged out.  There was a soft sponge at the end of this.  Sometimes this instrument was called the "flautino".  The piccolo developed from it.  Another instrument that developed from it was the tin whistle.

Henry Purcell and George Frideric Handel both wrote pieces for it.

Small versions of this instrument, called bird flageolets were also made and were used for teaching birds to sing.

References
The illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments;

Other websites
 flageolets.com – information about the flageolet]

Flutes
Paris Opéra or the Opéra National de Paris is the most important opera company of France. It stages performances at the Opéra Bastille and Opéra Garnier in Paris. The theatre is also the home of the Paris Opéra Ballet.

Other opera houses in Paris are the Théâtre du Châtelet, Opéra-Comique and Théâtre des Champs-Élysées.

History 
King Louis XIV allowed Jean-Baptiste Lully to start the Académie Royale de Musique in 1672. This was an organization that included opera, ballet, and music. The ballet company was part of the opera company. Then Louis XIV started the ballet school, called Académie Royale de Danse, in 1661. From 1671 until Lully's death in 1687, the school was directed by the great dancing master Pierre Beauchamp, the man who set down the five positions of the feet. 

In 1713 King Louis XIV made the Opera company a state institution. There was a group of professional dancers called Le Ballet de l'Opéra. From that time until 1875 they used lots of theatres, each one of which was destroyed by a fire. All these companies were called Paris Opéra or Opéra de Paris.

On 29 October 1873, the old Paris Opéra, known as the Théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique, which had been used since 1821, was destroyed by a fire which burned for 27 hours. By 1875 the opera company moved to the new Palais Garnier which was part of the rebuilding of Paris by Emperor Napoleon III.

When the Opéra Bastille was built in 1989 the company chose it as their main theatre.

Other websites 
 Official site

Buildings and structures in Paris
Theatres in France
Faust or Faustus is a character from German legendary stories.  His name comes from a Latin word meaning "lucky".  The legend is about a man called Faust.  Faust wants to have knowledge.  He meets the Devil.  The Devil tells Faust he can have anything he wants.  In return, the Devil says, Faust must give him his soul.  Faust agrees, and the Devil lets Faust have a wonderful time, but in the end Faust has to go to Hell.

The story of Faust became famous all over Europe.  Many writers from different countries wrote their own versions of the Faust story, e.g. Christopher Marlowe, Goethe, Mikhail Bulgakov, Thomas Mann.  Many composers wrote music about Faust, e.g. Hector Berlioz, Franz Liszt, Charles Gounod and Ferrucio Busoni.

The adjective "Faustian" is used to describe a person who wants something so much that it leads them into trouble.

In the early versions of the Faust story: in ballads, dramas and puppet-plays, Faust is always damned (meaning he will have to go to Hell).  This is because he prefers human knowledge instead of God’s knowledge.  This was thought to be very bad at that time.

Some of the plays and comic puppet theatre from around the 16th century make up their own versions of the story.  They often show Faust as a figure of vulgar fun. The story became popular in England when Christopher Marlowe wrote a play called The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus. But in Goethe's version of the story two centuries later, Faust is described as a well-educated man who wants more than just "meat and drink."

References

Fictional characters
Faust
The flag of Puerto Rico consists of five equal horizontal bands of red (top and bottom) alternating with white; a blue isosceles triangle based on the hoist side has a large, white, five-pointed star in the center.

The flag was created in 1892. In 1952, the flag became the official national flag of Puerto Rico.

Other websites

 

Puerto Rico
Puerto Rico
P
The Islamic Crescent is a symbol consisting of a crescent with a star at the concave side. In its modern form, the star is usually shown with five points (though in earlier centuries a higher number of points was often used). The two signs together, or the crescent only, was long a symbol of Byzantium. Now it is often a symbol of Islam. It is seen on a number of different country flags such as Turkey and Pakistan respectively.

Flag of Ottoman Empire was the first flag featuring a crescent with a star. Other states formerly part of the Ottoman Empire also used the symbol, so the symbol emerged into popular use.

Notes 

Islam
 
Symbols
The Cootamundra Wattle is an Australian shrub or tree. It is in the Family Fabaceae. The tree's Latin name, Acacia baileyana, is named after the botanist Frederick Manson Bailey.  It is one of nearly 1000 species of Acacia found in Australia.  The Cootamundra Wattle at first only came from a small area in southern New South Wales near Cootamundra. It has been widely planted all over Australia. In many areas of Victoria Cootamundra Wattle has become a weed. It is taking over from acacias that were only found in Victorian.

Almost all wattles have cream to golden colored flowers. The small flowers are arranged in round to cylindrical clusters. Only the stamens, the male part of the flower, stick out. Many wattles have been planted in New Zealand.

Uses 
A. baileyana is used in Europe in the cut flower industry.  It is also used as food for bees in making honey.

Cultivation 
This plant is easy to grow. It can adapt and grow in different areas. Unfortunately it easily produces seeds and will start growing new plants in the surrounding area. It can also cross breed with other acacias, including the rare and endangered Sydney species Acacia pubescens.

A low growing, weeping form, is being grown. The fine leaves of the original Cootamundra wattle is grey-green. A new type with  blue-purple leaves, known as 'Purpurea' is very popular.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
Acacia baileyana
 Society of studies about Ethnobotany and the Modified States of Consciousness 

Trees of Australia
Shrubs
Mimosoideae
Kermanshah or Kermashan (; ), is the capital city of Kermanshah Province, in Iran, in Iranian Kurdistan.  Kermanshah is the largest Kurdish city in Iran. The city is 525 km from Tehran in the western part of Iran and it is about 120 km from the border of in Iraq. Kermanshah has a continental climate.

The estimated population of the city was 822,921 in the year 2005. The majority of the population speak a Kurdish language as well as the Persian language. The religion of the people is diverse, but there are more Muslims than any other religion.

Cities in Iran
Contestants

In order of elimination 
Magdalena Rivas, 24, from Worcester, Massachusetts
Leah Darrow, 24, from Oklahoma City, Oklahoma
Julie Titus, 20, from Kent, Washington
Laura "Kristi" Grommet, 20, St. Louis, Missouri
Jennipher Frost, 22, Pocatello, Idaho
Kelle Jacob, 19, New York City, New York
Cassie Grisham, 19, Norman, Oklahoma
Toccara Jones, 22, Dayton, Ohio
Nicole Borud, 21, Minot, North Dakota
Norelle Van Herk, 20, Newport Beach, California
Ann Markley, 21, Erie, Pennsylvania
Amanda Swafford, 25, Hendersonville, North Carolina (2nd runner up)
Camara "Yaya" Da Costa, 21, Harlem, New York (runner up)
Eva Pigford, 20, Los Angeles, California (winner)

Call-out order

 The contestant won the reward challenge
 The contestant was CoverGirl of the Week
 The contestant was CoverGirl of the Week and won the reward challenge
 The contestant was CoverGirl of the Week and was eliminated
 The contestant was eliminated outside of judging panel
 The contestant was eliminated
 The contestant won the competition

Statistics
Number of contestants: 14
Oldest contestant: Amanda, 25
Youngest Contestant: Kelle and Cassie, both 19
Most collective first call outs: Amanda, 4
Most consecutive first call outs: Amanda, twice
Most collective challenge wins: Yaya, 5 times
Most consecutive challenge wins: Yaya, 5 times
Most collective bottom two apperences: Ann, 5 times
Most consecutive bottom two apperences: Eva, twice

03
Peter Fechter (14 January 1944 - 17 August 1962) is one of the best known victims of the Berlin Wall. Fechter was a bricklayer. Aged 18, he tried to cross the wall into the West, near Checkpoint Charlie, to live with his sister. He did this with his friend and colleague, Helmut Kulbeik. Both started to climb the wall at around 14:15. Kubelik was successful, and could escape. Fechter was hit by several gunshots, one of which pierced his lung, and fell back down, to what was called the Death strip. He was unable to move, and started to cry for help. Crowds started to gather on both sides of the wall; on the east side, they were dispersed by police.

Police gathered on the west side threw medical kits to him; despite the crowd asking them, they would not do more. The DDR border guards did not do anything either; neither did the United States personnel on duty at the Checkpoint.

Fechter bled to death after about an hour. After reunification, two border police were found guilty of manslaughter. They were convicted and given suspended prison terms of 20 and 21 months respectively. Both had told the court they fired shots at Fechter, but did not want to kill him. The court also ruled that Fechter was killed by the shots, and not by the absence of aid. The evidence could not show who of three gunman (one had already died) was responsible for the bullet that killed Fechter.

Other websites 

1962 deaths
1960s crimes
1960s in Europe
Berlin Wall
Cold War
Deaths by firearm in Germany
German crime victims
Manslaughter victims
Manchester Metrolink (or usually just Metrolink) is the name of the tram system in Greater Manchester, England. The system is owned by Transport for Greater Manchester (TfGM), which used to be called the Greater Manchester Passenger Transport Executive (GMPTE). It is operated under contract by the RATP Group.

History

The construction of Manchester's railway network in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries had created a lot of termini around the City Centre. These were not linked together. This left a large amount of Manchester disconnected from the railway network.

For many years there had been plans to connect Manchester's two main railway stations. These are Piccadilly and Victoria. In the late 1960s and early 1970s there were plans for a "Picc-Vic tunnel". This tunnel would carry main-line trains under the city centre. The proposal was abandoned because it would cost too much.

Metrolink was created by converting two British Rail lines serving the suburbs of Manchester, one to the town of Altrincham to the south, and another to the town of Bury to the north, to light rail. These two lines were joined up in Manchester city centre, where trams run on the roads, and had a short branch to Piccadilly railway station. This first section of the new system opened in 1992, and a newer line to Eccles opened in 2001.

Lots of extensions to the system have opened since then, with more that are currently being built or proposed. Metrolink now has lines that serve Didsbury, Ashton-under-Lyne, Oldham, Rochdale, MediaCityUK and Manchester Airport. These expansions increased the system's length from 37 km to 97 km with 99 stops.  Sometime in 2017 there will be a second line through Manchester city centre serving Exchange Square, and another line towards the Trafford Centre shopping mall before the end of the decade. There are also plans for tram-train lines to Stockport and other places in Greater Manchester.

References

1992 establishments in England
Electric railways in the United Kingdom
Greater Manchester
Light rail in the United Kingdom
Rail transport in England
Tram transport in the United Kingdom
Nitrate (NO31-) is a polyatomic ion. It is made up of one nitrogen and three oxygen atoms. It is part of many important molecules. Potassium nitrate is a common type of nitrate. It is often used in fertilizers because plants need both potassium and nitrates to live and grow. Sodium nitrate is also used in preserving foods. 

Some nitrates are explosive. People make large amounts of nitrates from ammonia. Nitrates are similar to nitrites. Many metal nitrates with thermal decomposition makes oxygen and metal nitrate.

Nitric acid has the formula HNO3  and has no overall charge, because the hydrogen ion is positive.  

Nitrate has a group valency of 1.

References 

Nitrogen compounds
"Happy Xmas (War Is Over)" is a Christmas song by John Lennon, Yoko Ono and The Plastic Ono Band.
The song is a protest about the Vietnam War in 1969. It has become a Christmas standard and has appeared on several Christmas albums.

Notable cover versions 
 Céline Dion covered the song on her 1998 album These Are Special Times.
 The Corrs included a live version as a bonus track on the Live in London DVD (2001).
 Sarah McLachlan led off her 2006 Christmas album Wintersong with a cover of this song.
 Maroon 5 recorded a cover version in 2007.
 Drake Bell sang it live in Times Square, NYC to welcome in the new year, 2007.
 *NSYNC recorded a cover version for one of their albums.
 Sarah Brightman recorded her own version as a bonus track for her album A Winter Symphony.
 Thrice, an experimental rock band, has recorded their own version of the song.
 The melody was used during the early 1990s as a musical commercial to promote tourism to Jamaica.

1971 songs
John Lennon
Christmas music
Philip IV (, ; 8 April 1605 – 17 September 1665) was King of Spain between 1621 and 1665 He was also sovereign of the Spanish Netherlands and King of Portugal until 1640.

His daughter was Marie Thérèse of Austria, wife of Louis XIV. All but three of his children died in childhood.

Children
With Elisabeth of France (1603–1644, daughter of Henry IV of France) — married 1615 at Burgos:
 Archduchess Maria Margaret of Spain (14 August 1621 15 August 1621)
  Archduchess  Margaret Maria Catherine of Austria (25 November 1623 22 December 1623)
  Archduchess Maria Eugenia of Austria (21 November 1625 21 August 1627)
  Archduchess  Isabella Maria Theresa of Austria (31 October 1627 1 November 1627)
 Archduke Balthasar Carlos, Prince of Asturias (17 October 1629 9 October 1646), Prince of Asturias
 Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria (12 March 1634)
 Archduchess Maria Anna "Mariana" Antonia of Spain (17 January 1636 5 December 1636)
 Archduchess Marie Thérèse (1638–1683), married Louis XIV of France and had children.

With Mariana of Austria (1634–1696) – his niece – 1649:
 Margaret Theresa of Austria (1651-1673), first wife of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor
 Archduchess Maria Ambrosia de la Concepción of Austria (7 December 1655 21 December 1655)
 Archduke Philip Prospero, Prince of Asturias (28 November 1657 1 November 1661)
 Archduke Ferdinand Thomas Charles of Austria  (23 December 1658 22 October 1659)
 Charles II of Spain (6 November 1661 1 November 1700)

Kings and Queens of Spain
1605 births
1665 deaths
Counts and countesses of Flanders
Archdukes and Archduchesses of Austria