cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Xerxes the Great was a Shah of Iran (485–465 BC) of Achaemenid Empire. Xerxes was son of Darius I and Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus the Great. After Darius died, Xerxes became the Shah of Iran. At the Battle of Thermopylae, Xerxes defeated Greek warriors. After winning at Thermopylae, Xerxes then took control of Athens with his army. Finally, Greek warriors won the Battle of Salamis against Xerxes in 480 BC.

The movie 300 is based on Xerxes.

References

Ancient sources

Other websites

Shahs of Iran
A shell is a hard outer layer, which has evolved in a very wide variety of different animals, including molluscs, sea urchins, crustaceans, turtles and tortoises, armadillos, etc.

Seashells 

Seashells are perhaps the most familiar and most common shells, both in the wild and for sale as decorative objects. They are usually composed of calcium carbonate, in the form of calcite or aragonite. This can have different forms, one is nacre or mother of pearl.  Other kinds of animal shells are made from chitin, bone and cartilage, or silica.

Use of Shells 

Shells of many types were popular as human decorations, either used whole or cut into pieces. One  used them for all kinds of pendants, beads, buttons, brooches, rings, and hair combs.

Small pieces of colored shell and iridescent shell have been used to create mosaics and inlays which have been used to decorate larger items such as boxes and furniture. Large numbers of whole seashells, arranged to form patterns, have been used to decorate man-made grottos.

Several kinds of sea animals have exoskeletons which one can find after their death in beach drift. Often beachcombers pick them. But usually only those of molluscs (also spelled "mollusks") are known as seashells.

Classes 

The majority of shell-forming molluscs belong to two classes: Gastropoda (univalves, or snails) and Bivalvia (bivalves or clams, oysters, scallops, etc.).

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 Shell Hair Pipes used in Indian Adornment
 110 Photos of various seashells
 Conchologists of America 

Zoology
Animal anatomy
Sea turtles (Chelonioidea) are turtles found in all the world's oceans except the Arctic Ocean, and some species travel between oceans. The term is US English. In British English they are simply called "turtles"; fresh-water chelonians are called "terrapins" and land chelonians are called tortoises.

The earliest known turtles are from the Middle Jurassic. So, turtles are one of the oldest surviving reptile groups: they are more ancient than snakes or crocodiless. 

There are seven species of sea turtle: Kemp's ridley sea turtle, the olive ridley, the flatback, the green, the loggerhead, the hawksbill and the leatherback. 

All but the leatherback are in the family Chelonioidea. The leatherback belongs to the family Dermochelyidae and is its only member. The leatherback sea turtle is the largest, measuring six or seven feet (2 m) in length at maturity, and three to five feet (1 to 1.5 m) in width, weighing up to 2000 pounds (about 900 kg).  Most other species are smaller, being two to four feet in length (0.5 to 1 m) and proportionally less wide. The flatback turtle is found only on the northern coast of Australia.

References

Further reading 
Spotila, James R. 2004. Sea turtles: a complete guide to their biology, behavior, and conservation. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 
Davidson, Osha Gray. 2001. Fire in the turtle house: the green sea turtle and the fate of the ocean. United States: United States of Public Affairs. 
Witherington, Blair E. 2006. Sea turtles: an extraordinary natural history of some uncommon turtles.

Other websites 

 SWOT – The state of the world's sea turtles – The most up-to-date information on global sea turtle populations
 Oceana scientists are tracking turtles in the Mediterranean and the Atlantic to find out more about their habits in the deep sea
 Conserving Turtles on a Global Scale
 Underwater video  of turtles in the Red Sea, Egypt
  Preserving Turtles

Turtles
Marine reptiles
Baykal (port) () is a rural locality in Russia, Irkutsk oblast, Sliudanskyy region.

Geography
The village is near Lake Baikal and setted in left coast of river Angara. In the right coast is Listvianka. The administrative centre Irkutsk is 60 kilometers north. There is an automobile ferry to Listvianka.

Population
In 2005, there were 400 people living in Baikal village. In USSR times there were about 10000 humans.

Settlements in Russia
A rudder is used to steer ships, boats, submarines, aircraft, hovercraft or other conveniences that move through air or water.

History of the rudder
Oars mounted on the side of ships for steering are documented from the 3rd millennium BC in Persia and Ancient Egypt in artwork, wooden models, and even parts of actual boats of that times. An early example of an oar mounted on the stern is found in the Egyptian tomb of Menna (1422-1411 BC). Stern-mounted oars were also quite common in Roman river navigation as proved from reliefs more than a millennium later.

A depiction of a sternpost-mounted rudder can be seen on a pottery model of a Chinese junk dating from the 1st century AD during the Han Dynasty, predating their appearance in the West by a thousand years. The technology of stern-mounted rudder in Europe and Islam World, which was introduced by travelers in the Middle Ages, was transferred from China

Foot notes

Literature
 Lawrence V. Mott, The Development of the Rudder, A.D. 100-1600: A Technological Tale, Thesis May 1991, Texas A&M University
Needham, Joseph (1986). Science and Civilization in China: Volume 4, Physics and Physical Technology, Part 3, Civil Engineering and Nautics. Taipei: Caves Books Ltd.

Ship building
The Exploration of Neptune started on August 25, 1989, when Voyager 2 became the first and so-far only spacecraft to visit the planet. Like the other gas giants, Neptune has no solid land on its surface so landing on Neptune would be impossible. 

NASA is thinking to send another spacecraft known as the Neptune Orbiter to study more about Neptune; the spacecraft is planned to be probably launched on 2035. It would release atmospheric probes, and possibly release a Triton Lander. NASA has said the earliest possible launch date is 2030. Budget cuts may eliminate this proposal.

Voyager 2

In Voyager 2's last visit with a planet before leaving the solar system, Voyager 2 came 3000 miles (5000 km) above Neptune's north pole, the closest approach it made to any planet after it left Earth. Voyager 2 studied Neptune's atmosphere, its rings, its magnetosphere, and its moons. Several discoveries were made, including the discovery of the Great Dark Spot and Triton's geysers.

Voyager 2 found that Neptune's atmosphere was very active, even though it gets only 3% of the sunlight Jupiter receives. Voyager 2 discovered an anticyclone called the Great Dark Spot, similar to Jupiter's Great Red Spot. However, pictures taken by the Hubble Space Telescope showed that the Great Dark Spot had disappeared. Also seen in Neptune's atmosphere at that time was an almond-shaped spot called "D2", and a bright, quickly moving cloud high above the cloud decks named Scooter.

Voyager 2 also found four rings of Neptune and found proof for ring arcs, or incomplete rings around Neptune. Neptune's magnetosphere was also studied by Voyager 2. The planetary radio astronomy instrument found that Neptune's day is sixteen hours, seven minutes. Voyager 2 also discovered auroras, like on Earth, but much more complicated.

Voyager 2 discovered six moons orbiting Neptune, but only three were photographed in detail: Proteus, Nereid, and Triton. Proteus turned out to be an ellipsoid, as large as an ellipsoid could become without turning into a sphere. Proteus is very dark in color. Nereid, although discovered in 1949, is still not well known even after Voyager 2 passed by. Triton was flown by at about 25,000 miles (40,000 km) away, and became the last object Voyager 2 would ever explore. Triton was shown to have extraordinary active geysers and polar caps. A very thin atmosphere was found, as well as thin clouds.

Related pages
 Neptune (planet)
 Voyager 2
 NASA

Other websites
 NASA Voyager website
 More information on the Neptune Orbiter 

Neptune
Kinder Scout is a plateau about 600 metres above sea level. It is in Derbyshire, England, roughly between the villages of Hayfield to the west, Edale to the southeast, and the town of Glossop to the northwest.

The gritstone rock under the plateau is covered by a thick layer of peat, cut by a dense network of streams which flow off it. One of the main streams is the Kinder River, which drops off the Western edge at Kinder Downfall. Plants on the plateau are mainly heather, with some mosses and bilberry. Bracken grows on the slopes around the plateau. The highest point is Kinder Low at .

It can be approached from the southeast up a steep track called Jacobs Ladder. It is crossed by the  Pennine Way long-distance footpath which starts in nearby Edale. Several sections of the path have been surfaced with large stone slabs in this area, to try to minimise environmental damage to the delicate moorland ecosystem by the large number of hikers it attracts all year round.

In the 1930s, Kinder Scout was the scene of the first mass trespasses by ramblers (Sunday, 24 April 1932) protesting at the lack of public access to the open moorland in many parts of northern England, which were then kept for grouse shooting by the estates of a number of stately homes. Public rights of way were established later, and the 2000 Countryside and Rights of Way Act set a new legal framework in which the bulk of Kinder Scout is now "Access Land" where the public has a right to roam freely.

Plateaus
Geography of England
The stern is the rear part of a ship or boat. 

The stern area has always been the place near the steering apparatus (rudder,  tiller, ship's wheel, etc.), and by extension became the domain of the ship's captain and other officers. In particular, the stern was the location of the officers' quarters, and during the age of sail became the most opulent part of the ship, with rows of windows, galleries, walkways, and fine decorations. That meant that this part was rather vulnerable, and the goal of much maneuvering in battle was to achieve the stern rake, in which a ship would pour its entire broadside into the stern.

Other features of the stern included lanterns and the ensign.

Gallery

Related pages
Bow

Ship building
Urbain Le Verrier (March 11, 1811 – September 23, 1877) was a French mathematician who was famous for co-discovering the planet, Neptune.

1811 births
1877 deaths
French mathematicians
French astronomers
John Gavin Malkovich (born December 9, 1953) American actor, producer and director. He was nominated for the Academy Award, and he also won an Emmy Award.

He was in the Robert Zemeckis' movie, Beowulf. That movie also starred Anthony Hopkins and Angelina Jolie.

Malkovich was married to actress Glenne Headly from 1982 until they divorced in 1988.

On June 6, 2013 in Toronto, Malkovich rescued a man after he was sliced in the neck. Malkovich helped the man until the paramedics arrived.

References

Other websites 

 
 
 Fisk:Why does John Malkovich want to kill me? 
 Profile: John Malkovich
 Life and taxes
 Finch and Partners (John's Management in the UK)
 John's official clothing design web site 
 Photographs of John Malkovich

1953 births
Living people
Actors from Illinois
American movie actors
American television actors
Movie directors from Illinois
Movie producers from Illinois
Drama Desk Award winners
Emmy Award winning actors
Glenn Close (born March 19, 1947) is an American movie and stage actress. Close has been nominated for and won many awards in her career, for her acting in both movies and theater.

Awards

Oscar Nominations 
 1983 Best Actress in a Supporting Role, The World According to Garp
 1984 Best Actress in a Supporting Role, The Big Chill
 1985 Best Actress in a Supporting Role, The Natural
 1988 Best Actress in a Leading Role, Fatal Attraction
 1989 Best Actress in a Leading Role, Dangerous Liaisons

Emmy Award/Nominations 
 1995 Emmy Award: Lead Actress/ Miniseries - Serving in Silence
 2002 Emmy Nomination: Outstanding Guest Actress in a Comedy Series, Will & Grace

Golden Globe 
 2005 Golden Globe Award: Best Actress/ Miniseries - The Lion in Winter

Tony Awards 
 1984 Best Actress/ Play - The Real Thing
 1992 Best Actress/ Play - Death and the Maiden
 1995 Best Actress/ Musical - Sunset Boulevard

Other 
 1988 People's Choice Award - Favorite Motion Picture Actress
 1992 Golden Camera/ Germany - Best International Actress
 2005 Screen Actors Guild Award/ Outstanding Actress, Television - The Lion in Winter

Other websites 
 
 
 
 Glenn Close biography at thespiannet
 Performance  Working in the Theatre seminar video at American Theatre Wing.org, April 1992
 Performance  Working in the Theatre seminar video atAmerican Theatre Wing.org, April 1986
 TonyAwards.com Interview with Glenn Close 

American movie actors
American movie producers
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Actors from Greenwich, Connecticut
Tony Award winning actors
1947 births
Living people
People's Choice Award winners
James Langston Edmund Caan (born March 26, 1940) is an American movie, stage and television actor. He is known for his role of Sonny Corleone in 1972's The Godfather and for his role as Ed Deline on Las Vegas. He has been nominated for many awards, including the Academy Award, Emmy and Golden Globe.

He is the son of Sophie (née Falkenstein) and Arthur Caan, Jewish immigrants from Germany.

References

Other websites
 
 

1940 births
Living people
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
Jewish American actors
Actors from New York City
James Harrison Coburn (August 31, 1928 – November 18, 2002) was an American actor. He became famous in the 1960s when he made many Western movies, such as The Magnificent Seven. But after that, he acted in other different types of roles, and became a more complete and successful actor. He was very ill in the 1980s and he almost did not make any more movies in that decade. However, he got better and started acting again in the 1990s. He won an Academy Award in 1998.

References

Other websites 

 Find-A-Grave profile for James Coburn
 Gesprengte Ketten - The Great Escape, Behind the scenes , Photographs of cameraman Walter Riml. Helma Türk & Christian Riml, eds. House Publishing 2013, English/German

1928 births
2002 deaths
Deaths from myocardial infarction
American movie actors
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Nebraska
American television actors
People from Compton, California
The animal liberation movement or animal rights movement (sometimes called the animal personhood movement and animal advocacy movement), is the movement of activists, academics, lawyers, campaigns, and organized groups who oppose the use of non-human animals in research, as food, as clothing, or as entertainment.

History 

In some form or another, the concept of animal rights has been around for thousands of years. In Eastern religions such as Buddhism, Taoism, and Jainism, the concept of ahiṃsā, meaning non-violence, is a central principle. Jainism stresses non-cruelty towards animals, prohibiting adherents from working at a zoo, cutting trees, or using any fabrics, including silk, which are produced through harming other living beings. In Islam, cruelty towards any animal is a punishable sin.

Within Europe and North America, there were many precursors of the modern-day animal rights movement. The first animal cruelty legislation was passed in 1635, which prohibited tearing wool off of living sheep. In 1822, Richard Martin, known as “Humanity Dick”, passed Martin’s Act aimed at preventing cruelty towards cattle. Martin went on to be one of the founding members of the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals, the world’s first animal welfare charity, in 1824.

References

Further reading 
 , undated, retrieved September 4, 2005
 "Burning Rage"  by Ed Bradley, CBS 60 Minutes, November 5, 2005
 "FBI, ATF address domestic terrorism", by Terry Frieden, CNN, May 19, 2005
 Animal Liberation Through Trade Unions? 
 Allegations of sexism within the animal liberation movement 
 Lawrence Finsen and Susan Finsen, The Animal Rights Movement in America: From Compassion to Respect (New York: Twayne Publishers, 1994). 
 Gary L. Francione, Rain without Thunder: The Ideology of the Animal Rights Movement (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1996). 
 Harold D. Guither, Animal Rights: History and Scope of a Radical Social Movement (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 1998). 
 James M. Jasper and Dorothy Nelkin, The Animal Rights Crusade: The Growth of a Moral Protest (New York: The Free Press, 1992). 
 Peter Singer, Ethics into Action: Henry Spira and the Animal Rights Movement (Lanham, MD: Bowman & Littlefield, 1998).

Other websites
 Brute Ethics: animal ethics encyclopedia
 Cruelty-Free Kitty a website that discusses products and weather or not they test on animals or not

Animal rights
Breakfast cereal is a breakfast food made from cereal grains.It is a common breakfast meal. This is made of grain, and usually eaten with milk in the United States. It is often sweetened with sugar, syrup, or fruit. There are many kinds of cereals.  Some names of breakfast cereal include Cheerios, Kellogg's, Cocoa Puffs and various other brands.  Most breakfast cereals are made for children, but there are many for adults as well.  Some adult cereals are made for diets or other health benefits.

History 
In the 19th century, Americans ate meat a lot for breakfast and usually did not eat grains and fiber. But after that, people who were interested in eating more healthy foods began a push for healthy breakfasts.

This brought up the creation of Granula. The name Granula comes from granulates, formed of grain. In 1863 this became the first breakfast cereal and included heavy nuggets made from bran, the outer husk of a grain that is taken out when making flour. The cereal had to be soaked overnight before being eaten. Simply pouring milk over it was not enough to make it eatable.

The cereals eaten today grew out of a health campaign that began in the 1860s. Thin baked dough served to patients in hospitals inspired two men, C.W. Post and W. K. Kellogg. These two men started their own companies, named them after themselves.

Related pages
 Corn
 Wheat
 Grain

References

Other websites 

 Cereal site - All About Cereal
 Cereals  by the Vegetarian Society
 Nutrition Facts on hundreds of cereals

Breakfast foods
Grains
Sexual attraction is an attraction to other members of the same species for sexual or erotic activity. In many species this does not always mean a sexual act; indeed, some sexual behavior among primates is mostly a social activity.

In humans 
What is sexually attractive to humans may change by culture or place. The sexual attraction of one person to another depends on both people. 

Much of human sexual attractiveness is physical (see beauty). This involves the impact one's appearance has on the senses, especially in the beginning of a relationship:

 Visual perception (how the other looks); 
 Olfaction (how the other smells, naturally or artificially; the wrong smell may be repellent);
 Audition (how the other's voice and/or movements sound).

Related pages
Love
Lust

Other websites 
 Sexual Attraction Among Humans 
 FaceResearch – Scientific research and online studies on the role of faces in sexual attraction
 Reunions Set Off Sex Urges, Article on sexual attraction among birth relatives.
 www.lookism.info deconstruction of attraction and beauty standards

Human behavior
Human sexuality
Sexuality
A rehearsal is a practice before a concert or play in a theatre or some other performance. The group of  will get together to rehearse. They may rehearse together many times before the performance so that they get used to performing with one another.

A dress rehearsal is the last rehearsal before the performance. It is called a 'dress rehearsal' because in a theatre the actors will be wearing their costumes. When an orchestra or other music group have a 'dress rehearsal' this does not mean that they have to dress up. It simply means that it is the last rehearsal, and it will be in the hall where they are going to perform so that everything is as it will be for the performance.

Orchestras often have section rehearsals or sectionals. This means that each group of instruments rehearse separately, e.g. the string sectional will be all the string instruments rehearsing together. This can be useful because they can concentrate on the bits which are particularly difficult for them: the string instruments can talk about the bowing etc.

An open rehearsal is a rehearsal that the public can come and watch. In opera houses the dress rehearsal is often an open rehearsal. The entry may be free or the audience may have to pay, but not as much as for a ticket for a performance. The audience will have to understand that the performance may be stopped if something goes wrong and needs to be rehearsed. Singers will often save their voices by not singing as loudly as they will in the performance (this is called "marking").

A technical rehearsal in a theatre is a rehearsal for practising things such as lighting and using props.

Performing arts
The London Symphony Orchestra (LSO) is one of the most famous orchestras of the world.  They are based in London's Barbican Centre, but they often tour to lots of different countries.

The LSO started in 1904.  Most of the players had been members of Henry Wood's Queen's Hall orchestra.  They left that orchestra when Henry Wood made a rule that they were not allowed to send deputies to rehearsals or concerts.  The LSO was set up as a self governing organization.  This means that the players themselves organize everything: they decide how much they are going to be paid, who can be in the orchestra, etc.

The LSO gave its first concert on 9 June 1904 with Hans Richter conducting. He was principal (main) conductor until 1911, when Edward Elgar took over for a year.  Some of the world's most famous conductors have conducted the orchestra.  Since January 2007 Valery Gergiev has been the LSO's Principal Conductor.  André Previn is the Conductor Laureate (Honorary conductor).  In 2006, Daniel Harding became the co-principal guest conductor together with Michael Tilson Thomas.  Richard Hickox is the Associate Guest Conductor of the LSO.  The leader of the orchestra is Gordan Nikolitch.

The LSO was the first British orchestra to play overseas when it went to Paris in 1906. The LSO players all came close to death in 1912 because they were due to sail on the RMS Titanic for a concert in New York.  Fortunately they had to change the booking at the last minute.  They did tour the USA and Canada that year, and were the first British orchestra to do so.

In 1966 the London Symphony Chorus (LSC) was formed to join the LSO for works with choirs.

For many years the LSO refused to allow women to become members because they thought the sound would not be so good. 

The LSO made their first gramophone recording in 1920.  Since then they have made many recordings.

Principal Conductors

British orchestras
The London Philharmonic Orchestra (LPO) is one of the major orchestras of the United Kingdom. It is based in the Royal Festival Hall, London.

The orchestra was formed in 1932 by Sir Thomas Beecham, and played its first concert on October 7 1932 at the Queen's Hall, London. The associate conductor at the time was Malcolm Sargent.

At one of the orchestra's early concerts in November 1932 the sixteen-year old Yehudi Menuhin played a programme of violin concertos including the concerto by Elgar which the composer himself conducted.

In the 1930s, when Beecham conducted at the Royal Opera House, the orchestra played for operas there.  Beecham made many recordings with the orchestra.

In 1939 the orchestra's sponsors stopped giving money to the orchestra.  The orchestra became a self-governing body, which meant that, like the London Symphony Orchestra, the players organized the orchestra themselves, deciding on their pay, their members, what music they should play etc.

During the Second World War they went round the country playing in places where people would not otherwise hear music.
Many of the players' instruments were destroyed when the Queen's Hall was bombed in May 1941, but lots of people gave money for them to buy new instruments.
 
After the war, Beecham returned to the LPO for eighteen months, but left to start a new orchestra, the Royal Philharmonic. The orchestra continued to play with several guest conductors until Eduard van Beinum was appointed.  When he became ill they appointed Sir Adrian Boult who stayed until 1956, although he continued to work with the orchestra and became its President in 1965.

Through the late 1950s the orchestra did not have much money and had to stop paying the players regular salaries.  They only got paid for the work they did.  In 1958 the LPO appointed William Steinberg as chief conductor. He helped the orchestra to become better again.

In 1964 the LPO became the resident orchestra for Glyndebourne Festival Opera in the summer.  They continue to do this today. 

In 1967 the LPO appointed Bernard Haitink as its principal conductor. He stayed with the orchestra for 12 years and was followed by Sir Georg Solti.

Vladimir Jurowski is now the principal conductor.

Principal Conductors
Sir Thomas Beecham (1932–1939)
Eduard van Beinum (1947–1950)
Sir Adrian Boult (1950–1957)
William Steinberg (1958–1960)
Sir John Pritchard (1962–1966)
Bernard Haitink (1967–1979)
Sir Georg Solti (1979–1983)
Klaus Tennstedt (1983–1990)
Franz Welser-Möst (1990–1996)
Kurt Masur (2000-2007)
Vladimir Jurowski (since 2007)

Other websites 
London Philharmonic Orchestra official website

British orchestras
Wilhelmus Simon Petrus Fortuijn, known as Pim Fortuyn (, 19 February 1948 – 6 May 2002) was a Dutch sociologist and politician. He was born in Driehuis. He was the leader of the LPF (Lijst Pim Fortuyn), a right-wing political party. He was very popular and was expected to win the 2002 elections. Fortuyn did not agree with some things the religion of Islam does, and did not want to let criminal Muslims from other countries come to the Netherlands. He was Roman Catholic and openly gay.

Nine days before the elections, Fortuyn was assassinated during the 2002 Dutch national election campaign by Volkert van der Graaf, who is an extreme environmentalist and animal rights activist. In court at his trial, van der Graaf said he murdered Fortuyn to stop him from exploiting Muslims as "scapegoats" and targeting "the weak members of society" in seeking political power.

Early life and education
Fortuyn was born on 19 February 1948 in Driehuis, as the third child to a Catholic family. His father worked as a salesman and his mother was a housewife. In 1967 he began to study sociology at the University of Amsterdam but transferred after a few months to the Vrije Universiteit in Amsterdam. In 1971 he ended his study with the Academic degree Doctorandus. In 1981 he received a doctorate in sociology at the University of Groningen as a Doctor of Philosophy.

References

Other websites
  Bio at Parlement.com

1948 births
2002 deaths
Dutch academics
Dutch columnists
Dutch councillors
Dutch LGBT people
Dutch murder victims
Dutch party chairs
Dutch Roman Catholics
Dutch scientists
Former leaders of political parties in the Netherlands
Gay men
LGBT academics
LGBT Christians
LGBT politicians
LGBT scientists
LGBT writers
Murders by firearm
People from Rotterdam
People murdered in the Netherlands
Pim Fortuyn List politicians
Politicians from North Holland
Sociologists
Writers from North Holland
Cyrus the Great (, Kurosh e Bozorg, c. 590 BC or 576 — August 530 BC), was the founder of the Achaemenid dynasty in today's Iran. He was chosen as the leader of Persian people in Anshan, he defeated the Medes and was chosen as the Shah of the Persian Empire in 599 BC. Cyrus fought with the Lydian Empire and the Babylonian Empire. Before leaving Babylon, Cyrus also freed the Israelites who were imprisoned by Babylonians and allowed Jews to return to their native land.

Cyrus was the first king who put an end to slavery in all his territory. He allowed his people to continue worshipping their own gods. Cyrus died, probably in battle, in Pasargadae. His tomb remains in Pasargadae in Iran. Cyrus was famous for justice and kindness.

References

6th-century BC births
530 BC deaths
Shahs of Iran
Čajev is small village near Humpolec in the Pelhřimov District, Vysočina Region of the Czech Republic. 473 people live there and it has 7,98 km².

Villages in the Czech Republic
Relief is a way of making sculptures or carvings. You start with a flat stone or wooden base, and take small parts away until you have made the art you want.

Reliefs are found around the world. They can be used to decorate buildings, such as temples. Usually the artist makes reliefs of figures, such as people or animals.

In bas-relief, only a bit of the base is taken away.  The figure is quite flat and this is especially common in friezes. An alto-relief is where the artist takes away a lot of the base material. This can be very detailed.

Famous reliefs

Famous reliefs include:

 Great Altar of Pergamon, now at the Pergamon Museum, Berlin
 Lions and dragons from the Ishtar Gate, Babylon
 Temple of Karnak in Egypt
 Angkor Wat in Cambodia
 Lion Capital of Ashoka, the national symbol of India
 glyphs and artwork of the Maya civilization
 The monument to the Confederacy at Stone Mountain, Georgia
 Borobudur temple, Java, Indonesia
 The Elgin Marbles from the Parthenon now housed at the British Museum.
 The representation of Monticello on a US nickel.

Gallery

Sculpture
Flickr is a photo sharing website and web services suite. It was founded by Stewart Butterfield and Caterina Fake in 2002.It is also an online community platform, which is considered an early example of a Web 2.0 application.

Users can upload any photo to their website. The user will then be asked to release the photo under many licenses available. Some licenses allow other people to reuse it, which makes it possible for Wikimedia Commons to transfer free files from Flickr to their website.

Any person that has a Yahoo! ID can register their Flickr account in a few seconds.

Service 
Flickr provides a free service for users to share their photos online with other people. However, free users have a limit of 300 MB of uploads per month, 15 MB per photo and 150 MB per video. However, users can upgrade to the pro account where they can get unlimited uploads at $24.95 per month.

Tools 
Flickr also has a set of tools for users to upload their photos from their desktops. However, they can only be used on Windows and Mac computers.

References

Other websites 
Flickr
FlickrBlog 
Ludicorp corporate website
Flickrbits, a repository for third party plug-ins and API-based tools

Websites established in 2004
Social networking
Norton AntiVirus (NAV) is a popular product of Symantec Corporation. It is one of the most widely used antivirus programs. Norton AntiVirus is sold as a standalone product. It is also included as part of Norton Internet Security and Norton SystemWorks. There is also a standalone corporate edition version called Symantec AntiVirus Corporate Edition.

Other websites 
 Official website

Software
Haemophilia is a blood condition that means bleeding does not stop. The bleeding occurs because the blood does not clot. People with hemophilia lack proteins in the blood that make scabs and blood clots. A person with a small cut or internal bleed (bruise) could bleed to death. They do not bleed more than a normal person, but they bleed for much longer. The word comes from the Greek words haima ("blood") and philia ("to love"). To treat this, an affected person can get a blood donation from someone without hemophilia. The donor’s blood  has the clotting proteins and can temporarily make a normal scab. 30% of hemophilia A and B cases are the first person in their family to have hemophilia which is the result of an unexpected mutation (this means that there is an unexpected change in the body).

It usually affects males. It is passed from mother to child through genes.

There are 3 types of haemophilia:
 Haemophilia A - about 90% of cases. There is no blood clotting ability.
 Haemophilia B - not as severe, but much less common. There is not enough blood clotting ability.
 Haemophilia C - caused by not one, but two recessive (weak) genes.

Haemophilia A happens in about 1 in 5,000–10,000 male births. Haemophilia B happens in about 1 in every 20,000–34,000 male births.

Genetic defects on the X chromosome affect males because they have only one X chromosome. In females, a recessive gene is usually masked by a normal gene on the other X chromosome. The Y chromosome does carry some genes, but far fewer than the X chromosome. Defects of this type are called "sex-linked" in genetics. There is no cure for this disease but there are different treatments available around the world.

A person with haemophilia is called a haemophiliac.

Related pages
Nicholas II of Russia

References 

Diseases
Genetic disorders
Otis R. Bowen, M.D. (February 26, 1918 – May 4, 2013), was the governor of the American state of Indiana from 1973 to 1981. He was the first governor of Indiana to serve two consecutive terms.  He was also the United States Secretary of Health and Human Services on the cabinet of President Ronald Reagan.

Early life
Bowen was born in a farmhouse in Fulton County, Indiana.  He raised his family, practiced medicine, and began his political career while living in Bremen, Indiana, where he still lives today.

Career
On Labor Day weekend in September 1973, Governor Bowen declared amnesty for a group of inmates that took hostages and rioted at the Indiana State Prison. Although his decision to give "blanket amnesty" was a controversial one, it proved to be the correct decision as all the hostages, who were not only guards, but also a few select inmates who were otherwise weak and preyed upon, were released without harm. The guards who were subsequently released after a short meeting took place between the leaders of the riot and Governor Bowen in front of b-block....the inmate negotiation took only a few minutes between the governor and a group of inmates led by one Thomas D Brown (ISP#37151) serving 10 years for armed robbery, and was compelling enough to cause Gov. Bowen to declare a successful "blanket amnesty".

The governor's action preceded a "domino effect" of changes made in all aspects of the Indiana Department of Corrections. The changes involved personnel, regulations and conditions within areas of the system, e.g. medical, food, access to media, and disciplinary aspects of every day life.

Death
Bowen died on May 4, 2013 in his home in Donaldson, Indiana at the age of 95. The cause of death has not been disclosed.

References

1918 births
2013 deaths
Governors of Indiana
United States Secretaries of Health and Human Services
US Republican Party politicians
Guacamole (called Guacamol in Central America and Cuba) is a Mexican dip made of avocados, salt and sometimes tomatoes. Various herbs can be added too, such as chives. It is depicted as a green, creamy dip or garnish.  It is often served as a dip or garnish with Mexican foods such as tacos and tortilla chips.

Related pages 

 Wasakaka

Other websites
Guacamole recipes and avocado information 

Condiments
Mexican sauces
Avocados
Literal translation is the translation of text from one language to another "word-for-word", rather than giving the sense of the original. For this reason, literal translations usually mis-translate idioms. For example, a literal English translation of the German word "Kindergarten" would be "garden of children," but in English the expression refers to the school year between pre-school and first grade.

Related pages
Machine translation
Interlinear text

References 
 Literal translation
 Example of a literal translation of bible text compared with normal translation (at the right) (pdf)

Linguistics
Machine translation, sometimes referred to by the acronym MT, is part of computational linguistics. It looks at the use of computer software to translate text or speech from one natural language to another. 

At its basic level, MT performs simple substitution of words in one natural language for words in another (see: Literal translation).

Current machine translation software often allows to adapt the translation to subject or profession (such as weather reports) — to improve output by limiting the  allowable substitutions. This technique is very effective in domains where formal or formulaic language is used. It follows then that machine translation of government and legal documents more readily produces usable output than conversation or less standardised text.

Quotes 
In the words of the European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT):

Related pages
 Translation
 Literal translation

Notes

References

Other websites 
 International Association for Machine Translation (IAMT)
 Association for Machine Translation in the Americas (AMTA)
 European Association for Machine Translation (EAMT)
 Asia-Pacific Association for Machine Translation (APAMT)
 Association for Computational Linguistics
 Machine Translation, an introductory guide to MT by D.J.Arnold et al. (1994)
 Machine Translation Archive  by John Hutchins. An electronic repository (and bibliography) of articles, books and papers in the field of machine translation and computer-based translation technology
 Machine translation (computer-based translation)  — Publications by John Hutchins (includes PDFs of several books on machine translation)
 NIST 2006 Machine Translation Evaluation Official Results 
 NIST 2005 Machine Translation Evaluation Official Results 
 Machine Translation and Minority Languages 
 John Hutchins 1999 
 SMT  An article on statistical machine translation in general and Language Weaver in particular
  Free online machine translation powered by PROMT Supports 24 language directions and the following languages: English, Russian, German, French, Spanish, Italian and Portuguese.
  How the Computer Translates  An article on machine translation from the founder of PROMT . broken link

Software
Linguistics
Languages
Interlinear text is text on several lines where additional lines  give explanations of the main text.  That can be a transliteration or a translation of each word of the main line (literal translation) or a free translation of the entire main text line.

Interlinear text is usually used to translate or explain the main text. It is used frequently in foreign language learning material and linguistic literature. Latin text books and Greek or Hebrew Bibles with interlinears are common examples.

Related pages
Literal translation

Other websites
 Example of interlinear text (Matthew) (pdf)
 Interlinear Glossed Text Standards (E-MELD)
 Interlinear Glossed Text Levels (E-MELD)
 Toward a General Model of Interlinear Text (E-MELD)
 Interlinear Morphemic Glosses 
 The Leipzig Glossing Rules: Conventions for interlinear morpheme-by-morpheme glosses 
 Online Interlinear of Biblical Greek Scriptures (New Testament) text - Requires Adobe Acrobat

Language
The Sumgait pogrom was a pogrom by the local Azerbaijanis that targeted the Armenian population living in the Azerbaijani seaside town of Sumgait on February 1988. An estimated 30 were killed. But most say 200.

Related pages
Anti-Armenianism
Kirovabad pogrom
Khojaly Massacre
Maraghar Massacre
Nagorno-Karabakh War

Other websites 
Sumqait.com  , 
Aslan İsmayılov. Sumqayıt — SSRİ-nin süqutunun başlanğıcı. Bakı: Çaşıoğlu. 2010. 204 səhifə.  
Aslan Ismayilov. Sumgayit — Beginning of the Collapse of the USSR. Baku: Çaşıoğlu. 2010. 
Аслан Исмаилов. Сумгаит — начало распада СССР. Баку: Чашыоглу. 2010. 220 стр.  
Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (I) 
Уголовное Дело № 18/55461-88. Сумгаит. 1989. (II) 
Həsənova Rəna, Cəfərova Nazxanım. Sumqayıt danışan tariximizdir. Sumqayıt şəhərinin 60 illik yubileyinə həsr olunmuş Biblioqrafik göstərici. Sumqayıt-2009.  
sumgayit1988.com
Vladimir Kryuchkov. Hardline Soviet Communist who became head of the KGB and led a failed plot to overthrow Mikhail Gorbachev
Incomplete list of victims of the massacre

1988
1980s riots
20th century in Armenia
20th century in Azerbaijan
Events 
End of the Asuka period, the second and last part of the Yamato period and beginning of the Nara period in Japan; Heijō-kyō (Nara) becomes the capital of Japan.
April 5 — During the Cold Food Festival, Chinese Emperor Zhongzong of Tang had his chief ministers of court, sons-in-law, and high-ranking military officers engage in the festive game of tug of war within a palace of Chang'an City. The Emperor purportedly laughed when two older ministers fell over during the game.
Founding of the Muslim Kingdom of Nekor in Morocco.
Muslim army invited into Ceuta by its governor, Count Julian, who, being an opponent of Roderick, encourages them to invade the Iberian peninsula.
Roderick deposes Achila to become king of the Visigoths.
The first (wooden) Al-Aqsa Mosque is finished.

Deaths 
Kakinomoto no Hitomaro, Japanese poet
Saint Adalbert of Egmond
Emperor Zhongzong of Tang China (assassinated, b. 656)
Shangguan Wan'er, female Chinese poet and official of the Tang Dynasty (born 664)
is the Japanese tradition of visiting areas where leaves have turned red in the autumn. The word comes from the two Japanese words  meaning "red leaves" or "maple tree" and , "hunting".  It is also called . "Kōyō" is another pronunciation of the characters for "momiji". In Hokkaidō another word for it is .

Many people in Japan do this. The cities of Nikkō, Tochigi and Kyoto are very popular. The tradition started in the Heian era.

Related pages
 Hanami

References

Other websites
"Momijigari" , Japanese events calendar

Japanese culture
is a Japanese castle which is in Himeji in Hyōgo Prefecture. It includes 83 buildings made of wood. It is sometimes known as Hakurojō or Shirasagijō ("White Heron Castle") because of its brilliant white exterior.

It is a Japanese National Cultural Treasure.  It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. 

Along with Matsumoto Castle and Kumamoto Castle, it is one of Japan's "Three Famous Castles", and is the most visited castle in Japan.

Several movies have been filmed at the castle, like Akira Kurosawa's Kagemusha and Ran; The Last Samurai  starring Tom Cruise; and the Shogun 1980 TV-miniseries/movie starring Richard Chamberlain.

In 2009, Himeiji Castle was recognized as one of the 100 Landscapes of Japan which best show contemporary Japan and its culture in the Heisei period.

Related pages 
 List of World Heritage Sites in Japan

References

Other websites 

 Himeji Castle Guide 
 Himeji castle website  (requires Macromedia Flash plugin)
 Official UNESCO page for Himeji castle
 Himeji Tourist Information・Worlds Cultural Heritege Himeji castle 
 Himeji Castle - LOCATION VIEW Himeji Edition (Tourist Guide with 360 degree movie map)

Castles in Japan
World Heritage Sites in Japan
Japanese culture
Hyōgo Prefecture
The Tang Dynasty (Chinese: 唐朝; Pinyin: Táng Cháo) (18 June 618 – 4 June 907) was an imperial dynasty of China. It came after the Sui Dynasty and was followed by the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period. It was founded by the Li (李) family, who came to power during the fall of the Sui Empire. The dynasty was interrupted for a short time by the Zhou Dynasty (周) (16 October 690 – 3 March 705) founded by Empress Wu Zetian who managed to claim the throne, becoming the first and only Chinese Empress.

The Tang Dynasty, with its capital at Chang'an (today Xi'an), was the biggest city in the world at the time. It is considered by historians as a high point in Chinese civilization—maybe even greater than the earlier Han Dynasty—as well as a golden age of cosmopolitan culture.

Empress Wu, the first woman to ever rule in China, was also included in the Tang Dynasty. Her methods were sometimes vicious, but she was very intelligent and talented.

Other websites 
 The Tang Dynasty at the Metropolitan Museum of Art
 Home of 300 Tang Poems, University of Virginia
 The Tang Dynasty  at AsianSpiritGallery

References 

Chinese dynasties
7th-century establishments in Asia
10th-century disestablishments in Asia
618 establishments
907 disestablishments
Divination (Greek μαντεια, from μαντις "seer") is an attempt to get information through omens or supernatural things. The verb form is to divine, but this should not be confused with the adjective divine. Divining the outcome of things has been done by many different methods, such as the ones listed below.

Divination is different from fortune-telling. Divination is more ritual, usually religious. Fortune-telling is more for personal things.

Types of divination 

 Astrology (by celestial bodies)
 Ailuromancy (by the behaviour of felines)
 Augury (by the flight of birds)
 Aura-Soma, based on colors
 Bibliomancy (by book, frequently but not always a religious text)
 Cartomancy (by cards, e.g., playing cards, tarot cards, and non-tarot oracle cards; see also Taromancy)
 Cheiromancy (by palms; see Palmistry)
 Chronomancy (by time; lucky/unlucky days)
 Coscinomancy (by a sieve)
 Crystallomancy (by crystals or other reflecting objects; see also Scrying)
 Extispicy (from the entrails of sacrificed animals)
 Geomancy (by earth), includes Feng Shui divination
 Graphology (by handwriting)
 I Ching divination (ancient Chinese divination using I Ching): (But using an I Ching manual can make it also a form of Bibliomancy/Stichomancy)
 Heruspicy (by the organs of sacrificed animals)
 Necromancy (by trying to ask the dead)
 Numerology (by numbers)
 Oneiromancy/Incubatio (by dreams)
 Onomancy (by names)
 Ouija board divination
 Palmistry (by palm inspection)
 Phrenology (by the shape of one's head)
 Pyromancy, or pyroscopy (by fire)
 Rhabdomancy divination by rods
 Scrying ("seeing" in a crystal ball, a mirror, or water)
 Runecasting / Runic divination (by runes)
 Sternomancy (by markings or bumps on the chest)
 Taromancy (by specially designed cards: Tarot; see also Cartomancy)

Related pages 
Oracle

Other websites 

Apple Divination
Ancient Astrology and Divination on the Web , resources on Greco-Roman and Mesopotamian divination
W. R. Halliday, Greek Divination  (1913), a complete scanned edition of the most recent general treatment of Greek divination
1913 Catholic Encyclopedia: Divination
Divination Methods 
 Encyclopedia Iranica: Divination
Theory of Divination by Tim Maroney, exploring different possibilities
The Sator Formula engraved on a human skull

Occult
was the 52nd emperor of Japan, according to the traditional order of succession.  Saga's reign started in 809 and ended in 823.

Traditional history
Before he became the monarch, this prince's personal name (imina) was .  He was the son of Emperor Kammu, and he was the younger brother of Emperor Heizei by the same mother.

He had nine Empresses and consorts; and 47 Imperial sons and daughters.

Saga was known as a good writer.  He sponsored the first imperial poetry competitions (naien).  According to legend, he was the first Japanese emperor to drink tea.

Events of Saga's life
Before he became the monarch, he was Crown Prince for three years.

 17 June 809 (Daidō 4, 1st day of the 4th month): In the 4th year of Emperor Heizei's reign, he was very sick and he abdicated. The succession (senso) was received by his younger brother  Then the new emperor is said to have acceded to the throne (sokui).  This was confirmed in ceremonies.
 24 August 842 (Jōwa 9, 15th day of the 7th month): Saga died at the age of 57.

After his death
According to the Imperial Household Agency, the mausoleum  (misasagi) of Heizei is near Daikaku-ji in Ukyō-ku, Kyoto.  The emperor is traditionally venerated at a memorial Shinto shrine at this location.

Eras of reign
The years of Kammu's reign are identified by more than one era name (nengō).
 Daidō             (806-810)
 Kōnin (810-824)

Legacy
In ancient Japan, there were four noble clans, the Gempeitōkitsu (源平藤橘).  One of these clans, the Minamoto clan are also known as Genji (源氏). The Saga Genji (嵯峨源氏) are said to be descended from Emperor Saga.

Related pages
 Emperor of Japan
 List of emperors of Japan
 Japanese imperial family tree
 Emperor Go-Saga

References

Other websites 

 Gate at Saga's mausoleum

Emperors of Japan
785 births
842 deaths