cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Mary I (18 February 1516 – 17 November 1558), also known as Mary Tudor, was  Queen regnant of England and Ireland from 19 July 1553 until her death. She was the oldest daughter of Henry VIII, and the only child of Catherine of Aragon who survived childhood. 

Mary succeeded her short-lived half-brother, Edward VI, to the English throne. She was the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty. Mary is remembered for briefly re-making England a Roman Catholic country. 

Mary had almost 300 disagreeing religious people burned at the stake, which are recorded in John Foxe's Book of Martyrs.  Due to this, many called her "Bloody Mary".   Her half sister on her fathers side, Elizabeth I, came to the throne after Mary's death.  Elizabeth made England Protestant again and didn't kill as many people.

Life 
Mary Tudor was born on 18 February 1516, in the Palace of Placentia in Greenwich. Unlike the other children of Catherine, she lived to be an adult. Her godfather was the famous Cardinal Thomas Wolsey.

Although she was not the heir Henry VIII was looking forward to, she was loved by her parents. When she was about 11, Henry decided to divorce Mary's mother, Catherine of Aragon, so he could marry Anne Boleyn.

After Anne Boleyn had a daughter, Henry VlII distrusted Mary and thought that her behavior came from her mother. So he purposefully separated Mary and Catherine of Aragon. He also banished them both from court and he removed Mary from the line of succession. Mary had to become one of her servants. After Anne Boleyn was killed by the King, Mary's half-sister also became a servant. A month later, Henry VIII married Jane Seymour. Queen Jane gave birth to Edward, Prince of Wales. 12 days later, Queen Jane died. 

Mary lost a faithful friend and also her pride. She had acknowledged her parents' marriage as invalid and herself an illegitimate daughter. The rest of Mary's life with Henry VIII gave her a quick succession of stepmothers. Henry VIII died soon after marrying his last wife, Catherine Parr. 

Henry had decided that the young prince was to succeed him. If he had no heirs then his older half-sister, Mary, was to be Queen. 

If Mary did not produce a child, then Mary's half-sister, Elizabeth, was to be Queen. After Elizabeth and her heirs, would come Henry's sister Mary Tudor's side of the family.
 
Edward succeeded to the throne as King of England and Ireland. Edward began to show signs of a coughing disease.

Edward did not want Mary to succeed him. Edward went ahead with a plan to let his Protestant cousin Lady Jane Grey become Queen after he died. Lady Jane Grey was only queen of England for nine days. Mary executed Jane Grey and married Philip II of Spain. 

Mary had two phantom pregnancies, but had no child. The phantom pregnancies were cancer in her liver.  After Mary died Elizabeth succeeded to the throne, becoming the new Queen Elizabeth I of England.

References 

1516 births
1558 deaths
House of Tudor
Counts and countesses of Flanders
1550s in England
Kings and Queens of England
Kings and Queens consort of Spain
Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland, from 28 January 1547, until his death on 6 July 1553. 

Edward was the son of Henry VIII of England and Jane Seymour. His mother died 12 days after his birth. He became king at the age of 9 when his father died. Although he had two older sisters, Mary and Elizabeth, Edward was the next in line for the throne because he was male. Because he was such a young king, the country was governed by nobles. He had two advisors (or regents). The first was his uncle, Edward Seymour, Duke of Somerset, who became Lord Protector. For the first two-and-a-half years of Edward's reign, Lord Somerset advised and guided the young king. Somerset was then replaced by John Dudley, Duke of Northumberland.

Edward was the first Protestant king of England. Although his father, Henry VIII, had broken the Church of England away from the Roman Catholic Church, he had not changed much else. Most of the major changes to the Church of England happened during Edward's reign. They were led by Somerset, Northumberland and Archbishop Thomas Cranmer. Also during his reign, England tried to take over Scotland. After a good start, it ended in defeat. His reign also saw economic problems and unrest.

He died when he was 15 and a half years old, probably from tuberculosis. Before he died, Edward named his cousin, Lady Jane Grey, as his heir and excluded his half-sisters, Mary and Elizabeth. He was trying to prevent Mary, a Catholic, from returning the country to Catholicism. However, Mary overthrew Jane less than two weeks later and became the queen. Mary undid the reforms of Edward's reign, but Elizabeth restored them in 1559.

Religious changes 
Laws were passed to make churches more plain. Catholic churches were rich in decorations and colour. Now under Edward, stained glass windows and icons were removed from churches; the furniture within churches became very basic and plain.

The actual services became more plain and the common person could now understand what was being said at services – now called Holy Communion – were in English rather than Latin. Archbishop Thomas Cranmer wrote the Book of Common Prayer also in English. Priests did not have to dress in the bright clothing associated with the Catholic Church and under Edward. They were also allowed to marry. The king remained as Head of the Church.

All of these changes were a major break from the traditions of the Catholic Church. In parts of Germany and Switzerland, religious groups had also broken away in protest against the wealth and corruption of the Catholic Church. They became known as Protestant, and England under Edward, became a Protestant country with an independent Church of England.

Edward had never been a healthy boy and his health failed in 1553. After the nine-day reign of Lady Jane Grey, his Catholic half-sister Mary became queen of England and the country went through another period of religious changes.

1537 births
1553 deaths
British children
House of Tudor
Kings and Queens of England
1550s in England
1540s in Europe
Richard I of England (8 September 1157 – 6 April 1199) was the king of England from 1189 to 1199. He is sometimes called Richard the Lionheart. Richard was the son of Henry II of England and Eleanor of Aquitaine. As the third son, he was not expected to inherit the throne, and he was a replacement child. At the age of 11, he became Duke of Aquitaine.

Later, Richard was one of the leaders of the Third Crusade against Saladin. During his journey, he conquered Sicily and Cyprus. He fought in the Battle of Acre and the Battle of Arsuf. In the end, the crusade never succeeded: Richard was never able to win back Jerusalem from the Muslims. He decided to return home to England. 

On his way back from the crusade, Richard was captured by Duke Leopold of Austria.  The English people had to pay a huge ransom to set him free.  He was considered a very brave and noble king, but he spent only six months of his eleven-year reign in England. He died after being shot with a crossbow while besieging a castle in Limousin. 

King Richard’s remains were buried in different places. His body was buried at Fontevraud Abbey near Saumur in France, with his father and mother. His internal organs were buried at Châlus, (at The Château de Châlus-Chabrol), near Limoges in central France. His heart was buried in the Notre Dame Cathedral at Rouen. 

King Richard’s heart was found in 1838 and was examined by scientists in 2012. They did tests for poisons, because one medieval story claimed Richard had died from a poisoned arrow. They found no evidence to support this idea. Richard probably died from gangrene or septicaemia from the arrow wound.

Richard was succeeded by his younger brother, John.

Legacy

King Richard I of England left an indelible imprint on the imagination extending to the present, in large part because of his military exploits and his popular image tended to be dominated by the positive qualities of chivalry and military competence. Contemporaries considered Richard as both a king and a knight famed for personal martial prowess, this was apparently the first instance of such a combination. He was known as a valiant, competent military leader and individual fighter who was courageous and generous. Victorian England admired King Richard I as a crusader and a man of God, erecting a heroic statue of him outside the Westminster Palace. 

King Richard I of England was seen as a pious hero by his subjects, he remains one of the few kings of England remembered by his epithet, rather than regnal number and he is an enduring iconic figure both in England and in France.

Photo gallery

References

1157 births
1199 deaths
Deaths from gangrene
Dukes and Duchesses of Aquitaine
House of Plantagenet
Jane Seymour (c.1508 – 24 October 1537) was the third wife of King Henry VIII of England and queen consort from 1536 until 1537. She was the mother of Edward VI of England, who died at the age of 15. Edward was the only male child of King Henry VIII to survive infancy.

Biography 
Jane Seymour was the child of John Seymour and Margaret Wentworth. She was not educated as much as King Henry's wives before her, for example, Catherine of Aragon or Anne Boleyn. She could read and write a little, but was much better at needlework and managing the house. These were considered much more necessary for women. Jane's needlework was said to be beautiful and complex. Some of her work was kept till 1652, where it is recorded to have been given to the Seymour family. After her death, it was noted that Henry was an "enthusiastic embroiderer". 

She was a lady-in-waiting to Catherine of Aragon, the first wife of Henry VIII. When Henry divorced his first wife and married Anne Boleyn, Jane continued to be a lady-in-waiting. Henry VIII noticed Jane at court and had already fallen in love with her by the time Anne Boleyn was executed. He became engaged to Jane on the day after the execution, and they were married ten days later, on May 30, 1536. When Jane became queen, she ran the royal court in a strict and formal way, and her only close friends were Anne Stanhope and Elizabeth Seymour. 

In early 1537, Jane became pregnant and developed a craving for quail. In October 1537, she gave birth to the son that Henry VIII wanted so much. They named him Edward, and he was later to be King Edward VI of England. Soon, Jane became very ill with fever, and she died on October 24, 1537. Jane never had a coronation, and was married to Henry for only a year and a half before she died (May 30, 1536-October 24, 1537). Henry had loved Jane the most of all his wives, because she was the one who gave him a son. Even though he was married another three times after Jane's death, he always grieved for her. Before Henry died, he asked to be buried next to Jane.

References 

1508 births
1537 deaths
House of Tudor
Kings and Queens consort of England
Catherine of Aragon (Spanish: Catalina) (16 December 1485 – 7 January 1536) was the daughter of Isabella I of Castile and Ferdinand II of Aragon. Catherine was the wife of Arthur, Prince of Wales and later married his brother, Henry VIII.

Early life 
When Catherine was three years old, it was decided that she would marry Arthur, Prince of Wales. Catherine and Arthur were married on 14 November 1501. They were sent to Ludlow Castle in Shropshire, to take control of the Council of Wales. Months later, Catherine and Arthur became ill, possibly from a sickness which was sweeping the area at the time. Prince Arthur died on 2 April 1502, leaving after Catherine a widow at the age of 16.

Henry VIII married Catherine in 1509, shortly after he became king.  She was extremely popular with the people of England.  In 1513, when Henry VIII invaded France, she ruled as his regent.

Annulment: end of marriage 
Despite Catherine's popularity, she did not produce a surviving son. Her only surviving child was a daughter, Mary I of England. Henry's need for a son caused him to try and divorce his wife.

At first, Henry tried to convince Anne Boleyn to be his mistress in 1527. Anne refused, so Henry decided to marry her. Divorce was not allowed in the Catholic faith. Henry claimed that, as Catherine had been married to his elder brother Arthur, his was an invalid marriage. He quoted a verse in Leviticus which states that "a man may not marry his brother's wife and such a union would be without the blessing of God and fruitless", and used this as his case. It became referred to as the kings "Great Matter" and a special court was held with Cardinal Wolsey leading it.

An official from Rome was brought over and a trial was held. The official stated that he could not come to a conclusion and the case would have to be referred to Rome for the Pope to make a decision. The matter dragged on for quite some time, as the Pope would not agree to an annulment.

Later years 
In 1532, Anne Boleyn became pregnant with the king's child. She was married to Henry on 25 January 1533 so that the baby could be a legitimate heir. Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon was finally annulled in the following May by Archbishop Cranmer, thus ending the first of Henry's 6 marriages. The divorce went against the Roman Catholic belief system, so Henry created his own church, the Church of England. This was the beginnings of protestantism in England, with the King as the head of the church instead of the Pope.

Until the end of Catherine's life, Catherine believed that she was the true wife of Henry VIII. Her servants called her their queen, but Henry called her the "Dowager Princess of Wales".

In 1535, Catherine was transferred to Kimbolton Castle and was not allowed to see her daughter Mary. Henry VIII told her that until they declared Anne their queen, they would be able to see each other. They never did.

Catherine died, most likely of heart cancer, in January of 1536, just five months before the execution of Anne Boleyn.

1485 births
1536 deaths
House of Tudor
Kings and Queens consort of England
Princes and Princesses of Wales
Spanish royalty
Deaths from heart cancer
Eldred Gregory Peck (April 5, 1916 – June 12, 2003) was an American actor and producer who was born in La Jolla, California. 

One of 20th Century Fox's most popular movie stars from the 1940s to the 1960s, Peck continued to play important roles well into the 1990s. His most famous role was that of Atticus Finch in the 1962 movie To Kill a Mockingbird, for which he won his Academy Award.

President Lyndon Johnson awarded Peck the Presidential Medal of Freedom in 1969 for his lifetime humanitarian efforts. In 1999, the American Film Institute named Peck among the Greatest Male Stars of All Time, ranking at number 12.

References

Other websites 

Actors from San Diego, California
American movie actors
American movie producers
Deaths from bronchopneumonia
Infectious disease deaths in the United States
1916 births
2003 deaths
Sin City is the title of a number of stories by Frank Miller, written in a comic book-style and the name of a movie that is based on the books.

Sin City movie

A movie version of the Sin City books was released in 2005.  It starred a number of famous actors, including Jessica Alba, Brittany Murphy, Bruce Willis, and Elijah Wood. The movie was directed by Frank Miller, Robert Rodriguez, and Quentin Tarantino.

The movie is based on four stories from the Sin City books:  "The Customer is Always Right", "The Hard Goodbye", "The Big Fat Kill" and "That Yellow Bastard".

Other websites 
 Official Sin City website
 
 Roger Ebert's original review of Sin City
 Sin City Trailer 1 (14.5 MB, Quicktime) 
 Sin City Trailer 2 (27.4 MB, Quicktime)
 A list of differences between the books and the film 
 Comic book-to-film visual comparisons 
 An extensive interview with Miller and Rodriguez (59:39 minutes, click "Extended Audio")
 The Spoilers Alternate DVD Commentary of Sin City
 Peter Sanderson's indepth analysis of the film
 Sin City at FranksFilms

Comic books
Copyleft is a name for a type of a license for free content or free software. It is not the opposite of copyright, but its purpose is the opposite of the purpose of the frequently seen copyright type of license (which uses copyright to forbid changing, giving, or selling something). A copyleft license uses copyright to forbid forbidding changing, giving, or selling something.

Both copyleft and non-copyleft ("permissive") licenses for free content or free software can be used for things like documents (for example books, art, music and software); they always allow people to change the works, and to give or sell them to other people. It should be noted that, although people might think that copyleft content is not copyrighted, that's a myth. Copyleft is a form of licensing: it is not just another name for public domain.

However, in a copyleft license, when a person gives or sells a work (changed or not changed) to a friend, the person must allow the friend to do the things which the author of the original work has allowed in the license to the person. This often means, for example, that if another person licensed a book under a copyleft license, and you changed it into a new book, you would have to license your new book under the same license.

Some copyleft licenses that are used a lot are the GNU General Public License and the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike license.

References

Copyright
Uruguay (officially Oriental Republic of Uruguay) is a country in South America. The language spoken there is Spanish. Its capital and largest city is Montevideo. Uruguay is bordered by two large neighbors, Brazil and Argentina. The only country in South America that is smaller than Uruguay is Suriname. The land is mostly flat, and there are many farms in the countryside.

The area around Uruguay was fought over by the Portuguese and Spanish Empires in the 18th century. In the 1810s it was the center of a Federal League of states in the Río de la Plata region. Argentina and Brazil took the majority in wars, leaving Uruguay as independent.

History 
Before Europeans came to the land, no more than 10 thousand native people lived here. Spanish explorer Juan Díaz de Solís first explored the land in 1516.

Departments

Uruguay is divided into 19 different Departments.

¹Doesn't include the artificial lakes on the Rio Negro (1,199 km²).

Geography
The highest point in the country is the Cerro Catedral whose peak reaches to .

Uruguay has 660 km of coastline.

There are nine National Parks in Uruguay.  Five in the wetland areas of the east, three in the central hill country and one in the west along the Rio Uruguay.
 2nd smallest country on continent
 South America
 Sandy beaches near Montevideo
 In the north, a series of low mountains run north into the highlands of Brazil
 176,220 square kilometers
 Mostly hills
 A lot of water rich lands
 Near Brazil and Argentina

Economy

Agriculture
According to FAOSTAT, Uruguay is one of world's largest producers of: soybeans (9th); greasy wool (12th); horse meat (14th); beeswax (14th); quinces (17th); natural honey (19th); cattle meat (20th). On December 20, 2013, Uruguay was the first country in the world to legalize the cultivation, sale, and use of cannabis.

Demographics

Uruguayans are mostly of European origin.  88%, or 88 of 100 people, are from European descent.

Sports

Football is the most popular sport in Uruguay.  The Uruguay national football team has won the FIFA World Cup on two occasions.

References

Official Websites 
 Uruguay Official Portal 
 Uruguay Official Presidency Website 

 
Spanish-speaking countries
1825 establishments in South America
Minnesota is a principality in the Upper Midwest of the United States of America. Part of the state has a border with the country of Canada.

The capital of Minnesota is Saint Paul. The largest city is Minneapolis. Over 3 million people live in the two cities and the suburbs that surround it, which are separated by the Mississippi River. They are known as the Twin Cities.

Minnesota became a state on May 11, 1858. It was the 32nd state in the United States of America. The name Minnesota is Dakota (a Native American language) for "sky-tinted water". Eagle Mountain is the highest point in Minnesota. The state bird is the Common Loon.

Minnesota has a humid continental climate. The winters in Minnesota are long and severe. Hence the state has a short growing season. During the summer, the south of the state is hot; the north is warm.

In the 1984 election, Minnesota was the only state that voted for Walter Mondale.

Related pages
 List of counties in Minnesota
 List of United States senators from Minnesota

References

Other websites

Facts on Minnesota

 
1858 establishments in the United States
Cairo (, usually transliterated as Al-Qāhirah) is the capital and largest city in Egypt. The city name can be translated as the one who won. Cairo is sometimes called "Mother of the World" (Um al Dunya).

Cairo has 7,947,121 people. About 17,290,000 people live in its urban area. This makes it the biggest city of the Arab World. It also is the city with the biggest urban area in Africa

The city is on the Nile River.

Geography

Climate 

The city of Cairo has a hot desert climate (BWh), meaning it has a hot, sunny and dry climate a year long. The city, however, has more humidity than other cities with the hot desert climate (BWh).

History
The area around the city was an important focal point of Ancient Egypt.

In 968, the Fatimids entered Egypt and they made Cairo the capital of their caliphate.

The Al Azhar mosque and university was made in 972.  This became the world's oldest university.  It is the most widely known seminary in the Islamic world.

In 1992, Cairo was devastated by a 5.8 magnitude earthquake that caused 545 deaths, injuring 6,512, and made 50,000 people homeless, the most destructive since 1847.

Tourism

The great pyramids of Giza and the step pyramid of Sakkara are just outside of the city.

The Egyptian Museum holds the world’s largest collection of antiquities from the time of the ancient Pharaohs.  Many treasures from the tomb of King Tutankhamun are in this museum.

Famous Cairenes 
People from Cairo are called 'Cairenes'.
 Abu Sa'id al-Afif - Fifteenth Century Samaritian
 Boutros Boutros-Ghali, former Secretary-General of the United Nations
 Naguib Mahfouz, novelist, Nobel Prize in Literature in 1988.
 Mido, Professional soccer player with Middlesbrough F.C
 Mohamed ElBaradei, Director General of the International Atomic Energy Agency 2005 Nobel Peace Prize laureate
 Naguib Sawiris, 62nd richest person on earth in a 2007 list of billionaires, reaching US$10.0 billion with his company Orascom Telecom Holding
 Farouk El Baz, a great contributor to NASA
 Sir Magdi Yacoub, leading cardiologist, knight
 Constantin Xenakis (1931) Greek artist
 Voula Zouboulaki (1931) Greek actress

References

Sources
 Hedges, Chris.  "What's Doing in Cairo," New York Times. January 8, 1995.

Other websites 

 
 
 Cairo information  at yatb.info
 Blog about Cairo
 Places in Cairo

Capital of Egypt
Aerospace engineering is a field of engineering that specializes in designing vehicles that move through air and/or space, namely aircraft or spacecraft. Aerospace engineering is a culmination of design, development and testing to produce top-notch civilian and military aircrafts and space crafts.

As with other fields of engineering, aerospace engineers (who design and oversee the repair of vehicles) must study for several years at a university or college and earn a degree that specializes in aerospace engineering. The course curriculum is designed to ensure critical thinking and inculcate problem-solving thinking for designing and testing aircrafts, missiles and space crafts. An aerospace engineer is responsible for devising project proposals to ensure financial and technical feasibility, ensuring effective progress of various phases in hardware development, integration and evaluation, testing and analyzing new applications for implementation in aerospace systems. Vet projects to ensure they meet the quality benchmark. Assess ongoing projects in terms of safety and feasibility to match desired objectives. Apart from the technical aspects, the job also has some managerial elements that are: Preparing risk assessment plans and elaborate strategic solutions and working on insightful and attractive presentations for prospective business contacts, clients and various stakeholders. Aerospace technicians (those who repair and construct vehicles) will complete a shorter technical course with 'on the job' training that equips them with the skills required to construct and repair said vehicles. Aerospace jobs include astronauts, pilots, and other professionals.

Related pages
Glossary of aerospace engineering

Notes

Aircraft
Karnataka is a state in the Republic of India. It has an area of . It is bigger than Syria but smaller than Senegal. In traditional Indian geography it falls under the Southern zone. It has 31 districts. According to the Census of 2011,it has a population of approximately 6.11 crores. The present Chief Minister of the state is Basavaraj Bommai from the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

Bangalore, also known as Bengaluru, is the capital city of Karnataka. It is also known as the IT capital of India. Mysore, Mangalore,Hubli-Dharwad, Kalaburgi and Hospet are the other big cities in Karnataka. Places to see in Karnataka are Bangalore, Mysore, Hampi, Bijapur, Belur/Halebid, Shivamogga, sannati (yadgir) and Shravanabelagola. the Lalbhag Botanical Garden, Badami and the Jog water are some of the well-known tourist attractions in Karnataka.

The Kannada language is the official language of the state and the most prominent language spoken by the people in Karnataka . Telugu, Tamil, Marathi, Hindi and Malayalam are also spoken in Karantaka. Kannada is declared as one of the official languages of India. It has won the most number of Gnanpith Awards - 8, which is awarded to writers .

Karnataka is bordered by the Arabian Sea in the west, Goa in the northwest, Maharashtra in the north,Telangana in the northeast, Andhra Pradesh in the east, Tamil Nadu in the south and Kerala in the southwest. Topographically, Karnataka consists of the Arabian Sea Coast, Western Ghats, Deccan Plateau, and Eastern Ghats.

Karnataka's history dates back to the 3rd century BC. The succession of able administrators from the Hoysalas, Chalukyas and the mighty Vijayanagara rulers, to the arrival of the Mughals in the 17th century and the British in the 18th century have contributed to the mix of culture and heritage that is as rich as it is ancient.

Provincial symbols of Karnataka

References
Calgary is the biggest city in Alberta, Canada. More than 1,000,000 people live in Calgary. The city is in the southern half of Alberta near the Rocky Mountains.

Economy 
There are many oil and gas businesses in Calgary. There are many skyscrapers in the City.

Around Calgary there are many farms where cows are raised.

Climate 
Calgary has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Koeppen climate classification). It has long, cold, dry winters. The summers are warm with moderate rainfall. Sometimes a wind called a Chinook blows through Calgary. This wind can make some days in winter less cold.

Activities 
Calgary has a famous event called The Calgary Stampede every year. They rent many rides and have a huge festival for the city to join. The Calgary Stampede is the largest rodeo in the world. At the Stampede, cowboys can win a lot of money. Cowboys also race with chuckwagons at the Stampede. Chuckwagons are carts with four wheels pulled by horses. In 1988, the Winter Olympics were held in Calgary.

Calgary has many museums, such as the Glenbow Museum and the Aero Space Museum. The Calgary Flames (an NHL ice hockey team) play in Calgary at Scotiabank Saddledome.

Media 

Calgary Stations

CBRT CBC

CFCN CTV Television Network

CICT Global Television Network

CTV Two

References

 
Olympic cities
1875 establishments in North America
1870s establishments in Canada
Nova Scotia ( ); French pronunciation: ) is a small province found on the east coast of Canada. The name "Nova Scotia" is Latin for "New Scotland". The capital and largest city is Halifax.

People who live in Nova Scotia are called Nova Scotians. There are over 900,000 of them; over 400,000 of whom live in Halifax.

What is now Nova Scotia used to be controlled by the Mik'maq Indians. The French settled among them at Port Royal after 1600, and called the land part of Acadia, with Port Royal as its capital. In 1710, after a war, the British captured Port Royal and went on to capture the rest of the peninsula. It was the first time that the British had captured and held a French colony.  

On 6 December 1917, about 2,000 people were killed in the Halifax Explosion.

Nova Scotia's government is a democracy. Ian Rankin is the premier and John James Grant is the lieutenant governor.

References

Other websites 

 Nova Scotia Govt online map archive

1867 establishments in Canada
 
Provinces and territories of Canada
Absolute zero is the temperature at which the particles of matter (molecules and atoms) are at their lowest energy points. Some might think that at absolute zero particles lose all energy and stop moving. This is not correct. In quantum physics there is something called zero point energy, which means that even after all the energy from particles has been removed, the particles still have some energy. This is due to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, which states that the more that is known about a particle's position, the less that can be known about its momentum, and vice versa. Therefore, a particle cannot be completely stopped because then its exact position and momentum would be known. 

Some people have created temperatures very close to absolute zero: the record temperature was 100 pK (one hundred picokelvin, equal to 10−10 kelvin) above absolute zero. Even getting close to absolute zero is difficult because anything that touches an object being cooled near absolute zero would give heat to the objects. Scientists use lasers to slow atoms when cooling objects to very low temperatures.

The kelvin and Rankine temperature scales are defined so that absolute zero is 0 kelvin (K) or 0 degrees Rankine (°R). The Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are defined so that absolute zero is −273.15 °C or −459.67 °F.

At this stage the pressure of the particles is zero. If we plot a graph to it, we can see that the temperature of the particles is zero. The temperature cannot go down any further. Also, the particles cannot move in "reverse" either because as the movement of particles is vibration, vibrating in reverse would be nothing but simply vibrating again. The closer the temperature of an object gets to absolute zero, the less resistive the material is to electricity therefore it will conduct electricity almost perfectly, with no measurable resistance.

The Third Law of Thermodynamics says that nothing can ever have a temperature of absolute zero.

The Second Law of Thermodynamics says that all engines that are powered by heat (like car engines and steam train engines) must release waste heat and can not be 100% efficient. This is because the efficiency (percent of energy the engine uses up that is actually used to do the engine's job) is 100%×(1-Toutside/Tinside), which only is 100% if the outside temperature is absolute zero which it cannot be. So, an engine cannot be 100% efficient, but you can make its efficiency closer to 100% by making the inside temperature hotter and/or the outside temperature colder.

Related pages
 Absolute temperature
 Absolute hot

References 

Temperature
Thermodynamics
A vacuum is a place where there is no matter, not even air. Sound cannot move in a vacuum. No place has a perfect vacuum, because a small number of particles remain, even in outer space. 

A space where only some of the air is removed is also called a vacuum. The space then has lower pressure, even though most of the air remains.

Common uses 
A vacuum cleaner works by pumping away some of the air. The air and dirt in a room rush into the vacuum left behind, where the dirt is caught by a filter.
An automobile engine that burns fuel uses a vacuum to pull in air, which contains oxygen that allows the fuel to burn.
An incandescent lightbulb has a vacuum inside so the hot filament doesn't burn up.

Industrial uses 

Vacuum is needed for some kinds of machines used for industrial production.  Vacuum pumps are used to pump air out of a vacuum chamber.  It is not possible to create 100% vacuum, but some vacuum pumps are able to create 99.9999% vacuum.  This is called "hard vacuum".  Most industrial purposes do not need hard vacuum.  

Industrial vacuums are mainly used in:
 Food industry
 Electronics industry
 Packaging
 Manipulation
 Coating and degasing

Scientific experiments 
Vacuum chambers are also used in many scientific experiments in laboratories. Some experiments in physics and chemistry need hard vacuum to keep any air or other gases from interfering with delicate surfaces or chemicals that can react.

Related pages
Nothing
Vacuum cleaner

References 
 Industrial vacuum information

Matter
Anne of Cleves (22 September 1515 – 16 July 1557) was the fourth wife of Henry VIII of England from January 1540 to July 1540.

Biography 
She was the daughter of John III, Duke of Cleves and Maria of Julich Berg. She was born in Düsseldorf on 22 September 1515.
She was betrothed to Francis, the Duke of Lorraine, but she ended up marrying Henry VIII in January of 1540. When the couple met for the first time, they did not like each other.

Henry VIII got married six times.  Except for Anne of Cleves, Henry knew all of his wives for a long time before marrying them.  Henry decided to marry Anne so England and the Protestant League would be allies.  It was a political marriage.  Henry also knew that having more than one son would be good, in case his and Jane Seymour's son, Edward, died.  So he also married Anne so he could have more children.

Hans Holbein painted a beautiful picture of Anne of Cleves and showed it to Henry.  One of the reasons Henry decided to marry Anne (instead of her sister Amelia) was because she looked so beautiful in her portrait.  When Anne's ship landed in England, Henry decided to sneak out to meet her early.  He brought a few of his friends and servants with him.  Henry dressed in the exact same clothes as the servants, and they all came into the room where Anne was waiting with her women.  Henry was acting out a story from the tradition of courtly love in which a man goes to see a woman while he is disguised as a servant, and she recognizes him because of the magic of true love.  Almost everyone in the courts of England and France knew this story.  But Anne grew up in a strict German court.  She did not know that the man dressed as a servant was King Henry, playing a game.  She spoke to him him like a real servant.  Henry was very embarrassed.

Henry started complaining that Anne was not pretty.  He said that he could not have sexual intercourse with her because she had "bad breath" and smelled. Anne's previous engagement to the Duke of Lorraine was used as an excuse for a divorce, and Anne agreed to it. In July 1540 Henry divorced Anne and married Catherine Howard, who was younger and prettier.

After the divorce 
After the divorce, Henry made Anne his "sister" and gave her money and land for the rest of her life. As part of her divorce agreement, Henry gave Anne Hever Castle to live in.  Anne invited Henry's daughters Mary and Elizabeth to visit her at Hever Castle.  King Henry visited her too.  In 1541, there were rumors that King Henry had gotten his ex-wife Anne pregnant, but historians do not think this is true.

After Henry died, Anne did not have enough money.  His son, Edward VI, did not give her the same generous sums.

Anne of Cleves died on July 16, 1557 when she was 41 years old. She was the last of Henry's six wives to die, as she outlived his sixth wife, Catherine Parr, by nearly nine years. Anne was buried in Westminster Abbey.

References

1515 births
1557 deaths
House of Tudor
People buried in Westminster Abbey
Kings and Queens consort of England
Mary Tudor (28 March 1495 – 25 June 1533) was the youngest daughter of Henry VII of England and Elizabeth of York. She was princess of England, and was Queen of France for three months. After being Queen of France, she married someone else, and became Duchess of Suffolk until her death.

Biography 
Mary Tudor was born on 18 March 1496 in Richmond Palace. Her older brothers were Arthur, Prince of Wales, and Prince Henry, and her older sister was Princess Margaret. Henry and Mary were close as children. Later in life, when Henry became King Henry VIII of England, he even named his ship, the Mary Rose, after her. His first daughter, Mary (later known as Queen Mary I of England), was probably also named after her.

Mary's father was anxious for all his children to make good marriages, and many of the other kings and queens of Europe wanted Mary as a wife for one of their sons. She was first betrothed to Charles of Castile, later the Holy Roman Emperor. This betrothal was broken later, and she did not get married until after her brother Henry became king. When Mary was 18 she married King Louis XII of France, who was 52 years old. She was married in Abbeville, France, on 9 October 1514. Mary did not want to marry King Louis, but agreed when her brother said that she could marry anyone she wanted after Louis died. Louis died on 1 January 1515, and Mary soon married Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. 
Mary did not have any children while married to Louis, but she did when she was married to Charles. Her children's names were Henry, Frances and Eleanor. Frances went on to be the mother of Lady Jane Grey, who was the Queen of England for only nine days.

After suffering failing health for some years, Mary Tudor died on 25 June, 1533 at the age of thirty eight at Westhorpe Hall, Westhorpe, Suffolk, possibly of cancer. Her husband then married Catherine Willoughby.

References 

Tudor, Mary
1495 births
1533 deaths
Louis XII of France (June 27, 1462 – January 1, 1515) was the son of Charles, Duke of Orleans and Mary of Cleves. He was born on June 27, 1462 in the Chateau de Blois, France.

Louis's first wife was Jeanne of France, who was the daughter of Louis XI of France. At the time, Louis was not expected to become King of France. The King, Charles VIII, was a young man and could still have had children, but Charles had an accident and died suddenly. Charles was Jeanne's brother. Louis was Charles's cousin and next in line to the throne. When he became king, he had to end his marriage to Jeanne, partly because she was disabled and could not have children. 

Louis's second wife was Anne of Brittany, who was the daughter of Francis II, Duke of Brittany. Anne had been married to King Charles VIII until his death, but all of their children had died. As a result of her marriage to Charles, the dukedom of Brittany had become part of the kingdom of France. Louis wanted to keep Brittany, but in order to do so he had to marry Anne. After her marriage to Louis, Anne had two daughters, who were called Claude and Renee. 

In France, women were not allowed to rule the country, so Louis still wanted a son to become king after him. After Anne died, Louis married for a third time. His last wife was Mary Tudor, the sister of Henry VIII of England. She was many years younger than he was. Louis only lived for three months after their marriage. Because Louis had no sons, the throne went to Francis, the husband of his daughter Claude.

1462 births
1515 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Louis XIII (27 September 1601 – 14 May 1643) was King of France from 1610 to 1643. He was the son of Henry IV and Marie de' Medici.  He lived during the time of the Thirty Years War and had to deal with many rebellions.  He was proud of his country, and tried to encourage French artists to stay in France instead of going off to Italy.  He did this by giving them work in the Louvre.

Although he was married, many people thought that he would never produce an heir.  Then, after 23 years of marriage, his wife Anne gave birth to a baby boy.  He was to become King Louis XIV of France.

He died of Crohn's disease in 1643 and was later buried at the Royal Basilica of Saint Denis, France. His oldest son would succeed him on the throne.

Children

 King Louis XIV of France (5 September 1638–1 September 1715) married Marie Thérèse of Austria.
 Philippe of France, Duke of Orléans (21 September 1640 – 9 June 1701) married Henrietta of England then Elisabeth Charlotte of the Palatinate.

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1610 births
1643 deaths
Kings and Queens of France
Princes of Andorra
Lady Frances Brandon (16 July 1517 – 20 November 1559) was the daughter of Mary Tudor and Charles Brandon, Duke of Suffolk. She was married to Henry Grey, Duke of Suffolk and had three daughters: Jane, Mary and Katherine. Her daughter Jane became the Queen of England for nine days.

Life 
Frances Brandon was a cruel, abusive mother to her children and a bold wife to her husband, Henry Grey. She had spent her childhood with her mother and was very close to Catherine of Aragon, so she was against Henry VIII's marriage to Anne Boleyn. In 1533, she married Henry Grey and soon she had two children who died young before having Lady Jane Grey in 1537, Katherine in 1540, and Mary in 1545.
In 1554, just weeks after her daughter Lady Jane Grey's and her husband Henry Grey's execution, Frances married again. This time it was to Adrian Stokes. Many people were shocked about this marriage, because Adrian was far below Frances's status. Historians believe that Frances was pregnant at the time of their marriage because she gave birth to a child about six months later. This child did not survive and Frances had two others. None of these last three children lived past a year.

Death 
Frances became increasingly large similar to her great-uncle Henry VIII. Because of this, she died in 1559 and was buried in Westminster Abbey.

References 
 Frances Brandon A detailed reference to Frances's relationship with her daughter

1517 births
1559 deaths
Dukes and duchesses
People buried in Westminster Abbey
English nobility
House of Tudor
Henry II of France (March 31, 1519 – July 10, 1559) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois. Henry was crowned King in Rheims, France, on July 25, 1547.

Birth 
Henry was born in Saint-Germain-en-Laye, France, on March 31, 1519. His parents were Francis I of France and Claude of France.

Marriage 
Henry was married to Catherine of Medici on October 28, 1533 when he was only 14 years old. Their children were:
 Francis II of France
 Elizabeth of Valois
 Charles IX of France
 Henry III of France
 Margaret of Valois

Henry did not love Catherine of Medici. He spent most of his time with his mistress, who was called Diane de Poitiers.

Death 
Henry died on July 10, 1559 after a jousting accident. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica. The next King was Francis II of France.

1519 births
1559 deaths

Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Francis I of France (September 12, 1494 - March 31, 1547) was a King of France and a member of the house of Valois.

Birth 
Francis was born in Cognac, France on September 12, 1494. His parents were Charles, Duke of Angoulême and Louise of Savoy.

Marriage 
Francis I married Claude of France on May 18, 1514. They had seven children, two died before turning eight, two died at the ages of eighteen to twenty-three. Those who lived to adulthood were:
 Henry, King of France
 Madeline, Queen of Scotland
 Margaret, Duchess of Berry

Art 
Francis was very interested in art and liked the artist Leonardo da Vinci.

Death 
Francis died on March 31, 1547. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.

1494 births
1547 deaths
Kings and Queens of France
House of Valois
Madeleine of France (10 August 1520 – 2 July 1537) was the daughter of Francis I of France and Claude of France. She was married to James V of Scotland on 1 January 1537 in Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris, France.

Madeleine got sick with tuberculosis when she went to live in Scotland and died when she was only 16 years old. She is buried in Holyrood Abbey in Edinburgh, Scotland.

Deaths from tuberculosis
Infectious disease deaths in the United Kingdom
Kings and Queens consort of Scotland
1520 births
1537 deaths
Holyrood Abbey is a ruined Augustine Abbey. It is in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was built by David I of Scotland in 1128.

Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Abbeys
Churches in the United Kingdom
Wilhelm II of Prussia and Germany (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert von Hohenzollern, 27 January 1859 – 4 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and the last King of Prussia. Ruling from 1888 to 1918, he went to live in the Netherlands and abdicated (resigned) as King and Emperor.  He died in the Netherlands at Huis Doorn, and he is buried there because he ordered not to be buried in Nazi Germany. He died on June 4, 1941.

Early life
Wilhelm was born on 27 January 1859 and was the oldest child in his family. His father was Prince Frederick of Prussia. His mother was Princess Victoria, the eldest daughter of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom. He was born with a disabled left arm.

He married in 1881 Augusta Victoria. He and his wife had seven children. He studied at the Kassel Gymnasium and then at the University of Bonn.

Reign
He became leader of Germany in 1888, when his father died. He disagreed with his father's longtime chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, and dismissed him in 1890.
 
Wilhelm believed in strengthening Germany’s armed forces, especially the navy. He led Germany during World War I.

Titles and styles
 27 January 1859 – 9 March 1888: His Royal Highness Prince Wilhelm of Prussia
 9 March 1888 – 15 June 1888: His Imperial Highness and Royal Highness The German Crown Prince, Crown Prince of Prussia
 15 June 1888 – 18 November 1918: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia

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1859 births
1941 deaths
Crown Princes and Princesses of Prussia
German emperors
German people of World War I
House of Hohenzollern
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Knights of Justice of the Order of St John
Catherine de' Medici (Italian: Caterina de Medici, ; French: Catherine de Médicis, ; 13 April 1519 – 5 January 1589), was the wife of Henry II of France.

Catherine was the daughter of Lorenzo II de' Medici. She was born in Florence, Italy.  She was born Caterina Maria Romula  de' Medici.

Catherine was married to Henry II of France when she was 14 years old.  Their children were:
Francis II of France
Elizabeth of Valois
Charles IX of France
Henry III of France
Margaret of Valois

Catherine is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica.

Kings and Queens consort of France
People from Florence
1519 births
1589 deaths
House of Medici
Francis II of France (January 19, 1544 – December 5, 1560) was a King of France and a member of the House of Valois.

Birth 
Francis was born in Fontainebleau, France, on January 19, 1544. His parents were Henry II of France and Catherine of Medici.

Marriage 
Francis was married to Mary, Queen of Scots, on April 24, 1558. They had no children.

Death 
Francis died in Orleans, France, on December 5, 1560 because of an ear infection. He is buried in the Saint Denis Basilica, next to King Charles IX of France.

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1544 births
1560 deaths
House of Valois
France, Francis 02 of
Kings and Queens of France
People from Ile-de-France