cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Aqua regia (Royal water in Latin) is a very strong acid. It is made by mixing one part concentrated nitric acid and three parts concentrated hydrochloric acid. The acid was named by alchemists because it can dissolve the noble metals gold and platinum. Tantalum, iridium and a few other metals are not dissolved by it.

History 
Aqua regia was discovered around the year 800AD, by Jabir Bin Hayyan (Geber), when he mixed common salt with vitriol (sulphuric acid). In the Middle Ages it was one of the ways that alchemists tried to find the philosopher's stone.  

When Germany invaded Denmark in World War II, the Hungarian chemist George de Hevesy took the Nobel Prize medals of Max von Laue and James Franck to keep them safe. De Hevesy dissolved the medals, which were made of gold, into aqua regia. He did this so the Nazis would not steal them. He placed the jar that held the solution of aqua regia and gold on a shelf in his laboratory at the Niels Bohr Institute. The jar looked the same as hundreds of other jars in the laboratory, so the Nazis thought that all the jars had normal chemicals in them. After the war, de Hevesy returned to the lab, found the jar with the solution, and removed the gold from it. He returned the gold to the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, and the Nobel Foundation used the gold to make new medals for Laue and Franck.

Uses 
Aqua Regia is used in metal etching and scientific analysis. It is also used to clean certain lab machines from tiny metal particles. It is particularly used in the extraction and purification of gold and platinum. Users mix it immediately before use so it won't decompose.

References 

Acids
is the Japanese kami (spirit) of fertility, rice and agriculture. Inari is sometimes represented as a male, female or both. 

The traditional messengers of Inari are foxes.

References

Japanese deities
The Kurgan model of Indo-European origins is about both the people and their Proto-Indo-European language.

It uses both archaeology and linguistics to show the history of their culture at different stages of the Indo-European expansion.

The Kurgan model is the most widely accepted theory on the origins of Indo-European. 
"The Kurgan solution is attractive and has been accepted by many archaeologists and linguists, in part or total. It is the solution one encounters in the Encyclopædia Britannica and the Grand Dictionnaire Encyclopédique Larousse".
 "The single most popular proposal is the Pontic steppes".

Background
When it was first suggested in 1956, Marija Gimbutas's answer to the question of Indo-European origins was a pioneering interdisciplinary synthesis of archaeology and linguistics. From the nineties on, new archaeological evidence from Northern European prehistoric cultures was put forward on the influence and expansion of Kurgan cultures.

Related pages 
proto-Indo-Europeans
Shaft tomb, Tumulus
Anatolian hypothesis
Armenian hypothesis

References 

Indo-European
Origin hypotheses of ethnic groups
The Luwians also known as Luvians were a people closely related to the Hittites. Sometime after 2300, the Luwians, an Indo-European-speaking people, settled in southern Anatolia.

The Luwians were related to the Hittites and were the dominant group in the Late Hittite culture.

Related pages
Urartu
Luwian Language

References 

Indo-European
Phrygia () was a kingdom in the west central part of the Anatolia. The Phrygian people started to live in the area from c. 1200 BC, and made a kingdom in the 8th century BC. It was ruined by Cimmerian invaders c. 690 BC, then conquered by its neighbor Lydia, before it passed successively into the Persian Empire of Cyrus, the empire of Alexander and his successors, was taken by the king of Pergamon, and became part of the Roman Empire. The Phrygian language survived until about the 6th century AD.

Other websites 
 Phrygian Period in Anatolia 
 1911 Encyclopedia Britannica

Former monarchies of Asia
Former vassal states
History of Turkey
Didier Yves Drogba Tébily (born 11 March 1978 in Abidjan) is a retired Côte d'Ivoire professional football player.

Early life 
He lived in Abidjan until he was 5 years old and then he moved to France to live with his uncle, Michael Goba. His uncle had been a professional football player in Côte d'Ivoire.

Career 
In the 2006/07 season, he was the top scorer of the English Premier League with 20 goals. Drogba played for Le Mans at Ligue 2 in 1998. He moved to Olympique Marseille in 2003 and scored 29 goals in the next season. In July 2004, Drogba moved to Chelsea in the English Premier League. Drogba stayed at Chelsea for about 10 years. Drogba was a member of Côte d'Ivoire’s national team and was their top scorer with 65 goals in 105 appearances.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1998/99||rowspan="4"|Le Mans||rowspan="4"|Division 2||2||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|1999/00||30||7||0||0||2||0||colspan="2"|-||32||7
|-
|2000/01||11||0||2||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||13||0
|-
|2001/02||21||5||1||1||2||1||colspan="2"|-||24||7
|-
|2001/02||rowspan="2"|En Avant Guingamp||Division 1||11||3||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||11||3
|-
|2002/03||Ligue 1||34||17||3||4||2||0||colspan="2"|-||39||21
|-
|2003/04||Olympique Marseille||Ligue 1||35||19||2||1||2||1||16||11||55||32

|-
|2004/05||rowspan="6"|Chelsea||rowspan="6"|Premier League||26||10||2||0||4||1||9||5||41||16
|-
|2005/06||29||12||3||1||1||0||7||1||40||14
|-
|2006/07||36||20||6||3||5||4||12||6||59||33
|-
|2007/08||19||8||1||0||1||1||11||6||32||15
|-
|2008/09||24||5||6||3||2||1||10||5||42||14
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
144||51||8||6||8||2||16||11||176||70
134||55||18||7||13||7||49||23||214||92
278||106||26||13||21||9||65||34||390||162
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2002||1||0
|-
|2003||7||4
|-
|2004||7||6
|-
|2005||8||7
|-
|2006||14||8
|-
|2007||8||4
|-
|2008||8||4
|-
|2009||7||8
|-
|2010||||
|-
!Total||60||41
|}

Awards 
Chelsea
 English Premier League(2004-05) (2005-06) (2014-2015)
 FA Cup (2007)
 Football League Cup (2005) (2007)
 FA Community Shield (2005-06)
Personal
 English Golden Boot (2006-07)
 African Footballer of the Year(2006-07)

Other websites 
 Didier Drogba's official website - in English and French
 Profile on Chelsea's official site
 BBC profile 
 Didier Drogba videos at GoalVideoz.com

References 

1978 births
Living people
Ivorian footballers
Chelsea F.C. players
Muscatine is a city in Muscatine County, Iowa. In 2000, 22,697 people lived in the city of Muscatine.

History
Muscatine began as a trading post in 1833. The city was first called Bloomington in 1839. The name was later changed because there were so many other cities named Bloomington. Some people think the name "Muscatine" came from the name of a local Native American tribe.

A person from Germany founded a button company in Muscatine in 1884. They made buttons from clam shells found in the Mississippi river. Muscatine was and still is called the "Pearl button capital of the world."

Sam Clemens, also called Mark Twain, worked at the newspaper the city for a short amount of time. He also wrote about Muscatine in his book Life on the Mississippi.

"And I remember Muscatine--still more pleasantly--for its summer sunsets. I have never seen any, on either side of the ocean, that equaled them. They used the broad smooth river as a canvas, and painted on it every imaginable dream of color, from the   and delicacies of the opal, all the way up, through cumulative intensities, to blinding purple and crimson conflagrations which were enchanting to the eye, but sharply tried it at the same time. All the Upper Mississippi region has these extraordinary sunsets as a familiar spectacle. It is the true Sunset Land: I am sure no other country can show so good a right to the name. The sunrises are also said to be exceedingly fine. I do not know."

Notable natives
 Samuel Clemmens, also called "Mark Twain" - writer
 Norman Baker- businessman, radio pioneer, helped finish the air-powered calliope
 Roy J Carver- businessman and philanthropist
 C Maxwell Stanley- founder of Stanley Consultants, delegate to the United Nations
 Ellis Parker Butler- writer
 Lee Allen- medical illustrator
 Dr. Ronald K Ross- academic physician
 Dr. David G. Meyers- academic cardiologist
 Ernie Peniston- rhythm and blues musician
 Max Allan Collins-  Writer of screenplay of the movie Mommy. The movie was filmed in Muscatine's Wood Creek neighborhood in 1995. He also wrote the graphic novel Road to Perdition, which became a screenplay and was filmed in 2002, starring Tom Hanks and Jude Law.
 Terry Beatty- artist who has worked as a penciler and inker in the comic book industry.
 Phil Vischer- creator of VeggieTales
 Natalie Larson- Professional artist and marathon runner

References

Other websites 
 Official website of the City of Muscatine 
 Official website of Muscatine County
 Muscatine Chamber of Commerce 
 Muscatine Journal
 Muscatine Web Design 
 Muscatine Art Center

Cities in Iowa
County seats in Iowa
The Armenian Army is the army of Armenia. Armenia has sent around 1,500 officers to be trained in Greece and Russia over the past years. Since the end of the Nagorno-Karabakh War, Armenia has made the army boost the defense and help defend Nagorno-Karabakh from a possible new attack by neighboring Azerbaijan.

Related pages
 Military history of Armenia
 Armed Forces of Armenia
 Armenian Air Force
 Armenian Air Defense
 Nagorno-Karabakh Defense Army
 2020 Nagorno-Karabakh conflict

Other websites 
 Military Parade in Stepanakert, Artsakh
 Armenian Military Photo Gallery 

Military of Armenia
Armies
1992 establishments
20th-century establishments in Armenia
The Armenian Air Defense is the anti-aircraft group of the Armed Forces of Armenia. It was a part of the military reform program of Ter-Grigoriants. 

Armenian anti-aircraft defense has an anti-aircraft missile brigade and two regiments armed with 100 missile launchers of various models and fixes. These missile launchers include the M79 Osa, Krug, S-75, S-125, and S-300. There are also 24 Scud ballistic missiles with eight launchers.

Related pages
Armenian Air Force
Armed Forces of Armenia

Other websites 
Russia is satisfied with Armenia’s air defense capabilities.

Military of Armenia

en:Armenian Air Force
The Armed Forces of the Republic of Armenia is the Army, Air Defense, and Border Guard. Some parts were formed out of the former Soviet forces in the Armenian SSR. 

The Commander-in-Chief of the military is the President of Armenia, currently Robert Kocharyan. The Ministry of Defense is in charge of political leadership. It is currently headed by Mikael Harutyunyan. Military command is in the hands of the General Staff, headed by the Chief of Staff, who is Lieutenant-General Seyran Ohanyan.  Armenia established a Ministry of Defense on 28 January 1992. The Border guards purpose is to patrol Armenia's borders with Georgia and Azerbaijan, while Russian troops continue to watch its borders with Iran and Turkey.

Related pages
Military history of Armenia
Armenian Army
Armenian Air Defense
Armenian Border Guard

Other websites 

Armenian Ministry of Defense

Military of Armenia
The president of Armenia (, Hayastani Nakhagah) is the head of state of Armenia. They are elected to a single seven year term by the National Assembly of Armenia.

List

References

Other websites
Rulers of Armenia

 
1991 establishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Armenia
Levon Ter-Petrosyan (Armenian: Լևոն Տեր-Պետրոսյան; Russian: Левон Тер-Петросян) (born January 9, 1945), also Levon Ter-Petrosyan, was the President of Armenia from 1991 to 1998. Because of many economic and political problems, he resigned on February 3, 1998. He was replaced by Robert Kocharyan. Levon Ter Petrosian, announced he will run again for office in the presidential election which will start next year. Ter-Petrossian was born in Aleppo, Syria to an Armenian-Syrian family of genocide survivors. They emigrated to Armenia in 1946.
In 1968, Ter-Petrossian graduated from the Oriental Studies Department of the Yerevan State University. In 1972, he completed his postgraduate studies at the Leningrad State University. In 1987, he received his doctoral degree from the same university. In 1972-1978, Ter-Petrossian worked as junior researcher at the Literature Institute of Armenia named after Manouk Abeghian. In 1978-1985, he held the post of science secretary at Matenadaran named after Saint Mesrop Mashtots. Since 1985, Ter-Petrossian has been working at Matenadaran as a senior researcher.

Filmography 
1988: Armenia 1988 https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sCOGxwGooHE
2002: The Manuscript of Indepedence, Մատյան Անկախության - (Levon Ter-Petrosyan,Robert Kocharyan,Serj Sargsyan) 
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EERMf2jdMlc

References

Other websites 
 Official Presidential site of Armenia 
 ARF history 
 Levon Ter-Petrossian at ArmeniaPedia.org

1945 births
Living people

Presidents of Armenia
Intonation, in music, can have two different meanings:

In plainchant, intonation is when a solo singer - usually the priest - sings the first phrase of a piece of music before the choir start to sing.  The intonation is the tune on which the music is based.  For example, when the choir sings a piece called Gloria the priest first sings "Gloria in excelsis Deo" ("Glory be to God") by himself, unaccompanied.  Then the choir continue singing with the words "et in terra pax....." ("and peace on earth....).
The word "intonation" is used in music to describe whether someone who is playing a musical instrument is playing in tune. This is not used for instruments such as the piano which are tuned already, but for an instrument such as the violin there is a lot of skill and practice needed to play with good intonation (to play well in tune).  A violinist needs to put his or her fingers in exactly the right place on the fingerboard, otherwise the note will be sharp (too high) or flat (too low).  Musicians playing in a group will need to listen to one another so that their tuning (intonation) is good. Players of wind instruments and singers all need to pay careful attention to their intonation.

Related pages
Musical tuning

Musical performance techniques
Vocal music
This is a list of Members of the Red Army Faction. After Andreas Baader escaped from jail in 1970, the media began referring to the "Baader-Meinhoff Gang". When Baader and Meinhof were arrested, they became known as the Red Army Faction.

First generation 
These are the earliest members, from the late 1960s. The most important had all been arrested by 1972.

Second generation Red Army Faction
Other young terrorists available to swell the shrinking ranks of the Gang. Like the first generation they were mostly middle class and a lot of them were students. A lot of them were terrorists who joined the Gang after their own groups dissolved (e.g. the Socialist Patients' Collective (SPK), J2M).

Third Generation Red Army Faction
This generation was active mostly throughout the 1980s and early 1990s. More vicious than their predecessors, they did not have as much cause as the earlier generations to rebel.
 Wolfgang Grams
 Birgit Hogefeld
 Andrea Klump
 Eva Sybille Haule-Frimpong

References
 Jillian Becker Hitler's Children  
 Tom Vague Televisionaries: The Red Army Faction Story 1963-1993 
 Baader-Mienhof.com Guide to Baader-Meinhof Gang Members 
 RAF information site
 The Stoke Newington 8 Defence Group Armed Resistance in West Germany: Notes From The Red Army Fraction (1972)

Red Army Faction
German terrorists
Red Army Faction
Suppiluliuma II, the son of  Tudhaliya IV,  was the last known king of the New Kingdom of the Hittite Empire, ruling  1207 BCE – c.1178 BCE, contemporary with Tukulti-Ninurta I of Assyira. 

He is known from two inscriptions in hieroglyphics. They record wars against former vassal Tarhuntassa, and against Alasiya in Cyprus. 

After the fall, the Kaskians were probably in control of Hatti. Hattusa itself was destroyed, its site only re-occupied by a Phrygian fortress some 500 years later.

Literature
Astour, AJA 69 (1965).
Güterbock, JNES 26 (1967), 73-81.

Other websites
Reign of Suppiluliuma II

Hittite Empire
The Battle of Rhandeia was a battle fought between Armenia and Parthia against the Roman Empire. It was fought just after the Mithridatic Wars. The Romans were led by Lucius Caesennius Paetus. They were defeated by the Parthian-Armenian army led by Tiridates I of Armenia.

The Parthians made Tiridates the King of Armenia. He was the brother of the Parthian king Vologases I. Tiridates replaced Tigranes, a Roman ally, as king. The Romans fought to take back the throne, but were forced into surrender at Rhandeia (autumn 62).

Related pages
Armenian Empire

References

History of Armenia
Rhandeia
62
Hydrochloric acid is a chemical compound. It is a solution of hydrogen chloride (HCl) gas that is dissolved in water. In the past, people called it muriatic acid. It is widely used in industry, and it is also made by the stomach to help digest food. Hydrochloric acid, like all acids, react with bases to produce salts (chlorides).

Safety

In high concentrations, hydrochloric acid can make acidic mists. Both the mist and the solution hurt human tissue. They are caustic, and can cause chemical burns. These can damage the eyes, the skin, the respiratory system, and other organs of the human body.

When hydrochloric acid is mixed with certain chemicals such as bleach, the toxic gas chlorine is made. When working with hydrochloric acid, certain safety measures should be taken. These include using rubber or PVC gloves, wearing goggles to protect the eyes, as well as special clothing that is resistant to chemicals. 

Hydrochloric acid reacts with some metals, corroding them and making flammable hydrogen gas.

The risks of coming in contact with hydrochloric acid depend on its concentration. The following table lists the EU classification of hydrochloric acid solutions:

The Environmental Protection Agency says hydrochloric acid is a toxin.

References

Acids
Chlorine compounds
Medicine
Kobayr (Armenian: Կոբայր) is a 12th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is located in the village Kober within Lori marz, Armenia. 

Kobayr was built on a shelf of a gorge by the princes of the junior Bagratuni branch, Kyurikids in 1171. The monastery was later acquired by the Zakarids and converted into a Chalcedonian monastery. Many of the writings in the monastery are written in Georgian.

The monastery is being fixed and paid for by the government of Armenia with the help of the government of Italy. The ruins of the main church in the monastery contain frescoes of Christ and the twelve apostles as well as the Church fathers and other Christian figures.

Churches in Armenia
Hnevank (, means old monastery) is a 7th century Armenian Apostolic Church monastery. It is near the city of Stepanavan in the Lori marz of Armenia. The monastery is on a hill within a gorge, near where the Dzoraget and Gargar rivers join.

The monastery was all rebuilt by lord Smbat of the House of Orbelian, a branch of the Liparitids who were removed to Armenia in the late 12th century from Georgia. Liparitids were themselves a branch of the Mamikonians. Smbat was the ancestor of the Armenian princes of Syunik. Georgian writings around the drum attests his name. The monastery has a gavit and various service buildings around the site. The government of Armenia has recently begun fixing the monastery. The broken dome of the main church has been restored entirely.

Churches in Armenia
Huntington's disease is a genetic disorder. It affects the brain and gets worse over time. This can lead to problems with moving, memory loss as well as thinking skills. Lastly, it also causes changes in behavior.  Chorea is one of the main symptoms of Huntington's disease. On average, the disease leads to death about fifteen years after the first signs of the illness show. It is found in about 6 in 100,000 people. There is a 50% chance of inheriting this disease from the parents.

History 
The disease is named after George Huntington. George Huntington specialized in medicine and psychology. In 1872, he was the first to describe the medical condition he was seeing in patients in a paper about science. In an 1908 review, an important scientist who also focused on medicine and psychology, William Osler, said about the paper: "In the history of medicine, there are few instances in which a disease has been more accurately, more graphically or more briefly described."

According to Huntington, the disease is characterized by three things: it is inherited; people who have it become cases for psychiatry (insanity and people who kill themselves); and it only occurs in adults. That was the medical understanding at that time. Of these, the last one is wrong: some children also show signs of the disease.

Symptoms 
Symptoms of Huntington's disease usually begin between the ages of 35 and 44 years. They can, however, start in any age group from babies to old age. Also, Huntington's disease kills the cells in the body and brain.

In fact, children with Huntington's disease are often much sicker. They get worse faster. Instead of having chorea, they usually have rigidity (or stiffness) of their muscles and it is painful. Seizures (uncontrollable movements in the body) are also a common sign in children.

Treatment and care 
In 2015, there is still no treatment for the disease itself. There are medicines available to help with some of the symptoms. Tetrabenazine was approved in 2008 by the FDA. This medicine helps slow some of the restless movements of chorea. Other medicines that can help with psychiatric symptoms and movements are benzodiazepines and anticonvulsants usually taken for seizures.

Clinical trials
Science Daily reported on May 6, 2019 that an international clinical trial has found  a new drug is safe. It reported that the drug used by UBC researchers successfully lowers levels of Huntingtin protein.

Related pages
 Woody_Guthrie#Illness_from_Huntington's_disease

References

Genetic disorders
Diseases
Adenoidectomy is the process of taking out a person's adenoids from the back of their throat through the process of surgery. They may be removed for several reasons, including difficulty breathing through the nose and having ear infections. The surgery is common in young kids. The procedure is usually performed using a substance called anaesthesia (Greek for "without sensation"), and the substance puts a person to sleep when it is applied. Recovery time from the operation can vary from several hours to a few days.

Adenoidectomy is usually done on young children because their adenoids were infected by a virus. If the disease was to be left alone, it would worsen. The affected person could have harder times breathing or hearing, and may possibly be killed from the disease. Normally functioning adenoids help maintain the body's healthy immune system during early childhood. They shrink when a person gets older. When a person becomes an adult, their adenoids completely disappear.

Other websites
 Surgery Encyclopedia: Adenoidectomy
 Adenoidectomy - throat operation to remove swollen adenoids 

Surgery
ROT13 (or ROT-13) is a very simple form of encryption cipher. It is a variant of a Caesar cipher. In it, the alphabet is written in two lines, of 13 characters each. Encryption, and decryption is done by simply switching the letters that are below each other. That way, A becomes N, B becomes O, and so on.

It is widely used in USENET forums.

Letter games and net culture

ROT13 can also be used for letter games. There are some words, that will produce another existing word, when they are treated with ROT13. The longest example in the English language is the pair of 7-letter words abjurer and nowhere; there is also the 7-letter pair chechen and purpura. Other examples of words like these are shown in the table.

The 1989 International Obfuscated C Code Contest (IOCCC) had an entry by Brian Westley. Westley's computer program can be ROT13'd or reversed and still compiles correctly. Its operation, when executed, is either to perform ROT13 encoding on, or to reverse its input.

The newsgroup alt.folklore.urban made a word—furrfu. It was the ROT13 encoding of the frequently encoded utterance "sheesh". "Furrfu" evolved in mid-1992 as a response to postings repeating urban myths on alt.folklore.urban, after some posters complained that "Sheesh!" as a response to newcomers was being overused.

References

Cryptography
Tony Kahn is an American radiohost, narrator, and writer who has won many awards. He is the son of Hollywood movie writer Gordon Kahn.

Early life
Kahn was born in Los Angeles, California.  His father was placed on a list of people with political beliefs that some people thought were not acceptable.  This happened during a time in American history known as the Red Scare.  The Red Scare is a term used to describe a time during the 1940s and 1950s in the United States when people were accused of (often wrongly) being communists.  

Because of the Red Scare, Kahn had to leave Los Angeles with his family.  They went to Mexico during the 1950s.  They returned after a few years and Kahn went to school at Harvard University where he studied the Russian language. He graduated with very good grades.  He then went to Columbia University where he got a masters degree -- an advanced academic degree or diploma -- in Slavic studies.

Career
Tony Kahn is known for his work in radio.  He produces and directs a radio show called Morning Stories for the radio station WGBH in Boston, Massachusetts.  He has also contributed to other radio shows such as Minnesota Public Radio's The World.  On The World, Kahn is sometimes the host and sometimes a reporter.  He has won twelve New England Emmys, six Gold Medals of the New York International Festival and an award called the Edward R. Murrow Award for Feature Reporting.

References

American radio personalities
American journalists
Columbia University alumni
Writers from Los Angeles
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
DDT is a well-known pesticide. The abbreviation stands for Dichloro-Diphenyl-Trichloroethane, one of its names. The Swiss chemist Paul Hermann Müller was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1948, for his discovery. In the 1960s there was a study that questioned if it was good to spread large amounts of DDT indiscriminately. The study also found that DDT could cause cancer. DDT is also highly poisonous to birds and other animals further up the food chain. This is why DDT was replaced by other pesticides. The Stockholm Convention which took effect in 2004, restricts the use of DDT to vector control. The convention does not affect the use of DDT for public health issues. This is because there are very few affordable alternatives. DDT is still widely used in India, North Korea and possibly elsewhere.

References

Poisons
Organic compounds
Carcinogens
Pollution
A nucleobase is a part of RNA and DNA which may be involved in pairing (see base pair). Nucleobases are important for genetics.

They include cytosine, guanine, adenine, thymine in (DNA), uracil in (RNA) and xanthine and hypoxanthine (mutated forms of guanine and adenine). These are abbreviated as C, G, A, T, U, X and HX . They are usually simply called bases in genetics. Because A, G, C and T appear in the DNA, these molecules are called DNA-bases; A, G, C and U are called RNA-bases.

Uracil replaces thymine in RNA.

Other websites
Base pairing in DNA Double Helix (shows specific hydrogen bonds)

Biochemistry
Kėdainiai is a town in the centre of Lithuania. The river Nevėžis passes by the town. More than 30.000 people live here. Kėdainiai has an old town with a lot of churches. Also, Kėdainiai is a centre of industry, especially chemistry. 

Cities in Lithuania
In music a glissando is a slide up or down the notes of a scale.  The plural is “glissandi”.  In written music the instruction to the player is often shortened to “gliss”.  The word comes from the French “glisser” = “to slide”.

With the singing voice, or with an instrument such as the trombone or a string instrument a glissando is a smooth slide in which the pitch gradually changes, becoming higher and higher.  The trombonist can make a glissando by blowing whilst pushing out or pulling in the slide.  The violinist can make a glissando by sliding a finger up or down the fingerboard.

With instruments such as the piano, xylophone or harp a glissando is a quick slide in which we hear one note after another because the pitches between the notes cannot be played.  On the piano there are two ways to play a glissando: either on the white notes or on the black notes.  At the end of the piano piece called Ondine from Gaspard de la Nuit by Maurice Ravel both these types of glissando can be heard.  The pianist has to play a glissando with tips of the fingers or the finger nails.  It can be quite painful to practise them a lot.   Harpists are very fond of playing glissandi.  By changing the position of the harp pedals a harpist can change the scale which will sound when the glissando is played.

Many modern timpani have pedals which tighten or slacken the drum head.  These can be used to make a glissando.  The Hungarian composer  Béla Bartók often used this effect.

Some jazz clarinettists manage to play a glissando on the clarinet.  They do this by gradually changing the way they blow whilst at the same time gradually lifting all the fingers off the keys.  George Gershwin's Rhapsody in Blue starts with a glissando on the solo clarinet. 

When  composers write a glissando they write the first and the last note, and then put a long, straight line between the notes, and write the word “glissando” or “gliss”.

Related pages
Portamento

Musical performance techniques
Musical terminology
The Almudena Cathedral (Spanish: Catedral de la Almudena) is a Catholic cathedral in Madrid, Spain. It is one of the newest landmarks in Madrid.  It is on a hilltop, next to the Royal Palace.

It was designed as long ago as 1879, but then the plans were changed to make it look like a 13th-century cathedral like the one in Rheims.  Building started in 1882, but during the Spanish Civil War no more work was done do it, and the building was not finished until the 1980s.  The architects who finished it, Fernando Chueca Goitia and Carlos Sidro, made some of the building look neo classical style.  It was consecrated in 1993 by Pope John Paul II.

From the front of the cathedral, visitors can see parts of the old city wall which was built in the 9th century.

In May 2004 Prince Felipe, the heir to the throne, married Doña Letitia Ortiz Rocasolano in the cathedral.  She was a newsreader on Spanish television.

References

Roman Catholic Cathedrals
Cathedrals in Spain
Buildings and structures in Madrid
1993 establishments in Europe
1990s establishments in Spain
A hydrogen bond is a type of chemical bond that weakly attaches a molecule to another molecule. It is based on the attraction between opposite electric charges.  The negative charge on an electronegative atom of one molecule is attracted to a positive charge on a hydrogen atom of another molecule. The hydrogen atom carries a positive charge because it is bonded to an second electronegative atom, which shifts electrons away from the hydrogen. This type of bond always involves a hydrogen atom, and two electronegative atoms. The electronegative atoms are often oxygen or nitrogen. Hydrogen bonds are important in polar solvents such as water and alcohol, in biomolecules, and in many other materials.

Hydrogen bonds can occur between molecules (intermolecular bonds), or between different parts of a single molecule (intramolecular bonds). The typical hydrogen bond is stronger than van der Waals forces, but weaker than covalent, ionic and metallic bonds.

Water 
Intermolecular hydrogen bonding is responsible for the high boiling point of water (100 °C). Most molecules with hydrogen bonding have high boiling points and melting points. Because hydrogen bonds are what make water stick together so well, they also help other molecules that can make hydrogen bonds dissolve in water. This is because the molecules form bonds with the hydrogen in the water, too, helping them dissolve.

Biomolecules 
Hydrogen bonds are important in many living organisms. They allow bonds between biomolecules that can be created and broken with control to allow life to proceed. For example, DNA that codes our genes contains two strands that are connected by many hydrogen bonds, like a zipper closing. Because the hydrogen bonds are not very strong, the two strands can later be unzipped and separated in order to read or copy the DNA. In protein molecules, intramolecular hydrogen bonds hold the protein molecule together in the shape that is needed. Intermolecular hydrogen bonds help connect protein molecules to each other to make many structures important for life, such as ribosomes that create new proteins.

References 

 George A. Jeffrey. An Introduction to Hydrogen Bonding (Topics in Physical Chemistry). Oxford University Press, USA (March 13, 1997). 
 A New Intermolecular Interaction: Unconventional Hydrogen Bonds with Element-Hydride Bonds as Proton Acceptor Robert H. Crabtree, Per E. M. Siegbahn, Odile Eisenstein, Arnold L. Rheingold, and Thomas F. Koetzle Acc. Chem. Res. 1996, 29(7), 348 - 354.
 Polymerization of Formic Acid under High Pressure Alexander F. Goncharov, M. Riad Manaa, Joseph M. Zaug, Richard H. Gee, Laurence E. Fried, and Wren B. Montgomery Phys. Rev. Lett. 2005, 94, 065505.
 F. Cordier, M. Rogowski, S. Grzesiek and A. Bax. Observation of through-hydrogen-bond (2h)J(HC') in a perdeuterated protein. J Magn Reson. (1999) 140: 510-2.
 R. Parthasarathi, V. Subramanian, N. Sathyamurthy.Hydrogen Bonding Without Borders: An Atoms-In-Molecules Perspective. J. Phys. Chem. (A) (2006) 110: 3349-3351.

Chemical bonding
Thalidomide is a drug. It was used as a sedative. It also had uses for other illnesses. 

It was mainly prescribed to pregnant women in the 1950s and 1960s, to help with sleep, until it was found to be a teratogen (that is: birth deformity causing substance). The drug can cause birth defects in rats, primates and humans. Before the drug was released, not enough tests were done. 

About 10,000 children were born with deformities, between 1956, and 1962. These could be directly linked to the fact that their mothers had taken the drug during their pregnancy. After this discovery, more rigorous tests were required in the United States, before a drug can be said to be safe to take during pregnancy. Other countries made similar laws. Thalidomide was not used as a drug for decades. 

Researchers continued to look for ways to use the drug. They discovered that it had good effects on certain types of skin diseases, associated with leprosy. Currently, studies are being done to see how this drug could help with cancer treatment, as well as some other, less-known diseases. It has been used in Multiple myeloma treatment with success.

Further reading 
 Johnson M; Stokes R.G. & Arndt T. 2018. The Thalidomide Catastrophe. Cranbrook, Exeter: Onwards & Upwards. ISBN 978-1-78815-629-5 
 Knightley P. & Evans H 1979. Suffer The Children: The Story of Thalidomide. New York: The Viking Press. ISBN 0-670-68114-8

References 

Drugs
Health problems
The United Arab Republic was a country formed in 1957 when Egypt and Syria joined together. Gamal Abdel Nasser was the president. When they separated in 1961, Egypt kept the name of  United Arab Republic until 1971 when the official name of the country was changed to Arab Republic of Egypt.

1957 establishments
1961 disestablishments
Former countries in Africa
Former countries in Asia
20th century in Egypt
20th century in Syria
A drop goal, also referred to as a dropped goal or field goal, is a method of scoring points in rugby union and rugby league. A drop goal is scored by drop kicking the ball above the crossbar and between the uprights. A drop goal is worth three points in rugby union and one point in rugby league.

Rugby
Southern Rhodesia was the a self-governing British colony in southern Africa. It existed at various times during the 20th century. It covered territory north of the Limpopo River and south of the Zambezi River.

Other websites

History of Zimbabwe
Former British colonies
The 2020 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXII Olympiad, was a sporting event in Tokyo, Japan from 23 July to 8 August 2021. Tokyo was announced as the host city at the 125th IOC Session in Buenos Aires, Argentina, on 7 September 2013. The winning bid, Tokyo, was announced on 7 September 2013.

The event was originally scheduled to take place from 24 July to 9 August 2020, but was postponed to 2021 due to the COVID-19 pandemic.

Olympic bids
The following was the bid results

Sports
The Sports played in the competition will be similar to those played in previous Olympic years. Popular sports  that will be played include Athletics, Swimming, Tennis, gymnastics, and diving.  The international Olympic committee said that there will be at least 25 sports played in addition to these. All sports competitions will feature athletes from many countries playing to try and win a medal, which is given to the winning player or team.

Stadiums
The Olympics will take place at many stadiums and locations throughout the Tokyo area. National Olympic Stadium in Tokyo will be the main stadium and host the opening and closing ceremonies, along with athletics. Other sports will take place in new and already built stadiums in and around Tokyo. The athletes will sleep in an Olympic village.

References

2021 in Asia
2021 in sports
21st century in Japan
History of Tokyo
July 2021 events
August 2021 events
The 2016 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXXI Olympiad was a major international sport and cultural event from 5 August 2016, to 21 August. The host city was Rio de Janeiro, Brazil.  The 2016 Summer Paralympic Games was also held in the same city and organized by the same organizing committee.

Possible host cities

The bidding process for the 2016 Summer Olympic Games began on May 16, 2007. Each city had to submit an initial application to the IOC before September 13, 2007, saying they plan to make a bid. Completed official bids were submitted by each applicant city by January 14, 2008. The final candidate cities were shortlisted in June 2008, and the final selection was made by the full IOC membership, on October 2, 2009, in Copenhagen, Denmark.

Americas
  Chicago, United States (Eliminated in the first round)
  Rio de Janeiro, Brazil (Chosen)

Asia
  Tokyo, Japan (Eliminated in the second round)

Europe
  Madrid, Spain

Applicant cities
In June 2008, these cities were not chosen to continue:

Asia
  Baku, Azerbaijan
  Doha, Qatar

Europe
  Prague, Czech Republic

Sports 

 Aquatics
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Slalom (4)
 Sprint (12)
 
 BMX (2)
 Mountain biking (2)
 Road (4)
 Track (10)
 
 Dressage (2)
 Eventing (2)
 Jumping (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 Artistic (14)
 Rhythmic (2)
 Trampoline (2)
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 Volleyball (2)
 Beach volleyball (2)
 
 
 Freestyle (12)
 Greco-Roman (6)

References

2016 Summer Olympics
Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly cell biology, genetics, biophysics and biochemistry.

Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interrelationship of DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis and learning how these interactions are regulated.

Relationship to other specialities 

Researchers in molecular biology use specific techniques that are typical for molecular biology, but they combine these with techniques and ideas from genetics and biochemistry. The following figure is a schematic that shows one possible view of the relationship between the fields:

Biochemistry is the study of the chemical substances and vital processes occurring in living organisms.
Genetics is the study of inheritance: the effect of genetic differences on organisms.
Molecular biology includes the study of the structure and function of all carbon-based macromolecules. This includes the chain of events from gene to protein: replication, transcription and translation. Much of the work in molecular biology is quantitative, and recently much work has been done at the interface of molecular biology and computer science in bioinformatics and computational biology. As of the early 2000s, the study of the genome has been amongst the most prominent sub-field of molecular biology.
Cytology, which includes the appearance of cells and cell structures, microscopy, and the use of stains and tags to help distinguish organelles and processes.

Related pages 
DNA and chromosome structure 
Genome
Cell
Cell biology
Cytology
Sequence analysis
Transcription (genetics)
Transformation (genetics)
Translation (genetics)

References

Cohen S.N. Chang A.C.Y. Boyer H. & Heling R.B. 1973. Construction of biologically functional bacterial plasmids in vitro. PNAS 70, 3240–3244.
Rodgers M. 1975. The Pandora's box congress. Rolling Stone 189, 37–77.

Other websites

Other reliable accounts 
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 A brief history of molecular biology

Personal acounts of Nobel Prize winners 
 Max Perutz Freeview Video interview with Max Perutz by the Vega Science Trust.
 Frederick Sanger Freeview Video Interview/Documentary by the Vega Science Trust.
 Christiane Nüsslein-Volhard  Freeview interview by the Vega Science Trust.

Other
 DNA from the beginning
Scientific American Magazine (April 2004) Evolution encoded
 DNA Interactive
Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology ( journal home)

Biochemistry
Cell biology
Uracil is a base found in RNA. It pairs with adenine and replaces thymine in DNA. Uracil, a pyrimidine, was originally discovered in 1900.

Biochemistry
Double stopping means playing two notes at once on a bowed string instrument by drawing the bow across two strings at once while "stopping" two notes by pressing the fingers down on the fingerboard: one finger on each of the two strings being played.

On instruments such as the violin the player is mostly playing one note at a time.  It is not difficult to play two open strings at once, but fingering two strings at once can be very difficult, so double stopping is an advanced technique.  Sometimes triple or quadruple stopping is needed.  This is sometimes called multiple stopping.  It is not really possible to play three or four notes at the same time on a violin.  The bridge is curved so that the player can bow on one string without hitting the others by accident.  Multiple stopping is done by playing first two strings and then, while still letting the sound from these two ring, quickly playing the other two strings.

Multiple stopping was used a lot in Renaissance music when playing the viol.  Baroque composers such as Johann Sebastian Bach in Germany or Arcangelo Corelli in Italy often require double stopping when writing for solo string instruments. It is also used a lot in virtuoso music of composers in the Romantic period such as Niccolò Paganini.

Musical performance techniques
Saar was the name of the Saarland after World War Two, when it was under French control. It became part of West Germany in 1957.

Related pages
 Saarland The modern German state
 Saargebiet The League of Nations's protectorate

Former countries in Europe
20th century in Germany
20th century in France
Saarland
1947 establishments in Europe
1956 disestablishments in Europe
The law of large numbers, or LLN for short, is a theorem from statistics. It states that if a random process is repeatedly observed, then the average of the observed values will be stable in the long run. This means that as the number of observations increases, the average of the observed values will get closer and closer to the expected value.

For example, when rolling dice, the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 are possible outcomes. They are all equally likely.  The population mean (or "expected value") of the outcomes is:

 (1 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 5 + 6) / 6 = 3.5.

The following graph shows the results of an experiment of rolls of a die. In this experiment, it can be seen that the average of die rolls varies wildly at first, but as predicted by the LLN, the average stabilizes around the expected value of 3.5 as the number of observations become large.

History
Jacob Bernoulli first described the LLN. He says it was so simple that even the stupidest man instinctively knows it is true. Despite this, it took him over 20 years to develop a good mathematical proof. Once he had found it, he published the proof in Ars Conjectandi (The Art of Conjecturing) in 1713.  He named this his "golden theorem". It became generally known as "Bernoulli's theorem" (not to be confused with the law in physics with the same name). In 1835, S.D. Poisson further described it under the name "la loi des grands nombres" (the law of large numbers).  Thereafter, it was known under both names, but the "law of large numbers" is most frequently used.

Other mathematicians also contributed to make the law better. Some of them were Chebyshev (who proved a more general version of the law for averages), Markov, Borel, Cantelli and Kolmogorov.  After these studies, there are now two different forms of the law: One is called the "weak" law, and the other the "strong" law.  These forms do not describe different laws. They have different ways to describe the convergence of the observed or measured probability to the actual probability. The strong form of the law implies the weak one.

Related pages 

 Central limit theorem

References 

Statistics
H & M Hennes & Mauritz AB (H&M), is a Swedish clothing company. It sells fast fashion at cheaper prices. The company was created in Västerås, Sweden, in 1947 by Erling Persson. At first, the company only sold women's clothing. At that time, it was called Hennes, Swedish for "hers." In 1968, Persson got the building and inventory of a Stockholm hunting equipment store named Mauritz Widforss. A supply of men's clothing was part of the inventory. This caused Persson to decide to also sell men's clothing. He renamed the store Hennes & Mauritz, later shortened to H&M. 

H&M has more than 1500 stores in 28 different countries. It has more than 60,000 employees.

References

Other websites
 www.hm.com

Companies of Sweden
Clothing companies
1947 establishments in Sweden
Luchegorsk (Russian:Лучегорск, lit. Ray of mountains) is a urban-type settlement and administrative center of Pozharsky District (Primorsky Krai, Russia). It was founded in 1966. There are 22,365 people living there according to 2002 Census.

Geography 
Geographical coordinates are 46-27N,134-17E. Luchegorsk is the largest non-city settlement on Russian Far East.

Luchegorsk has more ecological problems for a large electric power station.

In December,1997, a large Amur tiger hunted down a poacher who had shot and wounded the tiger.The tiger killed the man in what appears to be the only (recorded) premeditated act of revenge by a tiger.

Settlements in Russia
French, one calls boxe pieds-poings ("feet-fists boxing"), since the years 1980, the combat sports of striking with boxing gloves. These sports are practised in a ring (or on a mat) and belong to the category of sport boxing. The boxers use, according to the regulation, the techniques of leg (kicks and knee kicks), the techniques of arm (punches and elbow strikes) and the techniques of throwing.

Among the most known we have: 
 the American disciplines (American boxing) under three main forms: 
 full contact karate without kicks below the belt, 
 kickboxing with roundhouse kicks in the thighs or American kickboxing, 
 and semicontact or fights in the points (point fighting), a class of karate with gloves and slippers in foam, 
 French boxing (savate), today called "Savate-BF", 
 Japanese kickboxing: kickboxing with direct knee kicks, roundhouse kicks in the thighs (low kick), and with few wrestling catches,
 two kinds of boxing, where almost everything is permitted, Burmese boxing (lethwei) and Thai boxing (muay thai).

Other websites 
  French Page of boxe pieds-poings.

Martial arts