cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A telescope (from the Ancient Greek τῆλε, tele "far" and σκοπεῖν, skopein "to look or see"; τηλεσκόπος, teleskopos) makes astronomical objects appear closer to the naked eye. It is an important tool for astronomy that gathers light and directs it to a single point. Some do this with curved mirrors, some with curved lenses, and some with both. Telescopes make distant things look bigger, brighter and closer. Galileo was the first person to use a telescope for astronomy, but he did not invent them. The first telescope was invented in the Netherlands in 1608. Some telescopes, not mainly used for astronomy, are binoculars, camera lenses, or spyglasses.

When telescopes are used with just your eye, an eyepiece has to be used. These use two or more smaller lenses to magnify an image. Without an eyepiece, an eye can not focus the image. When a telescope is used with a camera or other special scientific tools, eyepiece lenses are not needed.

Most big telescopes for astronomy are made for looking very carefully at things that are already known. A few are made to search for things, such as unknown asteroids. A telescope made to be used with a CCD (Charge-Coupled Devices) camera instead of just your eye are sometimes called "Astrophotography". A Go-to telescope is needed to track Deep Sky objects and must be placed on a Alt-Azimuth Mount for the axis to point towards Polaris, this is called polar alignment.

The bigger the aperture (mirror) the more light the telescope collects. It makes faint objects appear clearer.

Telescopes can be used by normal people too, not just scientists. These are amateur telescopes, and they are usually smaller, and they don't cost too much for a normal person to buy. Some of the most popular amateur telescopes are Dobsonians, a type of Newtonian telescope.

The word telescope is usually used for light human eyes can see, but there are telescopes for wavelengths we cannot see. Infrared telescopes look like normal telescopes, but have to be kept cold since all warm things give off infrared light. Radio telescopes are like radio antennas, usually shaped like large dishes.

X-ray and Gamma ray telescopes have a problem because the rays go through most metals and glasses. To solve this problem, the mirrors are shaped like a bunch of rings inside each other so the rays strike them at a shallow angle and are reflected. These telescopes are space telescopes because little of this radiation reaches the Earth.  Other space telescopes are put in orbit so the Earth's atmosphere does not interfere.

Telescopes are mostly used for looking at celestial objects such as, the stars, planets, etc.

Related pages
 List of telescope types

Other websites 

 European Southern Observatory - OWL
 The Resolution of a Telescope 
 Image of a Telescope
 Telescope -Citizendium
The Federal Republic of Germany (FRG) has 16 states (). The biggest is Bavaria and the smallest is Bremen. Most of them were created after the Second World War, although their historical roots can be traced back to the early Middle Ages in some cases.

State creation since 1949:

 1952: Three small states (Baden, Württemberg-Baden and Württemberg-Hohenzollern, part of Germany since 1949) joined together to form Baden-Württemberg.
 1957: The Saar, which was put under French administration after World War II, joined the Federal Republic of Germany as the Saarland.
 1990: On German reunification, the reunited city of Berlin and the territory of the former German Democratic Republic joined the Federal Republic as six new states.

Population and area in km² as of November 2014.
The 1930s was the decade that started on January 1, 1930 and ended on December 31, 1939.

Events
 1933 – Adolf Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany
1933 – Prohibition ends in the United States
 1939 – The start of World War II
 Nancy Drew books debut
The 1930s was a bad time because of the depression, where people were sad.

Important people

World leaders 
 King Faisal I (Iraq)
 King Ghazi (Iraq)
 King Faisal II (Iraq)
 President of the Executive Council W.T. Cosgrave (Irish Free State)
 President of the Executive Council Éamon de Valera (Irish Free State)
 Taoiseach Éamon de Valera (Éire)
 King Victor Emmanuel III (Italy)
 Prime Minister Benito Mussolini (Italy)
 Emperor Hirohito (Japan)
 Emir Ahmad Al-Jaber Al-Sabah (Kuwait)
 Prime Minister António de Oliveira Salazar (Portugal)
 Sultan Mohammed V (Morocco)
 Prime Minister Michael Joseph Savage (New Zealand)
 President Paul von Hindenburg (Germany)
 Prime Minister James Barry Munnik Hertzog (South Africa)
 General Secretary Joseph Stalin (Soviet Union)
 President Alcalá Zamora (Spain)
 Prime Minister Manuel Azaña (Spain)
 Prime Minister Alejandro Lerroux (Spain
 President Bahij al-Khatib (Syria)
 Bey (Crown Prince) Ahmad II (Tunisia)
 President Mustafa Kemal Atatürk (Turkey)
 King George V (United Kingdom)
 King Edward VIII (United Kingdom)
 King George VI (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Ramsay MacDonald (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin (United Kingdom)
 Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain (United Kingdom)
 President Herbert Hoover (United States)
 President Franklin D. Roosevelt (United States)
 Holy Father Pope Pius XI (Vatican)
 Adolf Hitler, German politician
 Pope Pius XI, Pope in the 1930s
 George V, British king
 Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR
 Benito Mussolini, Italian politician
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Louis Armstrong, Jazz musician
 Dionne Quintuplets, Canadian siblings, first quintuplets to survive infancy
The 1940s was the decade that started on January 1, 1940, and ended on December 31, 1949.

Events 
 1940 – Retreat at Dunkirk
 1941; Attack on Pearl Harbor, which followed by U.S join the war then.
 1944 – Normandy invasion
 1945 (August 6 and 9) – first use of the atomic bomb in warfare.
 1945 – World War II ends
 1945 – Start of the Cold War
 1945-1946 – Nuremberg Trials
 1946 – baby boom begins in the United States.
 1947 – Independence for India and other colonies.
 1947-1949 – Indo-Pakistani War
 1948-1949 – Arab-Israeli War
 1949 – Communists take power in China.

People

World leaders 
 Adolf Hitler, German politician
 Pope Pius XII, Pope in the 1930s
 George VI, British king
 Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Joseph Stalin, leader of the USSR
 Mahatma Gandhi, leader of India
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
 Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States (until 1945)
 Harry S Truman, President of the United States
The 1950s was the decade that started on January 1, 1950, and ended on December 31, 1959.

Events 
 1950–1953 Korean War.
 1953 – Structure of DNA published by James Watson, Francis Crick and Maurice Wilkins.
 1953 – Edmund Hillary is the first man on Mount Everest.
 1954 – Battle of Dien Bien Phu ends France's colonization of Vietnam and leads to division of Vietnam into North and South.
 1956 – Hungarian Revolution of 1956
 1956 – Suez Crisis
 1958 – Treaty of Rome
 1959 – Fidel Castro becomes the Prime Minister of Cuba.
 1957 – Sputnik launched.

Important people
 Konrad Adenauer, German chancellor
 Chuck Berry, American rock & roll musician
 Fidel Castro, president of Cuba
 René Coty, president of France
 Winston Churchill, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 James Dean, American actor
 Paul Newman, American actor
 Bo Diddley, American rock & roll musician
 Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
 Dwight D. Eisenhower, President of the US  1953–1961
 Ludwig Erhard, German chancellor
 Francisco Franco, Caudillo of Spain
 Charles de Gaulle, president of France
 George VI, British king until 1952
 David Ben-Gurion, prime minister of Israel
 Hirohito, Emperor of Japan
 Alfred Hitchcock, writer
 Pope John XXIII, Pope from 1958
 Nikita Khrushchev, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
 Marilyn Monroe, American actress
 Gamal Abdel Nasser, president of Egypt
 Jawaharlal Nehru, prime minister of India
 Josip Broz Tito, President of Yugoslavia
 Juan Perón, President of Argentina
 Pope Pius XII, Pope until 1958
 Elvis Presley, American singer
 Buddy Holly, American singer
 Joseph Stalin, General Secretary of the Soviet Union
 Harry S. Truman, President of the US until 1953
 Kim Il-Sung, Supreme Leader of North Korea
 Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
Hamburg, or in full Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (, Low German: Friee un Hansestadt Hamborg), is a city in the north of Germany on the banks of the River Elbe, 18 km away from the North Sea. It is also one of the States of Germany.

With a population of about 1.85 million (1850000), it is the biggest German city after Berlin and the sixth largest city of the European Union. The religion is about 37% Protestant, 10% Catholic, 8% Muslim, 38% agnostic, 2% Pagan.

Since it was an important member of the Hanseatic League, the city's official name still includes Hansestadt (Hanseatic city). Other German cities that do the same today are: Lübeck, Rostock, Wismar, Stralsund, Bremen, Greifswald and Demmin. The membership in this trade alliance has influenced the architecture of the city to a great extent. It has also left some marks in the region around the city. Strategic bombing in World War II devastated the city.

In 2017 a consulting company ranked it 17th for best place to live in the world.

The area of Hamburg is . It has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

Economy 
Hamburg's harbour is, by shipments, the second largest harbour in Europe (after Rotterdam) and among the ten largest in the world. It is a very important gate to the countries along the Baltic Sea and Eastern Europe.

There are about 120,000 businesses in Hamburg. The company Airbus has an assembly plant for large civil aircraft in Hamburg. 30,000 people are employed in Hamburg's aircraft industries. There are only two other locations worldwide in this scale, Seattle in the United States and Toulouse in France.

About half of Germany's nationwide newspapers and magazines are made in Hamburg. Germany's most-viewed television news Tagesschau is broadcast from Hamburg.

Hamburg's red-light district (in Sankt Pauli) is the largest in Europe.

Sister cities 
 , Saint Petersburg, since 1957
 , Marseille, since 1958
 , Shanghai, since 1986
 , Dresden, since 1987
 , León, since 1989
 , Ōsaka, since 1989
 , Prague, since 1990
 , Chicago, since 1994

Related pages
 Berlin
 Munich
 Cologne
 Frankfurt/Main
 Düsseldorf

References

 
Imperial free cities
Emphysema is a disease of the lungs. 

It is one of the diseases that make up chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD). This is a set of diseases where the flow of air in the lungs is obstructed. Emphysema is most often caused by smoking but can be caused by other diseases or have no known cause at all.

It occurs when the very small air sacs (called the alveoli) at the ends of the airways in the lungs start to break down from many sacs to form much bigger sacs. The alveoli are the areas of the lung where oxygen and carbon dioxide are exchanged into and out of the blood. Emphysema makes it hard for people to blow air out of the lungs because air gets trapped inside the broken alveoli due to the collapse of the walls. The trapped air in the lungs creates the characteristic "barrel chest" of emphysema.

There is no cure for emphysema. Treatment includes stopping smoking and taking medicines ('broncho-dilators' and sometimes corticosteroids). Supplemental oxygen is recommended in those with low oxygen levels at rest. It decreases the risk of heart failure and death if used 15 hours per day, and may improve people's ability to exercise. In those with normal or mildly low oxygen levels, oxygen supplementation may improve shortness of breath. There is a risk of fires and little benefit when those on oxygen continue to smoke.

Associations
Emphysema is commonly associated with chronic bronchitis. As it is rather difficult to delineate "pure" cases of emphysema or chronic bronchitis they are classed together into chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

Other websites 
 Global initiative for chronic obstructive lung disease 

Diseases
Pulmonology
The 1960s was the decade that started on January 1, 1960 and ended on December 31, 1969. Many things happened in the sixties, including the Space Race, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Vietnam War.

The 1960s term also refers to an era more often called the Sixties. This was a set of cultural and political trends around the globe. This "cultural decade" is loosely defined as beginning around 1963 and ending around 1974.

The social revolution of the 1960s was part of a wider counterculture. Old ways were changed, new ways taken up. Typical was the introduction of the birth control pill, and its effect on sexual activity, widespread use of certain drugs and a general disrespect for traditional ways.

Pop art also started in the 1960s.

Events 
 Decolonization of much of Africa
 1961 - Yuri Gagarin is first human in the space during Soviet Vostok 1 mission.
 1961 – Berlin Wall built.
 1961 – Bay of Pigs invasion.
 1962 – Cuban Missile Crisis.
 1963 – Assassination of John F. Kennedy on November 22.
 1965 – Indiainvades Pakistan on September 6.
1967 - Six-Day War.
 1968 – Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia.
 1969 – Under the Apollo 11 program Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first humans on the Moon.
 Unix created.

Significant people 
 Stanley Kubrick, director
 Orson Welles, director
 The Rolling Stones, English rock band
 Muhammad Ali, boxer
 The Beatles, British rock band
 Fidel Castro, president of Cuba
 Che Guevara, Argentine marxist, revolutionary
 Sean Connery, actor
 Bob Dylan, singer, songwriter, artist
 Joan Baez, American Folk Singer
 Jimi Hendrix, rock singer
 Yuri Gagarin, astronaut
 Alfred Hitchcock, filmmaker
 Harold Macmillan, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Alec Douglas-Home, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Harold Wilson, Prime Minister of United Kingdom
 Pope John XXIII, Pope until 1963
 John F. Kennedy, President of the United States from 1961-1963
Lyndon Johnson, President of the United States from 1963-1969
Richard Nixon, President of the United States from 1969-1974
 Martin Luther King Jr., a leader in the American Civil Rights Movement
 Nikita Khruschev, Soviet leader
 Leonid Brezhnev, Soviet leader
 Pope Paul VI since 1963
 Mao Zedong, Chairman of the Communist Party of China
 Chiang Kai-shek, President of the Republic of China
 Jawaharlal Nehru, Prime Minister of India
 Indira Gandhi, Prime Minister of India
 Ho Chi Minh, President of North Vietnam
 Charles de Gaulle, President of France
 Konrad Adenauer, Chancellor Germany
 Ludwig Erhard, Chancellor Germany
 Kurt Georg Kiesinger, Chancellor Germany
 Levi Eshkol, Prime Minister of Israel
 Gamal Abdel Nasser, President of Egypt
 Elvis Presley, American singer
 Mary Quant, fashion designer
 Lee Harvey Oswald, the assassin of John F. Kennedy
 James Earl Ray, assassin of Martin Luther King Jr.
 Thomas Hagan, assassin of Malcolm X

References
The 1990s was the decade that started on January 1, 1990, and ended on December 31, 1999.

Events 
 1990 - 1991 – Gulf War
 1990 – German reunification
 1991 – The end of the Cold War.
 1991 – Breakup of Yugoslavia.
 Yugoslav Wars
 1991 – Dissolution of the Soviet Union
 1992 – The European Union is founded.
 1993 – Dissolution of Czechoslovakia.
 1994 – Genocide in Rwanda
 1994 – End of Apartheid in South Africa.
 1997 – Handover of Hong Kong

People 
 Pope John Paul II, Pope in the 1990s (the last full decade he would serve as Pope until his death in 2005)
 Andre Agassi, American tennis player
 Pete Sampras, American tennis player
 Michael Schumacher, German formula 1 driver
 Backstreet Boys, American boy band
 Slobodan Milošević, President of Serbia from 1989 to 2000
 Margaret Thatcher, British Prime Minister from 1979 to 1990
 John Major, British Prime Minister from 1990 to 1997
 Tony Blair, British Prime Minister from 1997 to 2007
 George H. W. Bush, President of the United States until 1993
Bill Clinton President of the United States from 1993–2001
 François Mitterrand, President of France from 1981 to 1995
 Jacques Chirac, President of France from 1995 to 2007
 Jiang Zemin, General Secretary of the Communist Party of China from 1989 to 2002
 Alberto Fujimori President of Peru 1990–2000
 Fidel Castro, leader of Cuba from 1959 to 2008
 Elizabeth II, British queen since 1952
 Madonna, singer-songwriter
 The Prodigy, electronic dance group
 Britney Spears, American singer
 Spice Girls, music group
 Mariah Carey, singer
 Celine Dion, singer
 Whitney Houston, singer
 Mel Gibson, actor
 Mikhail Gorbachev, leader of the USSR 1985–1991
 Boris Yeltsin, President of Russia from 1991 to 1999
 Michael Jordan, American basketball player
 Tom Hanks, American actor 
 Nicole Kidman, actress
 Sandra Bullock, American actress
 Tom Cruise, American actor
 Robin Williams, American actor and comedian
 Jim Carrey, Canadian-American actor and comedian
 George Clooney, American actor
 Brad Pitt, American actor
 Eddie Murphy, American actor and comedian
 Arnold Schwarzenegger, American actor
 Oprah Winfrey, American talk show host
 Ellen DeGeneres, American talk show host
 Saddam Hussein, President of Iraq 1979–2003
 Helmut Kohl, German chancellor until 1998
 Nelson Mandela, President of South Africa 1994–1999
 Thabo Mbeki, President of South Africa 1999–2008
 Yitzhak Rabin, Israeli Prime Minister
 Hosni Mubarak, President of Egypt from 1981 to 2011
 Muammar al-Gaddafi, Libyan dictator from 1969 to 2011
 Nirvana, rock band
 Steven Seagal, American actor
 Julia Roberts, American actor/actress
 Gerhard Schröder, German Chancellor from 1998 to 2005
 Lech Wałęsa, President of Poland from 1990 to 1995
 Yasser Arafat, Palestinian leader
 Kim Il-Sung, dictator of North Korea from 1948 to 1994
 Kim Jong-il, dictator of North Korea from 1994 to 2011
 Tupac Shakur, American rapper
 Diana, Princess of Wales
 Gianni Versace, fashion designer
 Bill Gates, co-founder of Microsoft
 Steve Jobs, co-founder of Apple

Other websites 
Source for some items:
 https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ 
 http://m-w.com/
North Rhine-Westphalia (, Low Franconian: Noordrien-Wesfale, Low German: Noordrhien-Westfalen, Kölsch: Noodrhing-Wäßßfaale) is the federal state (Bundesland) with the highest population in Germany. It is in the western part of Germany and has 18,033,000 inhabitants. The capital is Düsseldorf, while the city with the most inhabitants is Cologne.

Districts 
North Rhine-Westphalia is divided into five government regions:
 Arnsberg
 Cologne
 Detmold
 Düsseldorf
 Münster

History 
 1807-1813 — Westphalia is a kingdom.
 1817 — Westphalia became a province of Prussia.
 1824 — Jülich, Kleve, Berg and Niederrhein united to Rhine Province.
 1919 — Belgium took Eupen and Malmedy.
 1946 — Rhine Province, Westphalia and Lippe-Detmold united to North Rhine-Westphalia.

Cities 
 Aachen
 Bergisch Gladbach
 Bielefeld
 Bocholt
 Bochum
 Bonn
 Bottrop
 Castrop-Rauxel
 Cologne
 Dinslaken
 Dortmund
 Düren
 Düsseldorf
 Duisburg
 Essen
 Geldern
 Gelsenkirchen
 Gütersloh
 Hagen
 Hamm
 Hattingen
 Heinsberg
 Herne
 Iserlohn
 Köln
 Krefeld
 Leverkusen
 Lippstadt
 Lünen
 Marl
 Moers
 Mönchengladbach
 Mülheim an der Ruhr
 Münster
 Neuss
 Oberhausen
 Paderborn
 Ratingen
 Recklinghausen
 Remscheid
 Siegen
 Solingen
 Unna
 Velbert
 Wesel
 Wuppertal
 Witten
 Xanten
A computer program is a list of instructions that tell a computer what to do. Everything a computer does is done by using a computer program. Programs stored in the memory of a computer ("internal programming") let the computer do one thing after another, even with breaks in between. John von Neumann, a mathematician born in Hungary, came up with this idea in the late 1940s. The first digital computer designed with internal programming capacity was the EDVAC (which means Electronic Discrete Variable Automatic Computer), built in 1949.

Some examples of computer programs:
 Operating system.
 A web browser like Mozilla Firefox and Chrome can be used to view web pages on the Internet.
 An office suite can be used to write documents or spreadsheets.
 Video games are computer programs. 

A computer program is stored as a file on the computer's hard drive. When the user runs the program, the file is read by the computer, and the processor reads the data in the file as a list of instructions. Then the computer does what the computer program tells it to do.

A computer program is written by a programmer. It is very difficult to write in the ones and zeroes of machine code, which is what the computer can read, so computer programmers write in a programming language, such as BASIC, C, or Java. Once it is written, the programmer uses a compiler to turn it into a language that the computer can understand.

There are also bad programs, called malware, written by people who want to do bad things to a computer. Some are spyware, trying to steal information from the computer. Some try to damage the data stored on the hard drive. Some others send users to web sites that offer to sell them things. Some are computer viruses or ransomware.

Related pages 
 Software
 Operating system
 Programming language
 Utility software

Other websites 
 Computer program Citizendium
The word data means "known facts". Data especially refers to numbers, but can mean words, sounds, and images. Metadata is data about data. It is used to find data.

Originally, data is the plural of the Latin word datum, from dare, meaning "give". Datum is rarely used in English. So data often gets used as if it were a singular word. Some people like to say "data are", not "data is".

References 

Knowledge
Stuttgart (; Swabian:  ) is a city in Germany. It is the capital of the state of Baden-Württemberg and of the Administrative District of Stuttgart (Regierungsbezirk). Stuttgart is on the river Neckar. In December 2011, 613,392 people lived there. This makes it the most populous city in Baden-Württemberg.

Stuttgart is the sixth largest German city and Stuttgart Region is the nation's third largest region. The city is divided into 23 city districts.

Stuttgart is the home of two car manufacturers: Mercedes Benz and Porsche. Porsche is in Zuffenhausen (North) and Mercedes in Untertürkheim (Southeast).

Stuttgart has an oceanic climate (Cfb in the Koeppen climate classification).

Population 
Stuttgart has 613,392 people within city limits. It is the 6th largest city in Germany after Berlin, Hamburg, Munich, Cologne and Frankfurt am Main. According to a 2005 estimate, the Stuttgart urban area had between 1,238,000 and 1,250,000 people. Its metropolitan area has a population of 5.3 million (2008).

Education 
The University of Stuttgart is one of the city's higher education institutions.

References

Other websites 

 stuttgart.de
 pictures of metropolitan area stuttgart
Schwerin (, , ; Mecklenburgian Low German: Swerin; Latin: Suerina, Suerinum) is the capital city of the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. It has a population of 97,000. It is the second biggest city (behind Rostock) in the state. It is the smallest capital of a German state.

History

Gallery

References 

States of the Holy Roman Empire
Urban districts of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania
German state capitals
Schwyz was one of the first cantons of Swiss canton (Urkanton).

The capital is Schwyz and the main language is German (91%). It has an area of 908 km² and 130200 inhabitants. Schwyz is near to Lucerne.

Districts and Municipalities 
The Canton of Schwyz is divided into six districts and 30 municipalities, although the districts Einsiedeln, Küssnacht and Gersau simply contain the municipality of the same name.

 District Schwyz
 with municipalities Schwyz, Arth, Ingenbohl, Muotathal, Steinen, Sattel, Rothenthurm, Oberiberg, Unteriberg, Lauerz, Steinerberg, Morschach, Alpthal, Illgau, Riemenstalden
 District Einsiedeln with municipality Einsiedeln
 District Gersau with municipality Gersau
 District Höfe
 with municipalities Wollerau, Freienbach, Feusisberg
 District Küssnacht with municipality Küssnacht am Rigi
 District March
 with municipalities Lachen, Altendorf, Galgenen, Vorderthal, Innerthal, Schübelbach, Tuggen, Wangen, Reichenburg

References

Other websites 
 Company formation in Schwyz (English)

1291 establishments
Establishments in Switzerland
 
1290s establishments in Europe
St. Gallen is a canton in Switzerland. St. Gallen is in the north-east corner of Switzerland. North of St. Gallen is the canton Thurgau. West of St. Gallen is Zürich. South of St. Gallen is Schwyz, Glarus, and Graubünden. East of St. Gallen are the countries Austria and Liechtenstein. The cantons Appenzell Innerrhoden and Appenzell Ausserrhoden are inside the canton St. Gallen (the canton St.Gallen sourrounds them). 

St. Gallen has been a Swiss canton since 1803. 

St. Gallen is near Lake Constance. At the south of St. Gallen there are big mountains over 3000m high. The best known mountain in St. Gallen is the Säntis, which is 2503m high. At the east of St. Gallen there is the river Rhine. The people in St. Gallen speak German. 

There are about 455,000 people (2002) in the canton St. Gallen. It has an area of 2,026 km². 

The biggest town in St. Gallen is the town with the same name St. Gallen. There are 70,000 people in the town St. Gallen.

Other websites 
 Official website of the government of St. Gallen

 
1803 establishments
19th-century establishments in Switzerland
1800s establishments in Europe
Canton can mean many different things.

A canton is a way to divide the land of a country. It is like dividing the country into different regions or states.
Cantons of Costa Rica
Cantons of France
Cantons of Luxembourg
Cantons of Switzerland

canton (liqueur), a ginger-flavored liqueur that is made in the Guangdong province in China
the upper left part of a flag

Places:
 Canton, an old English name for the city of Guangzhou, China
 Canton, an old English name for the province of Guangdong, China
 Canton, Connecticut, USA
 Canton, Georgia, USA
 Canton, Illinois, USA
 Canton, Baltimore neighborhood and park in Baltimore, Maryland, USA
 Canton, Massachusetts, USA
 Canton Township, Michigan, United States
 Canton, Mississippi, USA
 Canton, Missouri, USA
 Canton, New York
  Canton (village), New York , USA
  Canton (town), New York , USA
 Canton, North Carolina, USA
 Canton, Ohio, USA
 Canton, Oklahoma, USA
 Canton, Pennsylvania, USA
 Canton, South Dakota, USA
 Canton Township, Michigan, USA
 Canton Township, Pennsylvania, USA
 Canton, Texas, USA
 Canton, Cardiff, a district of the Welsh capital
 Kanton Island (used to be "Canton Island"), part of Kiribati
Saarland (, also , ;  ; Rhine Franconian: Saarlond) is a Bundesland (state) of Germany. It has an area of  and 1,014,000 people living in it (2011). Saarland lies in the south-west of Germany, near the French border near Metz. The capital is Saarbrücken.

History 
In 1920, the Treaty of Versailles made Saarland from parts of the Prussian Rhine Province () and the Rhine Palatinate (). The area was put under the control of the League of Nations for 15 years. After a plebiscite (vote) in 1935, Germany got the land back. After World War II the Saarland came under French administration.  The Saar Protectorate was allowed its own government for most things in 1947 but not independence. Germany got the Saarland back in 1957 and it became a Bundesland.

Geography 
In the south is France, in the north-west Luxembourg and in the north and east is Rhineland-Palatinate.

Saarland is divided in 6 districts:
 Merzig-Wadern (the largest district)
 Neunkirchen
 Saarbrücken
 Saarlouis
 Saarpfalz (Saar-Palatinate)
 Sankt Wendel

City and towns 
 Saarbrücken (city)
 Neunkirchen
 Saarlouis
 Homburg
 Merzig

Related pages
 Saargebiet
 Saar (protectorate)

References
Saarbrücken (;  ; Rhine Franconian: Saarbrigge [zaːˈbʁɪɡə]; ) is a German city and a district in the state of Saarland.

The city is also the capital of the Saarland. Saarbrücken has 180,000 inhabitants and is on the river Saar.

References

Other websites

Saarbrücken (district)
States of the Holy Roman Empire
German state capitals
Saarlouis is a town in the Saarland, Germany. It has 38,400 inhabitants and is on the Saar. From 1936 to 1945 it was called Saarlautern. Ford Motor Company has a plant here; it produces the Focus, C-Max and Kuga.

References

Other websites

Saarlouis (district)
Brandenburg (Low Sorbian: Bramborska, Low German: Brannenborg) is a state (Bundesland) in Germany. It has been a state since 1990. It is 29,056 km² in area. It has about 2.6 million inhabitants.

Until 1945 it was the biggest province in Prussia, with 38,278 km² and 3 million inhabitants. From 1949 to 1952 it was a state in the German Democratic Republic. In 1952 it became divided into three Bezirke (Potsdam, Frankfurt and Cottbus). The capital of Brandenburg is Potsdam.

Berlin is in the middle of Brandenburg. But it is not part of Brandenburg. It is a city state.

History 
 1373 Karl IV bought Brandenburg for his sons from the Wittelsbacher
 1539 Protestant Reformation
 1618 United with Prussia
 1815 Brandenburg became a province in Prussia
 1945 Brandenburg lost 32% to Poland
 1949 State in East Germany
 1952 Divided into three Bezirke (Districts)
 1990 State of the reunited Germany

Administration 
Brandenburg is divided into fourteen Kreise (districts):
 Prignitz
 Ostprignitz-Ruppin
 Oberhavel
 Uckermark
 Havelland
 Barnim
 Märkisch-Oderland
 Potsdam-Mittelmark
 Teltow-Fläming
 Oder-Spree
 Dahme-Spreewald
 Elbe-Elster
 Oberspreewald-Lausitz
 Spree-Neiße

Also Brandenburg has four Kreisfreie Städte (district-free city):
 Brandenburg
 Cottbus
 Frankfurt an der Oder
 Potsdam

List of Minister-Presidents 
 1945 - 1949: Karl Steinhoff
 1949 - 1952: Rudi Jahn
 1990 - 2002: Manfred Stolpe (SPD)
 2002 - 2013: Matthias Platzeck (SPD)
 since 2013: Dietmar Woidke (SPD)

Cities and counties 

Brandenburg is divided into fourteen (rural) counties (Landkreise),

and four urban districts (kreisfreie Städte),

 Brandenburg an der Havel
 Cottbus
 Frankfurt (Oder)
 Potsdam
Topology is an area of Mathematics, which studies how spaces are organized and how they are structured in terms of position. It also studies how spaces are connected. It is divided into algebraic topology, differential topology and geometric topology.

Topology has been called rubber-sheet geometry. In a topology of two dimensions there is no difference between a circle and a square. A circle made out of a rubber band can be stretched into a square. There is a difference between a circle and a figure eight. A figure eight cannot be stretched into a circle without tearing.

The spaces studied in topology are called topological spaces. They vary from familiar manifolds to some very exotic constructions.

Natural Origin 

In many problems, we often divide a large space into smaller areas. For instance, a house is divided into rooms, a nation into states, a type of quantity into numbers, and so on. Each of these smaller areas (room, state, number) is next to other small areas (other rooms/states/numbers). The places where the areas meet are connections. If we write down on paper a list of spaces, and the connections between them, we have written down a description of a space -- a topological space. All topological spaces have the same properties such as connections, and are made of the same structure (a list of smaller areas). This makes it easier to study how spaces behave. It also makes it easier to write algorithms. For instance, to program a robot to navigate a house, we simply give it a list of rooms, the connections between each room (doors), and an algorithm that can work out which rooms to go through to reach any other room. For more examples of this type of problem, look at Graph theory.

We can go further by creating subdivisions of subdivisions of space. For instance, a nation divided into states, divided into counties, divided into city boundaries, and so on. All this kind of information can be described using topology.

Related pages
 Knot theory
A census is a way of getting information about every member of a population. It is usually used for a population of people, but can be used to mean a population of animals.
Both the United States and United Kingdom have a census every 10 years, or decade. But in Australia, Canada, Japan and New Zealand they have it every 5 years.

A census produces a large database and sometimes new information technology, such as the use of punched cards for data, has been invented to handle it.

The word comes from the Roman Republic when it meant a list of citizens.

Notes

Related pages
 Statistics
 United States Census

Other websites 
Statistics Bureau of Japan - Official website

Social sciences
Animals
Demography
This article lists the 50 states of the United States. It also lists their populations, the date they became a state or agreed to the United States Declaration of Independence, their total area, land area, water area, and the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives.

Washington D.C., (Washington, District of Columbia) is a federal district and capital of the United States and is not considered a state. The United States also has sovereignty over 14 other territories. These are not included in this list.

Map of the U.S States 
Click on any state to learn more about that state.

List of states

Other websites

Notes

References
Drunk driving (Drink driving in the UK and Australia) is the act of driving a motor vehicle (car, truck, etc.) while under the effects of alcohol. Drunk driving is illegal in most areas of the world.  In some places, driving a motorless vehicle such as a bicycle while drunk is also illegal.

Most areas that make laws (jurisdictions) started with DWI (driving while intoxicated) laws, banning just alcohol. Later, most changed them to DUI (driving under the influence) laws, adding other drugs to those banned while driving. The most common blood alcohol content (BAC) limit in the United States is 0.08% for the legal meaning of drunk. Only three states still use the more lax, original standard of 0.10%.  Many jurisdictions add extra penalties (more jail time and/or a longer DUI program) in cases where the driver's BAC is over 0.20%.

United States laws 

The first place in the United States to adopt laws against drunk driving was the state of New York in 1910, with California (1911) and others doing the same later. Early laws simply banned driving while drunk, with no mention of what BAC was banned (which means how drunk the person is). The state of Georgia was one of the last states to make laws against drunk driving. One of the years with the most alcohol related crashes was 1982. The year 1982 had 26,173 alcohol related deaths due to drunk driving.

In the US, most of the laws were greatly tightened in the early 1980s, largely due to pressure from groups like Mothers Against Drunk Drivers (MADD) and Young Adults Educating Responsible Drinking.

References

Types of crime
The Creative Commons is a non-profit organisation that tries to make creative work available for others to use and share.

Aim 
Their website allows copyright holders to give some of their rights to any other people. They still keep some other rights. They do this through licenses and contracts. Some of these make the work public domain or open content. They do this because copyright law can stop people sharing information.

The project has different free licenses. A person who has copyright can choose which one they want to use when they publish their work. They also provide RDF/XML metadata. These say what the licenses are and make it easier to automatically sort out and find work that has these licenses. They also provide a 'Founder's Copyright' contract. This aims to give the same effects as the original US Copyright did.

History 
Creative Commons was officially started in 2001.

Lawrence Lessig is the founder and chairman of Creative Commons. Lessig started it as a way of reaching the goals of his Supreme Court case, Eldred v. Ashcroft.

Localisation 
The iCommons (International Commons) is one of the Creative Commons projects. They improve the wording of the licenses and make them usable in other countries. The first ones dealt with US law only. As of February 4, 2004, Canada, the People's Republic of China, Finland, France, Italy, Japan, the Republic of China (Taiwan), the Republic of Ireland, and the United Kingdom have joined this project.

Projects that use Creative Commons licenses include LOCA Records, Magnatune, Opsound, Opcopy, Wikitravel, iRATE radio and the fiction of Cory Doctorow.

References

Other websites 
 Article on the Creative Commons License on the English Wikipedia
 The creativecommons.org website
 A short Flash animation talking about Creative Commons
 International Commons: Creative Commons initiatives outside the United States.

Non-profit organizations of California
2001 establishments in California
Companies based in San Francisco
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) is a type of markup language. It is used to make webpages. Webpages can include writing, links, pictures, and even sound and video. HTML tells web browsers what webpages should look like. HTML also adds meta information to webpages. Meta information is information about about a webpage e.g., the name of the person who created the page. Web browsers usually do not show meta information.

HTML is often used with Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) and JavaScript. CSS is used to change the way HTML looks. JavaScript tells websites how to behave. It can also change HTML and CSS.

HTML is made by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). There are many versions of HTML. As of September 2018, the current standard of HTML is called HTML 5 and is specifically at version 5.2.

Tags 
HTML uses "elements" to let the browser know how a webpage is made of. Elements are shown as "tags" in the code, written with angle brackets: . Tags usually come in pairs: an opening tag defines the start of a block of content and a closing tag defines the end of that block of content. There are many kinds of tags, and each one has a different purpose. See Basic HTML Tags below for tag examples.

Some tags only work in certain browsers. For example, the <menuitem> tag, which is used to make something appear when the person presses the right button of the mouse, only works on the Mozilla Firefox browser. Other browsers simply ignore this tag and display the writing normally. Many web page creators avoid using these "non-standard" tags because they want their pages to look the same with all browsers.

Example 
Here is an example page in HTML with "Hello world!".<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
  <head>
    <title>Hi!</title>
  </head>
  <body>
    <p>Hello world!</p>
  </body>
</html>The text between  and  describes the web page, and the text between  and  is the page content.  defines the browser page title.

Example HTML tags 
Here are some example HTML tags:

Other websites 
elementtutorials – for learning code for free and building projects
HTML Dog is a site that helps new writers write good, simple HTML and make it look good with CSS.
w3schools – a site of web technology tutorials
infobing – Best Tech Information html css
MDN HTML page – another page for HTML learning
Real time html editor - Edit HTML Code Directly in browser with realtime preview
HTML Programing Language-  For learning HTML with tutorial
 Designing in Figma – Learning Designing in Figma

Notes

References 

Markup languages
Internet
Web design
A leg is something used to support things; to hold them up. Birds and humans have two legs. Some objects, for example tables and chairs, also have legs to hold them up.  

Animals normally have 2 or 4 legs (vertebrates, which are animals with a backbone), or 6, 8, or 12 (arthropods, for example insects and spiders). Centipedes and millipedes have a lot more legs, but not exactly a hundred or a thousand as their names make people who do not know them think. Humans have 2 legs, complete with feet.

Biped is an animal with two legs and quadruped is an animal with four legs.

People also use the word "leg" in idioms, for example: 
you do not have a leg to stand on (that means "you have no support; you have no chance in this discussion") 
to leg it (to run)
to pull someone's leg (to play a little joke on someone for fun by trying to make them believe something that is not true)

Basic English 850 words
Limbs and extremities
Football is a word which could mean one of several sports. The best-known type of football is association football. This is called "soccer" in North America, South Africa, and Australia to avoid confusion with other types of football that are commonly played there.

The name football comes from the two words 'foot' and 'ball'. It is named football because the players of the game walk and often run (on their feet) while playing, as opposed to (for example) polo where the players ride horses. Football is played using a ball, also called a 'football', that is usually shaped like a sphere or an ellipsoid. The ball is often kicked with the foot, but depending on the game, it can also be hit using other parts of the body (in association football) and handling the ball is a part of some other sports known as 'football'. Players can use any part of their body except their arms and hands. Goalies can use every part of their body to keep the ball out of the goal.

Some elements of football have been seen in many countries, dating back to the second and third century AD in China. The modern games of both rugby football and association football comes from 19th-century England.
Kicking a ball, in Europe, was described in Britannia (now western scottish lowlands), in Germania (now Deutchland) and Gallia (now France and northern-central Italy).  An evolution goes back to the Middle Ages in Paris. Association football (founded in Richmond, London at the end of 1800) spread to many other parts of Europe, and was brought to the rest of the world with colonization. Today, it is the most popular sport in the world and many people watch it on television, especially the FIFA World Cup that happens every four years.

Every year there is a Football Club Competition called as Champions League. All the qualified big teams take part. At the end, we have one winner who takes the prestigious UEFA trophy. All big players play for their own teams. Some big players who take part every year are Mbappe, Ronaldo, Messi, Dybala, Neymar and many more.

Types of football 

 Association football (soccer)
 American football
 Rugby league football
 Rugby union football
 Gridiron football
College football
Touch rugby - Called "touch football" in Australia.
Canadian football
 Gaelic football
 Australian Rules Football

References
This is a list of English football teams and the leagues they play in.

A-Z order 

Lists of football teams
Lists about England
The Welsh League is a football league in Wales. Some large Welsh clubs play in England's Football League.

These are the Welsh football (soccer) teams that played in the Welsh League for the 2003/04 season:

Aberystwyth Town F.C.
Afan Lido F.C.
Bangor City F.C.
Barry Town F.C.
Caernarfon Town F.C.
Caersws F.C.
Carmarthen Town F.C.
Connah's Quay Nomads F.C.
Cwmbran Town F.C.
Haverfordwest County F.C.
NEWI Cefn Druids F.C.
Newtown F.C.
Port Talbot Town F.C.
Porthmadog F.C.
Rhyl F.C.
Total Network Solutions F.C.
Welshpool Town F.C.

 
Lists of football teams
Aston Villa Football Club (nicknamed Villa), is an English football club based in Birmingham. They have played at Villa Park, in Aston, since 1897. They were one of the teams that started the English Football League in 1888. They were also one of the teams that started the Premier League in 1992. They are one of five English clubs to have won the European Cup. They won this in 1982. They have also won the Football League First Division seven times, the FA Cup seven times, the League Cup five times, and the European Super Cup once.

Villa have a large rivalry with nearby team Birmigham City. This is called the Second City Derby, and they have been playing against each other since 1879. The team's main home colours are claret and light blue. Their badge is a yellow lion. The club is owned by the NWSE group (owned by Egyptian Nassef Sawiris) and American Wes Edens.

Captain and vice-captain of Aston Villa 
The captain is Tyrone Mings and the vice-captain is John McGinn.

Club honours 

Aston Villa have won European and domestic league trophies. The club's last English trophy was in 1996 when they won the League Cup, and most recently they won the 2001 UEFA Intertoto Cup.

Domestic 

League Titles

First Division / Premier League: 7
Champions: 1893–94, 1895–96, 1896–97, 1898–99, 1899–1900, 1909–10, 1980–81
 Second Division / First Division / Championship: 2
Champions: 1937–38, 1959–60
Play-off Winners: 2018–19
 Third Division / Second Division / League One: 1
Champions: 1971–72

Cups

FA Cup: 7
Winners: 1886–87, 1894–95, 1896–97, 1904–05, 1912–13, 1919–20, 1956–57
League Cup / EFL Cup: 5
Winners: 1960–61, 1974–75, 1976–77, 1993–94, 1995–96
FA Charity Shield / FA Community Shield: 1
Winners: 1981
Sheriff of London Charity Shield: 2 
Winners: 1899, 1901

European 

European Cup / UEFA Champions League: 1
Winners: 1981–82

European Super Cup / UEFA Super Cup: 1
Winners: 1982

Intertoto Cup: 1
Winners: 2001

League position

Former position

Managers

References

Other websites 
 Official Aston Villa website
 list of media articles concerning Aston Villa
 Aston Villa Fan site
 Aston Villa: From the Fans' Perspective
 Heroes and Villains Fanzine
 - Aston Villa fansite made for the fans, by the fans

Premier League clubs
1874 establishments in England
Birmingham City Football Club, is an English football club.

The club play in the Championship, their current manager is Gary Monk. Their home ground is St.Andrews

Name
 1875-1888 Small Heath Alliance F.C.
 1888-1905 Heath F.C.
 1905-1945 Birmingham F.C.
 1945-present Birmingham City F.C.

League position

Former position

References

Other websites 
 BCFC Fanzine 

English football clubs
Birmingham
1875 establishments in England
Blackburn Rovers F.C. is an English football club. They play at Ewood Park, which is in Blackburn, Lancashire. The manager of the club is Tony Mowbray.

History
Blackburn Rovers won the FA Premier League once in the 1994/1995 season. However, in 1999, they were relegated.

League title 
 English Premier League: 1
 1994-95
 First Division: 2
 1911-12, 1913-14
 Second Division: 1
 1938-39
 Third Division: 1
 1974-75

League position

Former position

Other websites 
Blackburn Rovers ; premierleague

English football clubs
1875 establishments in England
Bolton Wanderers F.C. is an English football club. It is based 15 miles north of Manchester. The club plays in the English football league 1, the third tier league in England. Their home is the University of Bolton Stadium. It holds around 28,723 people. Their manager is Ian Evett. At home they play in a white shirt, navy blue shorts & white socks. Away they play in a navy blue shirt, white shorts and navy blue socks.

Name 
 1874-1877 Christ Church F.C.
 1877-present Bolton Wanderers F.C.

League position

Former position 

Premier League clubs
1874 establishments in England