cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
pH is a scale of acidity from 0 to 14. It tells how acidic or alkaline a substance is. 
More acidic solutions have lower pH. More alkaline solutions have higher pH. Substances that aren't acidic or alkaline (that is, neutral solutions) usually have a pH of 7.
Acids have a pH that is less than 7. Alkalis have a pH that is greater than 7.

pH is a measure of the concentration of protons (H+) in a solution. S.P.L. Sørensen introduced this concept in the year 1909. The p stands for the German potenz, meaning power or concentration, and the H for the hydrogen ion (H+).

The most common formula for calculating pH is:

[H+] indicates the concentration of H+ ions (also written [H3O+], the equal concentration of hydronium ions), measured in moles per litre (also known as molarity).

However, the correct equation is actually:

where  indicates the activity of H+ ions. But, this equation in most cases provides the same value as the more common formula, so in introductory chemistry the previous equation is given as the definition of pH.

Most substances have a pH in the range of 0 to 14, although extremely acidic or alkaline substances may have pH < 0, or pH > 14.

Alkaline substances have, instead of hydrogen ions, a concentration of hydroxide ions (OH-).

pH indicators 
Certain dyes change colour depending on whether they are in an acid solution or an alkaline solution . pH indicator is a chemical compound added in small amounts to a solution so the pH (acidity or basicity) of the solution can be seen. The pH indicator is a chemical detector for hydronium ions (H3O+) or hydrogen ions (H+). Normally, the indicator causes the colour of the solution to change depending on the pH.

Typical indicators are phenolphthalein, methyl orange, methyl red, bromothymol blue, and thymol blue. They each change colour at different points on the pH scale, and can be used together as a universal indicator.

Another way is to use litmus paper, which is based on a natural pH indicators. The paper can tell you how strong the chemical is, whether it is a stronger acid or a stronger base.

Some common pH values

Neutralization 
Neutralization can be summed up by the equation:

 +  → 
(acid + base → water)

Related pages
 Acid
 Base
 Alkali
 Titration
 Transpiration

Notes

Other websites
 pH-Spectra Database í
 pH Test 
 pH Calculator

Chemistry
Tapeworms are the class Cestoda of segmented flatworms (Platyhelminthes).They are parasitic, which means that they need another larger creature as a host. Tapeworms live inside the intestines of vertebrate animals. This includes humans. When a vertebrate has a tapeworm, they may lose weight and become weaker.

Tapeworms can be up to 30 or 36 feet (10–12 metres) long. They eat by absorbing material directly through their epidermis (outside layer). The head of a tapeworm has four suckers and two rings of hooks. The body of a tapeworm is in segments (pieces that are like each other). Each segment can produce eggs. Little segments of the tapeworm sometimes break off and pass out through the stool of the host, with the eggs. Little segments of its body fall off. They go out of the host body, and are eaten by the next host, which is another type of vertebrate.

Tapeworms are hermaphrodite, with both sexes. Cross-fertilization occurs between two tapeworms in the same intestine. They have a life cycle with a secondary or intermediate host. For example, human tapeworms have cows or pigs as intermediate hosts. The 'definitive' host (humans in this case) is the one where fertilization takes place.

Tapeworms don't have a gut, so they have to absorb nutrients directly across their skin.

Flatworms
Parasites
An omnivore is an animal whose species gets its energy and nutrients from a diet made up foods that include plants, animals, algae, fungi and bacteria.

Many omnivores change their eating habits during their life cycle. They are sometimes called "life-history omnivores", because they are only omnivores if their whole life is considered.

Some species, such as grazing waterfowl like geese, are known to eat mainly animals at one stage of their lives, but plants at another. Also, many insects, such as the beatle family Meloidae, eat animal tissue when they are larvae, but eat plant matter after they mature.

Animal types
All of these animals are omnivores, but have different feeding behaviors and favorite foods. Being omnivores gives these animals more food security in stressful times. It also makes it easier for them to live in less consistent environments; (those that change along with the season, for example).

Humans, many pigs, many bears, some primates, some rodents, opossums, rails, rheas, most seagulls, and other animals are omnivores.

Related pages
 carnivore
 herbivore
 insectivore
 semi-vegetarian

References
Hindi is an Indo-Iranian language. It is the main language in India. About 800 million people speak Hindi in India. The Devanāgarī script is used to write Hindi. Previously Hindi was known as Hindui.  

Hindi is widely written, spoken and understood in North India and some other places in India. In 1997, a survey found that 45% of Indians can speak Hindi. It has taken words from the Dravidian languages of South India, as well as the Arabic, Persian, Chagatai, English and Portuguese languages.   

Hindi and Urdu were considered the same language but have evolved into separate dialects. However, to this day, both languages are mutually intelligible, meaning their speakers can understand each other without knowing the other language. Urdu, however, is written in the completely different Arabic alphabet. 

Hindi developed from Sanskrit, the ancient language of India. Hindi started to develop in the 7th century as "Apabhramsha" and became stable by the 10th century. Some famous Hindi poets are Tulsidas and Kabir.  

Dialects of Hindi include: Avadhi, Braj, Bhojpuri, Bundeli, Bagheli, Chhattisgarhi, Dogri and Marwari. 

Hindi is also spoken with regional accents like Haryanvi and Rajasthani.  Bombay Hindi is spreading because Bollywood films use it.

Hindi Diwas is an annual celebration on 14th September. It commemorates the law of 1949 that made Hindi the legal language of the Republic.

References
Events 
 Franco-Prussian War (1870-1871)

Births 
 January 8 – Miguel Primo de Rivera, dictator of Spain (d. 1930)
 January 15 – Pierre S. DuPont, industrialist
 February 7 – Alfred Adler, psychologist
 March 5 – Frank Norris, writer (d. 1902)
 March 17 – Horace Donisthorpe, myrmecologist (d. 1951)
 March 20 – Paul Erich von Lettow-Vorbeck, German general (d. 1964)
 April 22 – Vladimir Lenin, first leader of the USSR
 April 30 – Franz Lehár, composer (d. 1948)
 May 19 – Albert Fish, serial killer (d. 1936; executed by electrocution)
  June 13  Sophia of Prussia Queen of Greece Grand Daughter of Queen Victoria and sister of Kaiser William II of Germany and mother of future 3 kings George II Alexander I Paul I  ( died  1932 
 July 3 – Richard Bedford Bennett, eleventh Prime Minister of Canada.
 July 12 – Louis II of Monaco
 July 29 – George Dixon, Black Canadian boxer, first Black world boxing champion in any weight class.
 August 31 – Maria Montessori, educator
 September 26 – King Christian X of Denmark
 November 21 – Sigfrid Edström, Swedish sports official
 December 5 – Vitezslav Novák, composer (d. 1949)

Deaths 
 February 11 – Jacob M. de Kempenaer, Dutch Minister of Internal Affairs (1848-1849?).
 February 11 – Leopold Eugen Mechura, composer
 February 19 – Nathaniel de Rothschild, French wine grower
 March 28 – George Henry Thomas, American general
 June 9 – Charles Dickens, British novelist
 July 20 – Jules Alfred Huot de Goncourt, Prix Goncourt
 October 12 – Robert E. Lee, Confederate General.
 November 4 – Comte de Lautreamont, French poet and writer.
 December 5 – Alexandre Dumas, père, writer
 December 27 – General Prim, Spanish dictator.
 Henry Rowe – Gothic architect
Events 
 January 2 – Amadeus I becomes King of Spain.
 January 18 – Germany becomes a country when states of the North German Confederation unite. The King of Prussia becomes the first German Emperor as Wilhelm I of Germany.
 January 10 – France surrenders (gives up) to end the Franco-Prussian War
 March 22 – In North Carolina, William Holden is the first American governor (leader of a U.S. state) to be impeached (removed from office)
 March 26 – The Paris Commune takes power in Paris.
 March 29 – The Royal Albert Hall is opened by Queen Victoria.
 April – Stockholms Handelsbank is formed.

Births 
 January 17 – David Earl Betty of the North Sea and of Brooksby, British admiral (navy leader) (d. 1936)
 January 30 – Wilfred Lucas, actor (d. 1940)
 February 4 – Friedrich Ebert, president of the Weimar Republic (d. 1925)
 March 5 – Rosa Luxemburg, politician (d. 1919)
 March 27 – Heinrich Mann, speaker and writer (d. 1950)
 May 6 – Christian Morgenstern, writer (d. 1914)
 May 27 – Georges Rouault, painter and artist (d. 1958).
 July 23 – Tsunesaburō Makiguchi (Japanese old Lunar calendar 6 June was an incorrect date using in Gregorian calendar), First president of Soka Gakkai International (SGI) (d. 1944).
 August 19 – Orville Wright of the Wright brothers, Americans who invented the airplane.
 August 29 – Albert Lebrun, French politician (d. 1950)
 September 27 – Grazia Deledda, Sardinian writer – Nobel prize (d. 1936)
 December 13 – Emily Carr, Canadian artist and writer.
 Richard Turner, Canadian soldier with the Royal Canadian Dragoons, who got the Victoria Cross for bravery during the Second Boer War.
 Guangxu, Emperor of the Qing Dynasty in China.

Deaths 
 February 20 – Paul Kane, painter
 September 23 – Louis-Joseph Papineau, aged 85, Canadian politician and leader of the Patriotes Rebellion.
 October 10 - Octavius Catto, aged 32, American black educator.
 October 18 – Charles Babbage, aged 79, English mathematician and inventor of computing machines.

References
Events 
 May 20 – Triple Alliance between Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
 March 29 – The Knights of Columbus are set up.
 Edison builds first power station in the United States.

Births 
 January 6 – Fan S. Noli, Albanian poet and political figure (d. 1965)
 January 18 – A. A. Milne, British writer (d. 1956)
 January 25 – Virginia Woolf, writer (d. 1941)
 January 30 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt, President of the United States
 February 1 – Louis Stephen St. Laurent, twelfth Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1973)
 February 2 – James Joyce, writer (d. 1941)
 February 11 – Gheorghe Cucu composer (d. 1932)
 February 15 – John Barrymore, actor (d. 1942)
 March 14 – Waclaw Sierpinski Polish mathematician (d. 1969)
 March 15 – Jim Lightbody, American middle-distance runner
 March 21 – Gilbert M. 'Broncho Billy' Anderson, actor (d. 1971)
 March 23 – Emmy Noether, mathematician (d. 1935)
 April 17 – Artur Schnabel, pianist (d. 1951)
 April 18 – Isabel J. Cox, future spouse of Prime Minister of Canada (d. 1985)
 May 6 – Crown Prince Wilhelm of Germany, heir of Kaiser Wilhelm II (d. 1951)
 May 9 – Henry J. Kaiser, industrialist (d. 1967)
 May 9 – George Barker, United States painter (d. 1965)
 May 13 – Georges Braque, painter (d. 1963)
 May 16 – Anne McCormick, journalist, Pulitzer Prize winner (d. 1954)
 May 19 – Mohammed Mossadegh, Iranian prime minister (d. 1967)
 May 20 – Sigrid Undset, Norwegian writer (d. 1949)
 May 30 – Wyndham Halswelle, British runner
 June 9 – Bobby Kerr, Canadian sprinter
 June 17 – Igor Stravinsky, composer (d. 1971)
 August 14 – Gisela Richter, art historian (d. 1972)
 August 25 – Sean T. O'Kelly, second President of Ireland (d. 1966)
 October 5 – Robert Goddard, rocket scientist (d. 1945)
 October 6 – Karol Szymanowski, composer (d. 1937)
 October 14 – Éamon de Valera, Taoiseach and third President of Ireland (d. 1975)
 October 22 – N.C. Wyeth, artist
 December 9 – Joaquín Turina, composer (d. 1949)
 November 11 – King Gustav VI Adolf of Sweden (d. 1973)
 December 16 – Zoltán Kodály, composer (d. 1967)

Deaths 
 February 11 – Gustav Schmidt, composer
 March 24 – Henry Wadsworth Longfellow, writer
 April 3 – Jesse James, outlaw
 April 10 – Dante Gabriel Rossetti, poet, painter
 April 19 – Charles Darwin, British naturalist
 July 16 – Mary Todd Lincoln, former First Lady of the United States
 Charles A. Alexander, Victorian architect

Heads of State 
 China – Guāngxù Emperor of China, Qing Dynasty (1875-1908)
 Denmark – Christian IX, King of Denmark (1863-1906)
 France – Jules Grévy, President of France (1879-1887)
 Germany – Wilhelm I, German Kaiser (1871-1888)
 Holy See – Pope Leo XIII, Bishop of Rome (1878-1903)
 Japan – Mutsuhito, Meiji emperor (1867-1912)
 Norway – Oscar II, King of Sweden and Norway (1872-1905)
 Ottoman Empire – Abdul Hamid II, Sultan of the Ottoman Empire (1876-1909)
 Russia – Alexander III, Tsar of Russia (1881-1894)
 Spain – Alfonso XII of Spain, King of Spain (1875-1885)
 United States – Chester A. Arthur, President of the United States (1881-1885)
Roald Amundsen was a Norwegian explorer who focused on the poles. He led the first expedition to reach the South Pole and the first that could prove it made it to the North Pole. Amundsen was also the first man known to travel the Northwest Passage.

Life
When Amundsen was young, he decided he would use his life to explore the wilderness. He was inspired by the lives of Fridtjof Nansen and John Franklin. While his mother was alive he did not go to sea, to keep a promise to her. After her death, he quit university to begin exploring the world at 21 years old.

In 1897, he went on the Belgian Antarctic Expedition as first mate. This was the first expedition to stay over winter at Antartica, since their ship got stuck in the ice preventing them from leaving.  

In 1903, Amundsen led the first expedition to make it through the Northwest Passage.

In October 1911, he began his expedition to Antarctica with four other men in attempt to be the first man to reach the South Pole.  Robert Falcon Scott, an explorer from Britain, arrived in Antarctica with his own team only days after Amundsen. Both explorers raced to the South Pole, but Amundsen and his men used skis and dog sleds for transportation. This was more efficient. On 14 December 1911, Amundsen successfully became the first man to reach the South Pole.

In 1926, Amundsen and his men made it to the North Pole. Three other expeditions claimed to make it before then, but their claims have not been verified. Two of them have been considered fraud. This may make Amundsen and his men the first to reach the North Pole.

He disappeared in June 1928 while taking part in a rescue mission.

Gallery

Related pages

List of people who disappeared mysteriously: 1910–1990

References

Other websites

The Fram Museum (Frammuseet) (Named after one of Amundsen's ships)
DIO vol.10 2000 Amundsen's record of polar firsts
 
 
 

1872 births
1928 deaths
Norwegian people
Norwegian explorers
People with foods named after them
Missing people
The GNU General Public License (GPL) is a computer software copyleft license. This license lets the user of the software use a program in many of the same ways as if it were public domain. They can use it, change it, and copy it. They can also sell or give away copies of the program with or without any changes they made to it. The license lets them do this as long as they agree to follow the terms of the license. The GPL was created by Richard Stallman. The current version is version 3, created in 2007, although some software still uses version 2, created in 1991.

There are two main terms to the license. Both apply to giving the program away or selling it. 
A copy of the source code or written instructions about how to get a copy must be included with the software. If the software is able to be downloaded from the internet, the source code must also be available for downloading.
The license of the software can not be changed or removed. It must always use the GPL.

If the user does not agree to follow the GPL, they can still use the software under copyright laws. They can use it and make copies or changes to it for themselves, but they cannot give it away or sell it. They also can not change the license.

Related pages
 List of software licenses

Other websites 
 GNU General Public License v1.0
 GNU General Public License v2.0
 GNU General Public License v3.0
 GNU website

Software licences
Meat is animal tissue used as food. Most often is used to describe skeletal muscle and fat that is found with it. Types of meat include beef and veal from cattle, pork, ham and bacon from pigs, mutton from sheep, venison from deer, fish, insects, and poultry from chickens, ducks and turkeys. The word meat is also used for sausages and for non-muscle organs which are used for food, for example liver, brain, and kidneys.

In the meat processing industry, (in some countries) the word "meat" is to mean only the flesh of mammalian species such as pigs, cattle, etc. but does not include fish, insects and poultry. 

Animals such as members of the cat family that mainly eat animals are called carnivores.

Health 
Meat is an important part of the diet of many people because it has protein. Protein helps the growth and healing of a body and gives energy. Meat is a "high-protein" food, but costs more than other foods like bread and vegetables. Meat is also a source of B vitamins. People who cannot afford meat, or who do not like to eat it need to find other ways to get enough protein in their diet. Beans and certain nuts are also high in protein, but plant protein might not be as easy to absorb as animal protein. People that choose not to eat meat are called vegetarians, and those who do not eat any animal products are known as vegans.

Red meat is darker-coloured meat (usually form mammals), different from white meat such as chicken or fish. There is a greater risk of diseases and parasites when eating raw meat, but there are some special dishes which are made from raw meat. Examples are steak tartare, sushi, oysters. The meat used in these dishes are usually of high quality.

In religion 
Due to religious dietary law, halal (حلال) meaning permissible in Arabic is used as a visual marker for Muslims on shops and on products. Likewise kosher for food sourced and prepared according to Jewish tradition.

References

Meat
Tuvalu is a small island country in the Pacific Ocean. In the past, it was the Ellice Islands. It was part of Gilbert and Ellice Islands. It is a monarchy.

Tuvalu is getting smaller. If the sea level keeps rising at the same rate, this country will be covered by water in about 50 years.

The most important language spoken in Tuvalu is Tuvaluan, although Nuian is spoken on the island of Nui.

The United States and Tuvalu signed a treaty of friendship in 1979, when the US  gave up their claim to Tuvalu for the islands of Funafuti, Nukefetau, Nukulaelae, and Nurakita.

Tuvalu is made up of 9 islands: 
 Funafuti (the capital city island)
 Nanumea
 Nanumaga
 Niutao
 Nui
 Niulakita
 Nukufetau
 Nukulaelae
 Vaitupu

Internet Domain name .tv

Following Tuvalu being allocated two-letter top-level Internet domain suffix, .tv, the Government of Tuvalu worked with the International Telecommunications Union and established a process to select a management partner for the domain suffix.

On 6 August 1998 a licensing agreement was signed with Information.CA of Toronto under which it agreed to pay an up-front payment of US$50 million for exclusive marketing rights to Tuvalu's domain until 2048, with the country manager/delegee of the Government of Tuvalu for the .tv extension being The .tv Corporation International, which was established in 1998. Subsequent negotiations with Information.CA followed from the delays in payment of US$50 million. Idealab, a Californian company, became involved in 1999 and assumed the $50 million obligation to be paid over 10 years. With the first $1 million payment, Tuvalu was finally able to afford to join the United Nations. Lou Kerner became the first employee of .tv when he joined as CEO in January 2000. .tv grew to over 100 employees, with offices in Los Angeles, London, and Hong Kong, before being acquired in a nine figure transaction in December, 2001.

Geography 

Tuvalu has four reef islands and five true atolls. The atolls have only 26 km of land. Tuvalu is the fourth smallest country in the world. The land is very low lying and the coral atolls are narrow. Funafuti is the largest atoll of the islands and atolls. It has many islets around a central lagoon. This is about 25.1 kilometres (15.6 mi) (N–S) by 18.4 kilometres (11.4 mi) (W-E), centered on 179°7’E and 8°30’S. A

The highest height is  above sea level, which gives Tuvalu the second-lowest highest elevation of any country (after the Maldives). Because of this, the islands that make up Tuvalu are threatened by any sea level rise. If this happens, the people will have to go to New Zealand, Niue or the Fijian island of Kioa. Tuvalu is also affected by what is known as a king tide, which can raise the sea level higher than a normal high tide.

References 

 
Current monarchies
Commonwealth realms
Least developed countries
1978 establishments in Oceania
Java () is one of the islands of Indonesia.

Geography 
The area is 132,000 square km. It is the world's 13th largest island. Around 140 million people live there, which is half the people in Indonesia and more than on any other island in the world. Most of them speak the Javanese language and many also speak other languages. 

The Java Sea is to the north, the Indian Ocean south. The capital city of Indonesia, Jakarta, is in Java.

Climate 
Most of Java has a tropical monsoon climate (Am in the Koeppen climate classification). The northern coast of the island is low-lying. The soil is fertile, because the island was made by volcanoes. It is an important area for growing crops in Indonesia.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of monarchs of java
 List of Javanese people

Sources
Events

By topic

War and politics 
 February 16 – King Afonso III of Portugal and King Alfonso X of Castile sign the Badajoz Convention, figuring out the border between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Leon, and ensuring Portuguese sovereignty over Algarve.
 May 27 – Treaty of Viterbo: Emperor Baldwin II of Constantinople gifts the Principality of Achaea to King Charles I of Sicily in the hope that Charles can help him restore the Latin Empire.
 The Second Barons' War in England ends, as the rebels and King Henry III of England agree to peace terms as laid out in the Dictum of Kenilworth.
 Treaty of Montgomery: King Henry III of England acknowledges Llywelyn ap Gruffudd's title of Prince of Wales.
 The city of Ostrava is founded.

Culture 
 Roger Bacon completes his work Opus Majus and sends it to Pope Clement IV, who had requested it be written; the work contains wide-ranging discussion of mathematics, optics, alchemy, astronomy, astrology, and other topics, and includes what some believe to be the first description of a magnifying glass. Bacon also completes Opus Minus, a summary of Opus Majus, later in the same year. The only source for his date of birth is his statement in the Opus Tertium, written in 1267, that "forty years have passed since I first learned the alphabet". The 1214 birth date assumes he was not being literal, and meant 40 years had passed since he matriculated at Oxford at the age of 13. If he had been literal, his birth date was more likely to have been around 1220.
 The leadership of Vienna forces Jews to wear Pileum cornutum,a cone-shaped head dress, in addition to the yellow badges Jews are already forced to wear.
 In England, the Statute of Marlborough is passed, the oldest English law still (partially) in force.

By place

Asia and Africa 
 The "Grand Capital" is constructed in Khanbaliq (present-day Beijing) by Kublai Khan, having moved the capital of the Mongol Empire there three years prior.
 Malik ul Salih establishes Samudra Pasai, the first Muslim state in Indonesia.
 Spain attempts an invasion of Morocco, but the Marinids successfully defended against the invasion and drive out Spanish forces.

Births 
 February 3 – Richard FitzAlan, 8th Earl of Arundel (d. 1302)
 August 10 – King James II of Aragon (d. 1327)
 December 17 – Emperor Go-Uda of Japan (d. 1324)
 Giotto di Bondone, Italian artist (d. 1337)
 Roger de Flor

Deaths 
 March 3 or March 4 – Lars, Archbishop of Uppsala
 John FitzAlan, 6th Earl of Arundel (b. 1223)
 Hugh II of Cyprus (b. 1253)
1902 (MCMII) was a common year starting on Wednesday in the Gregorian calendar.

Events 
 July 11 – Arthur Balfour becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 Marie and Pierre Curie discover radium
 The Real Madrid football club starts in Spain
 Statue of Boudica unveiled in Westminster, London

Births 
 February 4 – Charles Lindbergh, American pilot (d. 1974)
 February 27 – John Steinbeck, American writer (d. 1968)
 July 10 – Kurt Alder, German chemist (d. 1958)
 August 8 – Paul Dirac, English physicist (d. 1984)
 September 21 – Ruhollah Khomeini, revolutionary leader (d. 1989)
 November 9 - Anthony Asquith, British director (d. 1968)
 December 5 – Strom Thurmond, American politician (d. 2003)
 December 9 – Margaret Hamilton, American actress (d. 1985)

Deaths 
 April 30 - Swami Vivekananda - Indian social reformer (b. 1863)
 December 14 – Julia Grant – former First Lady of the United States (b. 1826)
 September 16 – Levi Strauss, American business person (b. 1829)

Hits songs 
 "The Entertainer" m. Scott Joplin
Events 
 Roentgen discovers X-rays
 Marconi invents the wireless telegraph
 China and Japan sign the Treaty of Shimonoseki

Births 
 January 5 – Michel Velleman
 September 30 - Lewis Milestone
Events 
 An English doctor invents a vaccination against smallpox.

Births 
January 7-Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales
July 26 - George Catlin, American painter
December 27 – Mirza Ghalib, poet of Urdu
Events 
 Thomas Edison invents the light bulb.
 Rutherford B. Hayes State of the Union Address.

Births 
 August 8 – Emiliano Zapata
 November 7– Leon Trotsky, Ukrainian revolutionary and Marxist (d. 1940)
 Albert Einstein, scientist.
 Samuel Goldwyn, movie producer.
 Simon Rodia, creator of the Watts Towers

Deaths 
 February 11 – Honoré Daumier, French caricaturist and painter (b. 1808)
 February 23 – Albrecht Graf von Roon, Prime Minister of Prussia (b. 1803)
 February 25 – Charles Peace, British criminal (executed) (b. 1832)
 March 1 – Joachim Heer, Swiss politician (b. 1825)
 March 30 – Thomas Couture, French painter and teacher (b. 1815)
 April 30 – Sarah Josepha Hale, American writer (b. 1788)
 June 1 – Napoleon Eugene, Prince Imperial, son of French Emperor Napoleon III (b. 1856)
 June 27 - Sir John Lawrence, British Indian administrator (b. 1811)
 August 30 – John Bell Hood, America Confederate general (b. 1831)
 November 5 – James Clerk Maxwell, Scottish physicist (b. 1831)
 August 11 – George Willison Adams, Ohio abolitionist (b.1799)
Events 
 James Watt invents an engine driven by steam

Births 
 August 15 – Napoleon
Events 
 Benz builds the first single-cylinder engine for car.
 John K Starley creates the first genuine bicycle, the Rover.
 John Boyd Dunlop invents the pneumatic tire.
 W.S. Gilbert & Arthur Sullivan's The Mikado
 The Times reports that "A lady well known in literary and scientific circles" has been cremated by the Cremation Society in Woking, Surrey. She is the first person to be officially cremated in the United Kingdom.
 Cholera epidemic in Spain – one of the victims is the king Alfonso XII.
 Third Burmese War begins.
 Clint Eastwood defeats Mad Dog Tannen.
 Sitting Bull joins Buffalo Bill.
 Randolph Churchill becomes a viceroy of India.
 Nikola Tesla sells a number of his patents to George Westinghouse.
 William Stanley, Jr. builds the first practical alternating current transformer device, the induction coil.
 Local anesthetic.
 First skyscraper – Home Insurance Building in Chicago, Illinois, USA (10 floors) is built.
 Bicycle Playing Cards are first produced.
 Grover Cleveland replaces Chester A. Arthur as President of the United States

Births 
 January 8 – John Curtin, Australia's 14th Prime Minister
 September 17 – George Cleveland, Canadian actor

Deaths 
 March 31 – Charlotte Brontë, British writer
Events 
 Samuel Morse invents the electric telegraph.
 Michigan becomes the 26th state.
Platinum is a soft, heavy, white metal. It is a precious metal. It usually costs more than gold.
In chemistry, platinum is element number 78, and its atoms have an atomic weight of 195 a.m.u.. The symbol for platinum is Pt, from Spanish platina meaning "little silver".

Platinum is very malleable and ductile, which means it can be hammered into thin sheets and it can be pulled into wire. Platinum is very stable. Acids do not affect platinum.

The most common use of Platinum is in a vehicle's catalytic converter.

Chemical elements
Kim Jong-il, birth name Yuri Irsenovich Kim (according to the Soviet Union's records) (, 16 February 1941 – 17 December 2011) was the Supreme Leader of Democratic People's Republic of Korea (North Korea) from the time of his father's death in 1994 until his own death in 2011. He was the son of Kim Il-Sŏng. Official North Korean propaganda said that Jong-il was born on Mount Paektu (a holy mountain in Korea); but most historians think that he was born near Chabarowsk in the Soviet Union. The North Korean laws made him permanent ruler of North Korea for life. He was sometimes referred to as the "Dear Leader", but this was not an official title. His official title was "Chairman of the National Defense Commission of North Korea", "Supreme Commander of the Korean People's Army" and "General Secretary of the Workers' Party of Korea". Many people in North Korea were imprisoned or killed for speaking out against the Kim regime. Almost everyone in North Korea wore a small pin with a picture of Kim Jŏng-Il or Kim Il-Sŏng on it.

The North Korean government told people of his death through the state media on 19 December 2011. It was said that he had died two days earlier of "physical and mental over-work".

Early life
Jong-il was born Yuri Irsenovich Kim on 16 February 1941.

Personal life
Jong-il was a Stalinist. He believed in the North Korean Communist philosophy of Juche (self-reliance). He was afraid to travel on aeroplanes and traveled only on trains. He was well known for his love of movies and luxury goods, especially caviar and Hennessey brand cognac, even though North Korea was one of the poorest countries in the world. Former United States Secretary of State Madeleine Albright once gave Jong-il a present of a basketball signed by Michael Jordan when he visited North Korea because Jong-il was a fan of the National Basketball Association and of Michael Jordan.

Death
On the morning of 17 December 2011, at the age of 69 or 70,  Jong-il died of a heart attack while traveling. His funeral was held on 28 December, and as a result, Kim Jong-un was then elected as the new leader of North Korea. On 13 April 2012, Kim Jong-il was made Eternal Chairman of the National Defence Commission and Eternal General Secretary of the Workers Party of Korea.

References

Other websites

  – Foreign Languages Publishing House, Pyongyang DPR Korea (1998)
 Born in the USSR – Kim Jong-il's childhood.
 The many family secrets of Kim Jong Il 
 "Hidden Daughter" Visits Kim Jong-il Every Year (also includes photos of Kim during his youth)
 Kim's family tree  

1941 births
2011 deaths
Former dictators
North Korean military people
North Korean politicians
Deaths from myocardial infarction
This article is about Popes in general. For the current Pope, see Pope Francis.

The Pope is the head of the Catholic Church.

Popes are elected by Cardinals of the Catholic Church. Once they are elected they hold the position until they die or resign. Usually they do not resign, though; Pope Benedict XVI is the only Pope to resign in the last 500 years.  A newly elected Pope chooses a regnal name.  Everyone is told this new name when the Habemus Papam is read out. The current pope (Francis) was called Jorge Bergoglio before he became a pope.

The name Pope comes from the Greek word pappas, meaning "father". Catholics believe that when making statements ex cathedra, that is official statements teaching about faith and morals, the Pope is infallible - which means God will not allow his followers to be misled by allowing their leader to make a wrong statement. Only two of any Pope's statements have been ex cathedra. 

Popes today travel to many countries around the world preaching. The Pope is the only person in the world who both leads the church and government. Like other bishops he wears a big hat called a mitre and holds a staff called a crosier.

Recent popes 
Some recent Popes, and the time they were Pope:
 Pope John XXIII, 1958-1963
 Pope Paul VI, 1963-1978
 Pope John Paul I, 1978
 Pope John Paul II, 1978-2005
 Pope Benedict XVI, 2005-2013
 Pope Francis, current pope

The Popes in Avignon 
During parts of the Middle Ages, the French kings had a lot of influence in Europe. For this reason, seven popes (and two anti-popes) lived in Avignon, rather than Rome. The Avignon Papacy was from 1309 to 1377. During that time, the popes were known for their greed and corruption. These popes were allies of France; the enemies of France were also their enemies.

The Bishops of Rome who lived in Avignon were:
Pope Clement V: 1305–1314
Pope John XXII: 1316–1334
Pope Benedict XII: 1334–1342
Pope Clement VI: 1342–1352
Pope Innocent VI: 1352–1362
Pope Urban V: 1362–1370
Pope Gregory XI: 1370–1378

Two antipopes were based in Avignon as well:
Clement VII: 1378–1394
Benedict XIII: 1394–1423 (expelled from Avignon in 1403)

Antipopes were people that were elected by small groups who did not like the official choice. 
Catherine of Siena convinced pope Gregory XI to move back to Rome. Unfortunately, he died shortly after moving. The cardinals then elected Urban VI to be the next pope. The French cardinals did not recognise this election as legitimate. They declared the papal see as vacant; which led to the Western Schism. The schism lasted until the Council of Constance in 1417. During this time, there was a pope in Rome, an Antipope in Avignon, and for some time, a second antipope. Each of the three was recognised as legitimate pope by different European powers. This led to a big split in the church as a whole. The council elected Pope Martin V as a new pope, recognised by all parties.

Related pages
 Abdication
 Habemus Papam
 Papal name

References

Other websites

 
Christian religious occupations
The San Andreas Fault is a right-moving ('dextral') strike-slip fault. It marks the boundary between the North American Plate on the east and the Pacific Plate on the west. The fault was the cause of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. It first appeared about 20 million years ago. 

The San Andreas Fault is a zone several miles wide with multiple strands. The main active strand runs both on and off-shore between Cape Mendocino and the Sea of Cortez. From Cape Mendocino, it runs offshore to Tomales Bay. Then it goes southward through Bolinas Lagoon, just west of the San Francisco Peninsula, to come onshore again at Daly City, through the hills of the Peninsula. Crystal Springs reservoir is formed by the fault itself. 

In the Santa Cruz mountains, it bends slightly eastward. This is the site of the 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake. The fault continues south through the historic mission at San Juan Bautista and through the town of Hollister (where active creep can be seen to offset sidewalks and even houses). The Transverse Ranges north of Santa Barbara are formed by compression. Strands of the fault snake under the Los Angeles Basin. From there it connects into the active spreading under the Sea of Cortez.

The San Andreas fault was discovered by Andrew Lawson in 1895, who climbed into the faulted serpentinite well where the south tower of the Golden Gate Bridge was being poured. In spite of the extreme deformation of the serpentinite, Lawson declared the bridge perfectly safe. The events of the 1906 San Francisco earthquake would seem to support his conclusion: the ruptured strand was not the one he observed in the footprint of the bridge.

References 

Geography of California
Faults
San Francisco Bay Area
In astronomy, voids are the empty spaces between filaments. Both filaments and Voids are one of the largest-scale structures in the Universe. There are no or few galaxies in voids. Most voids have a diameter of 11 to 150 Mpc. 
Especially large voids are the empty spaces without many superclusters. 
These voids are sometimes called supervoids.

A 1994 official counting ("The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies.", see References) lists a total of 27 supervoids with a distance of up to 740 Mpc. Some of supervoids chosen from the list are given below.

Other websites 
 Universe family tree: Void

References 
 U. Lindner, J. Einasto, M. Einasto, W. Freudling, K. Fricke, E. Tago: The structure of supervoids. I. Void hierarchy in the Northern Local Supervoid., Astron. Astrophys., v.301, p.329 (1995)
 M. Einasto, J. Einasto, E. Tago, G. B. Dalton, H Andernach: The structure of the Universe traced by rich clusters of galaxies., Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 269, 301 (1994)

Astronomical objects
An aircraft is a flying machine. 

The word aircraft originally meant airships and balloons. It comes from the words air and craft,  a term from boating as were many early aviation words.

There are many different kinds of aircraft.

Some aircraft keep in the sky by moving air over their wings. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopters, and gliders. Some aircraft keep in the sky by floating.  Examples are balloons and airships.

Most aircraft use engine power. Examples are aeroplanes, helicopter, and airships. Gliders and balloons use no power.  A few aircraft use muscle power.

Big aeroplanes for transporting people are called airliners. Airliners are the quickest way to travel.  Airliners can fly over mountains and bad weather.  Airliners have complex technology to make them fly quickly, safely and for less money. 

A few fighter aircraft can fly at 3,200 km/h (2,000 mph). 

The person who drives an aircraft is called the pilot.

Scales, sizes and speeds

Sizes

Smallest
The smallest aircraft is a nano-aircraft.

Largest
These are the largest aircrafts. They are:
The largest aircraft by dimensions and volume is the British Airlander 10.
The largest aircraft by weight and largest regularly used fixed-wing aircraft is the Antonov An-225 Mriya.
The largest military aircraft and the second largest airplane is the Antonov An-124 Ruslan.

Related pages 
Flight recorder
 Aircraft videos

References

 
Aerospace engineering
Victoria is the capital city of the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is named after Queen Victoria. Over 350,000 people live in the Victoria area. Many people work for the government or in tourism. It is warmer than other Canadian cities in the winter, so many Canadians move there when they retire.

Victoria is on Vancouver Island. Most people travel there by boat (ferry) from Vancouver, or from Washington State. Victoria has three ferry docks and an airport, Victoria International Airport.

Victoria has one of the mildest climates in Canada, with gardens blooming year-round.

Some tourist attractions are the Butchart Gardens and the Royal British Columbia Museum. Some of the best-known buildings are the government buildings and the Empress Hotel, and both are by the Inner Harbour.

The first people to live in the area were the Coast Salish native people. People from England built Fort Victoria in 1843. Victoria became a city in 1862.

18,000 students study at the University of Victoria. Other people study at Camosun College, Royal Roads University, University Canada West, Victoria College of Art, and the Canadian College of Performing Arts. Students from all over the world study at Pearson College, near Victoria.

The Canadian navy has ships in a part of the city called Esquimalt.

Some of the parks include Beacon Hill Park, East Sooke Park, Mount Work Park, and Mount Douglas Park.

There are many flowers in Victoria; it is called the "city of gardens." It is a lot drier than places nearby, and has little snow.

Some well-known people from Victoria are:
 Jamie Benn (hockey)
 Emily Carr (art)
 Steve Nash (basketball)
 David Foster (music)
 Nelly Furtado (singer)
 Kyle Germaine Johnson (Pro Biker)

Regions of Victoria 
The Victoria area is made up of 13 parts. Four of them make up Greater Victoria:
 Victoria
 Saanich
 Esquimalt
 Oak Bay

Three of them make up the Saanich Peninsula:
 Sidney
 Central Saanich
 North Saanich

The others make up the Western Communities:
 Colwood
 Langford
 View Royal
 Metchosin
 Sooke
 Highlands
The Suez Canal (Arabic: قناة السويس, Qanā al-Suways, French: Le Canal de Suez) is a canal in Egypt. It lies west of the Sinai Peninsula. The canal is 163 km long (101 miles) and, at its narrowest point, 200 m wide (656 ft). It runs between Port Said (Būr Sa'īd) on the Mediterranean Sea, and Suez (al-Suways) on the Red Sea. It was built by a French company. The canal was started in 1859 and finished in 1869.

The canal allows ships to travel between Europe and Asia without having to go the way around Africa. This saves time and fuel. It was built for Europeans to go to and from the Indian Ocean.

History 

In 1859, the Suez Canal was built by Ferdinand de Lesseps of the Universal Suez Ship Canal Company, and took 10 years to build. The first ship passed through the canal 17 November, 1869; Giuseppe Verdi wrote the famous opera Aida for this ceremony .

The canal made it possible to easily transport goods across the world. The canal also allowed Europeans to travel to East Africa, and this area was soon controlled by European powers. The British tried to stop it, fearing that it would increase French power in the Indian Ocean. Later, they bought shares in the company.

The success of the Suez Canal encouraged the French to try to build the Panama Canal. But they did not finish it. The Panama Canal was finished later.

The canal was a central point during the Six Day War in 1967. A UN peacekeeping force has been stationed in the Sinai Peninsula since 1974, to avoid more wars. The canal reopened in 1975.

About 15,000 ships pass through the canal each year, which is about 14% of world shipping. Each ship takes up to 16 hours to cross the canal. In 2015 a central part of the canal was expanded so more ships can go through and go faster.

The canal was blocked for part of late March 2021 by the Ever Given, a container ship, which became stuck diagonally.

References 

1869 establishments
19th-century establishments in Egypt
Canals
Buildings and structures in Egypt
Transport in Egypt
A canal is a waterway made by humans. For many centuries, canals have been built as a way of transporting heavy goods in barges or boats. Canals usually connect lakes, rivers, or oceans. The Panama Canal is a famous canal that connects the Atlantic Ocean with the Pacific Ocean. Many canals are reinforced with clay or concrete on the sides.

Other canals are used for irrigation or hydropower.

References
Cessna is a company that makes airplanes. They are in Wichita, Kansas in the United States. They make small aircraft that can hold 2 to 4 people.

Cessna aircraft 
 Cessna 172
 Cessna 152
 Cessna 182

Other websites 
 Cessna website

Aircraft companies
Wichita, Kansas
Clothing is an item or fabric, usually sewn together to cover part of the human body.  Humans are the only animals which wear clothing, and all people do wear suitable clothing.

The torso (body) can be covered by shirts, arms by sleeves, legs by pants or skirts, hands by gloves, feet by footwear, and head by headgear or masks.  In cold climates, people also wear heavy, thick coats such as trenchcoats.

Clothing protects the human body from the hot sun and high temperatures in warm tropical countries.  Clothing such as thick wool coats and boots keeps the human body warm in very cold temperatures (such as in the arctic). To some extent, clothing protects people from damage to their body.

Clothing is also worn for decoration, as a fashion (clothing). People from different cultures wear different clothing, and have different beliefs and customs about what type of clothing should be worn.
For many people, clothing is a status symbol. It helps people project an image. Often, clothing is a form of self-expression. Adults in different social or work situations present different views of themselves by the clothes they wear. Young people have an entirely different form of dress to express their personalities. Often people will simply follow popular fashion styles so that they will fit in. Clothing is far more than just a means to protect our bodies.

Origin of clothing
There is no easy way to be sure when clothing was first developed, because it was prehistoric and clothing is perishable. Some information comes from studying lice. The body louse lives in clothing, and diverged from head lice about 107,000 years ago. This suggests that clothing existed at that time. Other louse-based estimates put the introduction of clothing at around 42,000–72,000 BC.

A cloak made of the fur of squirrels, from a cave in Italy, has been dated to 23.000 years BP, and may be among the oldest items of clothing. In September 2021, scientists reported evidence of clothes being made 120,000 years ago based on findings in deposits in Morocco, a country in the northwestern part of Africa.

Things that are not clothing 
People often decorate their bodies with makeup or perfume, and they also cut or change the hair on their heads and faces. They might also go in for body modification: tattoos, scarifications, and body piercings. But makeup and tattoos are not kinds of clothing.

Things that are carried and not worn, like wallets, purses, canes, and umbrellas, are called accessories, but they are not kinds of clothing, either. Jewelry and eyeglasses are also accessories that are put on the body. Nail polish is also put on the fingertips and can be interpreted as makeup.

What clothing is made of 
Clothing is often made of:
 Cloth
Natural fibres, such as cotton, flax, wool, hemp, ramie, silk  
Synthetic fabric, such as nylon, polyester, acrylic 
 Fur
 Leather

Needed to make clothing 
 Cloth
 Scissors or knives.
 Needles and thread.
 Sewing machine or weaving wheel

Related pages 
 Fashion
 Fashion design
 Human timeline

References
A shoe is a type of footwear. It is an item of clothing. Shoes come in pairs, with one shoe for each foot.

There are many different types of shoes. Athletic shoes, for example, are lightweight to make running, walking or jogging easier. The sole of the shoe is also softer. Shoes for formal wear are made of leather. They are worn for business and ceremonial functions. They are also worn for fashion. Slippers are a kind of indoor shoe. They are often worn when it is cold. Shoes with a high heel are called high heels. Tall shoes are boots. Rubber boots are used in wet places.

People usually wear shoes in public. They are worn for hygiene, style, and comfort.

They are usually worn with socks

Other websites 
 

Basic English 850 words
Footwear