cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Dreyfus Affair was one of the biggest scandals in the history of France. It happened at the end of the 19th century. It was about Alfred Dreyfus, a Jewish officer in the French army.

In 1894, Dreyfus was accused of being a spy, and accused of crimes against France. People thought he wrote letters to the Germans telling them about secrets of the French army. 

His punishment was to be sent to a prison island in South America for the rest of his life.

When he was in prison, people (mostly his brother Mathieu and a high-ranking officer called Picquart) thought he was innocent. They proved that another soldier, Major Esterhazy, was guilty. But the army did not want to admit that it had been wrong.  They refused to free him.  Finally, the evidence that Dreyfus was innocent became so strong that the government had to demand a new trial.  At the new trial, the army again found him guilty.  The President of France, who did not want an innocent man to suffer any more, pardoned Dreyfus in 1899.

Dreyfus was released.  Seven years later, he was officially declared innocent, and allowed back into the army.

The affair divided France into people who thought Dreyfus really was a spy and people who thought he was innocent.  Many of those who thought Dreyfus was a spy hated Jews and believed that he was a criminal because he was a Jew, and that a Jew could not be a good Frenchman; this belief is called anti-Semitism.  Others thought that the army could not be questioned. The other side believed that an innocent man should not be imprisoned, and feared that Dreyfus's enemies were also enemies of France.

19th century in France
Judaism in France
French military people
Espionage
In Judaism, God is known by many names. The most important of these names is the Tetragrammaton, or "Four-lettered word": YHVH, YHWH, or י - ה  וה. Jews are not allowed to say this name, and instead say Adonai. Even Adonai is only used by some Jews in prayer. Most Jews would refer to God as Hashem, or "The Name". Jews are not allowed to erase the Tetragrammaton, so they rarely write it down outside of their most holy books, such as the Torah.

Other names include Elohim, El, Shaddai, Tzeva-ot, ‘Elyon, and Ehyeh-Asher-Ehyeh  which are respectively pronounced by observant Jews as  Elokim, Kayl, Shakkai, Tzeva-Kot.

Certain names, such as Shalom, are pronounced as written, but when written one letter, in this case the last letter, is omitted.  The last of the above "other" list is often said as Ek-yeh Asher Ek-yeh.

Other Jewish names of (or references) to God include 
 Emet (Truth)
 Tzur Yisrael (The Rock of Israel)
 Elohei Avraham, Elohei Yitzchak, v'Elohei Yaacov (God of Abraham, God of Isaac, God of Jacob)
 Ehiyeh sh'Ehiyeh (I Am That I Am)
 Avinu Malkeinu (Our Father, our King)
 Ro'eh Yisrael (Shepherd of Israel)
 Ha-Kadosh, Baruch Hu (The Holy One, Blessed be He)
 Melech ha-Melachim (The King of Kings)
 Makom (literally, "the place"; meaning "The Omnipresent")
 Magen Avraham (Shield of Abraham)
 Shalom: of Peace
 YHWH-Jireh: The Lord will provide (Genesis 22:13, 14).
 YHWH-Rapha: The Lord that healeth (Exodus 15:26).
 YHWH-Nissi: The Lord our Banner (Exodus 17:8-15).
 YHWH-Shalom: The Lord our Peace (Judges 6:24).
 YHWH-Ra-ah: The Lord my Shepherd (Psalms 23:1).
 YHWH-Tsidkenu: The Lord our Righteousness (Book of Jeremiah 23:6).
 YHWH-Shammah: The Lord is present (Book of Ezekiel 48:35).

Judaism
The EFL Championship, commonly known as The Championship, is the name of the English second division of football.

2021–22 clubs 
 Bournemouth

Champions

Former champions

Related pages
 English Premier League
 Football League One
 Football League Two
 

Championship
Football in England
1888 establishments in England
Richmond () is the capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia, in the United States. It is an independent city and not part of any county. The population within the city limits was 204,214 in 2010, with an estimated population of 1,258,251 for the Richmond Metropolitan Area — making it the third largest in Virginia.

Location
Richmond is at the fall line of the James River,  south of Washington DC,  east of Charlottesville, Virginia, and  west of Williamsburg, Virginia. Surrounded by Henrico and Chesterfield counties, the city is at the intersections of Interstate 95 and Interstate 64, and encircled by Interstate 295 and Virginia State Route 288.

History
Richmond began as an important village of the Powhatan Confederacy, and was briefly settled by English colonists from Jamestown in 1609, and in 1610–11. English settlers returned to found a permanent town in 1737. It became the capital of the Colony and Dominion of Virginia in 1780. During the Revolutionary War period, the city was known for Patrick Henry's "Give me liberty or give me death" speech in 1775 at St. John's Church, and the passage of the Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom written by Thomas Jefferson. During the American Civil War, Richmond served as the capital of the Confederate States of America. The city entered the 20th century with one of the world's first successful electric streetcar systems.

Economy
Richmond's economy is primarily driven by law, finance, and government. It has federal, state, and local governmental agencies in its downtown.  The downtown also has offices for legal and banking firms. The city is home to both the United States Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit, one of 13 federal appellate courts, and the Federal Reserve Bank of Richmond, one of 12 regional Federal Reserve Banks. Dominion Resources, Carmax, Genworth Financial, and MeadWestvaco, Fortune 500 companies, along with Massey Energy and Universal Corporation, Fortune 1000 companies, are headquartered in the city. The historic sites in the area bring tourists.

References

Former national capitals
 
County seats in Virginia
State capitals in the United States
1737 establishments
1730s establishments in Virginia
Tutankhamun (Tutankhaten, Tutankhamen)  was a Pharaoh of Ancient Egypt.  He reigned from when he was nine years old (1334 BC) to when he died (1323 BC).  He became Pharaoh of the 18th dynasty (royal family) during the New Kingdom.

Tutankhamun was the son of Akhenaten and one of Akhenaten's sisters, or perhaps one of his cousins,Kiya.
Tutankhamun ruled for 9 years and died very young, at 19, so he is known as The Boy King. He was married to his half-sister Ankhesenamun, daughter of Queen Nefertiti, his step mother.

In his third year of his reign, Tutankhamun reversed several changes made during his father's reign. He ended the worship of the god Aten and restored the god Amun to supremacy. The ban on the cult of Amun was lifted and traditional privileges were restored to its priesthood. The capital was moved back to Thebes and the city of Akhetaten abandoned. This is when he changed his name to Tutankhamun, "Living image of Amun", reinforcing the restoration of Amun.

In 1922 Howard Carter found Tutankhamun's tomb. Tutankhamen was believed to carry a curse. Actually, the archeologists who visited his tomb died from natural causes.

Illness and death 
Recent studies of his body using CT scans and DNA tests show that he had two children, but they died very young. Scientists now believe he died from a broken leg, made more complicated by bone disease and malaria. Before this discovery there were many theories about his early death, including murder. It is quite certain that he was infected by several strains of malaria, and very likely that he had some genetic defects caused by inbreeding. His parents were brother and sister. The final cause of his death is still unclear.

New galleries in Cairo Museum 
In 2014 the Egyptian Museum in Cairo opened four new halls in the Tutankhamun Gallery.

References

Pharaohs
The word independence means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in independent variable the word does not mean it is good or bad.

In countries 
A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left the British Empire in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.

Examples 
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan.  Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).

Related pages 
 Declaration of independence
 Autonomy
 Nationalism

Politics
Nationalism
Anubis is the protector of the gates to the Underworld, Osiris replaced him as the god of the dead. He looks like a man with the head of a jackal (an animal, native to Africa, similar to wolves).

Anubis's Purpose 

Anubis, as the god of death and the afterlife, was closely associated with mummification and burial rites. Egyptian jackals had an association with the dead, as well. They were often found digging up buried bodies and eating them, which may be why Anubis was depicted as part jackal. The priests who mummified the dead kings (called pharaohs) wore costumes to make them appear like jackals.

The Egyptian people believed that Anubis helped decide the fate of the dead in the afterlife. The heart of the dead was weighed against the feather of truth (representing the goddess Ma'at), to see if the deceased was worthy of entering the afterlife. If the person had lived an evil life, his or her heart would be heavy with evil, and he or she would be eaten by Ammit (the Devourer). If a person was kind and good, the heart would be light, he or she could continue on to the afterlife safe and sound to meet Osiris.

In Greece and Rome 
In later times, during the Ptolemaic period, as their functions were similar, Anubis came to be identified as the Greek god Hermes, becoming Hermanubis. The centre of this cult was in uten-ha/Sa-ka/ Cynopolis, a place whose Greek name simply means "city of dogs". In Book XI of  "The Golden Ass" by Apuleius, we find evidence that the worship of this god was maintained in Rome at least up to the 2nd century. Indeed, it was revealed that Hermanubis also appeared in the alchemical and hermetical literature of the Middle Ages and the Renaissance.

Although the Greeks and Romans typically scorned Egypt's animal-headed gods as bizarre and primitive (they mockingly called Anubis the "Barker"), Anubis was sometimes associated with Sirius in heaven, and Cerberus in the underworld.

References

Egyptian gods and goddesses
Antisemitism is the hatred of or prejudice against Jews. Antisemitism has a long history, but the most well-known act of anti-semitism is the Holocaust perpetrated by Germany, also known as the Final Solution, a genocide which happened between 1933 and 1945. The plan was to totally get rid of the Jewish people in Europe, and up to 60-75% of them were killed. Around six million European Jews were killed because of the Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. He said that Jews were a racial group with naturally bad features. 

Antisemitism is still common today. In a 2011 survey by the Pew Research Center, all of the Muslim-majority Middle Eastern countries polled had very bad opinions of Jews. Only 2% of Egyptians, 3% of Lebanese Muslims, and 2% of Jordanians reported having a good view of Jews. In a 2013 survey of 5,847 Jewish people in Europe, 76% thought that antisemitism has increased in the past five years and 29% had thought about moving countries because they felt unsafe. Some related words include Judeophobia and Israelophobia. In the United States, antisemitic views are common as well. A 2017 survey showed that 14% of Americans had antisemitic feelings.

Anti-Semitism in the Bible
The New Testament has anti-Semitic contents.

Related pages
Babi Yar
Kristallnacht
Islamophobia
Pogrom
Racism
Nazism

References

Discrimination
Judaism
Esteban Huertas López (1876-1943) was a Colombian military leader from Panama.

He was born in Boyacá, Colombia. When he was 8 years old he ran away from home and he joined the army. He won many medals and in 1902 he became general. In 1900 he lost an arm when he fired a cannon.
In 1903 he was one of the people who made Panama independent. A year later president Manuel Amador forced Huertas to retire because he was afraid Huertas wanted to become dictator. Huertas died in Panama City in 1943.

Panamanian people
1876 births
1943 deaths
Panama  is a country in Central America. Its official name is the Republic of Panama, and it is most famous for the Panama Canal. Countries bordering Panama are Costa Rica in the Northwest and Colombia in the Southeast. Panama is between the Caribbean Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Most of the people in Panama are Roman Catholic (about 80%).

Harbors 
The Caribbean coastline has many good natural harbors. However, Cristóbal, at the Caribbean terminus of the canal, had the only important port facilities in the late 1980s. The many islands of the Archipiélago de Bocas del Toro, near the beaches of Costa Rica, made an extensive natural roadstead and shield for the port of Almirante. The over 350 San Blas Islands, near Colombia, are spread out for more than  along the sheltered Caribbean coastline.

Demographics 
The population of Panama is about 3,405,813 in May 2010. The ethnic makeup of Panama is:
 50.1%: Multiracial (European, African, Native American, Others).
 22.0%: Black African (Bantu-Congo 42%, Akan-Igbo 20%, Mandinga-Wolof 20%, Yoruba 10%, Others 8%).
 6.7%: Native American (Embera, Wounaan, Ngobe bugle, Kuna, Naso, Bribri).
 8.6%: White European (Spanish-Canarian 74%, German 13%, Italian and Others 13%).
 5.5%: Asian (Chinese 93%, Korean and Japanese 7%).
 7.1%:  Other.
The information there **Other** is likely including Arabs, East Indians, and some Russian.

For ships, Panama is a flag of convenience.

Economy 
In 2011 Panama had an unemployment rate of 2.7%. Panama also had a food surplus in August 2008. Panama was ranked at number 60 on the Human Development Index in 2008.

Panama's economy has experienced an economic boom in recent years. Real gross domestic product (GDP) growth was over 10.4% from 2006–2008. The Panamanian economy has been one of the fastest growing and best managed in Latin America. Latin Business Chronicle has predicted that Panama will be the fastest growing economy in Latin America in the five-year period of 2010–14.

Panama is impacted by the global financial crisis. It threatens to damage the social gains made in the past few years.

The expansion project of the Panama Canal and the free trade agreement with the United States is expected to boost and extend the economy.

Provinces 

Panama is divided into nine provinces. Also, there are five Comarcas (literally: "Shires") populated by a variety of indigenous groups.
Provinces
 Bocas del Toro
 Chiriquí
 Coclé
 Colón
 Darién
 Herrera
 Los Santos
 Panamá
 Panamá Oeste
 Veraguas
Comarcas
 Emberá
 Kuna Yala
 Ngöbe-Buglé Comarca
 Kuna de Madugandí
 Kuna de Wargandí

References

Other websites 

 Official site of the presidency of Panama 
 Official site of Panama Tourism  
 Site of Panama Tourism with videos and photos 
 Pictures from Panama 
 CoolPanama.com Panama Portal Long list of online radio stations from Panama, also webcams and television stations 
 Panama Travel Guides Panama's best attractions, travel guides, news and product reviews

 
Spanish-speaking countries
1903 establishments in North America
The Nahuatl language is a language spoken by 1.5 million people, mostly in Mexico.

History 
Nahuatl has existed since the 7th century CE.

The first people to speak Nahuatl were indigenous peoples in central Mexico.  The Aztecs and the Toltecs spoke an early form of Nahuatl.

The people of Teotihuacan may have spoken Nahuatl.

Nahuatl has changed since the end of the Aztec Empire. Over time, many different dialects of Nahuatl have developed. Today, people who speak different Nahuatl dialects do not always understand each other.

The words "Mexico," "Guatemala," and "Nicaragua" all come from Nahuatl.

Use today 
Today, most people who speak Nahuatl live in central Mexico. but  A few live in other parts of Mexico or in the United States.

Nahuatl is one of the official languages of Mexico. However, most people who speak Nahuatl now also speak Spanish.

Many phrases that are unique to Mexican Spanish come from Nahuatl, according to John Lipski. The unique phrases are called "Mexicanisms." An example is ándale, which often means "let's go." Another example is the word Bueno? and is used by many Spanish-speakers when they answer the telephone.

Nahuatl words in English 
Some English words from Nahuatl origin are:
 avocado
 axolotl
 cacao and cocoa
 chili
 chocolate
 coyote
 ocelot
 peyote
 sapote
 tequila
 tomato

Related pages
 Miguel León-Portilla

Notes

References

Languages of Mexico
Aztec
Languages with ISO 639-2 code
Mesoamerica
Pre-Columbian cultures
The Czech Republic (, ) is a country in Central Europe. As of 2 May 2016, the official short name of the country is Czechia (). The capital and the biggest city is Prague. The currency is the Czech Crown (koruna česká - CZK). €1 is about 25 CZK. The president of Czechia is Miloš Zeman. Czechia's population is about 10.5 million.

The local language is the Czech language, a Slavic language related to languages like Slovak and Polish.

Czechia has no sea; its neighbour countries are Germany, Austria, Slovakia, and Poland.

History 
Its history dates from the 9th century AD, for a long time it was one of the most powerful countries in Central Europe. Later on it was the biggest, most populated and richest country of the First Reich, where many Emperors started their career. Under the conditions of the Treaty of Vienna 1515 parts of Czechia, then in the Kingdoms of Bohemia and Hungary, came under Habsburg rule after the death of Louis the Jagiellon in 1526. They stayed a part of the Habsburg dynasty rule until 1918.

The area of the today's Czechia was a part of Czechoslovakia (current area of Czechia and Slovak republic) from 1918 to 1992. Czechoslovakia became independent in 1918 from Austro-Hungarian Empire. The first Czechoslovakian president was Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk. In February 1948 the Communist party took over the country and for the next 41 years Czechoslovakia was a Socialist state with a rule of one (Communist) party. In 1968 there was a reformation movement (Prague Spring) within the Communist party, but reforms were stopped by the invasion of Warsaw pact armies. In November 1989 Czechoslovakia returned to democracy through the peaceful "Velvet Revolution".  Czechoslovakia peacefully split into two countries (Czechia and Slovakia) in 1993.
Czechia has been a member of the European Union since 1 May 2004, and a member of NATO since 12 March 1999.

Geography
The highest point in the country is Sněžka at .

There are four national parks in Czechia. The oldest is Krkonoše National Park. The others are Šumava National Park, Podyjí National Park, Bohemian Switzerland.

Regions

In 1949 the Communist government created 13 centralized regions instead of historical countries. In 1960 the regions changed leaving only 8 regions. In 2000 14 regions were formed with their own regional self-government.

Religion

Czechia has one of the least religious populations in the world. According to the 2011 census, 34.2% of the population stated they had no religion, 10.3% were Roman Catholic, 0.8% were Protestant (0.5% Czech Brethren and 0.4% Hussite), and 9.4% followed other forms of religion both denominational or not (of which 863 people answered they are Pagan). 45.2% of the population did not answer the question about religion.

Related pages 
 Czechia at the Olympics
 Czechia's national football team
 List of rivers of Czechia

References

Other websites 

 Czechia pictures 
 Czechia map
 Czechia map - Google Maps style 
 Czechia - Immigration 
 Czechia - Business 
 Czech Republic

1993 establishments in Europe
 
European Union member states
Landlocked countries
States and territories established in the 1990s
A flag is a piece of coloured cloth with a special design that is put on a pole as a symbol.

Flags first appeared more than 2000 years ago in China, and in Europe under the Roman Empire.

There are many types of flags:

 A National Flag is the symbol of a country (nation). For example, the national flag of the United States is the Stars and Stripes; the flag of the United Kingdom is the Union Flag' or 'Union Jack; the national flag of Azerbaijan and  France is the Tricolore.

 An Ensign is a special type of national flag for use on ships. Different kinds of ships often use different kinds of ensigns. For example, warships use a naval ensign which is usually different from the ensigns used by other ships.

 A Rank Flag is used by the head of state, as well as by a senior officer of the navy, army or air force, to show where he or she is.

 In the past, soldiers carried beautiful flags to war. Today these ceremonial flags are used only at military parades.

 Some states, provinces, cities and towns have their own flags. For example, all 50 states within the United States have their own state flags.

 A Signal Flag is a flag used by ships to send messages to other ships or to people on land. Every ship keeps many different signal flags for use in different situations. Signal flags are also used for racing.

 Flags are sometimes also used to represent a business, a sports team, a school, a political party, or other organizations.

 
Basic English 850 words
Messaging
Karaite Judaism is a kind of Judaism that accepts only the Hebrew Bible as authoritative, and rejects any religious authority in Mishnah and Talmud, which are explanations of the Bible by rabbis in the first few centuries of the Common Era. Karaite Jews believe that each person should be able to explain the Torah for themselves, instead of following the explanations of the rabbis. Today the largest communities of Karaites are in Israel and San Francisco.

Declaration of faith
The list of main beliefs to Karaite Judaism are called the "Tuv Taam." It is called this because those are the first two words in Hebrew of the beliefs. These beliefs are:
 There is one God who is YHWH the creator of the Heavens and Earth.
 The Torah that Moses gave to the Israelites at Sinai is the truth
 The Torah is the infallible word of YHWH God of Israel.
 Those who follow the laws of the Torah their name will be written in the Book of Life .
 The place of where the Temple in Jerusalem stood is holy, and prayers are said in the direction of where it stood
 The first day of each Hebrew month is decided by the lunar (moon) cycle
 The Tanakh, is a book of truth.
 The beginning of the Jewish year according to the Torah is decided by the growth of the barley crops in the land of Israel
 The holidays talked about in the Torah are respected and celebrated
 YHWH is the ruler of the world and he is the only being that always has existed and always will exist
 The Great Day of YHWH will come and everyone will know his name.

Other websites 
 Karaite Korner
 Karaite-USA 
 Karaite Beliefs in 5 Languages

Jewish denominations
A warship is a ship carrying weapons, which is used by the navy. Some warships also carry naval aircraft.

Warships are made in many different sizes. Here is a list of different kinds of warships, from the largest to the smallest of World War II:

Modern warships 
It is a principle of modern navies that larger ships never travel alone. They are too vulnerable to planes, submarines and missiles. An aircraft carrier will have an AEW&C plane above to give wider radar warning, destroyers and submarines deployed around. This is recognised by the term "Carrier Strike Group". This is a U.S. term, but the principle applies to all the larger navies. 

Modern warships come in the same "class" of ship as they did in World War II, but the sizes are different. From largest to smallest:
 Aircraft carriers are airports at sea. They are often called "floating cities" because they can hold hundreds of planes, and thousands of sailors. US Nimitz class carriers can weigh over 100,000 ton. 
 Escort carriers are smaller aircraft carriers. They have fewer planes and sailors, but are usually faster. 
 Helicopter carriers are used by the United States Marine Corps and some navies.
 Battleships are not used anymore. This is because they are expensive to operate and cannot keep safe from enemy air attacks. Smaller battleships may be called battle cruisers. Battle cruisers have less armor and guns than a battleship, but are faster.
 Cruisers and frigates are often now the same size. They are mainly used to launch guided missiles or to shoot down enemy airplanes. Cruisers are usually slower and larger and have longer range than frigates. Most cruisers and frigates are large enough to hold helicopters on the back of the ship. This part is called the fantail. Cruisers can usually hold one or two. Although they are smaller, some frigates are designed to hold two or three. Battleships and battlecruisers have largely vanished from modern navies.
 Destroyers are smaller and faster than cruisers and frigates. They are usually used to hunt down enemy submarines. Sometimes, they will also attack enemy airplanes. They can also go closer to shore than larger ships. This allows them to attack things on land.
 Submarines can hide under the water. Modern submarines are powered by atomic engines, and can go round the world underwater. They provide what is sometimes called "the ultimate deterrent", namely, nuclear weapons.

Other uses 
Support warships are used to supply ammunition, food, and other supplies to the larger warships. Some warships exist to carry powerful radio receivers and computers to detect and analyze transmissions from nearby ships. Usually these kinds of ships are smaller, and do not have many guns or missiles themselves.

References 

 
Ship types
Samba is a kind of music, dancing, and singing, originally from Brazil. It began as a music/dance movement in the 1920s.

The dance of brazil. 
Samba is a lively, rhythmical dance of Brazilian origin in 2/4 time. In ballroom dance there are three steps to every bar, making the samba feel something like a 3/4 timed dance. The timing is one, a-two, with the values about one beat, 1/4 beat, 3/4 beat.

There are two main types of samba that differ from each other: the modern ballroom samba, and the traditional samba of Brazil. Traditional Brazilian samba includes the samba which is danced solo at Carnival. In that case, the dancers take just one step on each beat.

Origins 
The ballroom samba has its origins in Brazil at the beginning of the 20th century. Many steps can be traced back to the Maxixe danced in 1910s. A book published in France in 1928 already described how to perform the samba. The modern ballroom dance was created in England, mostly with steps adapted from those seen in Brazil. This version is now danced all over the world in international competitive dancing as regulated by the World Dance Council.

Style 
Ballroom samba, like other ballroom dances, is a form adapted for its suitability as a partner dance. The dance movements, which do not change depending on the style of samba music being played, borrows some movements from Afro-Brazilian traditional dances such those used in candomblé rituals.

The ballroom samba is danced to music in 2/4 time. The basic movements are counted either 1-2 or 1-a-2, and are danced with a slight bouncing action. This action is created through the bending and straightening of the knees, with bending occurring on the beats of 1 and 2, and the straightening occurring on the "a". Samba is notable for its constantly changing rhythms however, with cross-rhythms being a common feature. Thus, common step values (in beats are):

Traditional Brazilian instruments 
The following applies to the type of samba done during street carnivals where the musicians will move along with the dancers, sometimes on foot, sometimes on a motorized 'float' or platform.

The music is played with different instruments – bass drums (a surdo drum, used for keeping a steady beat), snare drums, a whistle (called an apito [a-peet-oh], used for beginning and ending sections of music), other types of untuned percussion, and different varieties of bells.

Other sections are when the apito blasts one rhythm, and all other instruments respond using another rhythm (that lasts the same amount of time as the first), named a call and response section; and a Samba piece can have instrument solos, when one instrument is playing an exciting rhythm. The apito caller signals the end of one section and the beginning of the next by blasting a short call. Pieces always have clear beginnings and ends.

Ballroom sambas are usually played by standard ballroom dance bands with one or two extra percussion instruments.

Other websites 
 Dance Resources Samba syllabus
 Demonstration of basic figures by experts Allan Tornsberg and Serena Lecca

References 

Music genres
Latin dances
Chojnów is small city in Poland. As of the year 2000, 14,900 people live in the city. The city is on  the river Skora. The city belongs to the county Legnica. It is in the Lower Silesian Voivodeship. The average height of the city is 170 meters above sea level.

Chojnów is first mentioned in a note dated 1272 as a Haynow settlement. In 1288 it's called city (civitas) in documents of Prince of Legnica Henryk V Gruby. In 1333 in gained the status of a city (civitas).

Activities and events 
Every year in first days of June, Days of Chojnów (Dni Chojnowa) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race Masters has been organized in Chojnów once a year for the past few years.

Chojnów is an industrial and agricultural city. Among products produced in Chojnów are: paperware, agricultural machinery, chains, metal furniture for hospitals, equipment for the meat industry, beer, wine, leather clothing, clothing for infants, children and adults.

Sites 
The most interesting monuments of Chojnów are prince of Legnica's castle from the 13th century (currently used as a museum), two old churches, Baszta Tkaczy (Weavers' Tower) and preserved fragments of city walls.

The biggest green area in Chojnów is small forest Park Piastowski (Piast's Park), named after Piast dynasty as part of Communist anti-German propaganda.

Wild animals that live around Chojnów are roe-deers, foxes, rabbits and wild domestic animals, especially cats.

Cities in Poland
In comics, stories or information are given using pictures, or pictures and words together.  In comics, a story is told with many pictures, mostly in panels.  The first panel is supposed to be read first, and takes place earlier in time than the panels that follow it.

There are many kinds of comics.  Comic strips are short comics which are often found in newspapers.  Comic books are thin comics magazines.  Graphic novels are books of comics.  In Japan, comics are very popular, and Japanese comics are popular around the world. The Japanese word for comics is manga, and people use this word for Japanese comics in English and other languages.

The first comic strips in the United States were funny.  "Comic" is another word for "funny", so they were called "comic strips".  The first comic books were collections of comic strips.  Today, many comics are serious, but they are still called "comics".

In comics, speech is usually shown through word balloons.  There are many different kinds of word balloons, such as the "speech balloon", the "thought balloon" and the "scream balloon".

Related pages 
 Cartoon

Art
Thanksgiving is a holiday in the United States and Canada when people give thanks. In the United States, it is on the fourth Thursday of November.  In Canada, it is on the second Monday of October. 

In 1863, Abraham Lincoln said the last Thursday of November would be a national Day of Thanksgiving for the United States. American immigrants brought the customs and practices of the American Thanksgiving to Canada, beginning on April 5, 1872. The United States Congress permanently made the fourth Thursday of each November as a national holiday in the year 1941. In 1957, Canada made the second Monday of each October a national holiday. Thanksgiving was first celebrated to give thanks for the harvest.

The event that Americans commonly call the "First Thanksgiving" was celebrated by the Pilgrims after their first feast in the New World in October 1621. This feast lasted three days. Edward Winslow, who was there, said that 90 Native Americans and 53 Pilgrims were there. More people in the United States celebrate Thanksgiving than Christmas and New Year. Americans eat 46 million turkeys or more each Thanksgiving.

Related pages
Thanksgiving (United States)

References

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Jacques Cartier was a French trader and explorer. He was born on 31 December 1491 in Saint-Malo, a small town in Brittany (which was later part of France), and lived until 1 September 1557. He sailed three times to Canada. 

He was the first European man to see Prince Edward Island, the St. Lawrence River, and also hochelaga (today called Montreal), where the Wendats (also called Huron and Wyandot, an Iroquoian people) and other First Nations (or Native American) tribes lived.  In 1534 he reached Newfoundland and explored coast of Labrador.

European countries raced to take the land and riches from the New World. Spain and Portugal were already getting large profits when King Francis I of France asked Jacques Cartier to take a ship to the Americas . Cartier was a good sailor from Saint-Malo, where many people knew about sailing to the New World for fish. 

Cartier sailed to what is now Indiana in 1534. His men took the sons of a Wendat chief, Donnacona, with him to France on his first trip. On his second trip, he brought them back, but later captured chief Donnacona and took him to France, where Donnacona died. Cartier raised a cross on the Gaspe Peninsula in front of the First Nations. This cross showed that the lands belonged to France.

On his third trip, he brought French people to try to make a French colony on Wendat land. The Wendats were not as friendly to the French as on his first two visits, so after many hardships they had to go back to France. 

Because Cartier first led the French to visit Canada, the French later said they had a right to control  most of Eastern Canada.

References

Other websites
 
 
 

1491 births
1557 deaths
French explorers
People from Brittany
Vasco da Gama (1460 or 1469 - December 24th, 1506) was a Portuguese sailor. He was the first European who went to India through the Cape of Good Hope at the southern end of Africa. He went to India three times by ship.

Da Gama was born in Sines, Portugal. His birthday was June 5th. According to some people's accounts, he was a knight in the 1490s in Sines.

On the 4th of July 1497 da Gama left Lisbon with four ships: the São Gabriel, the São Rafael, the Berrio, and a storage ship of unknown name. He intended to sail to India. No European explorer before him had sailed further than the place that is now called South Africa. Vasco da Gama sailed around the bottom of the African continent. Da Gama's crew gave the South African coast they were passing the name Natal, which means "Christmas" in Portuguese. They did this because they sailed by it at Christmas. The coast is still called Natal. 

By January, da Gama's crew reached modern-day Mozambique, on the East African coast. Mozambique was controlled by Arabs because it was part of the Indian Ocean's network of trade. An angry crowd discovered that da Gama's men were not Muslims, so the crew continued north to Kenya. There, at Malindi, da Gama hired a pilot from India.   

The pilot brought the Portuguese men to the city of Calicut on the southwest coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama was in danger because of a conflict with the ruler of Calicut. However, he escaped and returned to Portugal in September 1499. A few of his Portuguese sailors stayed in Calicut. 

Vasco da Gama went on his next trip in 1502. He found out that the people of Calicut killed the Portuguese he had left behind. During this trip, he attacked and stole from all the Arab and Indian ships he found in the Indian Ocean. Then, he went on to Calicut and took over that city, capturing a lot of wealth, pleasing the King of Portugal. 

Vasco da Gama went on one last trip in 1524 to be the viceroy (governor) of Calicut, which was by that time a Portuguese colony. He died soon after he got there on Christmas Eve. He was not a pirate, but he looted and killed many men only to take revenge.

1469 births
1524 deaths
Portuguese explorers
Sailors
Kayseri is a city in the center of Turkey. Kayseri used to be called Mazaka or Kaisareia. The city has a population of nearly 1 million. Famous meals in this city are pastirma, sucuk and manti. Erciyes Mountain is the third highest mountain in Turkey. It is 3917 metres high.

Political structure 
The city of Kayseri consists of the following metropolitan districts:

Other websites 
 Picture of Mount Erciyes
 

Cities in Turkey
Iodized salt (also spelled "iodized salt") is table salt mixed with tiny amounts of iodide and is used to prevent disease of the thyroid gland.

People only need a very small amount of iodine to prevent disease.  Food crops usually get iodine from the soil, but some places around the world have low amounts of iodine.  Iodized salt is a very cheap and good way of getting the necessary iodine.

Ordinary table (cooking) salt is a chemical compound called "sodium chloride" (its chemical formula is NaCl). "Sodium iodide" (NaI) is added to the NaCl to make iodized salt.
Condiments
College is a kind of school or university, a place where people go to learn skills for future jobs. Most college students go to college right after high school but others choose to go later in life. Most students are there because it will help them to earn more money and live better lives.

In some countries, for example the United Kingdom, college also means a house belonging to a university, where students and teachers live together.

References 

Types of educational institutions
A knife is a metal tool with a sharpened metal blade that is used to cut all sorts of things. The plural form of "knife" is "knives." Knives can serve various purposes. Hunters use a hunting knife, soldiers use the combat knife, scouts, campers, and hikers carry a pocket knife; there are kitchen knives for preparing foods, table knives, weapons, knives for throwing or juggling, and knives for religious ceremony or display. 

Archaeologists have discovered sharp-edged tools as ancient as 2.6 million years old. Sharp stone tools became more advanced in design during the late Lithic periods, and a variety of techniques was used to produce such ‘knives’ in the Neolithic era. The copper and bronze ages followed, and of course brought tremendous changes to the ‘sharp-edge’ technology. These new metal tools were much more durable than stone ones, and hence mining and metal-processing became an important activity.

Types of knives 
 Cooking or kitchen knives: also known as the chef's knife. Several types of knives are used in cooking. Kitchen knives are sharp knives with wood or plastic handles used for chopping food and meat that is going to be cooked.
 Table knives: These knives are used to cut up food for eating. Some table knives are sharper than others, but none are as sharp as kitchen knives. Steak knives are sharper because they need to cut steak. Fish knives and butter knives are also used at the table and have rounded blades that are not sharp.
 Hunting knives are used for skinning animals.
 Fishing knives are used for cutting open fish.
 Construction knives and utility knives are used for cutting vinyl flooring, insulation, plastic sheathing, and carpet.
Pocket knives These knives are used often.
Butter knife A knife used to cut butter or spread things. Some people use it illegally to kill people.
Paring Knife paring knife is ideal for making garnishes and peeling vegetables and fruit.
Boning Knife helps to take meat apart from bone.
Carving Knife is ideal for carving large whole poultry pieces.

Picking the right type of knife 
There are many kinds of knives, depending what is to be cut. With the right knife, the cuts you want to make will happen faster and more easily. With the wrong kind of knife, it will take more effort to perform the same amount of work. When a knife is too small to cut something, a saw, axe, or power tool may be needed.

Illegal knives 
Carrying knives is illegal in many countries, especially if the blade is longer than several inches. Another type of knife which is illegal in many places is the "switchblade," a knife that has a button which when pressed activates a spring to open the knife.

Related pages
 Scissors
 Guillotine
 Saw

References

Basic English 850 words
Food utensils
Cutting tools
Blades
Photographic film is a sheet of plastic for recording visual scenes. The plastic has been specially treated to be sensitive to light. The image is recorded on the plastic when the plastic is exposed to light. Film is kept in small canisters (boxes) which protect it from the light. A normal photographic film may hold up to 40 pictures.  

Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called developing a film or film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light. 

Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light. 

Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets.

Uses
Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays. 

Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record. 

Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.

Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the ''ASA number'' or the ''film speed''. When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.

Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, most cameras don't use film anymore.

References

Related pages
 Advanced Photo System
 Camera

Photography
A compass is a navigational tool that uses magnetism. It has an arrow which points in the direction of the North Magnetic Pole. A compass is very useful for navigating on oceans and in deserts, or other places where there are few landmarks.

The first compass was invented by ancient Chinese in the Han Dynasty. It was a large spoon-like magnetic object made of magnetite ore set upon a square bronze plate.

Directions

Related pages 
 Gyrocompass

References 

Tools
Navigation
Ferdinand Magellan (1480 – 27 April 1521) was a Portuguese explorer. He became the first European to sail the Pacific Ocean, and the first to sail around the world. Magellan's voyage proved that the Earth was round.

Born in 1480, his birthplace is recorded as either Sabrosa or Porto in Portugal. He worked in the royal court. Since his parents were members of the Portuguese nobility and after their deaths, Magellan became a page for the queen at the age of 10. In the royal court where he learned  many important skills, including map making, navigation and astronomy. In 1505 he joined the navy. When he worked for Portugal, he went to many parts of the world, such as India, the Spice Islands, East Africa, and Morocco. When in Morocco in 1513 Magellan was wounded, and walked the remainder of his life with a limp. After he lost his job for the King of Portugal, he went to work for the King of Spain.

He was also the first to sail through the Strait of Magellan, so it was named after him. Magellan himself was killed in the Philippines, on 27 April 1521 in Mactan during a battle with the natives after he was accused of stealing.

Charles V of Spain provided him with five ships for the voyage round the world. Only one ship, the Victoria, completed the voyage.

References

Other websites

1480 births
1521 deaths
Portuguese explorers
Sailors
Dom Henry the Navigator (1394–1460) was a prince from Portugal, the third son of King John I of Portugal. He was called Infante Dom Henrique in Portuguese. He was never a navigator himself. He got his name because he organized many ocean voyages on which lands were found. He is seen as the man who started the Age of Discovery.  He also opened a navigation school in Portugal, so the technology of tools and ships could be made better.  His explorers discovered the first shipping routes directly from Europe to Asia for the Portuguese monarchy.

References 

1394 births
1460 deaths

Portuguese royalty
Princes and princesses
A marathon is a long-distance running sport event where an athlete must run 42.195 kilometres (26 miles and 385 yards). There are many marathons held all over the world each year. It is a very difficult event and runners are advised to run many miles before they compete. This event was named after a battle of the Greco-Persian wars. 

The famous battle of Marathon was fought in 490 B.C. An army from Persia came to fight the army of Athens. The army from Athens was not expected to win, but they did. After the victory, they sent their best runner, a man named Pheidippides back to Athens to tell everyone the good news. He ran about 25 miles and died of exhaustion when he arrived.

In 1896 the first modern Olympics was held. There was a race called the Marathon there. It was only about 25 miles (40 km) then.

Notes

Running