cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Association can mean:
 Voluntary association, a group of individuals who voluntarily enter into an agreement to accomplish a purpose
 501(c) non-profit organization
 Association (statistics), comes from two variables that are related
 Association (psychology), something linked in memory or imagination with a thing or person
 The Association, a pop band
 Archaeological association, in archaeology, the relationship between objects found together
 HMS Association, a Royal Navy ship which sank in 1707
 Association (object-oriented programming), in object-oriented programming, a relationship between classes
 Association (ecology), a set of organisms which appear together and cover areas in a roughly uniform way
 Association (astronomy), combined or co-added group of astronomical exposures
 Professional association
 Alumni association, an association of former students of a college or university
 An industry trade group is also known as a trade association
 L'Association, a French comic book publisher

Related pages
 Interpersonal relationship
A voluntary association or union is a group of individuals who  enter into an agreement to form a body (or organization) to work together for a purpose.

In most of the cases no formalities are necessary to start an association. But in some jurisdictions, there is a minimum for the number of persons starting an association, in others the association must register with the police or other official body to inform the public of the association's existence. This is not necessarily a tool of political control but much more a way of protecting the economy from fraud.

Legal status
An unincorporated association has been defined as existing:

"...where two or more persons are bound together for one or more common purposes by mutual undertakings, each having mutual duties and obligations, in an organisation which has rules identifying in whom control of the organisation and its funds is vested, and which can be joined or left at will."

In most countries, an unincorporated association does not have separate legal personality, and nor do members of the association usually enjoy limited liability.  However, in some countries they are treated as having separate legal personality for tax purposes.

Associations that are organized for profit or financial gain are usually called partnerships.  A special kind of partnership is a co-operative which is usually founded on one man–one vote principle and distributes its profits according to the amount of goods produced or bought by the member. Associations may take the form of a non-profit organization or they may be not-for-profit corporations; this does not mean that the association cannot make benefits from its activity, but all the benefits must be reinvested. Most associations have some kind of document or documents that regulate the way in which the body meets and operates. Such an instrument is often called the organization's bylaws, regulations, or agreement of association.

Freedom of association
The freedom of association stands in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights:
Article 20
(1) Everyone has the right to freedom of peaceful assembly and association.
(2) No one may be compelled to belong to an association.

Related pages
 Society

Footnotes

Other websites
Law relating to unincorporated associations 
French Association of Epargne and Retraite 

Organizations
Helen Adams Keller was an American writer and speaker. She was born in Tuscumbia, Alabama in 1880 to Arthur H. Keller and Kate Adams Keller. When she was nineteen months old she became sick and lost her eyesight and hearing. The doctor didn't know what it was, so he called it a "congestion of the stomach and brain." Some people say that it was scarlet fever or meningitis. Communicating with other people was hard for Helen, because she could not see or hear. She made up some home signs that she used to communicate with her family. The home signs were quite simple, pull meant "come", push meant "go" and so on. Sometimes Helen's family did not understand what Helen was meaning with her home signs. That made Helen frustrated and she had temper tantrums. 

When Helen was seven years old, her family decided to find a teacher for her. They wrote to Michael Anagnos, who was the director of the Perkins Institute and Asylum for the Blind. They asked him to help them find a teacher for their daughter. He wrote to them and told them that he knew a young teacher and her name was Annie Sullivan. She had been blind, but a series of operations helped to restore her eyesight. Annie traveled to Alabama to live with Helen’s family and to teach her. Annie went to live with the Keller family in March, 1887.

Annie helped Helen to learn how to communicate with other people. She taught her the names of things by writing the words on Helen’s hand. At first Helen didn't understand the meaning of the words. The first word Helen understood was "water". She learned this word when Annie put Helen's hand under some water and wrote W,A,T,E,R on her hand. Then she learnt the words and sentences with this method. In 1890, Helen’s family sent her to the Perkins Institute to learn how to speak and communicate. When she was nineteen years old, Helen went to Radcliffe College in Massachusetts. She graduated from Radcliffe in 1904. She was the first deaf and blind person to earn a Bachelor of Arts degree.

In 1903, Helen wrote a book about her life. It was called The Story of My Life. The movie The Miracle Worker, made in 1962, was based on Helen's book. She also wrote a book about Annie Sullivan called Teacher. She wrote twelve other books.

Helen tried to help poor people and other blind people during her life. She traveled to over 39 countries with Annie to talk about her life and experiences.  When Helen was in Japan, she met Hachiko, a famous Akita. She decided to adopt an Akita, and was the first person to bring an Akita to America.

Helen Keller wanted to get married. She fell in love with her secretary, but her mother didn't allow Helen to marry him. At that time, disabled people often could not marry. Helen Keller died in her sleep on June 1, 1968, at Arcan Ridge in Connecticut.

References 

1880 births
1968 deaths
Blind people
Industrial Workers of the World
Nonviolence advocates
People from Tuscumbia, Alabama
Writers from Alabama
Deaf people
Pausanias (Greek: ) was a Greek traveller and geographer of the 2nd century A.D., who lived in the times of Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. He is famous for his Description of Greece (), a lengthy work that describes ancient Greece from firsthand observations. He is a crucial link between classical literature and modern archaeology.

Biography 
Pausanias was probably a native of Lydia; he was certainly familiar with the western coast of Asia Minor, but his travels extended far beyond the limits of Ionia. Before visiting Greece he had been to Antioch, Joppa and Jerusalem, and to the banks of the River Jordan. In Egypt he had seen the Pyramids, while at the temple of Ammon he had been shown the hymn once sent to that shrine by Pindar. In Macedonia he had almost certainly viewed the traditional tomb of Orpheus. Crossing over to Italy, he had seen something of the cities of Campania and of the wonders of Rome. He was one of the first to write of seeing the ruins of Troy, Alexandria Troas, and Mycenae.

Work 
Pausanias' Description of Greece takes the form of a tour in Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor and in the Peloponnese and part of northern Greece. He constantly describes ceremonial rites or superstitious customs. He frequently introduces narratives from the domain of history and of legend and folklore, and it is only rarely that he allows the reader to see something of the scenery.

References

Other websites 

Description of Greece, tr. W.H.S. Jones and H.A. Ormerod (1918)
Description of Greece, Jones translation at Theoi Project
Bibliography (in French)

Further reading 

 Hutton, William 2005, Describing Greece: Landscape and Literature in the Periegesis of Pausanias (Cambridge). .
 Levi, Peter (tr.) 1984a, 1984b, Pausanias: Guide to Greece, 2 vols. (Penguin). Vol. 1 Central Greece ; vol. 2 Southern Greece .
 Pretzler, Maria. "Turning Travel into Text: Pausanias at work", Greece & Rome, Vol. 51, Issue 2 (2004), pp. 199–216.

Ancient Greece
Greek geographers
In Ancient Rome, Dignitas was regarded as the sum of the personal influence that a male citizen acquired throughout his life. It included personal reputation, moral standing, and ethical worth and the man's entitlement to respect and proper treatment as well.

The word does not have a direct connotation or translation in English. Some interpretations include dignity (merely a derivation) and prestige. The Oxford Latin Dictionary defines the expression as fitness, suitability, worthiness, visual impressiveness or distinction, dignity of style and gesture, rank, status, position, standing, esteem, importance, and honor.

Origins 
Authors who had used dignitas extensively in their writings and oratories include M. Tullius Cicero, Julius Caesar, Cornelius Tacitus, and T. Livius (Livy). The most prolific user was Cicero, who initially related it to the established term auctoritas. These two words were highly associated, auctoritas was thought to be the expression of a man’s dignitas.

The changing definition of dignitas 
Over the course of Ancient Roman history, dignitas took on different meanings over time, adjusting for the gradually changing viewpoints of society, politicians, and the various authors.

Years after Caesar's death, his heir Augustus rejected the contemporary meaning of dignitas. Augustus found the related term auctoritas to be a suitable alternative.

References 
Balsdon, J.p.v.d. "Auctoritas, Dignitas, Otium." The Classical Quarterly ns 10 (1960): 43-50.
Cicero, Ad Familiares 4.14
Cicero, Epistulae Ad Familiares. J. Paul Leonard Library, San Fransisco. Cicero, Epistulae ad familiares. San Francisco State University. 18 May 2007 
Radin, Max. "Roman Concepts of Equality." Political Science Quarterly 38 (1923): 262-289.
Ridler, Vivian. "Dignitas." Oxford Latin Dictionary. 1 vols. London: Oxford UP, 1968.

Ancient Rome
Publius (or Gaius) Cornelius Tacitus (ca. 56 – ca. 117) was a senator and a historian of the Roman Empire. The surviving parts of his two major works—the Annals and the Histories—report about the reigns of the Roman Emperors Tiberius, Claudius, Nero, Galba, Otho, Vitellius, and Vespasian.

Works 

Experts believe Tacitus wrote these five works that have survived. The dates are approximate:

 (98) De vita Iulii Agricolae (The Life of Julius Agricola)
 (98) De origine et situ Germanorum (The Germania)
 (102) Dialogus de oratoribus (Dialogue on Oratory)
 (105) Historiae (Histories)
 (117) Ab excessu divi Augusti (Annals)

References 

 Haynes, Holly. The History of Make-Believe: Tacitus on imperial Rome (Berkeley, Calif.; London: University of California Press, 2003) 
 Syme, Ronald. Tacitus, Volumes 1 and 2. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1958) (reprinted in 1985 by the same publisher, with the ) is the definitive study of his life and works.
 Syme, Ronald. Ten Studies in Tacitus. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1970) 
 Talbert, R.J.A. "Tacitus and the Senatus Consultum de Cn. Pisone patre". The American Journal of Philology, Vol. 120, No. 1 (1999), pp. 89–97.
 Woodman, Anthony John. Tacitus Reviewed (Oxford: Oxford University Press,  1998)

Other websites 

 Bibliography on Tacitus  (from Rutgers University Classics Department)
 Texts by Tacitus:
 
 Works by Tacitus at the Internet Archive
 At Perseus Project: Works by Tacitus in English and/or Latin
 At "The Online Books Page": Online e-texts of Tacitus' works
 At "Romansonline" (Latin text can be displayed side by side to translation): Works by Tacitus
 At "The Internet Sacred Text Archive": Parallel English and Latin text of the complete works of Tacitus
 Works by Tacitus: text, concordances and frequency list
 About Tacitus' Agrippina on QueenDido.org

110s deaths
Ancient Roman historians
50s births
Connotation is a meaning that is suggested or implied, as opposed to a denotation, or literal definition.

Usage
Today the word has different meanings, but it is always used for the contrast of a word or phrase with its primary, literal meaning (known as a denotation). That can be an implied value judgement or feelings.

A stubborn person may be described as being either strong-willed or pig-headed. Although these have the same literal meaning (i.e. stubborn), strong-willed connotes admiration for the level of someone's will, while pig-headed connotes frustration in dealing with someone. Likewise, used car and previously owned car have the same literal meaning, but many dealerships prefer the latter, since it is thought to have fewer negative connotations.
It is often useful to avoid words with strong connotations (especially negative ones) when striving to achieve a neutral point of view. A desire for more positive connotations, or fewer negative ones, is one of the main reasons for using euphemisms.

Other websites 
 Connotations of problem solving

Logic
A Margrave () is a German nobleman.  

Originally the Holy Roman Emperor would give a Markgraf an area of the borders (the Marches or ) to look after.  The Margrave would have to protect the people in the area from invaders, and at the same time protect the empire. 

A Markgraf ranked higher than a graf, but lower than a duke.  The Margraves of Brandenburg were in control of such an important area that they were made Electors of the Holy Roman Empire, which was the highest honour in the Imperial Parliament.  There were no Kings in the Empire, so when the Margraves of Brandenburg took control of some territory outside the empire as well, they could call themselves King in Prussia.

As the Middle Ages ended and Europe and the Holy Roman Empire became more secure the military importance of the Margraves became less.  At the end of the German Empire in 1918, there were no Markgrafs left.  All had been given higher title, but may have kept the Markgraf title as an extra.  The Kings of Prussia, for example, always kept the lower title Margraves of Brandenburg.

History of Germany
Royalty and nobility
Meppel is a city and a municipality in the north east of the Netherlands (in the province Drenthe). On January 1, 2007 it had about 31,063 inhabitants. It has a density of 558/km² (1,445.2/sq mi). The timezone in Meppel is CET.

History

Meppel received city rights in 1644. It is the oldest town of Drenthe.

In the World War II almost all the Jews of Meppel were killed. 232 of the 250 were killed, so 18 survived it. Now there is a monument in Meppel for all those who died.

Municipality

These are the cities in the municipality of Meppel.

Cities in the Netherlands
Settlements in Drenthe
Municipalities of Drenthe
For the Spanish painter, see Diego Velázquez.

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar (1465 - 1524) was a Spanish soldier and colonial administrator (a Conquistador).He conquered and governed Cuba for Spain. He is often called Diego de Velázquez by Dominican historians (that is the name used in the Appleton's Cyclopedia).

He was born in Cuéllar, near Segovia, Spain. He came to America in the second voyage of Christopher Columbus in 1493. He spent 17 years in the Hispaniola, living most of the time in the southwestern region of the island.

He worked together with the Spanish governor Nicolás de Ovando in the fight against the Taíno Indians of the region. He founded and governed several towns: Azua de Compostela (1504), San Juan de la Maguana (1503), Bánica (1504), Salvatierra de la Sabana (1504, now Les Cayes, Haiti), Santa María de la Verapaz (near the present Port-au-Prince, Haiti), Villanueva de Yáquimo (now Jacmel, Haiti).

In 1511, he left from Salvatierra de la Sabana with 300 men and three or four ships to the island of Cuba to conquer that island. He was the first governor of the island and he founded several cities, Nuestra Señora de la Asunción de Baracoa (the first European city in Cuba and its first capital) in 1511, San Salvador del Bayamo (1513), Santiago de Cuba in 1514 and Havana in 1515.

In 1517 he sent Juan de Grijalva to explore the coast of Mexico and in 1518 he sent Francisco Hernández de Córdoba to explore the coast of Yucatán. Then in 1519 he sent his secretary, Hernán Cortés, to conquer Mexico with about 450 soldiers but when Cortés got to México (in Veracruz), he broke all relations with Velázquez.

Diego Velázquez de Cuéllar died in Santiago de Cuba in 1524.

References

Other websites
 Enciclopedia Libre Universal 
 Biography , with a bibliography
Short biography
 Encarta 

1465 births
1524 deaths
History of Cuba
History of Spain
Spanish military people
For the opposite of Denotation see Connotation.

In logic, linguistics and semiotics, a denotation of a word or phrase is a part of its meaning.

Examples
In order to understand fully the difference between denotation and connotation in the media studies and semiotics uses it is necessary to become familiar with some examples:
:

Different aspects of meaning 

Several parts of meaning may be called denotation. That depends on the contrast being drawn.
 Connotation and denotation are either
in basic semantics and literary theory, the figurative and literal meanings of a word, or
in philosophy, logic and parts of linguistics, the intension and extension of a word
 Denotation can be synonymous with reference in the sense and reference in philosophy of language.

 In Computer science, denotational semantics is contrasted with operational semantics.

 In Semiotics, denotation also has its own meaning.

In media-studies terminology, denotation is the first level of analysis: what the audience can visually see on a page. Denotation often refers to something literal, and avoids being a metaphor. Here it is usually coupled with connotation which is the second level of analysis, being what the denotation represents

In logic and semantics, denotational always attracts the extension meaning "in the pair", but the other element genuinely varies. See intension for some more discussion.

A denotation is the strict, literal, dictionary definition of a word, devoid of any emotion, attitude, or colour. 

Denotation often links with symbolism, as the denotation of a particular media text often represents something further; a hidden meaning (or an Engima Code) is often encoded into a media text (such as the images below).

Other websites
 Semiotics for Beginners
 VirtuaLit Elements of Poetry 

Philosophy
Logic
Victoria Silvstedt (born September 19, 1974 in Skellefteå, Sweden) is a Swedish fashion model and actress. She is also a former winner of Playmate of the Year, which is chosen by Hugh Hefner.

1974 births
Living people

Swedish models
Doner kebab (also spelled döner kebab) (, ;  or  ) is a type of kebab. A doner can be made from lamb, chicken or beef. It is cooked on a vertical rotisserie then thinly sliced. When bought from kebab shops it usually comes with salad or french fries. 

Restaurants in Germany offer hot chili sauce and garlic yoghurt-style sauce.  Barbecue sauce, burger sauce, lemon juice, or a mint sauce similar to raita are also popular. 

Doners are often eaten as take-away food on the way home after a night out. There are several common ways in which doner kebabs are served.

 Wrapped in pita bread (the most common)
 On pita bread
 Served as a dish of "doner meat" (and maybe chips), typically including salad
 Often preferred to be garnished with a range of sauces such as tomato ketchup, mayonnaise, chili sauce, mint or garlic sauce.

It is a very popular German fast food. The Döner was introduced to the Germans in the 1970s.

In the UK

Kebabs are very much part of the Friday and Saturday night culture in the UK rather than breakfast or lunchtime food. UK doner kebab often uses a different mixture of spices, because immigrants from Cyprus run many of the shops. They may offer doner, shish (lamb and chicken) and kofte kebabs, with a 'special' including some of each with bread and chips.

References

Middle Eastern foods
Michelle Williams (born September 9, 1980) is an Academy Award-nominated American actress. Williams first appeared in the teen series Dawson's Creek and later acted in full length movies, such as Brokeback Mountain, for which she was nominated for an Oscar as Best Supporting Actress.

In 2018, Williams was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for her role as Gail Getty in All the Money in the World.

She was nominated for the Orange Rising Star Award in 2006.

References

Golden Globe Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning actors
American child actors
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American voice actors
Actors from Montana
1980 births
Living people
People from Kalispell, Montana
Pernilla Wiberg (born October 15 1970 in Norrköping) is one of the most successful Swedish alpine skiers. She won the giant slalom in the 1992 Winter Olympics in Albertville and the Alpine combination at the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer as well as 24 wins in the Alpine skiing World Cup between 1991 and 1999. She was elected a member of the International Olympic Committee in 2002. In club competitions, she represented Norrköpings SK.

References 

Swedish skiers
1970 births
Living people
Ebba von Sydow (born February 18, 1981 in Gothenburg, Sweden) is a Swedish journalist and author. She is the great-granddaughter of Swedish prime minister Oscar von Sydow, and also related to actor Max von Sydow and politician Björn von Sydow.

1981 births
Living people
People from Gothenburg
Swedish journalists
Howard University is an African-American college in Washington, D.C. It was started in 1867.

Other websites
Howard University

Atlantic Soccer Conference
Colleges and universities in the District of Columbia
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
United Soccer Conference
19th-century establishments in Washington, D.C.
1867 establishments in the United States
Seth Woodbury MacFarlane (born October 26, 1973) is an American actor, comedian and voice actor. He is best known for creating the animated television series, Family Guy, American Dad! and The Cleveland Show.

Early years and beginning of Family Guy
MacFarlane went to Rhode Island School of Design (RISD), a school in Rhode Island where he studied animation. He made a short cartoon movie named, The Life of Larry during his senior year. He worked at Hanna-Barbera writing and making episodes of Johnny Bravo. FOX, a media network, saw The Life of Larry and offered him $50,000 to make a pilot.

Political views
MacFarlane is a supporter for the Democratic Party. In 2015, MacFarlane revealed support for Bernie Sanders on the 2016 U.S. presidential election, and he introduced Sanders on a Los Angeles rally.

September 11 attacks
On the morning of September 11, 2001, MacFarlane was scheduled to return to Los Angeles on American Airlines Flight 11 from Boston. After having a hangover from last night's celebrations, and after getting his departure time incorrectly (8:15 a.m. instead of 7:45 a.m.) from his travel agent, he arrived at Logan International Airport about ten minutes too late to board the flight as the gates had been closed. Fifteen minutes after departure, American Airlines Flight 11 was hijacked, and at 8:46 a.m. it was flown into the North Tower of the World Trade Center, destroying the airplane, and killing everyone on board.

Career

Family Guy

American Dad!

The Winner

The Cleveland Show

Cavalcade of Cartoon Comedy

The Flintstones

Cosmos: A Personal Voyage
In August 2011, Fox ordered a 13-part updated series of Cosmos: A Personal Voyage. MacFarlane will co-produce with Anne Druyan and Steven Soter. It will be hosted by Neil deGrasse Tyson. The series was broadcast on Fox in 2014.

Bordertown
Seth MacFarlane is on his fifth animated series Bordertown with Alex Borstein. Its broadcast date is on January 3, 2016. It shows a family and has a female lead role.

Filmography

Movies

Television

References

Other websites

Interview  on IGN.com
 Seth Macfarlane at Emmys.com

Biography with signature
1973 births
Living people
American atheists
Webby Award winners
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Television producers
Television writers
Comedians from Connecticut
Democrats (United States)
Actors from Connecticut
Ajax the Great or Aias (ancient Greek: Αἴας) son of Telamon, was a well-known hero from the Trojan War. He was the cousin of Achilles. Ajax died by committing suicide. This happened after Achilles died and he was in a contest with Odysseus to see who would receive Achilles's armour: he lost.

Related pages
 Ajax the Lesser

References 

People in Greek mythology
Phoenicia was a civilization to the north of Canaan. Phoenicia existed from 1200 to 900 BC. People from Phoenicia had their own language called the Phoenician language, which is important to many modern languages. They wrote with an alphabet from which the alphabets of Europe evolved.

Phoenicians set up colonies in the Mediterranean region and beyond. Carthage was one of them. Phoenician traders went as far as the British Isles to buy tin. At their peak, the Phoenicians were a major power in the Mediterranean.

References
The Seattle Seahawks are a professional American football team in Seattle, Washington, USA. They started playing football in 1976. They are currently members of the Western Division of the National Football Conference (NFC) in the National Football League (NFL). The Seahawks played football in three Super Bowls. Their current quarterback is Russell Wilson. The Seahawks have stopped using two jersey numbers, #80 belonging to Steve Largent and #12, which represents the fan base, as they are referred to the 12th man at home games. The Seahawks play their homes games at Lumen Field (formerly known as Seahawks Stadium, Qwest and CenturyLink  Field). They have 1 Super Bowl title, which they won in 2013.

Notes

References

Other websites

 

1974 establishments in the United States
1970s establishments in Washington (state)
Lincoln is an old city in Lincolnshire, England. Lincoln has a population of about 100,000 people. It is the county town of Lincolnshire, in the East Midlands of England.

Lincoln developed from the Roman town of Lindum Colonia. Before then it was an Iron Age settlement. Lincoln's major landmarks are Lincoln Cathedral, a famous example of English Gothic architecture, and Lincoln Castle, an 11th-century Norman castle.

The city has the University of Lincoln and Bishop Grosseteste University. Lincoln is north of London, and by the River Witham, in the East Midlands.

References 

Settlements in Lincolnshire
County towns in England
Cities in England
A coelacanth is a type of fish in the Sarcopterygii, the lobe-finned fishes. They are a sister group to those fish which evolved into tetrapods. Their fossil record goes back 400 million years, before any land vertebrates had evolved.

There are at least two species of coelacanths living in the Indian Ocean. Scientists thought they had been extinct for 80 million years until one was caught off the east African coast in 1938. However, fisherman in the Comoros islands had been catching it for a very long time and called it gombesa.

Characteristics 
The coelacanths are the closest link between fish and the first amphibians which made the transition from sea to land in the Devonian period (408–362 million years ago). Whereas the fishapods lived near the shore in muddy water, the coelacanths lived in open water. The modern species are predators that live in the deep ocean.

Latimeria 
Latimeria is the only living genus of the otherwise fossil coelacanth fish. It is probably the best-known Lazarus taxon. That such a creature could have been unrecorded for so long is rare, but perhaps the cold depths of the West Indian ocean (in which the Coelacanth lives), and the few predators it has, may have helped the species survive. Its disgusting taste means that fishermen did not deliberately try to catch it, that is, before scientists started offering rewards.

The population living off Tanzania is threatened by Japanese trawlers, but the fish is not edible. They are simply caught in trawls by accident. More than 20 have died this way, and their total numbers cannot be large.

Scientific study 
Latimeria was first found by scientists in 1938 by Marjorie Courtenay Latimer, the curator of a small museum in the South African port town of East London. She was visiting a fisherman who would let her search through his boat's catch for interesting specimens. Another one was found off the Comoros islands in 1952. The largest specimen was about 1.8 metres (~6 ft).

References 

Lobe-finned fish
Living fossils
A tent city is used to describe a variety of temporary housing facilities made using tents. Informal tent cities may be set up without authorization by homeless people or protesters. As well, state governments or military organizations set up tent cities to house refugees, evacuees, or soldiers. Tent cities set up by homeless people may be similar to shanty towns, which are informal settlements in which the buildings are made from of scrap building materials.

Environmental disasters and homeless people 
Since Hurricane Katrina made landfall in August of 2005, the term has been used to describe temporary housing sites set up for Gulf Coast residents who were left homeless by the storm. Some of the tents that were built by Seabees and funded by FEMA are wooden structures covered by tents. With the exception of indoor plumbing, most of the tents have heat, air, and lights. The tent city can hold as many as 250 occupants. Displaced residents are only expected to stay for three to six months. In late December 2006, the St. Vincent de Paul Society in Saint Petersburg, Florida established an encampment on their property when dozens of homeless moved off of public land across the street from the society. In early January 2007, city officials noted city codes that prohibit living in tents and gave the society one week to evict the occupants of the tent city.

For travelers on The Hajj to Mecca 
Every year, the Saudi Arabian government's Ministry of Hajj sets up a tent city to support Muslim pilgrims in the village of Mina, where the ritual Stoning of the Devil takes place as part of the overall Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca. A tent city is also established annually at Mount Arafat, another essential stop during the Hajj . Because up to four million pilgrims may be performing the Hajj annually, the tent cities are densely inhabited with 20-40 people per tent. As such, fire and disease outbreaks are constant concerns. Since the late 1990s, Saudi authorities have started using fireproof tents to reduce the risks of a major fire.

Military uses 
In the military, the term "tent city" usually refers to temporary living quarters erected on deployed military bases, such as those found in Bosnia or Iraq. Depending on the branch of service and the length the tent city has been in place, the living space may have most modern amenities. For sanitary reasons, military tent cities place toilet, shower, and laundry facilities at least 50 feet (15m) from living quarters. Also, tents are typically divided into clusters of 8-10 to prevent the rapid spread of fire, which is of utmost concern because of the tent and bedding materials.

References 

Buildings and structures
The Norwegian Refugee Council (NRC) (Norwegian: Flyktninghjelpen) is an independent, non-governmental organisation in Norway which helps refugees and internally displaced persons around the world.
 
The NRC protects the rights of people who have been forced to leave their countries, or their homes within their countries. It is the only Norwegian group that specialises in international efforts for these types of people. 
 
The NRC was established in 1946 with the name "Aid to Europe", to help refugees in Europe after World War II. Today, the NRC is an independent, private organisation. It works closely with the United Nations and other organisations around the world, as well as in Norway.

What the NRC does
The group focuses on five main activities:

 Building homes and schools
 Giving food and non-food relief items
 Giving information, counselling and legal assistance
 Camp management
 Education

Other websites
Official website (English version)

Norway
Human rights organizations in Europe
1946 establishments in Europe
20th-century establishments in Norway
Euphemism is the use of a word (or phrase) that replaces another one that one thinks to be too offensive or vulgar.

It also may be a replacement of a name or a word, that could reveal a secret or holy and sacred names to the uninitiated. It may also be used to obscure the identity of the subject of a conversation from potential eavesdroppers. A well known example for many is the replacement of Lord Voldemort's name by "You-Know-Who" or "He-Who-Must-Not-Be-Named" in Harry Potter. Some euphemisms are intended to be humorous.

Usage 
When a phrase is used as a euphemism, it often becomes a metaphor whose literal meaning is dropped. Euphemisms may be used to hide unpleasant or disturbing ideas, even when the literal term for them is not necessarily offensive. This type of euphemism is used in politics.

Common examples 
Examples for euphemisms are:
 restroom for toilet (the word toilet was itself originally a euphemism). This is an Americanism.
 making love to, doing it, or sleeping with for having sex
 mature or  golden years for old age or elderly
 police action for undeclared war
 in the club for pregnant 
 tired and emotional for drunk (mostly British)
 self-charging hybrid for a hybrid vehicle without the ability to charge the battery from an external power source.
 All plug-In hybrids are also self-charging hybrids, just like  all squares are rectangles but not the other way around.
 unibody = Non-replaceable mobile phone battery.

Related pages 
 Dysphemism
 Metaphor

References 

Figures of speech
Boscobel House is a house on the Shropshire/Staffordshire border, near Wolverhamptonand Albrighton, England. It was built around 1632 when landowner John Gifford of White Ladies Priory turned a farmhouse into a hunting lodge. Charles II famously hid in a tree at the Boscobel House to escape discovery by Parliamentary soldiers after the Battle of Worcester in 1651.  The tree became known as the Royal Oak

42 days after the Battle of Worcester, Charles escaped to France on a coal ship called Surprise. Nine years later, Charles ll was invited back to England to become king. In 1660, he came back to England to be the king and Charles named that day "Oak apple day".

Related pages
Escape of Charles II

Other websites
BBC on Boscobel House
English Heritage entry: Boscobel House
Roland Film's Documentary on the Restoration of Boscobel House
Postcard images from a personal site 

Buildings and structures in England
Wismar (Low German: Wismer) is a town in northern Germany. It is on the Baltic Sea, in the state of Mecklenburg-Western Pomerania. It is about  east of Lübeck, and 30 km north of Schwerin. It has a university and a harbor.

Till September 4, 2011, Wismar was a urban district.

References

Other websites
Latin Prose
For the Wikipedia guideline on prose, see Wikipedia:Manual of Style.

Prose is the ordinary form of the written (or spoken) language. It is not poetry. It does not use any special format such as lists or tables. In writing, it is without special rhythm. It is similar to everyday communication. That is what makes the most important distinction with poetry, and with theatrical works such as plays.

The word prose comes from the Latin prosa, meaning straightforward, hence the term "prosaic". Prose writing is usually adopted for the description of facts or the discussion of whatever one's thoughts are, incorporated in free flowing speech. It may be used for newspapers, novels, magazines, encyclopedias, broadcast media, letters, stories, history, philosophy, biography, and many other forms of media.

Prose generally has no formal structure, like meter or rhyme, that is often found in poetry. Therefore, it is used to describe literature which is non-poetic, and non-theatrical. There is, however, a blend of the two forms of literature known as prose poetry.

References
The caper story is a special sort of  crime story.  In the typical caper story,  one or more crimes happen (especially thefts, swindles, or occasionally kidnappings) in full view of the reader.  The actions of the police or detectives may also be told, but  are not that important for the story.

The typical elements of caper stories are humor, adventure, or unusual cleverness or audacity.

Examples of the caper story 
The Dortmunder stories of Donald E. Westlake are very funny tales where unusual thefts happen; in another story, Dortmunder's gang steals the same gem several times, steals an entire branch bank, and kidnaps someone from an asylum by driving a stolen train onto the property.

Television
 Firefly, created by Joss Whedon, particularly the episodes "Serenity", "The Train Job", "Ariel" and "Trash" (2002 - 2003)

Genres
Io is a moon of the planet Jupiter. It is Jupiter's third biggest moon with a diameter of 3642 km, being slightly bigger than Earth's moon. Io has about 400 active volcanos.

Io is the most volcanically active body in the Solar System. Volcanoes erupt massive volumes of silicate lava, sulphur and sulphur dioxide, constantly changing Io's appearance. This new basemap of Jupiter's moon Io was produced by combining the best images from both the Voyager 1 and Galileo Missions. Although the subjovian hemisphere of Io was poorly seen by Galileo, superbly detailed Voyager 1 images cover longitudes from 240 W to 40 W and the nearby southern latitudes.

Due to the same tidal locking that makes the Moon have the same side always facing Earth, Io always has the same side facing Jupiter.  Unlike most celestial bodies, Io is a prolate spheroid, pulled out of round by tidal stress from Jupiter’s gravity.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Cormorants are a family of seabirds. There are about 40 different species of Cormorants. In some areas, they are also known as shags.

Description 
Cormorants range in size from as little as 45 cm (18 in) and 340 g (12 oz) to a maximum size 100 cm (40 in) and 5 kg (11 lbs). Most cormorants, including nearly all northern hemisphere species, have mainly dark feathers. Some southern hemisphere species are black and white. A few species are very colorful. Many species have areas of colored skin on the face. These areas can be bright blue, orange, red or yellow. They usually become more brightly colored in the breeding season. The bill is long, thin, and sharply hooked. Their feet have webbing between all four toes.
Cormorants can dive for 4 minutes looking for food.

Habitat 
Cormorants breed on rocky headlands and islands as well as near inland lakes, marshes and reservoirs. The birds spend the winter on coasts, estuaries, rivers, lakes and reservoirs.

Related pages 
Great cormorant
Indian cormorant
Little cormorant
Pygmy cormorant

 
Pelecaniformes
The 2006 Tour de France was the 93rd Tour de France. It took place from 1 to 23 July 2006. The winner was Óscar Pereiro. Floyd Landis was the first person to finish the race, but was disqualified on 20 September 2007 for taking the drug testosterone during the 17th stage of the race.

The Tour began in Strasbourg, on the French-German border. It ended Sunday 23 July in Paris. The distance of the race was 3657 km (2272 mi). The race was the third fastest in average speed. Along the way, the cyclists passed through six different countries including France, The Netherlands (a stop at Valkenburg in Stage 3), Belgium (at Huy, Stages 3 and 4), Luxembourg (at Esch-sur-Alzette, Stages 2 and 3), Germany (though not stopping there, Stage 1) and Spain (Pla-de-Beret, Stage 11). For the first time since the 1999 race, there was no team time trial.

One day before the start of the Tour, there was a doping scandal. 13 racers were removed from the Tour, because it was believed that they were getting drugs from a doctor named Fuentes. Two of the 13 riders were the expected to do well in the race. They were Jan Ullrich and Ivan Basso.

Overall standings

General Classification 

 See the section on Finishing times for full details.

Points Classification

King of the Mountains classification

Young Riders' Classification

Teams Classification

Finishing times

Withdrawals

Notes

Other websites 
 Official page
 Official Tour de France press releases on Strasbourg
 2006 Tour de France coverage on RoadCycling.com 
 Press release
 http://www.cycling.tv for the live TdF news show everyday.
 Tour de France race news from Bicycling Magazine 

2006 in sports

2000s in France
Sport in Belgium
Sport in France
Tour de France
Elizabeth Carolan  (born November 24, 1980) better known by her ring name Beth Phoenix, is an American professional wrestling commentator and wrestler  She currently works for WWE as a color commentator under the name Beth Phoenix

Phoenix is a former 3-time WWE Women's Champion and won a Slammy Award in 2008 for Diva of the Year. She is the actual WWE Divas Champion, she defeated to Kelly Kelly with her "Glam Slam" at Hell in a Cell 2011.

References

Other websites 
 Official Website 
 WWE Profile
 OVW Profile 

1980 births
Living people
American professional wrestlers
WWE wrestlers
Female professional wrestlers
Sportspeople from New York
Hong Kong Island is an island in the southern part of Hong Kong SAR (Special Administrative Region). Most of the city of Hong Kong was built on the island. Hong Kong Island is  in size.

In 2008, 1,289,500 people lived on Hong Kong Island (16,390 people per square kilometre). Years ago, when the British first took over Hong Kong Island, 3,000 people were living there in fishing villages. China officially gave the island to the United Kingdom in 1842. The British built a city on it, which they called the city of Victoria.

The northern part of the island has the southern shore of Victoria Harbour.  This area is the historical, political, and economic centre of Hong Kong. The northern part of Hong Kong Island and Kowloon form the central urban area of Hong Kong. The island also includes the area of Aberdeen.

There are many famous places on the island, like Victoria Peak and Ocean Park. There are places that are important to history and large shopping centres. People like to hike on the mountains around the island.

References

Geography of Hong Kong
Islands of China
The Communist Party of China (spelled as 中国共产党/中國共產黨 in Simplified/Traditional Chinese, originally called the Chinese Communist Party) is the dominant political party and founder of the People's Republic of China, and is the only ruling party in People's Republic of China now. Originally, the party was led by Chen Duxiu, who was the General Secretary of the Central Committee. In the early stage, the CPC got help from the Communist International, and worked with Kuomintang until 1927. After the victory of World War II, the CPC led its own army called People's Liberation Army to fight with Kuomintang. Their fight is called The Chinese Communist Revolution. The CPC won the war. In 1949, the CPC drove Kuomintang out from mainland China and established (formed) the People's Republic of China. Ideologically, it is an communist Marxist-Leninist party.

From 1943 to 1982 the most powerful position in the party was Chairman. In 1982, members of the Central Committee voted to name the leader of the party General Secretary again. The current General Secretary is Xi Jinping.

Relationships with other parties

With other communist parties 
The CPC tries to keep good relationships(how good or bad they feel with each other) with other communist parties. Other communist parties also send people to have meets with the CPC. For example, the chairman of Portuguese Communist Party, Jeronimo de Sousa, met with Liu Qibao, a member of the Central Politburo in 2007. For another example, Pierre Laurent, the National Secretary of the French Communist Party (FCP), met with Liu Yunshan, a Politburo Standing Committee member.

Also, the CPC gives help to the communist party of Cuba in a wide range and a deep degree. After the disintegration of the USSR (USSR was not a whole country anymore), the CPC became the only major helpers of Cuba.

With other non-communist parties 
Communism had fallen in the Western Europe. The CPC began to make good party-to-party relations with other non-communist parties. The CPC also used this way to learn.

The relationships between the CPC and the Kuomintang and other parties in Taiwan, has loosened since Jiang Zemin’s time.

References

Politics of the People's Republic of China
China
The Tatar language is a Turkic language that is spoken by the Tatar people, and is the official language of the Republic of Tatarstan in Russia.

Alphabets
Like many other Turkic languages, different alphabets are used to write the Tatar language.

Cyrillic
In Russia, the Tatar alphabet is Cyrillic by a federal government law passed in 2002. It has 39 letters, of which 33 are the same as in Russian. The other 6 (and their positions in the alphabet) are:
Ә (between А and Б)
Җ (after Ж)
Ң (after Н)
Ө (between О and П)
Ү (after У)
Һ (between Х and Ц)

Latin
In 2001, the government of the Republic of Tatarstan created a Latin alphabet for the Tatar language called Zamanälif. But the next year, the federal government did not allow it to be made official. The Zamanälif alphabet has these 35 letters:

A, Ä, B, C, Ç, D, E, F, G, Ğ, H, I, İ, Í, J, K, L, M, N, Ñ, O, Ö, P, Q, R, S, Ş, T, U, Ü, V, W, X, Y, Z

There was another Latin alphabet for Tatar called Yañalif. It was used from 1928 to 1940, when it was replaced with Cyrillic by a Soviet law.

Arabic
There have been two Arabic alphabets used to write Tatar: İske imlâ and Yaña imlâ. İske imlâ is the older of the two and was used until 1920, when it was changed to become Yaña imlâ and remained in use until it was replaced by the Latin Yañalif alphabet. However, Tatars in China still use İske imlâ.

Since 2012, it is possible for people and organizations to write to the Tatarstan government in either the Latin or Arabic scripts, but the government has to answer in Cyrillic.

References

Turkic languages
Languages of Russia
Giordano Bruno (January 1548 – 17 February 1600) was an Italian friar of the Dominican Order.  He was also a philosopher and mathematician. He is best known for believing in the infinity of the universe.  His cosmological theories went beyond the Copernican model. 

Bruno thought the Sun was just one of an infinite number of independently moving heavenly bodies. He is the first man to have thought the stars we see at night are identical in nature to the Sun. For publishing beliefs contrary to Roman Catholic dogma about transubstantiation, trinity and other matters, he was burnt at the stake as a heretic by the Inquisition of the Roman Catholic Church.

Bruno also wrote extensive works on the art of memory, a loosely organized group of mnemonic techniques and principles.

The charges 
The Catholic Church made the following accusations against Bruno:
 Holding opinions contrary to the Catholic Faith and speaking against it and its ministers.
 Holding wrong opinions about the Trinity, about Christ's divinity and Incarnation.
 Holding wrong opinions about Christ.
 Holding wrong opinions about Transubstantiation and Mass.
 Claiming the existence of a plurality of worlds and their eternity.
 Believing in the transmigration of the human soul into brutes.
 Dealing in magics and divination.
 Denying the Virginity of Mary.

Bruno did accept and promote Copernicus' idea that the Earth revolves round the Sun. Many believe this was one of main reasons for his downfall; others think his theological beliefs were more critical. In 1584 he published two dialogues which argued for his idea on astronomy. Eight years later he was arrested, and his trial took another eight years. His accusers demanded complete recantation of all his 'erroneous' beliefs. He refused, and went to his death. Later the Inquisition used his example to terrify Galileo into withdrawing his works from publication.

Related pages 
 Galileo Galilei
 Heliocentrism
 Nicolaus Copernicus

References 

1548 births
1600 deaths
16th-century philosophers
Italian astronomers
Italian mathematicians
Italian philosophers
Italian Roman Catholics
Italian writers
People executed by burning