cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Software versioning is a way to name different versions of computer software. A computer software has different states in its life-cycle process from Development through deployment into Production and Sustainment. Each state in the process is given a unique version and version number. Versions are most often a sequence of one to four numbers (for example, 12.2.3) to represent Major.Minor.Maintenance actions, but can also use names, dates, or other sequencing mechanisms.  In some practices, the numbers are used with variations like the 3rd digit being replaced by a letter (for example, 4.1a).  The changes are all revisions in that something is being changed and the version number tells people how complex the change is to the software.

Many times, after a program has been made, things called patches can be downloaded from the program's website. The patches usually make small updates or fixes to the main program, such as fixing bugs or updating information or program functions. When a patch is used, the program is advanced to the next version, advancing the version number by the appropriate level.

Versioning
Twins are (including human) offspring that are born 

Human twins are two people that shared the during a single pregnancy, and one is normally born quickly after the first. Because of the size of the uterus,

Types of twins
There are 2 types of twins. They are:

Fraternal twins 
Fraternal twins are also known as "non-identical twins" or dizygotic twins. They happen when two ova are released from the ovary at the same time, and each is fertilized by a different sperm. This results in the birth of fraternal twins. They can be of different sexes. Genetically, they are no more similar than any two siblings.

Identical twins 

Identical twins or monozygotic twins: A single ovum is fertilized to form one zygote. This zygote later splits, and each half of the zygote becomes a twin. The twins have the same genes.

Variations 
There are five variations of twinning that occur commonly. The frequency varies in different populations. The three most common variations are all fraternal, meaning the two twins are not from the same egg: 
(1) male-female twins are the most common result, at about 41% of all twins born; 
(2) female fraternal twins (sometimes called sororal twins), about 20%; 
(3) male fraternal twins, about 19%. 
The last two variations are identical twins, which means they come from one single egg that split later: 
(4) female identical twins (about 10%) and 
(5) (least common) male identical twins (about 10%).

Other animals
Twinning is common in many other species, such as cats, sheep, and ferrets. Twinning occurs in cattle about 1-4% of the time, and research is being done to improve the chances of twins being born. If an animal has twins it can be more profitable for the breeder, especially if there is a smaller chance of miscarriage.

References 

Biological reproduction
A keyboard instrument is an instrument that is played by pressing the keys of a keyboard.  In a keyboard, the notes are arranged with naturals (usually white notes) forming the main body of the keyboard, and sharps and flats (usually black notes) placed in cuttings into the upper half of the naturals.

The ways in which the sound is made varies a lot:

 In the piano, hammers hit the strings.
 In the organ, air is sent through pipes.
 In the electronic organ or synthesizer, sound is made electronically.
 In the harpsichord, the strings are plucked by quills or “jacks”.
 In the clavichord, the strings are hit by a metal “tangent”.

In the 17th and 18th centuries, the word Clavier was used in Germany to mean any kind of keyboard instrument.  Often, the naturals were black and the sharps and flats were white (see picture of harpsichord), but the layout was exactly the same. 

The development of electronic instruments in the 20th century has brought about many different types of electronic keyboard instruments. These include the ondes Martenot and the synthesizer.

Nowadays, people often talk about a keyboard meaning an electronic keyboard (e.g. “He plays the keyboard”). The plural form of the word is "keyboards".

Yamaha have now made the most successful keyboards, selling over 770,000 a year

Types of keyboards 
Keyboard types include:

 Arranger keyboards
 Digital workstation keyboard

Arranger  keyboard 
Arrangers are mainly aimed at performers. Arrangers are mainly identified by their automatic accompaniment styles. They are used widely by musicians who perform by their own, more like a one-man band. Arrangers offer extensive libraries containing prerecorded accompaniment tracks in nearly every music style imaginable. The instrument can support their singing with onboard effects, vocal harmony, and lyric display while providing MIDI and/or audio file playback. Music played by the keyboardist can often be recorded and saved into a memory bank. Arrangers also help in writing songs and can provide realistic drum styles that match with the tempo and style the musician developed.

The top seller for arrangers include Yamaha and Korg which are used by many keyboardist worldwide.

Workstation keyboard 
A keyboard workstation is a keyboard that is used to change the features of a variety of sounds on a keyboard. Workstation allows one to create new voices using filters, effects and modulations. It also allows for mixing sounds. 

Top brands for these are Nord, Yamaha, Korg, Casio which are used by many keyboardists worldwide.

References
Sambucus is a genus in the family Adoxaceae. It is commonly called Elder or Elderberry. It includes several similar types of shrubs that produce fruit that is also called elderberries. The plant can be found in swampy habitats and other areas that provide enough water.

Black Elderberry has been found to be effective against the H5N1 strain of Avian Flu (Zakay-Rones et al. 1995). Black Elderberry contains a unique compound called Antivirin® that can help protect healthy cells and inactivate infectious viruses. When given to patients, scientists have found the Black Elderberry, has the ability to ward off flu infections quickly (Zakay-Rones 2004). Black Elderberries are rich in anthocyanins which are a type of flavonoid – anthocyanins are antioxidants that may protect cells from free radicals and support your body’s immune system.
Black Elderberries have almost 5 times as many anthocyanins as Blueberries and twice the overall antioxidant capability of cranberries
Black Elderberry has a more potent antiviral effect than Echinacea. At sites in Switzerland and Italy, researchers have uncovered evidence that the black elderberry may have been cultivated by prehistoric man, and there are recipes for elderberry-based medications in the records dating as far back as Ancient Egypt. Historians, however, generally trace the tradition of the elderberry’s healing power back to Hippocrates, the ancient Greek known as the “father of medicine,” who described this plant as his “medicine chest” for the wide variety of ailments it seemed to cure.

Over the centuries, elderberry has been used to treat colds, flu, fever, burns, cuts, and more than 70 other maladies, from a toothache to the plague. In the 17th century, John Evelyn, a British researcher, declared, “If the medicinal properties of its leaves, bark, and berries were fully known, I cannot tell what our countryman could ail for which he might not fetch a remedy [from the elderberry], either for sickness or wounds.”
 

Elderberry can grow in the form of a shrub or small tree, reaching up to 6 feet in height and width depending on the variety. It blooms during the spring or summer, and its flowers contain both male and female reproductive systems in the event that it is unable to reproduce through cross-pollination. It can be used to create a violet dye.

Other websites

Berries
Dipsacales
Jambul or Jamun or Jamblang or Jambhul जांभुळ (मराठी)(Syzgium cumini), Kaalo Jaam (Bangla) Naavar Pazham (Tamil) is an evergreen tropical tree in the flowering plant family Myrtaceae, native to India, Pakistan, Indonesia and Sri Lanka. It is also grown in other areas of southern Asia including Myanmar, Nepal and Afghanistan.  The tree was also introduced to Florida, USA in 1911 by the USDA, and is also now commonly planted in Suriname.  In Brazil, where it was introduced from India during Portuguese colonisation, it has spread out in the wild in some places, as many native birds such as thrushes, tanagers and the Great Kiskadee want their fruits.  The various names for this fruit are (in Java) plum, jambul, jamun, jaman, black plum, faux pistachier, Indian blueberry , jambol, doowet, jambolan and jambolão. Scientific synonyms include Syzygium jambolanum, Eugenia cumini and Eugenia jambolana.

A fairly fast growing species, it can grow as high as 30 metres, and can live more than 100 years.  Its dense foliage provides shade and is grown just for its ornamental value.  The wood is strong and water resistant.  Because of this it is used in railway sleepers and to install motors in wells. It is sometimes used to make cheap furniture and village dwellings though it is relatively hard to work on.

The Jamun tree starts flowering in March-April. The fragrant flowers of Jamun are small, nearly 5 millimetres in diameter.  This is followed by the fruit which appears in May-June and resembles a large berry. The berry is oblong and ovoid.  It is green when just appearing, pink when as it matures, and shining crimson black when fully ripe.  Another variety comes in white and some people say that it can be used as a medicine.  Jamun fruit is a mixture of sweet, slightly sub acid spicy flavour that stands out even after eaten since it turns the tongue into purple color. The fruit is universally accepted to be very good for medicinal purposes, especially diabetics.  The seed is also used in various alternative healing systems like Ayurveda, Unani and Chinese medicine for digestive ailments. The leaves and bark are used for controlling blood pressure and gingivitis.  Wine and vinegar are also made from the fruit.

Tropical fruit
Trees
Myrtaceae
Jackfruit (also called "Jakfruit") is a type of fruit from India, Bangladesh (National fruit) and Sri Lanka. When a Jackfruit ripens, it changes from green to slightly yellow.

References

Other websites 
 

Tropical fruit
Moraceae
National symbols of Bangladesh
National symbols of Sri Lanka
Epitaph Records is an American record label. The company mainly deals with punk bands. Epitaph was started by Bad Religion guitarist Brett Gurewitz. Bands that have signed this label are:

 1208
 Alkaline Trio
 ALL *
 Bad Religion
 The Blackout
 The Boss 
 The Bouncing Souls *
 Bring Me the Horizon (U.S. only)
 Busdriver
 Cadence Weapon
 Can't Hang
 The Color of Violence
 Converge
 The Coup
 Danger Doom
 Darkest Souls
 Death By Stereo *
 Descendents *
 The Draft
 Dropkick Murphys *
 Escape the Fate
 Every Time I Die
 Farewell
 Frank Turner (U.S. only)
 Frenzal Rhomb (Australia only)
 The Ghost of a Thousand
 Green Day (re-releasing old material in Europe) *
 Guttermouth *
 The Higher
 The Hives *
 The Hot Melts
 I Am Ghost
 I Set My Friends On Fire
 Leathermouth
 The Locust
 Matchbook Romance
 Millencolin (U.S. only)
 New Found Glory
 NOFX *
 Off With Their Heads
 The Offspring *
 Our Last Night
 Parkway Drive (U.S. only)
 Pennywise
 The Pietasters *
 Rancid (now on Epitaph's sub-label Hellcat Records) *
 Rich Kids on LSD *
 The Robocop Kraus
 Sage Francis
 Settle
 Set Your Goals
 Social Distortion
 Sing It Loud
 SNFU *
 SoliLLaquists of Sound
 Story of the Year
 Joe Strummer & The Mescaleros *
 Ten Foot Pole *
 This City
 Thursday
 Vanna
 Veara
 The Weakerthans
 You Me At Six (U.S. only)

The asterisk (*) marks indicate as those who are no longer signed to Epitaph.

American record labels
A cantaloupe (also known as a rockmelon, sweet melon, or spanspek) is a type of fruit. It is a muskmelon that is probably related to the watermelon. There are two types of cantaloupe, European and North American. Cantaloupes range in size from 0.5 to 5.0 kilograms (1.1 to 11 lb).

Types of cantaloupe 
 The European cantaloupe is oblong with a light green skin.
 The North American cantaloupe is round with a thin light brown skin. The flesh of the fruit is firm, orange and sweet.

Nutrition

Cantaloupes are a source of polyphenol antioxidants. These are chemicals which were thought to provide certain health benefits to the cardiovascular and immune systems by regulating the formation of nitric oxide. Nitric oxide is a key chemical in promoting health of the endothelium and prevention of heart attacks. However, recent research has indicated they do not benefit the body. The body already has ways to deal with oxidation.

Cantaloupes also are an excellent source of vitamin C.

Dirty cantaloupes can spread bacteria. In 2011, 21 people died in the United States from cantaloupes having listeria bacteria. The bad cantaloupes were traced back from around the country to a single farm in Colorado.

References

Other websites 
 Nutritional and Historical Information 
 MSNBC Article on Farming of Hybridization That Mentions Cantaloupes

Melons
Cucurbitales
Smash is one of The Offspring's most successful albums. It came out in 1994 under the label Epitaph Records. It contains their famous hit singles such as "Come Out and Play (Keep 'Em Separated)" and "Self Esteem". Smash is often credited as one of the best punk rock albums sold in the entire world, and is the best selling album ever made on an independent label.

The album is also one of the albums that started mainstream Pop punk music.

Occasionally on the album, there's a guy who comments on the music, but it is not revealed who.

Track listing
"Time to Relax" - 0:25
"Nitro (Youth Energy)" - 2:27
"Bad Habit" - 3:43
"Gotta Get Away" - 3:52
"Genocide" - 3:33
"Something to Believe In" - 3:17
"Come Out and Play" - 3:17
"Self Esteem" - 4:17
"It'll Be a Long Time" - 2:43
"Killboy Powerhead" (The Didjits) - 2:02
"What Happened to You?" - 2:12
"So Alone" - 1:17
"Not the One" - 2:55
"Smash" - 10:39

References

The Offspring albums
1994 albums
Punk albums
Apples is a municipality in Switzerland. It is in Vaud Canton. Vaud Canton has 364 communes in it.

References

Other websites 

  Official website
  Aerial views of the municipality
  Commune de Apples - VD - Suisse . communal.ch.

Municipalities of Vaud
Finance is a study which figures out how people, businesses and groups make and use money. It can mean:

 Thinking about money
 Thinking about how to control money to make profit
 Studying how to take chances in projects that make money
 As a verb, "to finance" is to provide money for business
Any system that includes circulation of money.

Some simple finance ideas
The process of finance is learning how people and groups act in managing their money, and most of all how they manage making money, and making a profit, with spending money, or making a loss.

A group that makes more money than it spends can lend or invest the excess profit. On the other hand, a group that makes less money than it spends can raise money by getting a loan or selling stock, or spending less, or making more money. 

A bank is where many people borrowing money meet people lending money. A bank gets money from lenders, and pays interest. The bank then lends this money to borrowers. Banks allow borrowers and lenders of different sizes to meet. 

Corporate finance is  about things like the sale of stock by a company to the public. Stock is ownership in a company, broken up into pieces. The stock gives whoever owns it part ownership in that company.  If someone buys one share of XYZ Inc, and the company has 100 shares available, the buyer is 1/100th owner of that company and owns 1/100th (1%) of the profit. 

Finance is used by people, by governments, by businesses, etc., as well as by all kinds of groups.

Personal Finance

This is finance for people. It is about: 
How much money will be needed by a person, now and when they get old.
Where will this money come from (e.g. savings or borrowing)?  
How can people protect themselves against problems with money in their lives?
How can family money be given to children and grandchildren?
How do taxes affect money choices?

Business finance

Business finance is about finding money for a company's activities. It studies trying to make more profit than loss, and taking good risks for the chance to make more money.

Financial economics

Financial economics is the study of economics which is important to financial things like changes in price and supply of goods. 

It studies how much risk some actions that a company may take will cause, and how the company should spend its money.

Financial maths

Financial maths is the study of maths for financial markets. Financial maths studies mathematics, mainly statistics.

Other websites 
 Wharton Finance Knowledge Project - Finance knowledge
For facts about three areas in finance - company finance, money and investment management, see  Prof. Aswath Damodaran
For links to finance web sites see Web Sites for Discerning Finance Students, Prof. John M. Wachowicz- 
For the introductory finance web site at the University of Arizona, studyfinance.com
For introductory articles on mathematical finance see quantnotes
For introductory articles on behavioral finance see the BF gallery
For introductory articles on financial analysis see Financial Analysis
Learn how to practice good Financial Planning
The Governor General of Canada is the person who represents Canada's Queen (or King). The Queen of Canada does not spend much time in Canada because she is also the Queen of several other countries.

The Governor General is technically chosen by the Queen and is allowed to use almost all of the Queen's powers. But most of the time neither the Queen nor the Governor General use their powers without advice from the Prime Minister of Canada.

 The Queen would normally always choose whoever the Prime Minister wants them to choose to become Governor General.

 The Governor General usually uses his/her powers for what the Prime Minister advices him/her to do.

Once in a while the Prime Minister may want something done that the Governor General is not allowed to do on her own. The Prime Minister must then go straight to the Queen, for example for the appointment of 4 or 8 extra Senators to Parliament.

Official Title

As Canada has two official federal languages, the Governor General's title is in both English and French.  

The Governor General's style and title in full is, in , and in

Living former governors-general of Canada
As of , there are five living former governors general of Canada. The most recently deceased former governor general, Roméo LeBlanc (1995–1999), died on 24 June 2009.

 
C
Joseph Roland "Joe" Barbera (March 24, 1911 – December 18, 2006) was an Italian American animator, cartoon artist, storyboard artist, director, producer, and co-founder, together with William Hanna, of Hanna-Barbera. He was born in Manhattan and raised in Flatbush, Brooklyn. The studio produced well-known cartoons such as Tom and Jerry, The Huckleberry Hound Show, The Flintstones, The Jetsons, Scooby-Doo as well as the musical film, ''Charlotte's Web.

Other websites 
 
 Joseph Barbera profile from Tom and Jerry Online
 Hanna Barbera Studios
 Obituary at BBC news

1911 births
2006 deaths
American animators
American television directors
American television producers
Artists from New York City
Deaths from natural causes
Movie directors from New York City
Movie producers from New York City
People from Brooklyn
People from Manhattan
William Denby "Bill" Hanna (July 14, 1910 in Mexico, New Mexico – March 22, 2001 in Los Angeles, California) was an American animator, director, producer, cartoon artist, and co-founder with Joseph Barbera of Hanna-Barbera. The studio made well-known cartoons, such as The Huckleberry Hound Show, The Flintstones, The Jetsons, and Scooby-Doo, as well as the musical movie, ''Charlotte's Web.

American animators
American movie producers
American movie directors
American television directors
American television producers
1910 births
2001 deaths
Deaths from laryngeal cancer
An apple is a kind of fruit.  Apple may also mean:
 Apple Inc., a company that makes computers, portable music players, cell phones and computer software
 Apple Corps is a company that was founded by The Beatles
 Apple Records, a record label and part of Apple Corps
 Apples, Vaud is a village in the Swiss canton of Vaud
Spruce are trees of the genus Picea, a genus of about 35 species of coniferous evergreen trees in the Family Pinaceae, found in the northern temperate and taiga regions of the earth.

Spruces are large trees, from 20 to 60 (–95) m tall when mature, and can be distinguished by their conical form and their needles, that are attached singly to the branches in a spiral fashion. The needles are shed when 4–10 years old.

Classification 
 Picea abies Norway spruce. Europe; important in forestry. The original Christmas tree.
 Picea asperata Dragon spruce. Western China; several varieties.
 Picea meyeri Meyer's spruce. Northern China.
 Picea koraiensis Korean spruce. Korea, northeast China.
 Picea koyamae Koyama's spruce. Japan (mountains).

Other websites 
 Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 1)
 Arboretum de Villardebelle Picea cone photos Cones of selected species (page 2)
 Gymnosperm Database – Picea

Conifers
Cell division is how a cell, called the parent cell, divides into two cells, called daughter cells. When the cell divides, everything inside it divides also. The nucleus and the chromosomes divide, and the mitochondria divide also.

In mitosis, an ordinary body (somatic) cell divides to make two daughter cells.

In meiosis, a cell divides twice, to produce four gametes (sex cells). The first division of meiosis is a special kind of cell division called a reduction division because the number of chromosomes is halved. The second division of meiosis is similar to mitosis.

Cells are the 'building blocks' of life, and cell division is a basic feature of life. For simple unicellular organisms like Amoebozoa, one cell division reproduces the entire organism. On a larger scale, cell division can create offspring from multicellular organisms, such as plants that grow from cuttings. But most importantly, cell division enables organisms that are able to sexually reproduce to develop from the one-celled fertilised egg (zygote). Cell division also allows for continual renewal and repair of the organism.

References 

Cell biology
Chromosomes
In geography, temperate latitudes of the Earth lie between the subtropics and the polar circles. Average yearly temperatures in these regions are not extreme, not burning hot nor freezing cold. Temperate means moderate.

Unlike in the tropics, temperatures can change greatly here, between summer and winter. So, most places with a temperate climate have four seasons: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Other areas with a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather. One day it may be sunny, the next may be rainy, and after that it may be cloudy. This is normal in summer as well as in winter. These are the main types of temperate climate:

 A maritime climate is generally for locations near the sea. That includes London, Dublin, Melbourne or Auckland. Most places do not have a rainy season and a dry season. Prevailing winds in the temperate zone are from the west.  The western edge of temperate continents usually get this maritime climate. Examples are Western Europe, and western North America at latitudes between 40° and 60° north (65°N in Europe).
 Some parts of the temperate zone have a Mediterranean climate, which have a dry summer – for example Rome, Cape Town, Santiago or Adelaide.
 Some parts of the temperate zone, especially in the northern part of the continental climate, have severe winters – for example Moscow or Minnesota – this is called a hemiboreal climate.
 Some places in the temperate zone have hot summers and cold winters, for example Chicago, Beijing, Budapest or Almaty.

References 

Climate
Regions
The Lithuanian language is a Baltic language. It is from Lithuania, spoken in a few countries in Europe, as well as in the Americas and Australia. 

Lithuanian and Latvian are the only remaining Baltic languages. Both languages have much in common. Lithuanian, however, adopted fewer words and phrases from German and other languages. However, many words were adopted into Lithuanian by Slavic languages long ago, but in 1920, Lithuanian philologist Jonas Jablonskis and others replaced them with native Lithuanian words.

There are two main dialects of Lithuanian. Samogitian is used mostly in West Lithuania, and the other that is widely used in the whole country is Aukštaitian (Highlanders' dialect). The standard Lithuanian comes from West Aukštaitian. 

The first book written in Lithuanian is Katekizmas by Martynas Mažvydas. It was published in East Prussia in 1547.

Even though Lithuanian was written down relatively recently, it is known for being close to old Indo-European languages, keeping old traits found only in early languages like Vedic Sanskrit and lost in later languages.

References 

Lithuania
Baltic languages
Languages of Europe
Depeche Mode is an English band. They formed in Basildon, Essex in 1980. The band's name was taken from French fashion magazine, Dépêche mode, which means "fashion update" or "fashion news dispatch". Depeche Mode became famous in the 1980s. The band has sold over 100 million records around the world.

Depeche Mode were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2020.

Depeche Mode has three members:
 Dave Gahan
 Martin Lee Gore
 Andrew Fletcher

Discography 

 Speak & Spell (1981)
 A Broken Frame (1982)
 Construction Time Again (1983)
 Some Great Reward (1984)
 Black Celebration (1986)
 Music for the Masses (1987)
 Violator (1990)
 Songs of Faith and Devotion (1993)
 Ultra (1997)
 Exciter (2001)
 Playing the Angel (2005)
 Sounds of the Universe (2009)
 Delta Machine (2013)
 Spirit (2017)

Other websites 

 The official Depeche Mode website
 Depeche Mode International  (Official Fan Club on Smule)

1980 establishments in England
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1980
Musical groups from Essex
New wave bands
The taiga  is a large area of coniferous forests. It covers most of inland Alaska, Canada, Sweden, Finland, inland Norway, northern Kazakhstan and Russia (especially Siberia), as well as parts of the northern continental United States.

In Canada, boreal forest is the term used to refer to the southern part of these forests, while "taiga" is used to describe the northern areas south of the Arctic tree line that separates it from tundra.

The trees are mostly pines, spruces and larches. The climate is cold winters and cool summers.

References

Other websites 

Boreal Forests/Taiga (WWF)
Terraformers Canadian Taiga Conservation Foundation 
Arctic and Taiga (Canadian Geographic)
Coniferous Forest. Earth Observatory. NASA.  .
Taiga Rescue Network (TRN) A network of NGOs, indigenous peoples or individuals that works to protect the boreal forests.
Index of Boreal Forests/Taiga ecoregions at bioimages.vanderbilt.edu 
The Nature Conservancy and its partners work to protect the Canadian Boreal Forest 
Slater museum of natural history: Taiga 

Forests
Biomes
The Conifers are cone-bearing seed plants. Most are trees; some are shrubs. They are formally the Division Pinophyta or Coniferophyta.

Conifers are Gymnosperms. They are cone-bearing seed plants with vascular tissue. All living conifers are woody plants, and most are trees.

Living conifers are all in the order Pinales. Typical examples include cedars, cypresses, firs, junipers, kauris, larches, pines, redwoods, spruces, and yews.

Species of conifers can be found in almost all parts of the world, and are often the most common plants in their habitats, as in  the taiga. Conifers are of great economic value, and their wood is mainly used for timber and  paper making The wood of conifers is known as softwood, though yew wood is actually quite hard. The division Coniferae contains about 700 living species.

Evolution 
The earliest conifers were in the late Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) period (about 300 million years ago), Pinophytes, Cycads, and Ginkgos all developed at this time. These plants live without being so dependent on water. Other adaptations are pollen (so fertilisation can occur without water) and the seed, which allows the embryo to be transported and developed elsewhere.

Conifers appear to be one of the taxa that benefited from the Permian–Triassic extinction event. They were the dominant land plants of the Mesozoic era. Conifers were eventually overtaken by the flowering plants, which first appeared in the Cretaceous. Flowering plants became dominant in the Cainozoic era.

Conifers were a main food of herbivorous dinosaurs, and their resins and poisons no doubt gave them some protection against herbivores. All the reproductive features of modern conifers had evolved by the end of the Mesozoic era.

Related pages 
 Gymnosperm
 Conifer cones

References
In biology, binomial nomenclature is how species are named. The name of a species is made of two parts: one indicating the genus and one indicating the species. Binomial nomenclature means "two-part name" or "system of two-part names".

History 
The person who popularized this system for use was Swedish botanist and physician Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778).  He gave a two-part name to every species he knew.  This kind of naming had been used before Linnaeus by some naturalists, but after Linnaeus, it was accepted as a good method.

Value of binomial nomenclature 
The value of the binomial nomenclature comes from several things. It saves words because it replaces long descriptions, it is used everywhere, and the names are unique and stable. The system ended the use of local common names, which was the source of much confusion. When science was done by just a few European countries their common names for species were well-known. But as it happened, the common names in all countries was rather different. The same name might be used for more than one species, and several species given the same name. In the Linnaeus system, everyone uses the same name for the same species. Linnaeus chose Latin names: first, because it avoided competitive nationalism; second, because most educated people in his day learned Latin.

The system has been a great success, but it does have some problems. It is not always clear what is a species and what is not. Although many species are quite clear, some are put into one species by some biologists, and into several species by others. Linnaeus himself noticed that species were not always distinct.Today we know something about why this is so. In practice, international committees make decisions about naming species in difficult cases.

Main points 
Widespread: worldwide use instead of different local names.
Clarity: avoids the same term used for different species. Example: "robin" used for different birds in America compared to Europe.
Uniqueness: One name for a species.
Stability: the rules favour stability. 
Simplicity: said to be easier to remember than the previous system.

Where names come from 
The components of a name may come from any source whatsoever. Often they are Latin words, but come originally from Greek. This is gradually changing, and names may now come from a Latinized version of a place, a person, a name from a local language, etc.

Related pages 
 Biological classification
 Taxonomy

References

Other websites 
 The Language of Horticulture 

Taxonomy
A system  is a group of related things that work together as a whole. These things can be real or imaginary. Systems can be man-made things like a car engine or natural things like a star system. Systems can also be concepts made by people to organize ideas. 

A subsystem is a system that is part of some larger system. For example, in computer networking, a disk subsystem is a part of a computer system.

Definition  
A system is a group of things that connect and form some kind of coherent whole.

One of the founders of physiology, Claude Bernard, took a big step when he noticed that the internal systems of the body tend to keep things the same even if they are disturbed. He called the functions which keep system stable as homeostasis. This led towards the ideas of error-correction, feedback and regulation. These are all typical of systems which have some kind of goal and can adjust their behaviour so as to correct errors.

Example 
The Solar System is an example of a system. The Solar System includes the Sun and the eight planets, as well as the moons of those planets. These and other members are linked by gravity and by their history as a  planetary system.

Types of systems 
There are many kinds of systems. The key is that the elements of a system work together as a whole whilst still keeping their own identity. This is why planetary systems and body systems are good examples. They work together but have their own separate identity.
 Systems in a living person, such as digestive system, nervous system, and so on. These systems operate so as to keep the body's physiology going within limits.
 Systems of life, such as life cycle, carbon cycle, or ecosystem
 Systems in science, such as the  solar system
 Any mechanical or electrical gadgets where parts work together to keep the output within certain limits. A thermostat is the classic example of this.

Related pages
 Systems theory
 Systems science
 Cybernetics

References 

 
Systems theory
Basic English 850 words
Amanda Joy "AJ" Michalka (born April 10, 1991) is an American singer and actress from Torrance, California. Her parents are Carrey Begley-Michalka and Mark Michalka. Her older sister is actress Alyson Michalka. She and her sister are in the band 78violet. She starred with her sister in the Disney movie Cow Belles. She is of German-American ancestry.

Biography
Amanda Michalka was born in Torrance, California in 1991. Her older sister, Alyson "Aly" Michalka and their parents moved to Seattle, Washington. There her parents made sure they were exposed to all varieties of music. They then moved back to Southern California, where they still live.

Career
Michalka was in a number of WORD Music Productions at her church in Southern California as a young child. Michalka plays a variety of instruments such as acoustic guitar, electric guitar, piano, and bongos. She used to be a model for catalogs. In March 2006, she made her first appearance on the Disney Channel in the Disney Channel Original Movie Cow Belles, as "Courtney Callum", along with sister Aly, as "Taylor Callum". She has also made appearances on shows such as Oliver Beene, Six Feet Under, The Guardian, and General Hospital. She also appeared with her sister in the MTV movie, Super Sweet 16: The Movie.

Albums
 Insomniatic (2007)
 Acoustic Hearts of Winter (2006)
 Into The Rush (2005)

Filmography

Feature movies
 The Lovely Bones (2009) - Clarissa, Susie’s best friend.

Television movies
 Super Sweet 16: The Movie (2007) - Sara Conners
 Cow Belles (2006) - Courtney Callum

Television series
 Aly & AJ: Sister Act (2007) - Herself
 Kitty's Dish (2005) - Kitty
 Six Feet Under (2004) - Ashley
 General Hospital (2004) - Ashley B.
 Oliver Beene (2003-2004) - Bonnie
 The Guardian (2002-2004) - Shannon Gressler
 Birds of Prey (2002-2003) - Young Dinah

Guest appearances
 Fox & Friends (2007) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2007) - Herself
 Punk'd (2007) -  Herself
 Total Request Live (2006) - Herself
 Live with Regis and Kelly (2006) - Herself
 Good Morning America (2006) - Herself
 America's Got Talent (2006) - Herself
 MTV Cribs (2006) - Herself
 The Megan Mullally Show (2006) - Herself

References

Other websites 
 
 Hollywood Records's Aly & AJ Bio 

American television actors
American rock guitarists
Actors from Los Angeles County, California
Musicians from Los Angeles County, California
Singers from Los Angeles County, California
American pop musicians
1991 births
Living people
People from Torrance, California
Adolf von Henselt (born Schwabach, Bavaria, May 9 1814; died Warmbrunn (now Cieplice), Silesia, October 10 1889) was a German pianist and composer.  He had piano lessons from Hummel in Weimar.  When he was a young man he played in concerts all over Germany.  Then he went to Russia where he was very successful and he settled there to live.  He became pianist at the court of the tsar and taught the tsar’s children how to play the piano.

Henselt was known for his beautiful playing of the music of Chopin.  He was very good at playing widely spaced arpeggios and could make them sound very smooth (legato) even if he was not using the pedal.

As a composer he is mostly remembered today for a few of his short works which are often quite sentimental, e.g. Frühlingslied (Spring Song) and Si oiseau j’étais (If I were a bird).

German composers
Romantic composers
German pianists
1814 births
1889 deaths
The cherry tomato is a type of tomato that is a fruit. This type of tomato was originally developed in Israel.

Tomatoes

de:Kirschtomate
The Imperial units or the Imperial system is a collection of measurement units. An Act of Parliament in 1824 created it from traditional English units. Commonwealth countries used this system from 1824 until they changed to the metric system. The imperial system is very similar to the American system but there are some differences.

Length 

The British nautical mile used to be 6080 feet. In 1970 the UK adopted the international definition of 1852 metres.

Measures of area

Volume 

The full table of British apothecaries’ measure is:

For a comparison to the United States customary units see the article on Comparison of the Imperial and US customary systems.

Mass and weight

Related pages
 International System of Units

Other websites 
 Canada - Weights and Measures Act 1970-71-72 
 British Weights And Measures Association 
 Jacques J. Proot's Anglo-Saxon weights & measures  page.
The imperial and U.S. customary systems are similar, but there are some differences between them.

Volume 
The main difference is in units of volume. The American system has two gallons: a wet and a dry one. The imperial gallon is bigger than each of these. However, the imperial fluid ounce is slightly smaller than the American one.

Length 
The international yard is exactly 0.9144 metres. This definition was agreed upon by the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand in 1959. However, the United States continued to use its old length units for surveying purposes. The US survey foot is exactly 1200/3937 metre.

Weight 
Another difference is in units of mass. In Britain people often use the stone. One stone is 14 pounds. Eight stones are one hundredweight (112 lb). Twenty hundredweights are one ton. So one British ton is 2240 pounds. It is very close to the tonne of the metric system.

In the United States people do not use the stone. They usually use a hundredweight of 100 pounds. This hundredweight is also called a short hundredweight. Twenty short hundredweights are one short ton. The British hundredweight is also called the long hundredweight and the Britsh ton is also called the long ton.

Related pages
 Imperial units
 United States customary units
 International System of Units
 Metric system

Measurement
Maccabi Haifa Football Club (, Moadon HaKaduregel Maccabi Haifa) is an Israeli football team from the city of Haifa, a section of Maccabi Haifa sports club. The club has won 11 championships, five State Cups and four Toto Cups. The club was founded in 1913, and it is one of the country's most successful teams in Europe, being the first Israeli club to qualify for the group stage of the UEFA Champions League.

History

First seventy years of obscurity
Maccabi Haifa Football Club was established in 1913 in the port city of Haifa. It was a small, struggling club that spent most of its time between the Liga Leumit and the lower leagues. 

The club was overshadowed by their city rivals Hapoel Haifa, who were then the darling club of the city of Haifa and especially of then mayor Abba Hushi. But even in its first years the club adapted a very adventurous and offensive style of play based on technique and short passes. In 1942, the club reached the Israel State Cup final, but was humiliated 12-1 by Beitar Tel Aviv in the final, which is the club's worst defeat ever. In 1962, the club won its only honour until the 80s, when the team defeated Maccabi Tel Aviv 5-2 in the State Cup final. In 1963 they reached the final again, but failed to defend their title losing to arch-rivals Hapoel Haifa 1-0.

Maccabi Haifa F. C. is a professional football (soccer) club in Israel. Founded in 1913, it is Israel's most successful club both domestically and in European competitions.

Club Titles
Leagues Won
 Israeli Premier League - 12 Times Won
Cups Won
 Israeli Cup - 6 Times Won
 Toto Cup - 4 Times Won

Famous Players ever in Maccabi Haifa F.C.
Avi Ran, 
Adoram Keisi, 
Eyal Berkovic,
Yaniv Katan,
Yossi Benayoun,
Reuven Atar and
Alon Mizrahi

Best Club Records 
Most Goals in season - 1993/1994

Most Games played without losing strike - 46 Games (From Seasons 1993-1995)

Most Away Undefeated Strike - 30

Most Points in a Year - 96 Points

Fan Organization 
Maccabi Haifa has three  fan organizations. One of them and the biggest one, is the Green Apes, founded in 2002. Second, is Inferno Verde, which means The Green Hell, founded in 2010. Third, is Ultra Boys.

The Green Apes (aka: The Ultras) consist of 2,400 people, while Inferno Verde includes 100.

Squad
As of September 1 2009.

References 

Israeli football clubs
Haifa
1913 establishments in Asia
1910s establishments in Israel
In physical geography, tundra is where the tree growth is hindered by low temperatures and short growing seasons. The term "tundra" comes from tūndâr which means 'uplands, tundra, treeless mountains.

There are three types of tundra: Arctic tundra, Antarctic tundra, and alpine tundra. In all of these types, the plants are mostly grass, moss, and lichens. Trees grow in some of the tundra. The boundary between the tundra and the forest is known as the tree line or timberline.The area itself encircles the Arctic Ocean of the Northern Hemisphere. The climate in a tundra biome consists of freezing cold and dryness in the winter and cold summers. The tundra ground is a barren place, often covered with rocks.

Most water on the tundra is frozen within the soil. The permanent frozen soil is called permafrost. Permafrost and fierce winds prevent large trees from growing deep roots. Plants in the tundra are small and grow close to the ground. Plants called cushions grow in tight clumps in the tundra, but lichens are the dominant plants. Lichens cover the rocks. The few trees that do grow on the tundra are dwarf willows and birch.

The deep and cold snow makes life in the tundra very difficult. Every animal must adapt in order to survive. Some have thick fur that turns white during the winter. Others find places to hibernate during the winter months. Some examples of animals that live in the tundra are: rodents, hares, sables, caribou, wolves, arctic foxes, bears, walruses, seals, and snowy owls.

References

Other websites 

WWF Tundra Ecoregions 
The Arctic biome at Classroom of the Future
British Antarctica Survey
Antarctica: West of the Transantarctic Mountains
Tundra Food Chain | How The Tundra Food Chain Works?

Biomes
The lift force, lifting force or simply lift is the sum of all the forces on a body that force it to move perpendicular to the direction of flow. 

The most common type of lift is that of a wing of an aircraft.  But there are many other common uses such as propellers on both aircraft and boats, rotors on helicopters, fan blades, sails on sailboats, and wind turbines.

While the common meaning of the term "lift" suggests an "upwards" action, lift can be in any direction. For instance, for a sail the lift is horizontal, and for the wing on a race car the lift is down.

There are a number of ways of explaining the production of lift; some are more complicated than others, some have been shown to be false. The simplest explanation is that the wing deflects air downward, and the reaction pushes the wing up. 

 Other websites 
 How Airplanes Fly: A Physical Description of Lift
 NASA tutorial, with animation, describing lift
 Description on one very common incorrect explanation of lift
 Discussion of the apparent "conflict" between the various explanations of lift
 Explanation of Lift with animation of fluid flow around an airfoil
 A treatment of why and how wings generate lift that focuses on pressure.

Force
Aviation
The tropics are the region of the Earth near to the equator and between the Tropic of Cancer in the northern hemisphere and the Tropic of Capricorn in the southern hemisphere. This region is also referred to as the tropical zone and the torrid zone.

This area includes all the areas of the Earth where the sun reaches a point directly overhead at least once a year. The word "tropics" comes from Greek tropos meaning "turn", because the apparent position of the Sun moves between the two tropics within a year.

The word Tropical specifically means places near the equator. The word is also sometimes used in a general sense for a tropical climate, a climate that is warm to hot and moist year-round. This includes tropical rainforests with lush vegetation. However, there are mountains in the tropics that are anything but "tropical" in this sense, with even alpine tundra and snow-capped peaks, including Mauna Kea, Mt. Kilimanjaro, and the Andes as far south as the northernmost parts of Chile and Argentina. Places in the tropics which are hot and dry include the Atacama Desert, Sahara Desert, Central Africa, most parts of Western Africa and Northern Australian Outback.

Some parts of Eurasia are also in the torrid zone.

People in some tropical places call their seasons "dry"/"hot" and "rainy"/"wet", especially where the seasons are made by monsoons. Tropical cyclones form in tropical ocean areas, and some move from there into the temperate zone. Tropical plants and animals are native to the tropics or the Torrid zone.

Regions
Kilimanjaro (or Kilimanjaro, which means "shining mountain" in Swahili), formerly Kaiser-Wilhelm-Spitze, is a mountain in northeastern Tanzania. Kilimanjaro is the tallest free-standing mountain rise in the world, rising 4600 meters (15,000 ft) from the base, and is the highest peak in Africa at 5,895 meters (19,340 ft). It gives a dramatic view from the surrounding plains.  Almost 85% of the ice cover on Kilimanjaro disappeared from October 1912 to June 2011.

Kilimanjaro is also a strato-like volcano. It has explosive eruptions. The last major eruption was about 100,000 years ago. killimanjaro is 5895 meters tall.

Climbing and acclimatization 
There are 6 routes up Kilimanjaro: Lemosho, Machame, Marangu, Umbwe, Rongai and Northern Circuit.

Since there are big differences in height, climbers can feel Altitude sickness. 7-, 8- and 9-day routes are recommended (especially for beginners), as on them it will be easier to adapt to less oxygen in the air. The more time is spent being on the slope, the easier it is to acclimatize.

References 

Mountains of Africa
Geography of Tanzania
A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a damp climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon. The usual Tropical climate is humid and wet. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest. 

Some tropical areas are dry, which makes them savannas. A few places near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro, are high mountains and cold for that reason.

Examples of tropical climates 
 Rainforests
 Savanna
 Semi-arid

Ecology
Köppen climate classifications