cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A selectable marker is a reporter gene introduced into a cell along with a gene insert. What this means is, the experimenter can tell the right gene is in the cell because the marker can be seen or detected.

Most often, this is used for  bacteria or for cells in culture. Selectable markers show the success of a transfection or other procedure meant to introduce foreign DNA into a cell. It is a technique in gene targeting and gene knockout.

Selectable markers are often antibiotic resistance genes; bacteria that have been subjected to a procedure to introduce foreign DNA are grown on a medium containing an antibiotic.  The antibiotic knocks out cells which do not have the resistant marker. Those bacterial colonies that can grow have successfully taken up and expressed the introduced genetic material.

An alternative to a selectable marker is a screenable marker, which allows the researcher to distinguish between wanted and unwanted cells.

Examples of selectable markers include:
Beta-lactamase which confers ampicillin resistance to bacterial hosts.
Neo gene from Tn5, which confers antibiotic resistance to kanamycin in bacteria and to geneticin in eukaryote cells.
Mutant FabI gene (mFabI) from E. coli genome, which confers triclosan resistance to the host.

References 

Genetic engineering
Artificial life (commonly Alife or alife) is a field of study which examines systems related to life, its processes, and its evolution. This is done with simulations using computer models, robotics, and biochemistry. There are three main kinds of alife, named for their approaches:  soft, from software; hard, from hardware; and wet, from biochemistry. Artificial life imitates traditional biology by trying to recreate biological phenomena.  The term "artificial life" is often used to specifically refer to soft alife.

References

Scientific modeling
Ingo Rechenberg''' (born January 20 1934 in Berlin) is a German computer scientist and professor. Rechenberg is a pioneer of the fields of evolutionary computation and artificial evolution.   In the 1960s and 1970s he invented a highly influential set of optimization methods known as evolution strategies (from German Evolutionsstrategie''). His group successfully applied the new algorithms to challenging problems such as aerodynamic wing design. These were the first serious technical applications of artificial evolution, an important subset of the still growing field of bionics.

Rechenberg was educated at the Technical University of Berlin and at the University of Cambridge. Since 1972 he has been a full professor at the  Technical University of Berlin, where he is heading the Department of Bionics and Evolution Techniques.

His awards include the Lifetime Achievement Award of the Evolutionary Programming Society (US, 1995) and the Evolutionary Computation Pioneer Award of the IEEE Neural Networks Society (US, 2002). In 1954, Rechenberg also became world champion in the field of model airplanes.

Selected bibliography 

 Ingo Rechenberg (1971): Evolutionsstrategie - Optimierung technischer Systeme nach Prinzipien der biologischen Evolution (PhD thesis). Reprinted by Fromman-Holzboog (1973).
 Ingo Rechenberg: Evolutionsstrategie '94. Stuttgart: Frommann-Holzboog 1994.

References

Other websites 

Rechenberg's Bionic's Lab in Berlin  (in German) and in English 

1934 births
Living people
Crème brûlée (or Crème brulée) is a dessert. It is made of custard. It is topped with a thin, brittle crust of caramelized sugar. It may be served cold, warm, or at room temperature. The custard is baked, and then sprinkled with sugar Casa  that is caramelized under a broiler or with a kitchen blowtorch. The custard is flavored with vanilla. Other flavorings include chocolate, orange liqueur, fruit, or other. The caramelized sugar crust can be covered with a liqueur and set on fire.

The exact origin of crème brûlée is uncertain. France, England, and Spain all claim to be the country where crème brûlée had its origin. The first printed recipe for a dessert called crème brûlée is from the 1691 edition of the French cookbook Le Cuisinier Royal et Bourgeois by Francois Massialot, a cook at the Palace of Versailles. That version was a sweet custard of egg yolks and milk with a burnt sugar crust. It is similar to the modern versions. In the second edition of the book, the dessert is called crème anglaise.  

At Trinity College, Cambridge the dessert was known as 'burnt cream'. The college crest was burnt into sugar on top of a custard using a hot iron. It may predate Massialot's cookbook with one authority claiming it was first served at Trinity in 1630.

Catalans claim their dessert known as crema catalana is the original. It is a rich custard often flavoured with cinnamon and lemon or orange zest topped with carmelized sugar. The Catalan version was first recorded in the 18th century. It is also called Crema de Sant Josep, after Saint Joseph, the husband of the Virgin Mary. In Spain and in many other parts of Europe, Saint Joseph’s Day is celebrated on 19 March. Crema Catalana is a traditional dessert served on this day.

References

Other websites 

A guide to crème brûlée history and how to prepare a recipe 

Desserts
In cryptography, a keystream is a stream of random or pseudorandom characters that are combined with a plaintext message to produce an encrypted message (the ciphertext).

The "characters" in the keystream can be bits, bytes, numbers or actual characters like A-Z depending on the usage case.

Usually each character in the keystream is either added, subtracted or XORed with a character in the plaintext to produce the ciphertext, using modular arithmetic.

Keystreams are used in the one-time pad cipher and in most stream ciphers. Block ciphers can also be used to produce keystreams. For example, the CTR mode (also known as Integer Counter Mode (ICM)) is a block mode that makes a block cipher produce a keystream then turns the block cipher into a stream cipher.

Example 

In this simple example we will use only the English alphabet of 26 characters from a-z, therefore we will not encrypt numbers, commas, spaces and other symbols. As we have only 26 characters the random numbers in the keystream have to be at least between 0 and 25.

To encrypt we add the keystream numbers to the plaintext. And to decrypt we subtract the same keystream numbers from the ciphertext to get the plaintext.

If a ciphertext number becomes larger than 25 we wrap it to a value between 0-25. I.e. 26 becomes 0 and 27 becomes 1 and so on. (Such wrapping is called modular arithmetic.)

Here the plaintext message "attack at dawn" is combined by addition with the keystream "kjcngmlhylyu" and produces the ciphertext "kcvniwlabluh".

References 

 Handbook of Applied Cryptography by Menezes, van Oorschot and Vanstone (2001), chapter 1, 6 and 7. 

Cryptography
Noor Jehan () was the adopted stage name for Allah Wasai (September 21, 1926 – December 23, 2000). She was a Pakistani singer and actress. She is renowned as one of the greatest singers of her time in the Indian subcontinent and was given the honorific title of Mallika-e-Tarranum (, English: the queen of melody). She achieved special national recognition and popularity in Pakistan with her patriotic songs of 1965, which elevated her to an iconic level. 

Along with Ahmed Rushdi, she holds the record for having given voice to the largest number of film songs in the history of Pakistani cinema. She is also considered to be the first female Pakistani film director.

Noor Jehan was awarded the Pakistan President's Award in 1965.

She married Shaukat Hussain Rizvi in 1942. The marriage ended in 1953 with divorce. The couple had three children, including their singer daughter Zil-e-Huma. She then married Ejaz Durrani in 1959. The second marriage also produced three children. It ended in divorce in 1970.

In 2000, Jehan was hospitalized in Karachi and suffered a heart attack. Jehan died as a result of heart failure.

References

Other websites
 

1926 births
2000 deaths
Pakistani movie actors
Pakistani singers
Punjabi people
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan (, October 13, 1948 – August 16, 1997), was a Pakistani musician. He was a singer of qawwali, the devotional music of the Sufis (a mystical tradition in Islam). In 2006, Time magazine included him in their list of "Asian Heroes'.

Traditionally, qawwali is a performing art which is passed down with in the family. Nusrat's family has been performing qawwali for the last 600 years. Among other honorary titles given to him, Nusrat was called Shahenshah-e-Qawwali, meaning The Emperor of Qawwali.

Other websites 
 

1948 births
1997 deaths
Pakistani people
Punjabi people
Pakistani singers
Bollywood playback singers
Kashmir Solidarity Day has been celebrated on 5 February each year since 1990. It is a day of protest against Indian control of part of Kashmir. It is a national holiday in Pakistan.

References

Kashmir
Holidays
The National Emblem of Bangladesh was adopted shortly after independence in 1971. 

Located on the emblem is a White water lily, that is bordered on two sides by rice sheaves. Above the water lilly are four stars and a three-leaf clover of jute leaves. The water lily is the country's national flower, and is representative of the many rivers that run through Bangladesh. Rice represents its presence as the staple food of Bangladesh, and for the agriculture of that nation. The four stars represent the four founding principles that were originally enshrined in the first constitution of Bangladesh in 1972: Nationalism, Secularism, Socialism, and Democracy. 

The details of the emblem is given as quoted below:
The national emblem of the Republic is the national flower Shapla (Nymphaea pubescens) resting on water, having on each side an ear of paddy and being surmounted by three connected leaves of jute with two stars on each side of the leaves. - Constitution of Bangladesh Article 4(3) 

The Government of Bangladesh has adopted Education, Nationalism and Democracy as its "National Motto".

References

Bangladesh
Bangladesh
The Instrument of Surrender () was a written agreement that enabled the surrender of the Pakistan Armed Forces in the Bangladesh Liberation War. The surrender took place at the Ramna Race Course in Dacca on December 16, 1971. Lieutenant-General A A K Niazi, joint commander of the Pakistan Armed Forces in East Pakistan,  and Lieutenant General Jagjit Singh Aurora, joint commander of the Bangladesh-India Allied Forces, signed the instrument amid thousands of cheering crowds at the race course. Air Commodore A. K. Khandker, Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Bangladesh Armed Forces, and Lieutenant General J F R Jacob of the Indian Eastern Command, acted as witnesses to the surrender.

Subsequently, around 93,000 Pakistani troops and officials were taken as prisoners-of-war by the Indian Army, the largest number of POWs since World War II. They were later repatriated in 1973 under the terms of the Delhi Agreement.

Text of the Instrument

The Pakistan Eastern Command agree to surrender all Pakistan Armed Forces in Bangladesh to Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora, General Officer Commanding in Chief of the Indian and Bangladesh forces in the Eastern Theatre. This surrender includes all Pakistan land, air and naval forces as also all para-military forces and civil armed forces. These forces will lay down their arms and surrender at the places where they are currently located to the nearest regular troops under the command of Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora. 

The Pakistan Eastern Command shall come under the orders of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora as soon as this instrument has been signed. Disobedience of orders will be regarded as a breach of the surrender terms and will be dealt with in accordance with the accepted laws and usages of war. The decision of Lieutenant-General Jagjit Singh Aurora will be final, should any doubt arise as to the meaning or interpretation of the surrender terms. 

Lieutenant- General Jagjit Singh Aurora gives a solemn assurance that personnel who surrender will be treated with dignity and respect that soldiers are entitled to in accordance with the provisions of the Geneva Convention and guarantees the safety and well-being of all PAKISTAN military and para-military forces who surrender. Protection will be provided to foreign nationals, ethnic minorities and personnel of Western Pakistan origin by the forces under the command of Lieutenant - General Jagjit Singh Aurora. 

Signed: 

(Jagjit Singh Aurora) Lieutenant-General General Officer Commanding in Chief Indian and Bangladesh Forces in the Eastern Theatre 

(Amir Abdullah Khan Niazi) Lieutenant-General Martial Law Administrator Zone B and Commander Eastern Command (Pakistan) 

16 December 1971" 

This document can be seen on display in the National Museum in Delhi (as of January 2012)

References

1971 in Bangladesh
1971 in Pakistan
Bangladesh Liberation War
Islamic Republic is the name given to forms of government of several states. These states have Islam as a state religion and are governed by the principles of the Islamic law called Sharia. Some of these countries have both Sharia and civil law. Laws made by the state cannot contradict Sharia in some of these countries, and in other countries civil law is more dominant than Sharia law. 

The following states call themselves Islamic Republic (non-exhaustive list)
Iran (after Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi was overthrown in 1979)
Pakistan (Since the constitution of 1956, state founded to provide a homeland for Muslims living in Colonial India, in 1947)
Afghanistan (since the overthrow of the Taliban in 2001)
Mauritania (since 1958)
Sudan
Comoros (Federal Islamic Republic)
The Gambia (since December 2015)

Despite the similar name the countries differ greatly in their governments and laws. Of the Islamic republics, only Iran is a theocracy.

Politics of Pakistan
Mauritania
Iran
Politics of Afghanistan
Forms of government
In cryptography,  the so-called product ciphers are a certain kind of ciphers, where the decryption of data is done in "rounds". The general setup of each round is the same, except for some hard-coded parameters and a part of the cipher key, called a subkey. A key schedule is an algorithm that, given the key, calculates the subkeys for these rounds.

Some types of key schedules 

Some ciphers have simple key schedules. For example, the block cipher TEA simply splits the 128-bit key into four 32-bit pieces and uses them repeatedly in successive rounds.

DES uses a key schedule where the 56 bit key is divided into two 28-bit halves then each half is treated separately. In successive rounds, both halves are rotated left by one or two bits (specified for each round), and then 48 subkey bits are selected by Permuted Choice 2 (PC-2) — 24 bits from the left half, and 24 from the right. The rotations mean that a different set of bits is used in each subkey; each bit is used in approximately 14 out of the 16 subkeys.

In an effort to avoid simple relationships between the cipher key and the subkeys, to resist such forms of cryptanalysis as related-key attacks and slide attacks, many modern ciphers use much more complex key schedules, such as algorithms that use a one-way function to generate an "expanded key" from which subkeys are drawn. Some ciphers, such as Rijndael (AES) and Blowfish, use parts of the cipher algorithm itself for this key expansion, sometimes initialized with some "nothing up my sleeve numbers". Other ciphers, such as RC5, expand keys with functions that are somewhat or completely different from the encryption functions.

Notes 

Knudsen and Mathiassen (2004) give some experimental evidence that indicate that the key schedule plays a part in providing strength against linear and differential cryptanalysis. For toy Feistel ciphers, it was observed that those with complex and well-designed key schedules can reach a uniform distribution for the probabilities of differentials and linear hulls faster than those with poorly-designed key schedules.

References
 Lars R. Knudsen and John Erik Mathiassen, On the Role of Key Schedules in Attacks on Iterated Ciphers, ESORICS 2004, pp322–334.

Cryptography
A trade secret is a formula, practice, process, design, instrument, pattern, or a collection of information which is not generally known, invented or created, by which a business can obtain an economic advantage over competitors or customers. In some jurisdictions, such secrets are referred to as "confidential information" or "classified information".

With its broad definition of eligible subject matter, trade secret law protects a wide range of valuable information, including information that would not be eligible for protection under existing patent, trademark, or copyright law. This could include formulae and recipes, proprietary databases, business processes and methods, information about costs, pricing, margins, overhead, manufacturing processes, proprietary computer software programs, customer lists, and strategic plans and marketing programs.

There are three factors that are common to all definitions of a trade secret, a trade secret is information that:
 Is not generally known to the public;
 Grants some sort of economic benefit on its holder (where this benefit must derive specifically from its not being generally known, not just from the value of the information itself);
 Is the subject of reasonable efforts to maintain its secrecy.
The unauthorized acquisition, use, or disclosure of such secret information in a manner contrary to honest commercial practices by others is regarded as an unfair practice and a violation of the trade secret protection.

References

Secrecy
Trade
Intellectual property law
Rock Steady is the fifth studio album by the American alternative rock band No Doubt. It was released on December 11, 2001. The album was influenced a lot by reggae, dancehall, and electronica, compared to their previous albums. A lot of music critics saw this and gave the album good reviews. For example, Rolling Stone magazine put the album as the 316th greatest album of all time in their book Rolling Stone's List of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. It was nominated for Best Pop Vocal Album at the 2003 Grammy Awards. Four singles were released from the album. The first single, "Hey Baby", won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal. The second single was nominated for Best Dance Recording. The third single, "Underneath It All", was released August 15 2002. It won a Grammy Award for Best Pop Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal at the 2004 Grammy Awards. The album's last single, "Running", was released July 1 2003.

List of songs
"Intro"
"Hella Good"
"Hey Baby" (featuring Bounty Killer)
"Making Out"
"Underneath It All" (featuring Lady Saw)
"Detective"
"Don't Let Me Down"
"Start the Fire"
"Running"
"In My Head"
"Platinum Blonde Life"
"Waiting Room" (featuring Prince)
"Rock Steady"

The iTunes version of the album has two extra songs.
"Underneath It All" (live)
"Just a Girl" (live)

References

2001 albums
No Doubt albums
The Meet-in-the-middle attack is a cryptographic attack which, like the birthday attack, makes use of a space-time tradeoff. While the birthday attack attempts to find two values in the domain of a function that map to the same value in its range, the meet-in-the-middle attack attempts to find a value in each of the ranges and domains of the composition of two functions such that the forward mapping of one through the first function is the same as the inverse image of the other through the second function—quite literally meeting in the middle of the composed function.

It was first developed as an attack on an attempted expansion of a block cipher by Diffie and Hellman in 1977. When trying to improve the security of a block cipher, one might get the idea to simply use two independent keys to encrypt the data twice and think that this would square the security of the double-encryption scheme. Certainly, an exhaustive search of all possible combination of keys would take  attempts if each key is n bits long, compared to the  attempts required for a single key. However, Diffie and Hellman, discovered a time-memory tradeoff that could break the scheme in only double the time to break the single-encryption scheme. The attack works by encrypting from one end and decrypting from the other end, thus meeting in the middle.

Assume the attacker knows a set of plaintext and ciphertext: P and C. That is,
 ,
where E is the encryption function (cipher), and K1 and K2 are the two keys.

The attacker can then compute EK(P) for all possible keys K and store the results in memory. Afterwards he can decrypt the ciphertext by computing DK(C) for each K. Any matches between these two resulting sets are likely to reveal the correct keys. (To speed up the comparison, the EK(P) set is stored in an in-memory lookup table, then each DK(C) can be matched against the values in the lookup table to find the candidate keys.)

Once the matches are discovered, they can be verified with a second test-set of plaintext and ciphertext. If the keysize is n, this attack uses only  encryptions (and  space) in contrast to the naive attack, which needs  encryptions (but only  space).

Related pages
Birthday attack

References

Cryptography
eSTREAM is a project to identify "new stream ciphers that might become suitable for widespread adoption",  organized by the EU ECRYPT network. It was set up because of the failure of all six stream ciphers submitted to the NESSIE project.  The call for primitives was first issued in November 2004. The project was completed in April 2008. The project was divided into separate phases and the project goal was to find algorithms suitable for different kinds of application.

Other websites 
 Homepage for the project 
 Discussion forum 
 The eSTREAM testing framework  
 Update 1: (PDF) 
 Notes on the ECRYPT Stream Cipher project by Daniel Bernstein
 estreamJ - Java implementations of eSTREAM ciphers, plus a live performance test

Cryptography
In cryptography, MacGuffin is a block cipher created in 1994 by Bruce Schneier and Matt Blaze at a Fast Software Encryption workshop. It was intended as a catalyst for analysis of a new cipher structure, known as Generalized Unbalanced Feistel Networks (GUFNs). 

Schneier and Blaze based MacGuffin on DES, their main change was spliting the DES 64 bits data block into two unequal halves in the Feistel network, 48 bits of the 64-bit data block are fed through the round function, whose output is XORed with the other 16 bits of the data block. 

MacGuffin's key schedule is a modified version of the encryption algorithm itself. Since MacGuffin is a Feistel network, decryption is easy; simply run the encryption algorithm in reverse.

The algorithm was experimental, intended to explore the security properties of unbalanced Feistel networks. The cryptanalysis proceeded very quickly, so quickly that the cipher was broken using differential cryptanalysis at the same workshop by Vincent Rijmen and Bart Preneel. They also tried attacking MacGuffin with different S-boxes, taken directly from DES. This version was slightly stronger. 

Rijmen and Preneel warn that designing an algorithm to resist only known attacks is generally not a good design principle.

Schneier and Blaze recommended using 32 rounds, and specified MacGuffin with a 128-bit key.

References
  
 

Cryptography
Josiah Bartlett (November 21, 1729– May 19, 1795), was an American physician and statesman, delegate to the Continental Congress for New Hampshire. He signed the Declaration of Independence. He was later Chief Justice of the New Hampshire Superior Court of Judicature and governor of the state.

1729 births
1795 deaths
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Massachusetts
Governors of New Hampshire
American physicians
Democratic Republican party (US) politicians
Scientists from Massachusetts
Chief justices
Carter Braxton (September 10, 1736 – October 10, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and a representative of Virginia.

Life
He was born on Newington Plantation in King and Queen County, Virginia and educated at the William and Mary. He married a wealthy heiress named Judith Robinson at the age nineteen, but she died two years later, leaving him two daughters.  

He journeyed to England for two years and returned to the colonies in 1760, marrying again, this time to Elizabeth Corbin, and represented King William County in the Virginia House of Burgesses. He joined the patriot's Committee of Safety in Virginia in 1774 and represented his county in the Virginia Convention. 

When Peyton Randolph died in 1775, Braxton was appointed to take his place in the Continental Congress.  He served in the Congress from February 1776 until August, when Virginia reduced its delegation to five members. Afterwards he returned to the House of Burgesses, and later served on the State's Executive Council. 

Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from Virginia
1736 births
1797 deaths
Islamic theology deals with the beliefs of the Islamic faith.

Types of theology
Islamic theology comes from the Qur'an, Hadith, and the story of Muhammad's life (Sirah Rasul Allah).

Kalam

Kalam is the Islamic philosophy of seeking theological principles through dialectic. In Arabic, the word means "speech". A scholar of kalam is called a mutakallim (Muslim theologian; plural mutakallimiin).

Eschatology

Eschatology is understood as the last things or ultimate things, and in Muslim theology, eschatology is about the end of this world and what will happen in the next world. Eschatology covers the death of human beings, their souls after their bodily death, the destruction of this world, the resurrection of human souls, the final judgments of human deeds by Allah after the resurrection, and the rewards and punishments for the believers and non-believers. The places for the believers are known as Paradise and for the non-believers as Hell.

Comparative religion 

Comparative religion in Muslim theology is about the differences and similarities between it and other theologies such as Christian and Jewish as explained in the Qur'an and the Prophetic traditions.

Differences between various Muslim groups
In the history of Muslim theology, there have been theological schools among Muslims with both similarities and differences with each other about their beliefs.

Sunni view
Sunni Muslims hold that there are six articles of belief: belief in Allah, in angels, in divinely revealed scripture] like Qur'an, in prophets, in the "Last Day" or end times, and in predestination.

Shia view
Shi`ite Muslims hold that there are five articles of belief: the Divine Oneness and Justice, the Prophethood, the Imamate, and eschatology.

Mu`tazilite view
In the relationship between humans and their creator, Mu`tazilites emphasize human free will over predestination and God's justice over God's omnipotence. Mu'tazilites also believe in the use of logic to decide the true meanings of the Qur'an. This and the principal of Ijtihad, led to their belief in dynamic Fiqh.

Islam

zh:伊斯兰教六大信仰
A MacBook is a type of laptop computer made by Apple Inc. It runs macOS and comes with a built in webcam and microphone and a power adapter that is attached by magnets or USB-C.  MacBooks are currently available housed in Silver, Space Gray, Gold and Rose Gold aluminium.

Many college students purchase MacBooks to help with their studies and to stay connected with their family and friends.  

The first models were released in 2006. It now has the same "unibody" construction as the MacBook Pro's.

History

The Macbook was introduced by Apple in May 2006. It replaced the iBook and 12 inch PowerBook series of notebooks because Apple was switching all of their CPUs to Intel from Power PC's.

Apple upgrades, or makes the MacBook better, about every six months to two years. This makes them faster and more reliable.

In October 2008, Apple decided to make a MacBook housed in aluminum. It was pretty much the same as the one housed in plastic except that it was a little better and that it was housed in metal. In June 2009, during WWDC (Apple's big yearly gathering), this laptop was renamed the MacBook Pro 13 inch.

In 2011, Apple stopped the production of MacBooks. However, in 2015 Apple released 12-inch MacBook, with a smaller  Retina display.

Other websites
MacBook website

MacBook
An SMS, or short messaging service is a type of communication used in mobile phones. They are more commonly called 'text messages'. With SMS, someone can send text to another person.

SMS can be slow, as a network gives priority to phone calls, and only carries text messages after calls are handled.  There is also a limit of 160 characters that a text message can send.  Longer messages than this will be sent as multiple messages, where the sender has to pay for each individual message. 

Text messages are often sent between phone users when an actual phone call is not wanted or needed. For example, they may be used in a situation where silence is needed, or to send something private that one person does not want people near them to hear. Message price depends on the phone network of the user. Some mobile phone plans allow for unlimited texting.

References 

Communication
International waters is a body of water that does not belong to any country. This is because it is farther than two hundred miles away from a country.

Bodies of water
Law of the sea
The Süddeutsche Zeitung ("South German Newspaper") is the most-read nationwide quality-newspaper in Germany. It is published in Munich. Recently, they are known for leaking offshore bank accounts that led to the Panama Papers and the Paradise Papers leak.

Newspaper 

The Süddeutsche Zeitung is a liberal newspaper. The national edition features four sections: Politics, Culture, Economy and Sports. There are also regional editions for Munich and Bavaria featuring local news. There are 6 newspapers a week. It has the second most readers in Germany after the tabloid newspaper Bild-Zeitung. There are about 442,000 papers sold each day, reaching over 1.1 million readers daily.

History 
The Süddeutsche Zeitung was published for the first time on October 6, 1945. It was the first newspaper in Bavaria to get a licence from the U.S. military government after World War II.

Supplements 
SZ Magazin (Friday), a magazine-style supplement
Wochenende (Saturday), longer articles and short stories for the weekend
The New York Times (Monday), selected articles (English language).
The TV programme (Tuesday) and an event guide (Thursday) are only included in the Bavarian edition.

Other websites 
  

Newspapers published in Germany
1945 establishments in Europe
1940s establishments in Germany
The Frankfurter Rundschau is a nationwide newspaper in Germany.

Newspaper

The ''Frankfurter Rundschau is a left-wing liberal newspaper in Germany. Its position is often similar to the positions of the trade unions.
There are 6 newspapers a week.
It has a regional part for Hesse and a local part for Frankfurt am Main, too.
There are about 180,000 newapapers sold daily.
The ''Franfurter Rundschau'' is the first newspaper in Germany in the tabloid format.

History

The Frankfurter Rundschau'' was the second newspaper starting in Germany after the World War II on the 1st of August 1945.
And it was the first newspaper in the U.S. sector.
The licence was handed over to the first team of editors consisting of Emil Carlebach, Hans Etzkorn, Wilhelm Karl Gerst, Otto Grossmann, Wilhelm Knothe, Paul Rodemann and Arno Rudert.
There were social democrats, political katholics and communists, who had spent years in the resistance and nazi concentration camps or in exile.

Other websites
Frankfurter Rundschau Online (German)

Newspapers published in Germany
Die Zeit is a nationwide weekly newspaper in Germany.

Die Zeit (the title means: "The Time") is read by about 2 million people. It sells about 480.000 copies every week. It is well known for its good articles which are well-written and often detailed. It is read by well-educated people. It is a liberal newspaper.

It includes articles about politics, economics, knowledge, the sciences, art, literature, education, life (style) and travel. It has many advertisements for jobs at universities.

History 

The first copies of Die Zeit were published on the 21 February 1946 in Hamburg.
Since that day it has been published in Hamburg every week.

Weblinks 
 Die Zeit
 Die Zeit Wissen
 Zuender Das Netzmagazin der Zeit 
 Zeit Campus Online

Newspapers published in Germany
Der Spiegel is a weekly political magazine in Germany.
It was set up in 1947 as a copy of Time magazine. It is now one of Europe's largest weekly magazines.

Der Spiegel is a liberal magazine.  It has long, detailed articles.
It has a circulation of more than one million per week. It now has an on-line version, Spiegel Online.

History
The first edition of the Spiegel magazine was published in Hanover on 4 January 1947.  Later it was published in Hamburg.
Rudolf Augstein was the publisher from the very first issue until his death in 2002.

There was an affair which became known as the "Spiegel affair" in the early 1960s, when Defense Secretary Franz-Josef Strauß arrested writers and publishers of the Spiegel, because he was angry about a critical report on the Germany army (the Bundeswehr).

Many political affairs in Germany were first made known by Der Spiegel, e.g. the Flick affair. "The magazine is renowned for its aggressive, vigorous, and well-written exposes of government malpractice and scandals".

References

Other websites
 Spiegel.de, the magazine's online version 
 Spiegel.mobi, the magazine's mobile online version  - Click twice for .mobi page
 Spiegel.de International 
 Spiegel cover gallery

Magazines of Europe
Germany
Oliver Wolcott (December 1, 1726– December 1, 1797), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence and also the Articles of Confederation as a representative of Connecticut.

Life
Oliver Wolcott was born in Windsor, Connecticut as the youngest of fourteen children of the Royal Governor Roger Wolcott. He attended Yale College, graduating in 1747. He was commissioned to raise a militia company to fight in the French and Indian War, and he served the King as Captain in this unit on the northern frontier. At the end of the war, Wolcott studied medicine, then was appointed sheriff of the newly created Litchfield County, Connecticut, serving from about 1751 to 1771.

He participated in the American Revolutionary War as brigadier general and then major general in the Connecticut militia. The Continental Congress appointed him Commissioner of Indian Affairs, and he was elected to the Congress in 1775. He became seriously ill in 1776 and did not sign the Declaration of Independence until some time later. He was engaged in military affairs between 1776-78, and served again in Congress from 1778-1784.

He served again as an Indian Commissioner, and was elected Lieutenant Governor of Connecticut in 1786, assuming the Governorship on the death of Samuel Huntington in 1796, and was reelected to the position, dying in office at the age of seventy-one in Farmington, Connecticut. He is buried in East Cemetery in Litchfield, Connecticut.

Legacy
The town of Wolcott, Connecticut was named in honor of Oliver and his son, Oliver Jr.  His home in Litchfield was declared a National Historic Landmark in 1971.

His son, Oliver Wolcott, Jr., served as Secretary of the Treasury under Presidents George Washington and John Adams and as Governor of Connecticut.

1726 births
1797 deaths
American generals
Governors of Connecticut
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Yale University alumni
Lieutenant Governors of Connecticut
Thomas Paine (29 January 1737 – 8 June 1809) was an English pamphleteer, revolutionary, inventor, and intellectual. Born in Norfolk, he lived and worked in Britain until he was 37, when he emigrated to the British American colonies during the American Revolution. His main contribution was the powerful, widely-read pamphlet Common Sense (1776). It promoted the idea of colonial America's independence from the United Kingdom of Great Britain. He also wrote The American Crisis (1776–1783), a pro-revolutionary pamphlet series.

Thomas Paine went to France after the American Revolution to join the French Revolution. He wrote The Age of Reason while in prison there. This pamphlet was critical of organized religion. Paine along with other American founders such as Thomas Jefferson and James Madison liked to apply reason to religion instead of revelation. This was part of the greater Age of Enlightenment movement that dated back to about the early 17th century. Paine died at the age of 72, at 59 Grove Street in Greenwich Village, New York City, on the morning of June 8, 1809.

References

Other websites

The Age of Reason
ThomasPaine.org website

1737 births
1809 deaths
18th-century British philosophers
19th-century English philosophers
American deists
American philosophers
American revolutionaries
English inventors
Founding Fathers of the United States
Naturalized citizens of the United States
People from Norfolk
"All your base are belong to us" (often shortened to "All Your Base", "AYBABTU", or simply "AYB") is a broken English phrase that began an internet phenomenon in 2001 and 2002, with the use of a Flash animation. The phrase is taken from the first part of a European Sega Mega Drive version of the video game Zero Wing, made in Japan by Toaplan. The words in the game were translated into English so quickly that they did not make very much sense. The words "All your base are belong to us" were at first popular on the Something Awful message forums.

Words of the game

Notable media references 

The phrase and similar phrases from the game has been shown in articles, books, comics, clothing, movies, radio shows, songs, television shows, video games, webcomics, and websites.

 In the year 2000, Jeffery Ray Roberts, a Kansas City computer programmer and part-time deejay aged 23, and his musical band called The Laziest Men on Mars made a techno dance tune called "Invasion of the Gabber Robots", which used some of the Zero Wing video game music by Tatsuya Uemura with a voice saying "All your base are belong to us."
 On February 23, 2001, Wired magazine wrote an article about the phrase being in the Flash animation, in many e-mails, Internet forums and T-shirts showing the phrase.
 On April 1, 2003, in Sturgis, Michigan, seven people aged between 17 and 20 placed signs all over their town that said, "All your base are belong to us. You have no chance to survive make your time." They said it was an April Fools' Day joke, but not many people who saw the signs had seen the phrase before. Many people who lived in the town were angry because the United States was at war in Iraq, and police chief Eugene Alli said the signs could be "a terrorist threat depending on what someone interprets it to mean."
 In February 2004, businesses and schools in Raleigh, North Carolina were closed because of bad weather and they used an internet service to report it. Some North Carolina State University students and members of The Wolf Web in Raleigh, North Carolina took control of the internet service and showed the phrase in a news ticker on the television channel, News 14 Carolinas live news broadcast.
 On June 1, 2006, the video website YouTube was closed to fix some problems. The phrase "ALL YOUR VIDEO ARE BELONG TO US" was shown until their problems were fixed. Some users believed the site had been taken control of by students but YouTube said "No, we haven't! Get a sense of humor!"
 On September 22, 2008, on the MSNBC show Countdown with Keith Olbermann, a Princeton University Professor called Paul Krugman said that  what the United States Congress said about giving the banks money from the government was similar to the leader of the United States Treasury Secretary, Henry Paulson saying, "All your decisions are belong to me."

Related pages
 Internet meme
 Engrish

References 

Notes

Other websites 

 Website with animation
Video game memes
A gall is a growth on the surface of plants and other lifeforms. They are caused by various parasites, such as fungi, bacteria, insects and mites.   

Plant galls are abnormal growths of plant tissues similar to benign tumors or warts in animals.   

What causes a plant gall can often be known without the actual agent being there. Many types of gall have typical structures. This is true of many galls produced by insects and mites. 

Insect galls on plants give some herbivorous insects their own microhabitat. They are plant tissue which is controlled by the insect.  Galls are the habitat and food source for the maker of the gall. The gall may contain nutritious starch and other tissues.  Galls often give the insect physical protection from predators.

Insect galls are usually induced by chemicals injected by the larvae or the adults of the insects into the plants. After the galls are formed, the larvae develop inside until fully grown, when they leave. In order to form galls, the insects must seize the time when plant cell division occurs quickly. The growing season, spring in temperate climates, is longer in the tropics.

Human use 
Galls can be used by humans, and have been since ancient times. One use is to collect the pigment which many galls make. The galls are rich in resins and tannins, from which dyes and inks can be made. Galls can be used to make a mordant for dyeing: mordants make the dye on the cloth permanent. Also, permanent black ink can be made from galls, and that has been done for a long time. 

The larvae inside the galls may be used as food or as fishing bait, and some galls have medicinal uses.

References

Gallery

Plant tissues
Parasitism
Dion Dublin is an English former footballer. He has played for England national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1987–88||Norwich City||First Division||0||0
|-
|1988–89||rowspan="4"|Cambridge United||rowspan="2"|Fourth Division||21||6
|-
|1989–90||46||15
|-
|1990–91||Third Division||46||16
|-
|1991–92||Second Division||43||15
|-
|1992–93||rowspan="2"|Manchester United||rowspan="2"|Premier League||7||1
|-
|1993–94||5||1
|-
|1994–95||rowspan="5"|Coventry City||rowspan="5"|Premier League||31||13
|-
|1995–96||34||14
|-
|1996–97||34||13
|-
|1997–98||36||18
|-
|1998–99||10||3
|-
|1998–99||rowspan="4"|Aston Villa||rowspan="4"|Premier League||24||11
|-
|1999–00||26||12
|-
|2000–01||33||8
|-
|2001–02||21||4
|-
|2001–02||Millwall||First Division||5||2
|-
|2002–03||rowspan="2"|Aston Villa||rowspan="2"|Premier League||28||10
|-
|2003–04||23||3
|-
|2004–05||rowspan="2"|Leicester City||rowspan="2"|Championship||37||5
|-
|2005–06||21||0

|-
|2005–06||Celtic||Premier League||11||1

|-
|2006–07||rowspan="2"|Norwich City||rowspan="2"|Championship||33||5
|-
|2007–08||37||7
601||182
11||1
612||183
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1998||4||0
|-
!Total||4||0
|}

References

1969 births
Living people
English footballers
Sportspeople from Leicester
Premier League players
Danny Murphy (born 18 March 1977) is an English footballer. He plays for Fulham.

Club career statistics

|-
|1993/94||rowspan="4"|Crewe Alexandra||Third Division||12||2||||||||||||||12||2
|-
|1994/95||rowspan="3"|Second Division||32||5||||||||||||||32||5
|-
|1995/96||42||10||||||||||||||42||10
|-
|1996/97||45||10||4||3||2||0||colspan="2"|-||51||13
|-
|1997/98||rowspan="2"|Liverpool||rowspan="2"|Premier League||16||0||1||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||17||0
|-
|1998/99||1||0||0||0||2||0||1||0||4||0
|-
|1998/99||Crewe Alexandra||First Division||16||1||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||1
|-
|1999/00||rowspan="5"|Liverpool||rowspan="5"|Premier League||20||3||2||0||2||3||colspan="2"|-||24||6
|-
|2000/01||27||4||5||1||5||4||10||1||47||10
|-
|2001/02||36||6||2||0||1||0||15||2||54||8
|-
|2002/03||36||7||3||1||4||2||12||2||55||12
|-
|2003/04||31||5||2||1||2||2||7||0||42||8
|-
|2004/05||rowspan="2"|Charlton Athletic||rowspan="2"|Premier League||38||3||3||1||2||1||colspan="2"|-||43||5
|-
|2005/06||18||4||0||0||3||1||colspan="2"|-||21||5
|-
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Tottenham Hotspur||rowspan="2"|Premier League||10||0||0||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||10||0
|-
|2006/07||12||2||1||0||3||0||3||0||19||2
|-
|2007/08||rowspan="3"|Fulham||rowspan="3"|Premier League||33||5||1||1||1||0||colspan="2"|-||35||6
|-
|2008/09||37||5||5||1||1||1||colspan="2"|-||43||7
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
462||72||29||9||28||14||48||5||567||100
462||72||29||9||28||14||48||5||567||100
|}

International career statistics

|-
|2001||1||0
|-
|2002||4||1
|-
|2003||4||0
|-
!Total||9||1
|}

References

1977 births
Living people
English footballers
People from Chester
Sportspeople from Cheshire
Stéphane Henchoz (born 7 September 1974) is a former Swiss football player. He has played for Switzerland national team.

Club career statistics

|-
|1992/93||rowspan="3"|Neuchâtel Xamax||rowspan="3"|Nationalliga A||35||0
|-
|1993/94||21||1
|-
|1994/95||35||0

|-
|1995/96||rowspan="2"|Hamburg||rowspan="2"|Bundesliga||31||2
|-
|1996/97||18||0

|-
|1997/98||rowspan="2"|Blackburn Rovers||rowspan="2"|Premier League||36||0
|-
|1998/99||34||0
|-
|1999/00||rowspan="6"|Liverpool||rowspan="6"|Premier League||29||0
|-
|2000/01||32||0
|-
|2001/02||37||0
|-
|2002/03||19||0
|-
|2003/04||18||0
|-
|2004/05||0||0

|-
|2004/05||Celtic||Premier League||6||0

|-
|2005/06||Wigan Athletic||Premier League||26||0
|-
|2006/07||rowspan="2"|Blackburn Rovers||rowspan="2"|Premier League||12||0
|-
|2007/08||0||0
91||1
49||2
243||0
6||0
389||3
|}

International career statistics

|-
|1993||2||0
|-
|1994||3||0
|-
|1995||8||0
|-
|1996||9||0
|-
|1997||5||0
|-
|1998||7||0
|-
|1999||5||0
|-
|2000||6||0
|-
|2001||5||0
|-
|2002||5||0
|-
|2003||6||0
|-
|2004||9||0
|-
|2005||2||0
|-
!Total||72||0
|}

References

1974 births
Living people
Swiss footballers
Milan Baroš (born 28 October 1981) is a Czech football player. He plays for Galatasaray and Czech Republic national team.

Club career statistics 

|-
|1998/99||rowspan="4"|Baník Ostrava||rowspan="4"|Gambrinus liga||6||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||6||0
|-
|1999/00||29||6||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||29||6
|-
|2000/01||26||6||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||26||6
|-
|2001/02||15||11||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||15||11

|-
|2001/02||rowspan="5"|Liverpool||rowspan="5"|Premier League||0||0||0||0||0||0||1||0||1||0
|-
|2002/03||27||9||1||0||4||2||8||1||40||12
|-
|2003/04||13||1||1||0||0||0||4||1||18||2
|-
|2004/05||26||9||1||0||4||2||14||2||45||13
|-
|2005/06||2||0||0||0||0||0||0||0||2||0
|-
|2005/06||rowspan="2"|Aston Villa||rowspan="2"|Premier League||25||8||3||3||2||1||colspan="2"|-||30||12
|-
|2006/07||17||1||1||1||3||0||colspan="2"|-||21||2

|-
|2006/07||rowspan="2"|Olympique Lyonnais||rowspan="2"|Ligue 1||12||4||0||0||0||0||1||0||13||4
|-
|2007/08||12||3||0||0||0||0||3||0||15||3

|-
|2007/08||Portsmouth||Premier League||12||0||4||0||0||0||colspan="2"|-||16||0

|-
|2008/09||rowspan="2"|Galatasaray||rowspan="2"|Süper Lig||31||20||3||1||colspan="2"|-||9||5||43||26
|-
|2009/10||||||||||||||||||||
76||23||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||76||23
122||28||11||4||13||5||27||4||173||41
24||7||0||0||0||0||4||0||28||7
31||20||3||1||colspan="2"|-||9||5||43||26
254||78||14||5||13||5||40||9||321||97
|}

International career statistics 

|-
|2001||8||4
|-
|2002||6||4
|-
|2003||7||4
|-
|2004||13||9
|-
|2005||11||5
|-
|2006||8||4
|-
|2007||8||1
|-
|2008||9||1
|-
|2009||8||6
|-
!Total||78||38
|}

References 

1981 births
Living people
Czech footballers