cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Whisky, or whiskey, is an alcoholic drink distilled from grain and aged in wooden .

The name comes from a gaelic word. In Ireland, it is called whiskey, with an added letter 'e'. Whiskey made in the United States often uses the Irish spelling.

There are many kinds of whisky, of which most important are:

 Single malt: All of the whisky has been made from single batch of malt in one single distillery. They have been matured in oak barrels, usually 6 to 24 years. Glenfiddich is the world's best-selling single malt whisky. It comes from Speyside in the Scottish Highlands, and accounts for 35% of world sales. The Glenlivet comes second, from the same area. Thus, despite all attempts at competition, this small area near the Spey River still dominates the world market for single malt whisky. Other well-known single malts are Laphroaig, Lagavulin, Bowmore, Ardbeg and Talisker. Most single malts come from Scotland, either Lowlands, Highlands or Scottish Isles. Nikka Yoichi comes from Japan.
 Blended whisky or Scotch: A Scotch is a mixture of various single malts. This is the most common type of whisky. Famous blended whiskys are Johnnie Walker, Chivas Regal, Ballantines, J&B, The Famous Grouse and Vat-69. In the United States the word "scotch" refers to the blended whiskys of Scotland. Blenders do not distill whisky, but mix various single malts.
 Irish whiskey: These are blended whiskeys from Ireland. While Scottish whiskys are distilled twice, Irish whiskeys are distilled three times before they are matured. Famous Irish whiskeys are Jameson's and Bushmill's.
 Bourbon whiskey: Bourbon is American whiskey which contains maize. It may all be made from maize (corn whiskey) or it may also contain barley malt. Famous bourbons are Four Roses, Jim Beam and Kentucky Gentleman. The name comes from Bourbon county, Kentucky.
 Rye: As name implies, rye whiskey is made from rye malt. These are especially popular in Canada. Famous Canadian rye whiskeys are Canadian Club and Alberta Premium

Most whiskys contain around 40% alcohol.

Scotch whisky 
Scotch whisky is legally defined by Scotch Whisky Order of 1990 (UK), and the Scotch Whisky Act of 1988,.

These say that Scotch whisky must:
 Must be distilled at a Scottish  from water and malted barley, to which only other whole grains may be added, have been processed at that distillery into a mash, converted to a fermentable substrate only by endogenous enzyme systems, and fermented only by the addition of yeast,
 Must be distilled to an alcoholic strength of less than 94.8% by volume so that it retains the flavour of the raw materials used in its production,
 Must be matured in Scotland in oak casks for no less than three years,
 Must not contain any added substance other than water and caramel colouring, and
 May not be bottled at less than 40% alcohol by volume.

Alcohol is a favorite way to collect tax (called excise duty) in the United Kingdom. When Gordon Brown, a Scot, became Chancellor of the Exchequer, he concentrated on taxing beers and wines, and did not increased the duty on whisky. This, he said, was to help the Scotch whisky industry to recover, increase exports and make more money.

References
The Italian Wikipedia (In Italian: Wikipedia in Italiano) is the Italian-language edition of Wikipedia. This edition was started in January, 2002 and has over  articles. It is currently the 8th largest edition by article count.

2011 mass blanking protest

Volunteers on the Italian Wikipedia decided they did not like a proposed law before the Italian Parliament. The proposal was from October 4 to October 6 2011. During this time, all of the site's articles were hidden. Wikipedia's administrators blocked the website which was being debated at the time in the Chamber of Deputies of the Italian parliament.

This was the first time that a Wikipedia had blanked all its content to protest. The Wikimedia Foundation released a statement on October 4. The Foundation Board officially supported the short closing of Italian Wikipedia. In October 2011, the manifesto, which replaced the Italian Wikipedia, had been viewed approximately 19 million times. On October 6, 2011, the website content was put back. Wikipedia added a banner across the top of each page explaining the reason for the protest.

Italian newspaper Il Tempo journalist Alberto Di Majo described the closure of the Italian-language Wikipedia as an "unexpected merit" of the proposed law. Some people questioned whether a non-profit United States foundation should try to change laws written in Italy.

References

Other websites 

 Italian Wikipedia main page

Wikipedias
Surat Quraysh (Arabic: سورة قريش ) (after the tribe of Quraysh) is the 106th chapter of the Qur'an.  It is a Makkan sura that consists of four ayat.  It urges the Quraysh tribe who dominated Mecca to serve Allah, who had protected them, for the sake of their own future.

Other websites 
 Quraysh at Sacred Texts
 Quraysh at Altafsir.com

Islam
A chapter is one of the main divisions of a piece of writing of some length, such as a book. Chapters can be numbered in the case of such writings as law code (see Chapter 7 or Chapter 11) or they can be titled. For example, the first chapters of some well-known novels are titled:
"The Boy Who Lived" – Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone, J. K. Rowling
"Into the Primitive" – The Call of the Wild, Jack London

Many novels of great length do not have chapters. Non-fiction books, especially those used for reference, almost always have chapters for ease of navigation. In these works, chapters are often subdivided into sections. The chapters of reference works are almost always listed in a table of contents. Novels sometimes use a table of contents, but not always.
 
In ancient civilizations, books were often in the form of papyrus scrolls, which contained about the same amount of text as a typical chapter in a modern book. This is the reason chapters in recent reproductions and translations of works of these periods are often presented as "Book 1", "Book 2", etc.

Tracks on a DVD or laserdisc are also called chapters.

Book terminology
Events 
 Khan Kubrat establishes Great Bulgaria.
 December – Abu Bakr defeats Mosailima in the Battle of Akraba.
 Queen Seondeok is crowned in Korea.
 Yazdgird III starts to rule in Persia.
 Abu Bakr becomes the first caliph and the Rashidun Caliphate (632-661) is established. That means the first Schism within Islam.

Deaths 
 June 8 — Muhammad, prophet of Islam
 October 12 — Edwin of Deira, king of Deira and Bretwalda
 Charibert II, King of Aquitaine
 King Chilperic of Aquitaine
The Battle of Uhud () was fought on 23 March 625 (3 Shawwal 3 AH of the Islamic calendar) at Mount Uhud, in what is now north-western Saudi Arabia. It occurred between a force from the Muslim community of Medina led by Muhammad, and a force led by Abu Sufyan from Mecca, the town from which many of the Muslims had previously emigrated (hijra). The Battle of Uhud was the second military encounter between the Meccans and the Muslims, after the Battle of Badr in 624, where a small Muslim army had defeated the larger Meccan army. 

For the Muslims, the battle was a big setback.

Background 
Muhammad had preached the religion of Islam in Mecca from 613 to 622. He had attracted a small community of followers, but also had opposition from the rest of the Quraysh, the clan that ruled Mecca and to which he belonged. The Muslims fled Mecca in 622 after years of persecution and established themselves at Medina (formerly known as Yathrib). They considered themselves to be in a state of war with Mecca and raided Meccan caravans that had Muslim belongings left in Mecca. The Meccans sent out a small army to punish the Muslims and stop their raiding. At the Battle of Badr in 624, a small Muslim force had defeated the much larger Meccan army. 

Many Muslims considered this beany victory a proof that they had been favored by God (Arabic: Allah), and believed they were assured such victories in the future.

Battle 
Quraysh soldiers met the Muslims at Uhud. The Muslims got attacked from behind and lost the battle.

Bibliography 
Books and journals
 
 
 
 
 
 

Encyclopedias

<div class="references-small">

References

Other websites 
 The battle of Uhud
 What were the reasons of the battle of Uhud?
 http://www.sunnahonline.com/ilm/audio/yasir_index.htm 
 http://www.shia.org/ohud.html

Battles of the Ancient World
History of Islam
625
March events
Events 
 March 23 - Battle of Uhud (Mohammad looses against the inhabitants from Mecca)
 October 27 — Pope Honorius I succeeds Pope Boniface V as the 70th pope.

Births 
 Adamnan, abbot of Iona
 Empress Wu Zetian of China
 Hasan ibn Ali — 2nd Shia Imam and recognised as the 5th Caliph by the Shia
 Zhang Jianzhi, Chinese chancellor of the Tang Dynasty (d. 706)

Deaths 
 October 25 — Pope Boniface V
The Battle of Badr (), was fought March 17, 624 CE  of western Arabia (present-day Saudi Arabia). It was a key battle in the early days of Islam and a turning point in Muhammad's struggle with his opponents among the Quraysh in Mecca. The battle has been passed down in Islamic history as a decisive victory because of divine intervention. Also, it is attributed to the genius of Muhammad. Although it is one of the few battles specifically mentioned in the Muslim holy book, the Qur'an, virtually all contemporary knowledge of the battle at Badr comes from traditional Islamic accounts, both hadiths and biographies of Muhammad, written decades after the battle.

Related pages
 Battle of Uhud
 Jihad
 Islam

Footnotes

References

Books and articles

Online references

Other websites 

 Manaqib Ashab al-Badriyyin  A prayer citing the virtues and exploits of the Muslims who took part in the battle.
 Badr at IslamAnswers.Net
 The Battle of Badr at Al-Islam.Org
 The first battle of Islam at Badr: Islamic Occasions Network
 Hope Springs Eternal  A nice multimedia presentation at IslamOnline.Net
 MSN Virtual Earth: A modern-day satellite image of Badr, now called "Badr Hunayn".
 Tafsir (Sura 8: verse 11 to 18) - Battle of Badr: Analysis of Qur'anic verses by Irshaad Hussain.

History of Islam
Badr
A ceasefire (or truce) is a stoppage of a war or any armed conflict, where each side of the conflict agrees with the other to stop aggressive actions for some time. Ceasefires may be declared as part of a formal peace treaty, but they have also been called part of an informal understanding between opposing forces.

Historical examples

World War I
On December 24, 1914, during World War I, there was an unofficial ceasefire  as both the Germans and the British sought to observe Christmas (the "Christmas Truce"). There was no treaty signed, and after a few days the war resumed.

Korean War
A ceasefire was reached on July 27, 1953 to halt the conflict of the Korean War and establish a demilitarized zone. But no peace treaty has been signed. Therefore, officially North and South Korea are still at war.

Present examples

Kashmir conflict

Pakistan's government has repeatedly claimed that the Republic of India is violating the Simla Agreement by constructing a fence along the cesefire line in the Kashmir Conflict.  Then-Pakistani President and ex-Army Chief of Army Staff (Pakistan) Pervez Musharraf promised in 2002 to curb infiltration into the Territorial dispute.  After the November 2003 ceasefire line agreement, building resumed and was completed in late 2004. LoC fencing was completed in Kashmir Valley and Jammu region on 30 September 2004.  According to Indian Military sources, the fence has reduced by 80% the numbers of militants who routinely cross into the occupied territory of the disputed state to attack Indian soldiers.

Israeli–Palestinian conflict
Another example of a ceasefire in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict was announced between the State of Israel and the Palestinian National Authority on February 8, 2005. When announced, chief Palestinian negotiator Saeb Erekat publicly defined the ceasefire as follows: "We have agreed that today President Mahmoud Abbas will declare a full cessation of violence against Israelis anywhere and Prime Minister Ariel Sharon will declare a full cessation of violence and military activities against Palestinians anywhere."

Related pages
 Peace
 War

References 

War
Peace
Khālid ibn al-Walīd Never got defeated in History (; died 642) also known as Sayf-Allah al-Maslul or also known as  (The Sword of The Sword Of Allah), was one of the two famous Arab generals of the Muslim army during the Muslim conquests of the 7th Century. 

He is famous for his military success, as he commanded the forces of Muhammad and of his immediate successors Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab. He was undefeated in over a hundred battles against the numerically superior forces of the Byzantine Roman Empire, Sassanid Persian Empire, and their allies. Therefore he is regarded as one of the finest military commanders in history. His greatest strategic achievements were his quick conquest of the Persian Empire and conquest of Roman Syria within three years from 633 to 636. His greatest tactical achievements were his successful double envelopment maneuver at Walaja and his victories at Ullais and Yarmouk.

Khalid ibn Walid was from the Meccan tribe of Quraysh, who opposed Muhammad, and he played a vital role in their victory at the Battle of Uhud. He converted, however, and joined Muhammad after the Treaty of Hudaybiyyah and commanded various expeditions for him. After Muhammad's death, he played a key role in commanding Medinan forces for Abu Bakr in the Ridda wars, the capture of the Sassanid Arab client Kingdom of Al-Hirah, and the defeat of the Sassanid Persian forces during his conquest of the Persian Empire.
 
Youth and approximately 590 root Khalid bin Walid was born in the year. His mother and father is Lübabe family Velid'dir sad. Family (tribe sad) specializing in military matters and is a privileged tribe of Quraysh. As a youth, spears, bows and swords were learning to use and cavalry. Personal weapon of choice was the sword.

Before the early years of Islam Islam Khalid bin Walid, corresponding to a soldier in his youth was notorious in pure Quraysh. He did not participate in  the Battle of Badr but he participated in the Battle of Uhud. Khalid fought against Muslims for the first time. Muslims in this battle orders to the rear of the cavalry deployed in a way that can sag. However, the path of Muhammad (SAW) this horse and fifty archers for defense has hired. The beginning of the war on Muslims to come up with their position archers terkedince, Khalid bin Walid opportunity to evaluate and Muslim armies from the rear with the cavalry in order has stuck. Khalid ibn al-Walid with this movement changed the course of the war and has defeated the Muslims. This is the last time after the war against Muslims fought in the Battle of Trench. After agreement with previously Hudaybiyyah Muslim brother, Walid joined the ranks via

References

Bibliography

 A.I. Akram, The Sword of Allah: Khalid bin al-Waleed, His Life and Campaigns, Rawalpindi: Nat. Publishing House (1970) ISBN 0-7101-0104-X.

Other websites
 Map of Khalid bin Al-Waleed's Conquests

Muslims
Arab people
Generals
585 births

642 deaths
Military tactics () are the art of organizing an army and the techniques for using weapons or military units to fight an enemy in battle. Tactics are distinct from strategy, which concerns a longer time scale. They have changed over time, mainly because of changes in military technology.

Tactics are methods to use military forces in combat and include basically many types of the military operations such as frontal assaults, attempts to flank the enemy, the keeping of troops in reserve, and the use of ambushes. Specialized tactics exist for many situations, such as securing a room or individual building, to large-scale operations, such as establishing air superiority over a region or the use of shock tactics.

Military tactics are used at all levels of command, from individual and group up to entire armed forces. The military theorist Carl von Clausewitz said "tactics is the art of using troops in battle; strategy is the art of using battles to win the war."

Bibliography 
 Balck, W. 1914. Tactics. Vols 2. Trans. W. Krueger. Fort Leavenworth, Kan.: U.S. Cavelry Association.
 Clausewitz, C. von. 1976. On War. ed and trans. M. Howard and P. Paret. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton Univ. Press.
 Creasy, E. 1963. Fifteen Decisive Battles of the World. London: Dent and Sons.
 Esposito, V., ed. 1959. The West Point Atlas of American Wars.New York: Praeger.
 Gerhard Muhm : La Tattica nella campagna d’Italia, in LINEA GOTICA AVAMPOSTO DEI BALCANI, (Hrsg.) Amedeo Montemaggi - Edizioni Civitas, Roma 1993
 Jomini, A.-H. 1862. The Summary of the Art of War. Philadelphia: Lippincott.
 
 U.S. Department of the Army. 1986. U.S. Army Field Manual 100-5: Operations. Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office.

References

Other websites 
 Napoleon's tactics and strategy
Several international or multinational conferences have been called the Geneva Conference, because they were held in the city of Geneva, Switzerland. These conferences include:

The Geneva Naval Conference (1927) to discuss naval arms limitation
The Geneva Conference (1932) to discuss general arms limitation 
An international conference, Geneva Conference (1954), to restore peace in Indochina and Korea, April through July 1954 that meant the division of Vietnam.
A multinational conference, Geneva Conference (1955), to discuss European security, German reunification, disarmament, and cultural exchange. Leaders from the United States, the Soviet Union, the United Kingdom and France met in July 1955.
A multinational conference, Geneva Conference (1958), to discuss nuclear weapons testing, involving the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and the United States, beginning in October of 1958.
A multinational conference, Geneva Conference (1973), to find a solution to the Arab-Israeli conflict.
Geneva Accord, a 2003 extra-governmental and therefore unofficial peace proposal meant to solve the Israeli-Palestinian conflict.

Related pages
Geneva Conventions
A marching band is a band of instrumental musicians who march while playing instruments.

They combine movement – usually some type of marching and other movements – with their musical performance. Its instruments typically are brass instruments, woodwinds, and percussion instruments.  The music usually has a strong rhythmic component suitable for marching.  Marching bands use a uniform, often bearing the name and emblem of their organization.  Many bands have a color guard, who perform with flags and other props. 

In addition to traditional parade performances, many bands also perform field shows at special events (such as football games) or at competitions.

References 

 rec.arts.marching.band.college Usenet newsgroup FAQ

Other websites

MarchingWiki.com 
Marching.com
MarchingArts.com
Compendium of College Marching Bands 
marchingbandplanet.com
World Association of Marching Show Bands

Musical groups
Hergiswil is a municipality in the canton of Nidwalden in Switzerland.

It was founded in 1378.

The main sights of Hergiswil are: an old clergy house, the church, the chapel Maria zum guten Rat, old mansion Thumigerhaus, and a glazier's workshop with museum. The workshop was established in 1817.  It burned down on one occasion.

References

Other websites

Official Homepage of Hergiswil
Official Homepage of the Glasi in Hergiswil
Glasi Ecuador site

Municipalities of Nidwalden
Max Christian Friedrich Bruch (6 January 1838–2 October 1920) also known as Max Karl August Bruch, was a German Romantic composer and conductor who wrote over 200 works, including three violin concertos, one of which is a staple of the violin repertoire.

Bruch was born in Cologne. He had a long career as a teacher, conductor and composer, moving among musical posts in Germany: Mannheim (1862-1864), Koblenz (1865-1867), Sondershausen, (1867-1870) Berlin (1870-1872), Bonn, where he spent 1873 -1878 working privately. At the height of his reputation he spent three seasons as conductor of the Royal Liverpool Philharmonic Society (1880-83). He taught composition at the Berlin Hochschule für Musik (the Berlin Conservatoire) from 1890 until his retirement in 1910.

His conservatively structured works, in the German romantic musical tradition, placed him in the camp of Romantic classicism exemplified by Johannes Brahms, rather than the opposing "New Music" of Franz Liszt and Richard Wagner. In his time, he was known primarily as a choral composer.

His Violin Concerto No. 1 in G minor, Op. 26 (1868) is one of the most popular Romantic violin concertos. It uses several techniques from Felix Mendelssohn's Violin Concerto in E minor.

References

Other websites 
 Classical Net, Basic Repertoire: Max Bruch
 Joseph Stevenson, "Max Bruch"
 "Max Bruch, Kol Nidrei"
 http://www.richmondsymphony.com/concerts/note_04_21-24_06.htm 
 Site dedicated to Max Bruch  (includes a list of works by opus number)

1838 births
1920 deaths
German composers
Musicians from North Rhine-Westphalia
People from Cologne
Romantic composers
Stans is the capital city of the canton of Nidwalden in Switzerland. It has a population of 7,300 people.  The area of Stans is 11 km².

History 
Stans was first noted in 1172. In 1798, it was attacked by French troops, followed the decision of Nidwalden not to adapt a new constitution. Children whose parents were killed by this event were gathered by the teacher Johann Heinrich Pestalozzi for his first school. The open-air assembly (Landsgemeinde) was held in Stans each year until 1997.

Sights 
The main sights of Stans are:
 The Stanserhorn (1900m) mountain and tourist resort
 The Stanserhornbahn: A cable car which takes people from the base of the mountain to the hotel at the top. It was first built in 1893.
 The main square (Dorfplatz)
 Saint Peter and Paul church: built from 1641 to 1647 with a Romanesque tower
 The Saint Klara monastery
 A monument for the local hero Arnold von Winkelried and his birth place (Winkelriedhaus).

References

Other websites 
Official Page 
Stanserhorn 

Municipalities of Nidwalden
Capital cities in Switzerland
Bischofszell is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in the country of Switzerland.  It has a population of 5,500 people.

The local industry is Bischofszell Konserven (now belonging to Migros, makes jams, fruit juices, various cans, convenience food, among them Anna's Best)).

Other websites

Municipalities of Thurgau
Cities in Switzerland
Diessenhofen is a municipality of the district of Diessenhofen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Cities in Switzerland
Municipalities of Thurgau
Münchwilen is a municipality and capital city of the district of Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

Municipalities of Thurgau
Aadorf is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

With a population of 7,436 people (as of 2005), it is the canton's seventh largest municipality.

References

Other websites 
Official website of Aadorf 
Website of Guntershausen 
Website of Ettenhausen 
Website of Wittenwil 

Municipalities of Thurgau
A genius is a person who is exceptionally intelligent.  People may have different ideas of how clever one has to be in order to be called a “genius”.  A genius may be extremely clever at maths or science or games such as chess, or they may be creative geniuses who are brilliant writers, musicians or artists.  

Albert Einstein is perhaps the world’s most famous genius. He was extraordinarily good at math, but in other areas, such as languages, he was not particularly good.  Leonardo da Vinci and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe were geniuses who can also be described as polymaths because they were brilliant in lots of different subjects.  Geniuses are usually child prodigies, i.e., they already show they are a genius when they are young children.

Genius is not quite the same as talent.  Talent means the ability to learn a particular skill very quickly.  A genius, on the other hand, is also very creative and able to do things that no one else has thought of.

Some geniuses, such as Goethe, are very sensible, reliable people who are good at organizing their lives.  However, there are many geniuses who have unusual personalities.  They may be very absent-minded, they may not have much common sense, or they may suffer at times from depression and changes of mood.

Intelligence
Affeltrangen is a municipality in Münchwilen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Altnau is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Amlikon-Bissegg is a municipality of the district of Weinfelden in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Amriswil is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

Gallery

References

Other websites

 www.amriswil.ch 

Cities in Switzerland
Municipalities of Thurgau
Glarus is a canton in east Switzerland. The capital is Glarus. In 2010, the 25 communes were merged to only three: Glarus, Glarus Nord, and Glarus Süd. Officially, Glarus is a German-speaking canton; of the roughly 40.000 people, 83.6 percent are German-speaking, and 6.8 percent speak Italian. According to a statistical survey done in 2000, 44% of the population are Protestant (including Jehovas Witnesses, and  the New Apostolic Church), 37.3% are Roman Catholic, 6.5% are Muslims, 6.5% are non-believers, 2.3% are either Eastern orthodox or Oriental orthodox and 3.7% belonged to other communities or did not say.

Geography 
The canton of Glarus is dominated by the deep valley of the Linth River. Most of the area is mountainous. The total area of the canton of Glarus is 685 km².

History 

The history of this canton is dominated by religion. The people who lived in the Linth Valley were converted to Christianity in the 6th century by the Irish monk Saint Fridolin. He is still in the coat of arms of the canton today. He started Säckingen Abbey near Basel. The area around Glarus was owned by the abbey starting in the 9th century. By 1288, the Habsburgs slowly took over all the abbey's rights. Then the people of Glarus joined the Swiss Confederation in 1352.

Between 1506 and 1516, the reformer Huldrych Zwingli was a priest in Glarus. By 1564, all of Zwingli's followers were eliminated, but the Protestants and Catholics there still fought with each other. To make peace it was decided that each side should have its own assembly (Landsgemeinde) in 1623. In 1683, each side was granted the right to have its own tribunals.

Between 1798 and 1803, Glarus was part of the Canton of Linth made by Napoleon. In 1836 the constitution was changed to unite the assemblies and establish only one Landsgemeinde.

About two thirds of Glarus (593 buildings) were destroyed after a big fire in 1861. After the fire, Glarus was rebuilt in block fashion according to construction plans by Bernhard Simon and Johann Caspar Wolff.

On May 6, 2007 Glarus became the first Swiss canton to lower the voting age to 16.

Industry 
The land of the canton helped to make slate works in the 1600s.

Municipalities 
The 25 municipalities (gemeinden) were:
 Betschwanden
 Bilten
 Braunwald
 Elm
 Engi
 Ennenda
 Filzbach
 Glarus
 Haslen (united former municipalities Leuggelbach, Nidfurn and Haslen)
 Linthal
 Luchsingen (united former municipalities Diesbach, Hätzingen and Luchsingen)
 Matt
 Mitlödi
 Mollis
 Mühlehorn
 Näfels
 Netstal
 Niederurnen
 Oberurnen
 Obstalden
 Riedern
 Rüti
 Schwanden
 Schwändi
 Sool

References

Other websites 

 Official Statistics
 Official Site (German)
 the Linth valley on Google Maps
The district of Mendrisio is the southernmost district of canton of Ticino and of Switzerland.

Circles and municipalities 

The district of Mendrisio has 27 municipalities divided in 5 circles (circoli):
 Circle of Mendrisio: Mendrisio, Coldrerio, Genestrerio, Salorino;
 Circle of Balerna: Balerna, Casima, Castel San Pietro, Monte, Chiasso, Pedrinate, Morbio Inferiore;
 Circle of Caneggio: Caneggio, Cabbio, Vacallo, Sagno, Morbio Superiore, Bruzella, Muggio;
 Circle of Stabio: Stabio, Novazzano, Ligornetto.

Districts of Ticino
Mendrisio is a municipality of the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

Mendrisio is the seat of the Accademia di Architettura of the university of Italian-speaking Switzerland (USI).

The municipality was created on 4 April 2004 when it incorporated the former municipality of Salorino. On 5 April 2009 it incorporated the former municipalities of Arzo, Capolago, Genestrerio, Rancate and Tremona.  On 14 April 2013 the former municipalities of Besazio, Ligornetto and Meride merged into the municipality of Mendrisio.

References

Other websites 

 Official website 

Municipalities of Ticino
Cities in Switzerland
Coldrerio is a municipality of the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Ticino
The Franciscan Assemblage is a term in geology that describes a group of rocks near the peninsula of San Francisco, California.

Geology
San Francisco
Genestrerio was a municipality of the district of Mendrisio in the canton of Ticino in Switzerland. On 5 April 2009 the former municipalities of Arzo, Capolago, Genestrerio, Mendrisio, Rancate and Tremona merged into the municipality of Mendrisio.

References 

Former municipalities of Ticino
The Swiss canton of Bern has about 947,000 people. The canton is in west-central Switzerland and the city of Bern is its capital.

Districts 
As of April 2004, there are 398 municipalities of the canton of Bern within the following 26 administrative districts:

 Aarberg with capital Aarberg
 Aarwangen with capital Aarwangen
 Bern with capital Berne
 Biel with capital Biel
 Büren with capital Büren an der Aare
 Burgdorf with capital Burgdorf
 Courtelary with capital Courtelary
 Erlach with capital Erlach
 Fraubrunnen with capital Fraubrunnen
 Frutigen with capital Frutigen
 Interlaken with capital Interlaken
 Konolfingen with capital Konolfingen
 Laupen with capital Laupen
 Moutier with capital Moutier
 La Neuveville with capital La Neuveville
 Nidau with capital Nidau
 Niedersimmental with capital Wimmis
 Oberhasli with capital Meiringen
 Obersimmental with capital Blankenburg
 Saanen with capital Saanen
 Schwarzenburg with capital Schwarzenburg
 Seftigen with capital Belp
 Signau with capital Langnau im Emmental
 Thun with capital Thun
 Trachselwald with capital Trachselwald
 Wangen with capital Wangen an der Aare

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official statistics
 Berner Oberland Tourism 
 Biel/Bienne and Seeland Tourism 
 Bernese Jura Tourism
Aarberg is a municipality in Seeland in the canton of Berne in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 

Official website 

Municipalities of Bern
Cities in Switzerland
Bargen is a municipality in the administrative district of Seeland in the canton of Bern in Switzerland.

It is a parish and is now part of the district of Aarberg. Its official language is German.

References

Other websites
 Commune of Bargen (in German)
 Google Maps

Municipalities of Bern
The Coast Miwok were a Native American tribe who lived in what is now Northern California.

Native American
Sonoma County, California
The Pomo were a Native American tribe who lived in what is now Northern California by Russian River. Pomo is a language family that includeds seven languages, including Northern Pomo, Northeastern Pomo, Eastern Pomo, Southeastern Pomo, and Kashaya. The pomo tribe were hunters and gatherers. The men hunted meat and fish, while the women and the children gatherd nuts and berries. The Pomo villages might have had as few as 100 or moore than 1,500. They wove finely crafted baskets and sometimes decorated them with feathers and shell beads.

Native American
Sonoma County, California
André-Marie Ampère (20 January 1775 – 10 June 1836) was a French physicist or a mathematician who helped discover electromagnetism. An electrical unit called the ampere is named after him.

Life 
Ampere was born in France in 1775. During his childhood, Ampere's father taught him Latin, until he found out that his son was talented in mathematical studies. However, young Ampere continued his study on Latin, so that he could understand and master the works of Euler and Bernoulli.  In his later life, Ampere began to distinguish himself in mathematics, but also he studied history, travels, poetry, philosophy, and the natural sciences.

During the French Revolution, a great sorrow came to Ampere's life; he lost his father who was executed by revolutionaries.  The death of his father brought a huge impact to Ampere.
In 1796, he met the daughter of a blacksmith living near Lyon named Julie Carron, and married her in 1799. Afterward, Ampere worked as a professor in Lyon, giving lessons in mathematics, chemistry, languages, and physics. He continued working as a professor even after the death of his wife in 1803. However, her death bothered Ampere for the rest of his life. Ampere died at Marseille and buried in the Cimetiere de Montmartre, Paris.  In his work Journal et correspondence, we can see his amiability and childlike simplicity of character.

Works 

Ampere is most known for establishing the relationship between electricity and magnetism, and combining them into a new field called electromagnetism, or electrodynamics. On September 11, 1820, Ampere heard from the discovery of H.C.Orsted that a magnetic needle can be activated by a voltaic current. Only a week later, he came up with a much more advanced version of that kindred phenomena. It was such an amazing development. On the same day, he also discovered like charges repel and different charges come towards each other.

More readings

Other websites 

 Ampere and the history of electricity (Correspondence, bibliography, experiments, simulations, etc., edited by CNRS, France)
 Ampere's Museum (CNRS) is in Poleymieux-au-Mont-d'or, near Lyon, France
 Catholic Encyclopedia on André Marie Ampère

1775 births
1836 deaths
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
French academics
French physicists
People from Lyon
Cyllene or , is a moon of Jupiter. It was found by a team of astronomers from the University of Hawaii led by Scott S. Sheppard in 2003, getting the designation .

Cyllene is about 2 kilometres in diameter, and orbits Jupiter at an average distance of 23,396,000 km in 731.099 days, at an inclination of 140° to the ecliptic (140° to Jupiter's equator), with an orbital eccentricity of 0.4116.

It was named in March 2005 after Cyllene, a naiad (stream nymph) or oread (mountain nymph) associated with Mount Kyllini, Greece. She was a daughter of Zeus (Jupiter).

It belongs to the Pasiphaë group, non-spherical retrograde moons orbiting Jupiter at distances ranging between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km, and with inclinations ranging between 144.5° and 158.3°.

References 

Jupiter's moons
Naters is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

On 1 January 2013 the former municipalities of Birgisch and Mund merged into the municipality of Naters.

References

Other websites
 Official website 

Municipalities of Valais
Ried-Brig is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

References

Other websites 
 Official website 

Municipalities of Valais
Simplon is a municipality of the district of Brig in the canton of Valais in Switzerland.

A member of the Swiss Federal Council Josef Escher was born in Simplon.

References

Other websites 

 Official municipality website of Simplon 
 Official tourism website of Simplon 

Municipalities of Valais
Fiberglass (also called fibreglass and glass fibre) is material made from extremely fine fibers of glass.  

It is used as a reinforcing material for many polymer products. The composite material, that is produced by this method is called "fiberglass" in popular usage. The proper names are fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) or glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Glassmakers throughout history have experimented with glass fibers, but mass manufacture of fiberglass was only made possible when finer tools for machines were produced. The first major use was in "glass wool" for insulation, starting in the 1930s.  

Glass fiber is formed when silica-based or other formulation glass is extruded into many fibers with small diameters that are suitable for textile processing.  Glass is unlike other polymers because, even as a fiber, it has little crystalline structure (see amorphous solid).  The properties of the structure of glass in its soft stage are very much like its properties when spun into fiber.

Safety 
Bare fiberglass can cause skin irritation and cuts when handled without gloves. There have been concerns that fiberglass can be accidentally inhaled into the lungs, where it might cause cancer and other lung problems, similar to asbestos. Fiberglass has been called "man-made asbestos". Substitutes for fiberglass building insulation, such as cellulose and aerogel, have started to appear.

Related pages
Optical fiber

References

Other websites
https://www.facebook.com/OEMfibreglass/
OEM Fibreglass
Owens-Corning
Fiberglass and health 
UC Davis PDF on Fiberglass Health Effects
FULLTECH Fiber Glass Corp.
SORG GmbH & Co KG
National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health - Fibrous Glass Page

Fibers
Glass
Insulation
Composite materials are made from two or more basic material mixed together. The materials can be natural or not, and keep their separate properties when mixed together. However, the composite material as a whole may behave differently from either of its parts. For example, reinforced concrete (made of concrete and steel) has resistance to pressure and to bending forces. Bullet-proof glass (made of glass and plastic) is more resistant to impact than either glass or plastic on their own.

Concrete itself is a composite material, one of the oldest man-made composites, used more than any other man-made material in the world.

Wood is a natural composite of cellulose fibres in a matrix of lignin. The earliest man-made composite materials were straw and mud combined to form bricks for building construction. This ancient brick-making process was documented by Egyptian tomb paintings.

Fibre-reinforced polymers are in wide use today, as is glass-reinforced plastic.

Background 

The most primitive composite materials were straw and mud in the form of bricks for building construction. The Biblical book of Exodus tells of the Israelites that were oppressed by Pharaoh and forced to make "bricks without straw". Today we use shower stalls and bath tubs made of fiberglass, a type of composite.

Related pages
Alloy
Fibre
Polymer
Thermoplastic
Reinforced concrete

References

Other websites 

Composite material key concepts 
Society of Manufacturing Engineers: Plastics, Composites & Coatings Community
A fibre-reinforced polymer (also fibre-reinforced plastic (FRP)) is a composite material that consists of a polymer matrix that is reinforced with fibres. The fibres are usually fibreglass, carbon, or aramid, the polymer is usually an epoxy, vinylester or polyester thermosetting plastic. FRPs are commonly used in the aerospace, automobile, marine, and construction industries.

Related pages
 Glass-reinforced plastic

Other websites
 Business Week story about FRPs used to construct bridges

Materials science
Polymers
Fibreglass (US: fiberglass) is a composite material. It is a fibre-reinforced polymer made of a plastic reinforced by fine fibres made of glass. The composite material may be called glass-reinforced plastic (GRP).

Fibreglass is cheaper and more flexible than carbon fibre. It is stronger than many metals (when compared by weight), and can be moulded into complex shapes. The plastic matrix is usually a thermoset polymer – such as epoxy or polyester resin,  or it may be a thermoplastic.

The benefits of fibreglass include:

 Fibreglass is strong with a long durability, and can withstand weathering
 Designs that cannot be achieved with glass can be done so with fibreglass
 Cost effective
 Fibreglass is non-conductive, as well as being radio frequency transparent, and has a lower reaction to thermal-conductivity
 Has the appearance of glass while offering more diverse usages

Uses 
 Sail planes, Sports cars, micro cars, karts, lorries, wind turbine blades.
 Pods, domes and architectural features where a light weight is needed
 Roofing products, swimming pools and composite housing
 Protective sleeving for RF Antennas
 Electrical enclosures
 Piping for above and below ground systems

Use of the term 
"Fiberglass" refers to the complete glass fiber reinforced composite material, rather than just the glass fibre inside it.

References

Other websites 
Building a fibreglass fishing boat
Glass reinforced polyester use in Europe

Materials science
Polymers
Building materials
Carbon fiber reinforced plastic (CFRP or CRP), is a very strong, light and expensive composite material or fiber-reinforced plastic. Similar to glass-reinforced plastic, one uses commonly the name of its reinforcing fibers (carbon fiber) for the composite material. The plastic is most often epoxy, but other plastics, such as polyester, vinyl ester or nylon, are also sometimes used. Some composites contain both carbon fiber and other fibres such as kevlar, aluminium and fiberglass reinforcement. Less commonly, the terms graphite-reinforced plastic or graphite fiber reinforced plastic (GFRP) are also used.

It has many applications in aerospace and automotive fields, as well as in sailboats, and notably in modern bicycles and motorcycles, where these qualities are of importance. It is becoming increasingly common in small consumer goods as well, such as laptop computers, tripods, fishing rods, paintball equipment, racquet sports frames, stringed instrument bodies, classical guitar strings, and drum shells.

Related pages
Carbon fiber
Graphite
Aramid
Fiberglass

Other websites 

Japan Carbon Fibre Manufacturers Association (English)
Carbon fibre page from the Department of Polymer Science at USM
Engineers design composite bracing system for injured Hokie running back Cedric Humes

Materials science
Polymers
Carbon fiber (British English: carbon fibre) is a type of fiber that is made of carbon atoms. It is also sometimes called graphite fiber. It has the highest compressive strength of all the reinforcing materials (composites), and it has a high strength to weight ratio and low coefficient of thermal expansion. The density of carbon fiber is also much lower than the density of steel. Carbon fiber is in the form of several thousand long, thin strands of material that is composed of mostly carbon atoms.

Applications 

Carbon fiber is most notably used to reinforce composite materials, particularly carbon fiber reinforced polymers. Reinforced carbon-carbon (RCC)  is used structurally in high-temperature applications. The fiber is also used to filter high-temperature gases.

Molding a thin layer of carbon fibers significantly improves fire resistance of polymers or thermoset composites. This works because a dense, compact layer of carbon fibers efficiently reflects heat.

The increasing use of carbon fiber composites is displacing aluminum from aerospace applications in favor of other metals.

Related pages
 Carbon fiber reinforced plastic

Notes

Other websites 
 The Chemistry of Carbon Fiber
 Making Carbon Fiber
 Bacon's breakthrough  at ACS.org
 Carbon Fiber at pslc.ws

Fibers
Woven fabrics
Enrico Fernando Fermi (September 29, 1901 — November 28, 1954) was an Italian-American physicist who worked on the first nuclear reactor and helped make quantum theory. He also was important to particle physics, and statistical mechanics. Fermi won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1938 for his work on induced radioactivity. He built the world's first nuclear reactor. Fermi was one of the greatest scientists of the 20th century.

Early life 
Fermi was born in Rome and went to a local grammar school. He was very good at maths and science and won a prize from Scuola Normale   Superiore of Pisa. He went to the University of Pisa where he studied physics. In 1923 he was given a scholarship from the Italian government and went to Göttingen for more study. He was given a Rockefeller scholarship in 1924 and studied in Leyden. He came back to Italy at the end of 1924 and became Lecturer in Mathematical Physics and Mechanics at the University of Florence.

Scientist in Italy 
In 1926, Fermi discovered the statistical laws, now called Fermi statistics. These laws explain the actions of the particles which are subject to the Pauli exclusion principle, which are now called fermions. These are different to the particles called bosons which are explained by Bose-Einstein statistics. In 1927 he became Professor of Theoretical Physics at the University of Rome. He spent time studying electrodynamics, and began to closely look at the atomic nucleus. In 1934, using discoveries made by Wolfgang Pauli, Frédéric Joliot, Irène Joliot-Curie, he was able to show changes in almost every element bombarded with neutrons. This led to the discovery of slow neutrons, nuclear fission and making elements that were not in the Periodic Table.

Fermi expressed his concerns about the dangers of nuclear energy at one of the meetings of the University of Chicago before the end of the WWII.

References 

1901 births
1954 deaths
Cancer deaths in Chicago
Burials at Oak Woods Cemetery
Deaths from stomach cancer
Italian scientists
Naturalized citizens of the United States
American nuclear physicists
People from Rome
American theoretical physicists
Italian Nobel Prize winners
A physical coefficient is an important number that characterizes some physical property of a technical or scientific object.

Examples of Physical Coefficients
 Coefficient of Thermal Expansion (thermodynamics) (dimensionless) - Relates the change in temperature to the change in a material's dimensions.  
 Partition Coefficient (KD) (chemistry) - The ratio of concentrations of a compound in two phases of a mixture of two immiscible solvents at equilibrium.
 Hall coefficient (electrical physics) - Relates a magnetic field applied to an element to the voltage created, the amount of current and the element thickness. It is a characteristic of the material from which the conductor is made.
 Lift Coefficient (CL or CZ) (Aerodynamics) (dimensionless) -  Relates the lift generated by an airfoil with the dynamic pressure of the fluid flow around the airfoil, and the planform area of the airfoil. 
 Ballistic coefficient (BC) (Aerodynamics) (units of kg/m²) - A measure of a body's ability to overcome air resistance in flight. BC is a function of mass, diameter, and drag coefficient. 
 Transmission Coefficient (quantum mechanics) (dimensionless) - Represents the probability flux of a transmitted wave relative to that of an incident wave.  It is often used to describe the probability of a particle tunnelling through a barrier.  
 Damping Factor a.k.a. viscous damping coefficient (Physical Engineering) (units of Newton-seconds per meter) - relates a damping force with the velocity of the object whose motion is being dampened.
 Coefficient of friction (dimensionless) which could be static or dynamic - it relates friction, a force resisting motion between things touching each other, to a normal force, a force pushing the things together.  
 ''Diffusion coefficient - relates concentration differences in a medium with how much or how fast diffusion occurs in Fick's Law.

Basic physics ideas