cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Holism  is the idea that natural systems (physical, biological, chemical, social, economic, mental, linguistic, etc.) and their properties, should be viewed as wholes, not as collections of parts. This often includes the view that systems somehow function as wholes and that their functioning cannot be fully understood solely in terms of their component parts.

Reductionism is often viewed as the opposite of holism. Reductionism in science says that a complex system can be explained by reduction to its fundamental parts. For example, the processes of biology are reducible to chemistry and the laws of chemistry are explained by physics.

Social scientist and physician Nicholas A. Christakis explains that "for the last few centuries, the Cartesian project in science has been to break matter down into ever smaller bits, in the pursuit of understanding. And this works, to some extent...but putting things back together in order to understand them is harder, and typically comes later in the development of a scientist or in the development of science".

Related pages 
Gestalt psychology
Interdisciplinarity
Theory of everything

References 

Philosophical movements and positions
The Lone Ranger is a 30-minute American western television series. It stars Clayton Moore as The Lone Ranger and Jay Silverheels as The Lone Ranger's Indian pal Tonto. The series was one of the highest-rated series in television's early years and ABC's first true "hit". Its first run lasted from September 15, 1949 to June 8, 1957. Its first five seasons were broadcast in black and white. Its last season aired in color. There was a total of 221 episodes.

George Trendle and Fran Striker were producers. John Hart briefly took the role of The Lone Ranger while Moore was tied-up in a salary dispute with producers. Oil millionaire Jack Wrather bought the show in 1954. Wrather's other television 
properties included the hit series Lassie and Sgt. Preston of the Yukon. Two feature-length movies were produced after the show was canceled, The Lone Ranger (co-starring Wrather's wife Bonita Granville Wrather) and The Lone Ranger and the Lost City of Gold.

Some episodes are available on video and DVD. The series is sometimes seen in reruns. The series was known for its use of classical music collected from many sources. Especially famous was the series's opening and closing music, a part of Gioachino Rossini's William Tell Overture. Equally well known were the cries heard at the end of each episode of "Who was that masked man?" and The Lone Ranger's "Hi-Yo, Silver! Away!"  Much merchandise was manufactured during the series run such as toys, games, costumes, guns and holsters, and comic books.

1940s in entertainment
1950s television series
Western television series
American drama television series
ABC network shows
Children's television series
Black and white television series
English-language television programs
Pembroke College is one of the colleges of the University of Cambridge, England. It was created in 1347 on Christmas Eve. This was when Edward III gave Marie de St Pol the right to build a new college. She was the wife of the Earl of Pembroke, who died in 1327. The name of the college comes from him. However, it used to be called Hall of Valence Mary and only in 1856 the name was changed to the current one.

Pembroke College has about 700 students. The buildings within the college are of very different age. The oldest ones are from the 14th century, including the Chapel. The Hall was built later in the 1850s, and many of the student's rooms after the 1950s. It is found on Trumpington Street, which is near King's Parade, the main street in Cambridge.

Some very important people have studied here, like John Sulston (he won the 2002 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine) and Edmund Spenser (a poet).

Other websites 

Official website

Colleges of the University of Cambridge
1347 establishments
1340s establishments in England
William Dean Howells (March 1, 1837 – May 11, 1920) was an American author and literary critic. His works include the Christmas story "Christmas Every Day" and the novel The Rise of Silas Lapham. He married Elinor Mead and had three children.

Works

Venetian Life (1866)
Italian Journeys (1867)
Suburban Sketches (1871)
Their Wedding Journey (1872)
A Counterfeit Presentment (1877)
The Lady of The Aroostook (1879)

The following were written during his residence in England and in Italy, as was The Rise of Silas Lapham in 1885.

The Undiscovered Country (1880)
A Fearful Responsibility (1881)
Dr. Breen's Practice (1881)
The Sleeping Car (1882)
A Modern Instance (1882)
A Woman's Reason (1883)
Three Villages (1884)
Tuscan Cities (1885)
The Rise of Silas Lapham (1885)

He returned to the United States in 1886. He wrote various types of works, including fiction, poetry, and farces, of which The Sleeping Car, The Mouse-Trap, The Elevator; Christmas Every Day; and Out of the Question are characteristic.

Indian Summer (1886)
The Minister's Charge (1886)
Annie Kilburn (1887/88)
Modern Italian Poets (1887)
April Hopes (1888)
Mark Twain's Library of Humor (1888, in conjunction with Mark Twain)
A Hazard of New Fortunes (1889)
The Shadow of a Dream (1890)
Criticism and Fiction (1891)
Christmas Every Day (1892)
The Quality of Mercy (1892)
An Imperative Duty (1892)
The Coast of Bohemia (1893)
My Year In a Log Cabin (1893)
A Traveler from Altruria (1894)
Stops of Various Quills (1895)
The Story of a Play (1898)
Ragged Lady (1899)
Their Silver Wedding Anniversary (1899)
The Flight of Pony Baker (1902)
The Kentons (1902)
Questionable Shapes (1903)
Son of Royal Langbrith (1904)
Editha (1905)
London Films (1905)
Certain Delightful English Towns (1906)
Between the Dark and the Daylight (1907)
Through the Eye of the Needle (1907)
Heroines of Fiction (1908)
The Landlord At Lion's Head (1908)
My Mark Twain: Reminiscences (1910)
New Leaf Mills (1913)
Seen and Unseen at Stratford-upon-Avon: A Fantasy (1914)
The Leatherwood God (1916)
Years of My Youth (autobiography) (1916)

References
 
 Fryckstedt, Olov W. 1958. In Quest of America: A Study of Howells’ Early Development as a Novelist. Upsala, Sweden: Thesis.
 Goodman, Susan and Carl Dawson. William Dean Howells: A Writer's Life. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005. 
 Lynn, Kenneth S. William Dean Howells: An American Life. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, Inc., 1970. 
 Olsen, Rodney. Dancing in Chains: The Youth of William Dean Howells. New York: New York University Press, 1991.

Further reading

Other websites

 
 Essays by William Dean Howells at Quotidiana.org
 William Dean Howells Society includes a biographical sketch of Howells, links to his works (including the "Editor's Study" columns), questions and replies, bibliographies, and pictures.
 Realism in American Literature at the Literary Movements site

1837 births
1920 deaths
19th-century American novelists
Writers from Massachusetts
Doughboy was a nickname given to the 85,000 American soldiers who fought in France during World War I. Their leader was John J. Pershing. 

The word "doughboy" was well known almost 100 years before World War I in Britain and America. Doughboy had a different meaning then. Soldiers in Spain, America, and Britain were all familiar with fried doughnuts called doughboys. Because of the occasional contact of the nation's armed force and transatlantic migration, it seems likely that this usage was known to the members of the U.S. Army by the early 19th century. 

Though the first person to use the term is unclear, it was in use as early as the 1840s. One place that may have used "doughboy" first was during the Mexican–American War. Infantry forces, the army, were always covered with dust from marching through Mexico. This made the men look like uncooked dough. Another idea is the dusty infantry men looked like the mud bricks used in the area called adobes. Another idea is that doughboys were named this was because of their way of cooking field servings in the 1840s and 1850s when they baked doughy flour and rice mixtures in the ashes of a fire, but this does not explain why only army men had the doughboy name. 
 

United States Army
World War I
Cootie is a roll-and-move-, 3-dimensional, table-top children's game for 2 to 4 players. At the roll of the die, the player selects a component of the cootie such as the head or the tongue. The winner is the first to complete his cootie. Schaper's plastic bug has become an icon. For some, it is a symbol for the baby boomer generation.

The game was invented in 1948 by William Schaper. It sold in the millions after being launched in 1949. There were many games called "Cootie" in the early years of the 20th century. Only Schaper's game had a free-standing cootie though. The game is now produced by Hasbro subsidiary Milton Bradley. In 2003, Cootie was named to the Toy Industry Association's "Century of Toys List".

Games
Play-Doh is a children's modeling compound made of wheat flour, water, salt, boric acid, and mineral oil. It was first made in Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S., as a wallpaper cleaner in the 1930s. Children began using it as a modeling compound. It was changed and marketed to schools in the middle 1950s. Play-Doh was used at an educational convention in 1956. Important department stores opened retail accounts. Advertisements on many children's television shows in 1957 brought more sales. Play-Doh has much spinoff merchandise, such as The Fun Factory. In 2003, the Toy Industry Association named Play-Doh in its "Century of Toys List".

Origin 
The non-toxic, non-staining, reusable modeling compound that came to be known as "Play-Doh" was a stretchy, putty-like substance made by Noah McVicker of Cincinnati-based soap manufacturer Kutol Products. It was made at the request of Kroger Grocery, who wanted a product that could clean coal residue from wallpaper. Following World War II, with the change from coal-based home heating to natural gas and the resulting decrease in coal soot, and the introduction of washable vinyl-based wallpaper, the market for wallpaper cleaning putty decreased quite a lot. 
McVicker's nephew, Joe McVicker, joined Kutol to save the company from bankruptcy. Joe McVicker was the brother-in-law of nursery school teacher Kay Zufall, who had seen a newspaper article about making art projects with the wallpaper cleaning putty. Her students enjoyed it, and she persuaded Noah McVicker and Joe McVicker to manufacture it as a child’s toy. Zufall and her husband came up with the name Play-Doh; Joe McVicker and his uncle Noah had wanted to call it "Rainbow Modeling Compound".

Toys
Onslow is a small Canadian rural community in central Colchester County, Nova Scotia. It is an unincorporated community. The community is located along the north bank of the Salmon River. It is on the opposite side of the river from the town of Truro. It is largely a farming area. It is in a region first settled by Europeans as Onslow Township (1761).

An important highway interchange is in the community. It is where Highway 102 ends at Highway 104.

Onslow is home to Central Colchester Junior High School. The school is operated by the Chignecto-Central Regional School Board. Onslow also contains a small corner store, a John Deere dealership and a volunteer fire department. The area is mostly farmland but people live here also and the community is expanding somewhat. In the fall and spring, migrating Canada Geese are attracted to the farmlands and corn fields. Onslow is in an area with high winds. This makes it an excellent place for wind turbines. Some farmers in the area have put up wind turbines to power their farms.

Nova Scotia Power has a power distribution point in Onslow where it interconnects the Halifax Regional Municipality  with Cape Breton, South Shore and New Brunswick Power Transmission System.

References

Settlements in Nova Scotia
Mugur Sundar ()  is a popular dance choreographer in South Indian cinema. He has directed dance sequences for more than 1000 south-Indian films. Sundar was born in Mugur, a village located in Mysore district, Karnataka. He has three sons, Prabhu Deva, Raju Sundaram and Nagendra Prasad, who are established dance masters. One of the judges in the famous Dance show AATA 4 which is telecasted in Zee Telugu, Telugu channel. Sundaram donned the role of a judge on Vijay TV's popular show Jodi No.1, Jodi No.1 Season Two where the participants are television artistes. His fellow judges were Silambarasan and Sangeetha.

In 2001 he directed his first Kannada film Manasella Neene. It was a remake of Telugu film Manasanthaa Nuvve. His son Nagendra Prasad played a lead role in the film.
 
Sundar played a guest role in a Kannada film Thabbali. He also choreographed a song for the same film.

References

Indian movie directors
Indian movie actors
Living people
1938 births
Air Marshal Sir Harold Douglas Jackman,  (26 October 1902 – 15 June 1991) was a senior Royal Air Force officer. He became Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief RAF Maintenance Command.

RAF career
Jackman joined the Royal Air Force in 1926. He initially served as a Stores Officer. He served in World War II as an Administrative Staff Officer at Headquarters RAF Middle East. Then as Air Officer Administration at Headquarters Mediterranean Air Command. Next he became assistant Air Officer Administration at Headquarters Mediterranean Allied Air Forces and then Air Officer Administration at Headquarters Balkan Air Force.

After the War he was appointed Director of Movements and then Director of Organisation (Forecasting and Planning) at the Air Ministry. He went on to be Air Officer Commanding No. 40 Group in 1952. He became Director-General of Equipment at the Air Ministry in 1955. Then in 1958 he was appointed Air Officer Commanding RAF Maintenance Command. It was here he laid the foundation stone for a new Headquarters at Andover before retiring in 1961.

In retirement he became Chief Co-ordinator of the Anglo-American Community Relations Scheme in the UK.

References

1902 births
1991 deaths
Kurt Koffka (18 March 1886 – 22 November 1941) was a German psychologist. He was one of the founders of Gestalt psychology.

Koffka was born and educated in Berlin and earned his PhD there in 1909 as a student of Carl Stumpf. Koffka also spent one year at the University of Edinburgh in Scotland where learnt English, a skill that later served him well. Koffka worked at the University of Frankfurt when Max Wertheimer arrived in 1910 and invited Koffka to take part as a subject in his research on the phi phenomenon.

Koffka left Frankfurt in 1912 to take a position at the University of Giessen, where he worked for over eleven years. Koffka then travelled to the United States, where he was a visiting professor at Cornell University from 1924 to 1925, and two years later at University of Wisconsin–Madison. Eventually, in 1927, he accepted a position at Smith College in Northampton, Massachusetts, where he remained until his death in 1941.

Major works 
1921. Die Grundlagen der psychischen Entwicklung. Osterwieck am Harz, Zickfeldt. ('The growth of the mind'). 
1922. Perception: an introduction to the Gestalt theory. Psych. Bulletin 19, 531–585. 
1924. Growth of the mind: an introduction to child-psychology, transl. R.M. Ogden. 2nd revised edition 1928. London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trubner. and New York: Harcourt, Brace.
1935. Principles of gestalt psychology. London: Routledge & Kegan Paul. Advanced textbook, 720 pages.

Other websites
 Gestalt psychology website of the international Society for Gestalt Theory and its Applications - GTA
 Boeree, C. George 2000. Gestalt Psychology website with biographies of leading figures

1886 births
1941 deaths
Jewish German academics
Jewish German scientists
German psychologists
Scientists from Berlin
The Standard Time Act is also known as the Calder Act. It was the first United States federal law implementing standard time and Daylight saving time in the United States. It authorized the Interstate Commerce Commission to define each time zone.

The section concerning daylight saving time was repealed by the act titled An Act For the repeal of the daylight-saving law.

References

1918
1910s in the United States
United States federal legislation
20th century in law
The Cable TV Privacy Act of 1984 became effective on December 29, 1984. It provides for the privacy of personal information. It prohibits cable TV providers from disclosing personally identifiable information. It also allows users to view and verify their information.

References

1984 in the United States
United States federal legislation
Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. (September 19, 1907 – August 25, 1998) was an American politician and judge. He was the Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States.

Powell was born on September 19, 1907 in Suffolk, Virginia. He was a Presbyterian. Powell studied at Washington and Lee University, at Washington and Lee University School of Law, and at Harvard Law School. He was married to Josephine Pierce Rucker and had three daughters and one son. Powell died on August 25, 1998 in Richmond, Virginia from pneumonia, aged 90.

References

Other websites

 The Powell Memo (as text, with notation).
 Attack on American Free Enterprise System  (pdf)
 
 A Call to Arms for Class War: From the Top Down

1907 births
1998 deaths
Deaths from pneumonia
American judges
Lawyers from Virginia
United States Supreme Court justices
US Democratic Party politicians
Politicians from Virginia
Harry Andrew Blackmun (November 12, 1908 – March 4, 1999) was an American lawyer and jurist who served as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1970 until 1994. Appointed by Republican President Richard Nixon, Blackmun ultimately became one of the most liberal justices on the Court. He is best known as the author of the Court's opinion in Roe v. Wade, which prohibits many state and federal restrictions on abortion.

Blackmun studied at Harvard College, at Harvard Law School. Blackmun was never married. He had no children. Blackmun died on March 4, 1999 in Arlington County, Virginia from natural causes, aged 90.

References

Other websites
 

 Excerpt from Blackmun's Callins opinion, and Justice Scalia's response
 NPR series on Justice Blackmun's Files 
 Blackmun's Papers at the Library of Congress
 Transcript:  The Justice Harry A. Blackmun Oral History Project
 

1908 births
1999 deaths
Deaths from natural causes
Lawyers from Illinois
American judges
United States Supreme Court justices
US Republican Party politicians
Politicians from Illinois
Writers from Illinois
Politicians from Minnesota
Writers from Minnesota
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
The Nationalist Socialist Council of Nagaland (NSCN) is a nationalist paramilitary group. It operates mainly in Northeast India, and sometimes in Myanmar. Its members are Christian Naga people. The main aim of the organization is to establish a sovereign state, "Nagalim". This would cover all areas inhabited by the Naga people.

The NSCN has been declared as a terrorist organisation in India.

References

Separatist movements of India
Myanmar
Nationalist organizations in India
Christian organizations
Nagaland
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Christian terrorism
Anointing of the Sick is a sacrament (a sacred ceremony) in Roman Catholicism and other Christian denominations.  It is given to people who are "in danger due to sickness or old age".  

A person does not have to be dying to receive the Anointing of the Sick.  It can be done for anyone with a medical problem which they could die from.

Anointing of the Sick is also called Unction.  In the past, it was called Extreme Unction.  ("Anointing" and "Unction" are both words for putting oil on a person.  Oil is an important part of the ceremony.)

Beginnings
All four Gospels in the Bible say that Jesus healed many people.  Catholics believe that even after his death, Jesus is still able to heal people through the power of the sacraments.

The main part of the Bible that talks about anointing of the sick is : "Are any among you sick? They should call for the elders of the Church and have them pray over them, anointing them with oil in the name of the Lord.  And their prayer offered in faith will heal the sick, and the Lord will make them well. And if they have committed sins, these will be forgiven." ,  and  also talk about the anointing of the sick.

The sacrament
The Anointing of the Sick sacrament is done by a priest.  The priest brings oil, which he has blessed.  Usually, the oil is olive oil or another pure plant oil.  The priest rubs the blessed oil on the patient's forehead, and sometimes other parts of the body.  While he does this, he says special prayers that are meant for the Anointing of the Sick sacrament.  

Catholics believe the Anointing of the Sick sacrament can:
 Give comfort to the sick person (make them feel better)
 Give the sick person the courage and strength they will need to go through the pain or suffering of their illness
 Make the soul stronger
 Make the body stronger (sometimes)
 Help the person get ready to live with Christ forever after death
 Forgive the person's sins, if the person is too sick to make a confession (tell the priest about the sins he has done in his life, ask for forgiveness, and say prayers to show he is sorry)

Several other Christian churches have similar rituals.

Last rites

The Anointing of the Sick is one of the three sacraments that make up the last rites.  In Catholicism, last rites are a set of sacraments that are given to people who are dying.  

The steps in the last rites are:
 Penance: The dying person repents their sins (says they are sorry for the sins they have done), and asks God to forgive them.
 The Anointing of the Sick
 Viaticum: This is one final Holy Communion.  The dying person is given a small piece of bread, or even a tiny crumb if they cannot eat.  A priest has blessed this bread.  Catholics believe this special blessing turns the bread into the body of Christ.

Related pages 
Catechism of the Catholic Church
Charismatic
Lourdes

References

Roman Catholicism
Sacraments
The People's Revolutionary Party of Kangleipak (PREPAK) is an armed insurgent group in Manipur demanding a separate and independent homeland. PREPAK was formed under the leadership of R. K. Tulachandra on October 9, 1977.

References

Separatist movements of India
Nationalist organizations in India
Manipur
1977 establishments in Asia
Rebel militia groups in Asia
1970s establishments in India
Olga Yakovleva (born 15 December 1963) is a Russian former basketball player. She was born in Leningrad. She was part of the Soviet team which won a bronze medal in the 1988 Summer Olympics.

References

1963 births
Living people
Basketball players
Medalists at the 1988 Summer Olympics 
Olympic bronze medalists
Sportspeople from Saint Petersburg
Soviet Olympic medalists
Michael Cassidy (1837 – March 18, 1908) was a Union Navy sailor in the American Civil War. He received the U.S. military's highest decoration called the Medal of Honor. He got the medal for his actions at the Battle of Mobile Bay.

Biography
Cassidy was born in 1837 in Ireland. He immigrated to the United States and was living in New York when he joined the Navy. He served during the Civil War as a landsman on the . At the Battle of Mobile Bay on August 5, 1864, Lackawanna engaged the  at close range. Cassidy distinguished himself as the sponger on a gun crew. For this action, he was presented the Medal of Honor four months later on December 31, 1864.

Cassidy's official Medal of Honor citation reads:
Served on board the U.S.S. Lackawanna during successful attacks against Fort Morgan, rebel gunboats and the ram Tennessee, in Mobile Bay, 5 August 1864. Displaying great coolness and exemplary behavior as first sponger of a gun, Cassidy, by his coolness under fire, received the applause of his officers and the guncrew throughout the action which resulted in the capture of the prize ram Tennessee and in the destruction of batteries at Fort Morgan.

Cassidy died on March 18, 1908, at age 70 or 71. He was buried at Hampton National Cemetery in Hampton, Virginia.

References

Other websites
  

1837 births
1908 deaths
People from New York
Military personnel of the American Civil War
United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients
Hector Joseph Lalande (November 24, 1934 – August 18, 2010) was a Canadian professional ice hockey player that played 5 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL).

Lalande played in the NHL with the Chicago Blackhawks for 4 seasons and with the Detroit Red Wings for 1 season. Even though he played in the NHL, he was most successful in the minor league with the Clinton Comets of the Eastern Hockey League. During his time with the Comets, he recorded two back-to-back 100 point seasons and won both the Atlantic City Boardwalk Trophy Winner and the James J. Walker Trophy Winner in the 1963–64 season. He also won the Calder Cup when he was playing with the Hershey Bears in the 1957–58 and 1958–59 AHL seasons.

He died on August 18, 2010.

Other websites

1977 births
2010 deaths
Canadian ice hockey centres
Chicago Blackhawks players
Detroit Red Wings players
Ice hockey people from Ontario
American Hockey League players
Ontario Hockey League players
Eastern Hockey League players
Taco John's International is a franchisor of small, Mexican restaurants. The chain is based in Cheyenne, Wyoming.  Taco John's was started in 1969 by Harold Holmes and Jim Woodson.  The chain has about 400 restaurants. It has not had much growth for many years.

American fast food restaurants
Cheyenne, Wyoming
1969 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Wyoming
Mytilus is a common genus of medium to large-sized marine mussels. They are bivalve molluscs of the family Mytilidae. Mussels are edible, and are used in various stews and soups. In life, they are attached to the substrate (rocks etc) by byssus threads.

Species
Species within the genus Mytilus include:
 the Mytilus edulis complex:
 Mytilus edulis Linnaeus, 1758  – blue mussel, edible blue mussel
 Mytilus edulis platensis d'Orbigny, 1846 = Mytilus chilensis (Hupé, 1854) – Chilean mussel (controversial)
 Mytilus galloprovincialis Lamarck, 1819  – Mediterranean mussel
 Mytilus trossulus Gould, 1850  – foolish mussel
 Mytilus californianus Conrad, 1837  – California mussel
 Mytilus coruscus Gould, 1861

Human use
Mytilus mussels are widely used as food. In California they were eaten by coastal Native American people for almost 12,000 years.

References 

 
 McDonald J.H; Seed R. and Koehn R.K. 1991. Allozymes and morphometric characters of three species of Mytilus in the Northern and Southern Hemispheres. Marine Biology 111: 323-333.

Bivalves
Embryophytes are land plants. They are they things most people call plants, the bryophytes, ferns, gymnosperms and flowering plants. Another way of looking at it is to say they are the Viridiplantae minus the algae. They include the Bryophytes and the vascular plants.

Botany
A chanterelle is a mushroom that is used in cooking. It is yellow. A chanterelle looks much like some other mushrooms. About 25% of its dry weight is protein.

Edible fungi
This is a complete alphabetical list of Medal of Honor recipients during the American Civil War. This list only has the people with last names starting from A–F. Many of the medals received during the Civil War were for capturing or saving regimental flags. During the Civil War these regimental flags served as the rallying point for the unit. They also served as guids for the unit's movements. These flags were usually heavily protected. Loss of the flag could greatly disrupt a unit. It could also have a greater effect than the death of the commanding officer.

Medal of Honor

The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government. It is bestowed on a member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself "…conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States…". Due to the nature of this medal it is commonly presented after the recipient was killed (posthumously).

Recipients
Recipients are listed alphabetically by last name. Posthumous receipt is denoted by an asterisk. The rank indicated is the individual's rank at the time of their Medal of Honor action.

Related pages
List of Medal of Honor recipients

References

Civil War A-F
A-F
Medal of Honor recipients
Chinese scholars' rocks	(供石 or gōngshí), also known as scholar stones or viewing stones, are small naturally shaped rocks which are traditionally valued by Chinese scholars.  

Scholars rocks can be any color. There are a wide variety of sizes. Scholars rocks can weigh hundreds of pounds or less than one pound. The term also means stones which are placed in traditional Chinese gardens.

History
Four important qualities for the rocks were recognized in the Tang dynasty.  They are: thinness (shou), openness (tou), perforations (lou), and wrinkling (zhou).  

Chinese scholar's rocks influenced the development of suseok in Korea and suiseki in Japan.

Origin
The origin of the stone is a notable feature.

 Lingbi stone (Lingbishi) from Lingbi, Anhui province, limestone

 Taihu stone (Taihushi) from Lake Tai, Jiangsu province, limestone

 Yingde stone (Yingshi or Yingdeshi) from Yingde, Guangdong province, limestone

Evaluation
The evaluation of a scholar's rock identifies subtlety of color, shape, markings and surface.  The qualities which are prized include
 awkwardness or odd symmetry
 resonance or ringing when struck
 represents  or resemblance to landscape or figure
 texture
 moistness or glossy surface

The stone may be displayed on a wooden base that has been carved specifically for the stone. The stones are a traditional subject of Chinese paintings.

Related pages 

 Suiseki
 Bonsai
 Penjing
 Standing stone

References

Other websites

  Scholar's rock at Metropolitan Museum of Art

Chinese culture
Wattieza is the earliest known tree.

Their fossils were found in New York State.
They stood 8 m (34 ft) or more tall, and looked like the modern tree ferns.

They lived in the mid-Devonian, about 385 million years ago. They were cladoxylopsids, close relatives of modern ferns and horsetails.

The crown of Wattieza, discovered in 2005, was united with its root and trunk, known since 1870. The fossilized grove of "Gilboa stumps" had been described as Eospermatopteris, though the complete plant remained unknown.

Wattieza had fronds rather than leaves, and reproduced with spores.

References

 CNN.com: Oldest tree had fronds, not leaves.

Plant taxonomy
Fossils
Trees
The name Susan is a female given name, based around the name Susanna; the name was extremely popular in the United States during earlier parts of the 20th century. Famous people with the name include Susan Lucci and Susan Sarandon. Susan Collins is a United States Senator from Maine; she has been so since 1994.

Given names
is the Japanese term for small naturally occurring or shaped rocks which are traditionally appreciated.  They are similar to Chinese scholar's rocks.

Suiseki can be any color. There are a wide variety of sizes. Suiseki can weigh hundreds of pounds or less than one pound. The term also means stones which are placed in traditional Japanese gardens.

History
Chinese scholar's rocks influenced the development of suiseki in Japan.  The history of suiseki in Japan begins during the reign of Empress Suiko.  The small objects were brought to Japan as gifts from the Chinese Imperial court.

Evaluation
The evaluation of suiseki recognizes color, shape, markings and surface.  According to  in ,
It is not a silly thing at all to enjoy a stone in a tray. I see the whole world in a tiny stone. Some objects in this world are huge, and others are small, and they come in all shapes, but they are not that different when you look at their essence.
 
Some types of suiseki suggest a mountain, a waterfall, an island, a thatched hut or an animal.

Related pages 
 Suseok
 Bonsai
 Penjing
 Standing stone

References

Other websites

 Nippon Suiseki Association
  "Viewing Stones" at National Bonsai Foundation 

Japanese culture
Rocks
The Prudential Tower, also called the Prudential Building or The Pru, is a skyscraper in Boston, Massachusetts. The building is the 2nd-tallest building in Boston. It was designed by Charles Luckman and Associates for Prudential Insurance and was completed in 1964. It is  tall and has 52 floors. With its radio mast, the tower is  and is the tallest building in Boston. It has an observation deck, called the "Prudential Skywalk", on its 50th floor. It is currently the highest observation deck in New England that is open to the public. The building also has a restaurant on the 52nd floor, called "Top of the Hub."

History 
Construction on the Prudential Tower began in 1960. When it was completed in 1964, it was the tallest building in the world outside of New York City.

Since the Prudential Tower was built, other tall buildings have been built in Boston. Today, it is not one of the fifty tallest buildings in the USA.

Ownership 

Boston Properties currently owns the Prudential Tower.

Broadcast tenants
The main rooftop mast has two FM master antennas, and a television antenna. The roof also has a smaller tower with standby antennas. These antennas broadcast several Boston radio stations.

List of tenants
 Accenture
 Ropes & Gray, 17 floors, mostly above 26th floor; reception on 48th floor.
 Partners HealthCare, several floors; head office is on the 11th
 SAS, 22nd floor
 Robins, Kaplan, Miller & Ciresi, L.L.P., 25th floor
 Posternak, Blankstein & Lund LLP, 32nd-33rd floors
 Exeter Group, 35th floor
 St. Francis Chapel, ground floor of the Prudential Center Complex
 NStar
 Rapid7

References

Other websites
 PrudentialCenter.com
 Boston Properties - The Prudential (Tower) 
 Boston Properties - The Prudential Center 

Buildings and structures in Boston, Massachusetts
Skyscrapers in the United States
1964 establishments in the United States
1960s establishments in Massachusetts
The Division of Werriwa is a Federal Electoral Division for the Australian House of Representatives in the state of New South Wales. 

The name Werriwa is the local Aboriginal name for Lake George. The lake was in the division when the boundaries were drawn in 1900. The division was one of the original 75 divisions for Australia's first federal election in 1901. It covered a large rural area from the south west of Sydney to the northern part of what is now the ACT. 

Over the years, the population around Sydney increased. The boundaries were redrawn and Werriwa became smaller in area. By 1913 Lake George was no longer included in the Dvision. Werriwa become a south-western Sydney suburban electorate over 150 km away from Lake George. It has kept the name of Werriwa, because it is an original Federation electorate. The Australian Electoral Commission tries to keep the names of original Federation electorates. 

Werriwa now covers the suburbs of Austral, Bardia, Bow Bowing, Casula, Claymore, Denham Court, Edmondson Park, Eschol Park, Glenfield, Horningsea Park, Hoxton Park, Ingleburn, Leppington, Lurnea, Macquarie Fields, Minto, Minto Heights, Prestons, Raby, St Andrews and Varroville and parts of Liverpool, Leumeah and West Hoxton.

Members

It is a very safe seat for the Australian Labor Party (ALP), which has held it without a break since 1934.

Werriwa was the electorate (1952-78) of former Prime Minister Gough Whitlam. From 1994 to 2005 the Werriwa was held by one of Whitlam's former aides, Mark Latham. Latham was the leader of the ALP and Leader of the Opposition from 2003-2005. 

In a by-election in March 2005, Labor's Chris Hayes was elected with over 55% of the vote. There were 16 other candidates but none got more than 8% of the vote.

Election results
 2013 election results 
 2010 federal election
 2007 federal election
 2005 Werriwa by-election 
 2004 federal election

References
Division of Werriwa - Australian Electoral Commission

Other websites
 Laurie Ferguson's website

Werriwa
New South Wales
1901 establishments in Australia
The East Bengal Regiment () in short "E Bengal" is an infantry regiment of Bangladeshi Army

Bangladesh
Military
The People's Liberation Army (PLA) was founded by N. Bisheshwar Singh on September 25, 1978. It is a separatist armed revolutionary group fighting for a separate independent socialist state of Manipur. It was the first organization from Manipur to have been trained by the China's People Liberation Army at Lhasa in the eighties. It was also trained by the NSCN in Myanmar during this time.

Manipur
Separatist movements of India
1978 establishments in Asia
Rebel militia groups in Asia
Nationalist organizations in India
1970s establishments in India
The term Naga people (Burmese: နာဂ, Hindi: नागा) refers to a conglomeration of several tribes inhabiting the North Eastern part of India and north-western Burma. The tribes have similar cultures and traditions, and form the majority ethnic group in the Indian states of Nagaland, Assam and the disputed territory of Southern Tibet.

Nationalism

Naga nationalism is an ideology that supports self-determination by the Naga people, and the furtherance of Naga culture.

References

Separatist movements of India
The Garos are a tribal people in Meghalaya, Republic of India and neighboring areas of Bangladesh, who call themselves A·chik Mande (literally "hill people," from a·chik "hill" + mande "people") or simply A·chik or Mande. They are the second-largest tribe in Meghalaya after the Khasi and comprise about a third of the local population. The Garos are one of the few remaining matrilineal societies in the world.

References

Ethnic groups in Bangladesh

Meghalaya
The Khasi are an indigenous or tribal people, the majority of whom live in the State of Meghalaya in North-east India, with small populations in neighbouring Assam, and in parts of Bangladesh. They call themselves Ki Hynñiew trep, which means "the seven huts" in the Khasi language. Their language Khasi is the northernmost Austro-Asiatic language.

Ethnic groups in Bangladesh
The Medal of Honor was first presented in the American Civil War. President Abraham Lincoln signed a bill creating the medal. When it started it was for the United States Navy. It was signed on December 21, 1861. It was "to be bestowed upon such petty officers, seamen, landsmen, and Marines as shall most distinguish themselves by their gallantry and other seamanlike qualities during the present war." Another law was created to include the United States Army. That law was signed by the president on July 12, 1862.

While the Medal of Honor is now the highest military decoration attainable by a member of the United States armed forces, during the Civil War, it was the only one. This means it was often earned for reasons that would not meet modern criteria. For example, Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton promised a Medal of Honor to every man in the 27th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment who extended his enlistment. 311 men in the unit accepted. Because there was no official list of their names, the War Department issued 864. One for each man in the unit. In 1916, a group of five retired generals reviewed Army awards and recommended that these 864 and others be revoked. 

Since then 3,464 Medals of Honor have been presented. 1522 were for actions during the American Civil War. The first Medals of Honor were given to many of the participants of the Andrews' Raid. Some of the people from the raid received them after they died (posthumously). Andrews himself was a civilian and thus ineligible at the time. Mary Edwards Walker was a surgeon and became the only woman (and one of only eight civilians) who received a Medal of Honor. It was later taken away but after many years it was given back. Twenty-five were presented to African Americans. These included seven sailors of the Union Navy. Fifteen soldiers of the United States Colored Troops received it for their actions. Three soldiers of other Army units also received it. It was common for Civil War Medals of Honor to be granted decades after the conflict ended. In the case of Andrew Jackson Smith the Medal was not authorized until 2001. That is 137 years after the action in which he earned it. Smith's wait was caused by a missing battle report. It is the longest delay of the medal for any recipient.

Recipients
This is an overview list of Medal of Honor recipients for the American Civil War.

List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: A–F
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: G–L
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: M–P
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: Q–S
List of American Civil War Medal of Honor recipients: T–Z

related pages
List of Medal of Honor recipients

References
Specific

General

Civil War
Medal
Lev Vygotsky  ( – 11 June 1934) was a Russian psychologist. He worked on child development, play and language. He also developed a holistic theory of human cultural and biosocial development.

Vygotsky's early death to tuberculosis left many manuscripts. Sorting them out has taken many years.

Thought and Language
Perhaps Vygotsky's most important work was the inter-relationship of language development and thought. This establishes the connection between speech and the development of mental concepts and cognitive awareness. Vygotsky described inner speech as being qualitatively different from normal (external) speech. Although Vygotsky believed inner speech developed from external speech by a gradual process, with younger children only really able to "think out loud".

"Vygotsky's view is that language has two functions: external communication with one's fellow human beings and, equally important, the internal manipulation of one's inner thoughts".

Language starts as a tool external to the child used for social interaction. The child guides its behavior by using a kind of self-talk or "thinking out loud". Initially, self-talk is very much a tool of social interaction and this tapers to negligible levels when the child is alone. Gradually, self-talk is used more as a tool for self-directed and self-regulating behavior. Because it gets internalized, self-talk is no longer present when the child starts school. Self-talk "develops along a rising not a declining, curve; it goes through an evolution, not an involution. In the end, it becomes inner speech".p57

Speaking
Speaking has thus developed along two lines, the line of social communication and the line of inner speech, by which the child mediates and regulates their activity through their thoughts. This is not to say that thinking cannot take place without language, but rather it is mediated by language, and so develops to a much higher level of sophistication. Just as the birthday cake as a sign provides much deeper meaning than its physical properties allow, inner speech as a sign provides much deeper meaning than the lower psychological functions would otherwise allow.

Inner speach
Inner speech is not comparable in form to external speech. External speech is the process of turning thought into words. Inner speech is the opposite; it is the conversion of speech into inward thought. Inner speech, for example, contains predicates only. Subjects are superfluous. Words are also used much more economically. One word in inner speech would take many words to express it in external speech.

Works 
Vygotsky L. 1962. Thought and language. MIT Press. ISBN  0-262-72001-9. Revised and expanded edition 2012. ISBN  978-0-262-51771-3
Vygotsky L. 1962. Psychology of art. MIT Press. 
Vygotsky L. 1978. Mind in society: the development of higher psychological processes. Cambridge & London: Harvard University Press. ISBN  0-674-57629-2

Related pages
 List of scientists

References 

Russian psychologists
1896 births
1934 deaths
In Australian Federal Politics the Leader of the Opposition is a Member of Parliament in the House of Representatives. The Leader of the Opposition is usually the leader of the party which has the most seats but is not part of the Government. In Parliament the Leader of the Opposition sits on the left-hand side of the table in the centre, in front of the Opposition and opposite the Prime Minister. The Opposition Leader is elected by the Opposition Party. A new Opposition Leader may be elected if the person in the position dies, resigns or is challenged for the leadership.

The Commonwealth of Australia is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system. It is based on the British Westminster model. The term Opposition has a specific meaning in the parliamentary system. Its formal title is Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition. This is an important part of the Westminster system. The Opposition directs its criticism at the Government and attempts to defeat and replace the Government. The Opposition is therefore the 'Government in waiting' and it is a formal part of the parliamentary system, just as is the Government. It is in opposition to the Government, but not to the Crown, hence the term 'Loyal Opposition'.

The current Leader of the Opposition is Anthony Albanese, replacing Bill Shorten who resigned after losing in the 2016 and 2019 elections.

Leaders of the Opposition

Related pages
 Leader of the Opposition
 Prime Minister of Australia

Notes

Shows an Opposition Leader who had previously been Prime Minister.

Shows an Opposition Leader who later became Prime Minister.

Gough Whitlam refused to use the title Leader of the Opposition between the dismissal of his government in November 1975 and the first meeting of the new parliament in February 1976. During the election campaign in December 1975 he styled himself as the Leader of the Majority in the House of Representatives.

References

Lists of politicians
Australia-related lists
This is a complete alphabetical list (T to Z) of Medal of Honor recipients during the American Civil War. Many of the medals presented during the Civil War were for capturing or saving regimental flags. At this time regimental flags served as the rallying point for the unit. It guided the unit's movements and loss of the flag could greatly disrupt a unit. It could have a greater effect than the death of the commanding officer.

Medal of Honor

The Medal of Honor is the highest military decoration presented by the United States government. It is presented to members of the United States armed forces who distinguish thesmelves "…conspicuously by gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty while that could engaged in an action against an enemy of the United States…". Due to the nature of this medal, it is commonly presented after the recipient has been killed (posthumously).

Recipients

References

 Porter, David D. The Naval History of the Civil War Castle, Secaucus, NJ, 1984, .

Civil War T-Z
Military personnel of the American Civil War
Medal of Honor recipients
Karl Duncker (Leipzig, 2 February 1903  23 February 1940) was a German psychologist.
 
Until 1935 he was a student and assistant of the founders of Gestalt psychology in Berlin: Max Wertheimer,  Wolfgang Köhler and  Kurt Koffka.
In 1935, exiled by the Nazis, he got an assistantship at Cambridge University with Frederic Bartlett. Later he emigrated to the USA where he was again an assistant of Köhler’s at Swarthmore College. He committed suicide in 1940 at 37 years of age. He had been suffering from depression for some time and had received professional treatment.

Achievements 

Duncker coined the term functional fixedness in visual perception and problem solving. This describes the difficulties arising from a part of a problem which normally has a fixed function. In the problem, the fixed function must be changed to reach the perception or solution.

In his "candle problem" the situation was defined by the objects: a box of candles, a box of thumb-tacks and a book of matches. The task was to fix the candles on the wall without any additional elements. The difficulty of this problem arises from the functional fixedness of the candle box. It is a container in the problem but must be used as a shelf in the solution.

Other examples of this type of problem are:

 an electromagnet must be used as part of a pendulum
 a branch of a tree must be used as a tool
 a brick must be used a paper weight
 another meaning of a word must be found that is different from the meaning within the context of the sentence

References 

Duncker, Karl 1945. On problem solving. APA Psychological Monographs 58 

1903 births
1940 deaths
German psychologists
People who committed suicide