cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
D is the fourth (number 4) letter in the alphabet. It is derived from the Greek Delta and the Phoenician Dalet

Meanings for D 
 In education, D is a barely passing grade.
 In electronics, D is a standard size dry cell battery.
 In music, D is a note.
 In Roman numerals, D also means the number 500.
 In computer programming, D is a programming language.
For the drug sometimes referred to E, see Ecstasy.

E is the fifth (number 5) letter in the English alphabet. 

In English it has two main sounds when it is spoken. Usually it is a short E (ĕ), but sometimes it is a long E (ē). 

One more thing in English is the so-called magic E. That is when a silent e at the end of a word makes the previous e long. Example: morpheme, which is pronounced as morphēm.

Typographic variants of E 
The variants of E include (but may not be limited to)
capital E
lower-case e
é È è Ê ê Ë
É ë Ě ě Ē ē
Ĕ ĕ Ė ė Ę ę

None of these variants is used in English, except occasionally É/é  for some French words.

Meanings for E 
These meanings are for E/e as a separate letter.
 In computers, the letter e is often used to start other words to mean "electronic", like in e-mail or e-commerce.
 In money, e is commonly used as a symbol for the euro when the symbol € is not available.
 In music, E is a note.
 In mathematics, e is a constant about 2.718; see e (mathematical constant)
 In Wheel of Fortune, E is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
 E! is an American television network

 

Vowel letters
F is the sixth letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for F 
 In calendars, F is often an abbreviation for Friday, or for the month February.
 In chemistry, F is the symbol for fluorine.
 In education, F is a failing grade
 In music, F is a note.
 In temperature, °F is degrees Fahrenheit.
 In logic, F stands for False, as opposed to T for True
 In slang, F stands for the curse word
G is the 7th (number 7) letter in the English alphabet (or Latin alphabet).u

History 
The letter G was created in the third century BC by Spurius Carvilius Ruga. At the time, the letter C sounded like the "c" in "cat" and the "g" in "girl". To make the difference more clear, Ruga created the letter G.

Meanings for G 
 In movies, G is a rating given by the Motion Picture Association of America, meaning the movie is good to be viewed by all people ("general" audiences).
 In music, G is a note.
 In common speech, G is a slang word for 'gangsta' or 'gangster'.
 In the SI, g is the symbol for the gram.
 G is a unit of gravitational acceleration.
 Alternative case form of G grand: means thousand.
 Letter G stands for GPRS (General Packet Radio Service). It indicates the slowest speed of Internet data transfer in your mobile phone. When you see G near your signal strength indicator, it is certain that your net connection is working at the slowest speed. 2G, 3G and 4G indicates different speed of internet.
 In particle physics, lowercase G stands for the gluon.
 In particle physics, the uppercase G stands for the not yet discovered Graviton.
H () is the eighth (number 8) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for H 
 In chemistry, H is the symbol for hydrogen.
 In music, H is a note in the German system, meaning "B natural".
 In particle physics, H is the symbol for the Higgs boson.
I is the ninth (9) letter in the English alphabet.

In English, I is a pronoun which means "me".
"I like you."
"You and I shall walk to the store."
"You and I are friends."

In Turkish, the letter I has two kinds, one with a dot (İ, i) and one without (I, ı).

Meanings for I 
In chemistry, I is the symbol for iodine.
In Roman numerals, I means the number one (1).
 is the mathematical symbol for the square root of negative one, also called the imaginary unit.
In physics, I refers to the moment of inertia.

Basic English 850 words
Vowel letters
K is the eleventh (number 11) letter in the English alphabet.

K or kappa is the tenth (number 10) letter in the Greek alphabet

Meanings for K 

 Degrees Kelvin. The kelvin (symbol: K) is the SI unit of temperature. 
 In chemistry, K is the symbol for potassium (from its German name kalium).
 in chess, K is a notation symbol for the king piece
 In a deck of playing cards, the letter K is used to mark each of the kings.
O is the fifteenth (number 15) letter in the English alphabet and it has a shape of a circle.

Meanings for O 
 On calendars, O sometimes means the month October.
 In chemistry, O is the symbol for oxygen.
 In medicine, O is one of the human blood types.

Vowel letters
Q is the seventeenth (number 17) letter in the English alphabet.

Some people say that the letter Q is not needed, because the sound it makes can be made with "K" and "W" instead. The same sort of things are said about the letters "X" and "C".

Below are some ancient ways of writing "Q":

Meanings for Q 
 In chess, Q is used to mean the queen piece.
 In English, Q can be a short letter for 'question'.
 In a deck of playing cards, Q is used to mark each of the queens.
 In science fiction, Q is a character in several Star Trek television shows.
 Q is also the name of a character in the James Bond film series, who was played by Desmond Llewelyn (and John Cleese after Desmond Llewelyn died).
 In Internet slang, "q" is used for the Spanish word "que", which means "that", "which", or "what".
 In physics, q is used to mean charge

References
S is the nineteenth (number 19) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for S 

 On calendars, S is most times the short letter for Saturday or Sunday, or the month September.
 In chemistry, S is the symbol for sulphur.
 In Wheel of Fortune, S is one of the six letters given to any contestant participating in the "Bonus Round."
 S is the letter onomotopeiacally used to characterize the hissing noise known to be made by snakes, e.g. "sssssss..."
U (u) is the twenty-first (21) letter in the English alphabet (it is also used as a short form for 'you').

Meanings for U 
 On calendars, U is most times a short letter for Sunday, for use when S is being used for Saturday.
 In chemistry, U is the symbol for uranium.
 It is pronounced "you".

Vowel letters
V is the twenty-second (number 22) letter in the English alphabet.

Meanings for V 
 In electronics and electricity, V is the symbol for volts, the unit of voltage.
 In chemistry, V is the symbol for vanadium.
 In communication, V is the name of a hand gesture. Most of the time, it means "victory".
 In Roman numerals, V means the number five.
 V is a science fiction television show.
V is Maroon 5's fifth studio album, released in 2014.
 V (singer) is a Korean singer and member of BTS.
W is the twenty-third (number 23) letter in the Latin alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like away, what, write and women, the W is a consonant. In words like draw, few, and low, the W is a vowel

Meanings for W 
 On calendars, W is most times a short letter for Wednesday.
 In chemistry, W is the symbol for tungsten, after its German name, Wolfram.
 In news story writing, the "five W's" are who, what, when, where and why.
 In Electricity, W stands for watts
 It is pronounced as "double u".
 In particle physics, W stands for the W boson.

Notes
X is the twenty-fourth (number 24) letter in the English alphabet. It sometimes makes a sound like ks (for example: exit, next, fox), or if it is at the beginning of a word, it makes a sound like zzz (for example: xylophone). The language of origin is from the greek and latin language

Meanings for X
In a general sense, X means something is unknown or secret, as in project X.
X is also used often to show kisses, usually at the end of a letter or text message.
In clothing X is used as a short letter for extra, such as XXL for extra-extra-large.
In Roman numerals, X means ten.
In internet terms, XXX indicates adult material, as in an XXX site.
In x-ray, X stands for xero, which is short for xerographic.
Y is the twenty-fifth (number 25) letter in the English alphabet. It is sometimes considered a vowel. In words like year, yell, and yes, the Y is a consonant. In words like cry, fly, and sky, the Y is considered a vowel.

Where it came from

Semitic, Phoenician, Greek and Latin

"Y" has appeared as the Semitic letter "waw". This was the first time it appeared in an alphabet. F, U, V, and W also come from the Semitic alphabet. The Greek and Latin alphabets used the Phoenician form of this early alphabet. There are similarities to the old English letter yogh (Ȝȝ). The table shows where the letter "y" came from.

Meanings for Y 
 In chemistry, Y is the symbol for yttrium.
 In Mathematics, y is another unknown variable, used as a second unknown variable ("x" is used as the first unknown variable)

References

Vowel letters
Z is the twenty-sixth (number 26) and last letter in the English alphabet. The small letter, z, is used as a lowercase consonant. Z is not used much. It is the most rarely used letter in the English language. The same letter of the Greek alphabet is named zeta.

How it is said 
The letter is said as either zed  or zee. The first way of saying it comes from the Greek zeta. In American English, its name is zee , because it comes from a late 17th century English speech.

Where it came from

Semitic
The name of the Semitic symbol was zayin and was the seventh letter. It might have meant "weapon". It could have helped form English and French's z.

Greek
The Greek form of Z was a close copy of the Phoenician symbol I. It stayed like this for a long time. The Greeks called it zeta, a new name made from the Greek letters eta (η) and theta (θ).

Etruscan
In Etruscan, Z may have been .

Latin
In Old Latin,  (written s) became  and the symbol for  became useless. It was taken away from the alphabet by Appius Claudius Caecus, and a new letter, G, was put in.

In the 1st century BC, Z was put in the alphabet again at the end of the Latin alphabet. This was done to accurately represent the sound of the Greek zeta. The letter Z appeared only in Greek words, and is the only letter besides Y that the Romans took from Greek.

Meanings for Z 
 In cartoons, Z means the sound of sleeping or snoring, like in "ZZZzzzz...".
 In particle physics, Z stands for the Z boson.
 In chemistry, Z stands for the atomic number.

References
Fuck is a common English language swear word. It can be used to either mean the act of sex or as an expression. However, the word fucking is used as an intensifier before a word (e.g I fucking hate this game).

Related pages 
 Arse
 Ass
 Bitch
 Cunt
 Motherfucker
 Shit

English profanity
A microprocessor is an electronic component that is used by a computer to do its work. It is a central processing unit on a single integrated circuit chip containing millions of very small components including transistors, resistors, and diodes that work together. Some microprocessors in the 20th century required several chips. Microprocessors help to do everything from controlling elevators to searching the Web. Everything a computer does is described by instructions of computer programs, and microprocessors carry out these instructions many millions of times a second. 

Microprocessors were invented in the 1970s for use in embedded systems.  The majority are still used that way, in such things as mobile phones, cars, military weapons, and home appliances.  Some microprocessors are microcontrollers, so small and inexpensive that they are used to control very simple products like flashlights and greeting cards that play music when opened.  A few especially powerful microprocessors are used in personal computers.

Microprocessor operation 
Like other central processing units, microprocessors use three steps commonly called Fetch, Decode, and Execute. In the Fetch step, an instruction is copied from the computer memory into the microprocessor. In the Decode step, the microprocessor figures out what operation the instruction is meant to do. In the Execute step, this operation is performed.  Different computers can have different instruction sets.

Facts and figures 
 Transistors in a microprocessor can be less than one micrometer wide—one millionth of a meter. By comparison, a single hair can be over 100 micrometers wide.
 The transistors are mostly MOSFETs
 Microprocessors are made from silicon, quartz, metals, and other chemicals. 
 From start to finish, it takes about 2 months to make a microprocessor.
 Microprocessors are classified by the size of their data bus or address bus. They are also grouped into CISC and RISC types.

Brief history 
 1823	Baron Jöns Jacob Berzelius discovers silicon (Si), which today is the basic component of electronics.
 1903	Nikola Tesla patents electrical logic circuits called "gates" or "switches".
 1947	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley invent the first transistor at the Bell Laboratories on December 23, 1947.
 1956	John Bardeen, Walter Brattain, and William Shockley are awarded the Nobel Prize in physics for their work on the transistor.
 1958	The first integrated circuits are developed by Robert Noyce and Jack Kilby. 
 1960	IBM develops the first automatic mass-production facility for transistors in New York.
 1971  Intel 4004, first commercially available microprocessor.

References

Other page 
Moore's law

Electronic components
Microprocessor design
Heat, or thermal energy is the sum of the kinetic energy of atoms or molecules. In thermodynamics, heat means energy which is moved between two things, when one of them has a higher temperature than the other thing. 

Adding heat to something increases its temperature, but heat is not the same as temperature. The temperature of an object is the measure of the average speed of the moving particles in it.  The energy of the particles is called the internal energy.  When an object is heated, its internal energy can increase to make the object hotter.  The first law of thermodynamics says that the increase in internal energy is equal to the heat added minus the work done on the surroundings.

Heat can also be defined as the amount of thermal energy in a system. Thermal energy is the type of energy that a thing has because of its temperature. In thermodynamics, thermal energy is the internal energy present in a system in a state of thermodynamic equilibrium because of its temperature.  That is, heat is defined as a spontaneous flow of energy (energy in transit) from one object to another, caused by a difference in temperature between two objects; therefore, objects do not possess heat.

Properties of Heat 
Heat is a form of energy and not a physical substance.  Heat has no mass.

Heat can move from one place to another in different ways:
Conduction
Convection
Radiation

The measure of how much heat is needed to cause a change in temperature for a material is the specific heat capacity of the material. If the particles in the material are hard to move, then more energy is needed to make them move quickly, so a lot of heat will cause a small change in temperature. A different particle that is easier to move will need less heat for the same change in temperature.

Specific heat capacities can be looked up in a table, like this one.

Unless some work is done, heat moves only from hot things to cold things.

Measuring heat 
Heat can be measured. That is, the amount of heat given out or taken in can be given a value. The calorie is one of the units of measurement for heat but the joule is also used for all kinds of energy including heat.

Heat is usually measured with a calorimeter, where the energy in a material is allowed to flow into nearby water, which has a known specific heat capacity.  The temperature of the water is then measured before and after, and heat can be found using a formula.

References

Related pages 
 Entropy
 Heat transfer
 Radiation
 Internal energy
 Temperature
 Power
 Heat capacity
 Waste heat

Other websites 
Plasma heat at 2 gigakelvins - Article about extremely high temperature generated by scientists (Foxnews.com)
Heat and Thermodynamics - Georgia State University
Correlations for Convective Heat Transfer - ChE Online Resources
An Introduction to the Quantitative Definition and Analysis of Heat written for High School Students 

Basic English 850 words
 
Basic physics ideas
Thermodynamics
is a military title in pre-Meiji period Japan. Shogun means general in the Japanese language. The full name was Seii Taishogun (Great General who fights against the Eastern savages and will win).

In the earlier times, Shogun were simply generals for emperors. The emperor had power over the shogun, choosing each shogun. Later however, the Shogun held much of the actual power. In 1192 a samurai, military leader Minamoto no Yoritomo got the title of Shogun from the last Emperor Go-Shirakawa. Excluding the later middle of the 16th century, Shogun was the real ruler of Japan.

The office of the Shogun is called the shogunate (bakufu, meaning office in a tent).-  This is because Shogun had originally been military leaders and he had his office in a tent on a battle field.

There were three shogunates in Japan.
 Kamakura shogunate, 1192–1333, founded by Minamoto no Yoritomo
 Muromachi shogunate (also known as the Ashikaga shogunate), 1338–1573, founded by Ashikaga Takauji
 Edo shogunate (also known as the Tokugawa shogunate), 1602–1868, founded by Tokugawa Ieyasu

In 1868 the 15th Shogun of Tokugawa Shogunate, Tokugawa Yosinobu gave up his office. Then the time of Shogun rule ended. It was the end of the feudal time of Japan.

References

History of Japan
Wellington is the capital of New Zealand. It has been the capital since 1865. Before then Auckland was the capital. Wellington is the second largest city in New Zealand. It had about 448,000 people in 2006. Wellington is the southernmost capital city in the world.

Wellington is in the middle of New Zealand, at the south end of the North Island. South of Wellington is Cook Strait, the sea between the North Island and the South Island. The city has a lot of hills and a deep harbour. The middle of the city is busier than most small cities and is easy for people to walk around. 

It was named for Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington. Wellington recently became famous because The Lord of the Rings movie trilogy was made there.

Climate
The city averages 2,068 hours of sunshine per year. The climate is a temperate marine one, (Köppen: Cfb ) is generally moderate all year round, and rarely sees temperatures above  or below . The hottest recorded temperature is , while  is the coldest. The city is notorious for its southerly blasts in winter, which may make the temperature feel much colder. It is generally very windy all year round with high rainfall; average annual rainfall is , June and July being the wettest months. Frosts are quite common in the hill suburbs and the Hutt Valley between May and September. Snow is very rare at low altitudes, although snow fell on the city and many other parts of the Wellington region during separate events in July and August 2011.

References 

Capital cities in Oceania
 
1865 establishments
1860s establishments in New Zealand
Sadness is an emotion. It is the opposite of happiness. People feel sad when something bad has happened, for example, if their mother or father has died. 

In big letters, SAD, or S.A.D. is short for "Seasonal Affective Disorder". SAD is a sickness that some people have in the winter. They feel depressed as the nights become longer and there is less daylight.

When people are very sad, and for a long time, the person could have a serious mental illness called depression or Bipolar disorder.

Notes 
It is normally thought of as the opposite of happiness, but you can feel both happy and sad at the same time.

Related pages
 Happiness

Basic English 850 words
Emotions
Tuesday is the day of the week between Monday and Wednesday. In some countries, for example the United States of America, Tuesday is the third day of the week. In other parts of the world, Tuesday is the second day of the week.

History of the name 
The name Tuesday comes from a Middle English word, Tiwesday. This word came from the Old English word Tiwes dæg. This was named after the Nordic god Tyr. Tyr was the God of War, like the Roman war god Mars, and Greek god Ares.

In Latin, Tuesday is called Martis dies which means "Mars's Day". In French, Spanish, Italian and Romanian, the (Romance languages), the word for "Tuesday" is nearly the same as the Latin name. Tuesday is mardi in French, martes in Spanish, martedì in Italian, dimarts in Catalan, and marţi in Romanian. 

The Celtic languages still spoken use the Latin names, even though none of these languages came from Latin. Tuesday is dé máirt in Irish, Meurzh in Breton, dydd Mawrth in Welsh and Dimàirt in Scottish Gaelic. 

The English and Scandinavian names for Tuesday come from the Nordic god Tyr (Old English Tiw):

 Old Frisian: tîesdei
 Modern West Frisian: tiisdei
 Old English: tíwesdæg
 Anglo-Norman:
 Middle English: tíesdæi, tywesdai, twysday
 Early Modern English: towesday, Twesdaie, Tyisday, Tiseday,
 Modern English: Tuesday
 Old High German: zîestag
 Middle High German: zîstag
 Alemannic German: ziischtig
 Old Norse: týrsdagr
 Swedish: Tisdag
 Danish: Tirsdag
 Norwegian: Tirsdag or Tysdag
 Icelandic: Týsdagur

References 

02
Friday is a day of the week. In some countries, for example the United States, it is the sixth day of the week. In other parts of the world, for example the United Kingdom, it is said to be the fifth day of the week. Friday is the Sabbath for Muslims.

There is a superstition that a Friday on the 13th day of a month is unlucky. If the first day of a month is a Sunday, the month will have a Friday the 13th. 

Some people consider Friday to be the last day of the week before the weekend. Others see Friday night as part of the weekend, since work or school is over for the week. In some places, the weekend is Friday and Saturday. Because many people are happy to not have to go to work during the weekend, there are sayings like "Thank God it's Friday!".

Friday is named after Norse Goddess Frigg.

References

05
Lao People's Democratic Republic or Laos (ᝮᝢ), is a country in southeast Asia. The capital of Laos is Vientiane.

Laos is landlocked (it does not have a coast on a sea or ocean). It is bordered by Myanmar (used to be known in English as "Burma") and by China to the northwest, by Vietnam to the east, by Cambodia to the south and by Thailand to the west. The Mekong river forms a large part of the western boundary with Thailand. Boats from Laos cannot get to the ocean using the Mekong because of rapids and waterfalls in the south of the country.

The official language is Lao, a language belonging to the Tai language group. 98% of Lao people believe in Buddhism. The main crop in Laos is rice.

Geography
Laos is the only landlocked country in Southeast Asia. The country is slightly smaller than Romania and Colorado. The landscape is mostly rugged mountains. The highest point is Phou Bia at . The Mekong River forms the border with Thailand. The mountains of the Annamite Range form the eastern border with Vietnam.  The climate is tropical. The rainy season is from May to November. The dry season is from December to April. Laos has three seasons (rainy, cold and hot).  The capital and largest city is Vientiane.

History
Fa Ngum created the first unified Lao Kingdom.

Lao became a French colony in 1893 and also became part of French Indochina. In 1949 it became independent from France, as the Kingdom of Laos. Later there was a civil war, and in 1975 it became a One-party state under the leadership of the communist party.

Provinces
Laos is divided in 16 provinces and one prefecture.

Government and politics
Laos is one of the world's five remaining communist states. The only legal political party is the Lao People's Revolutionary Party (LPRP). The head of state is President Choummaly Sayasone. He is the General Secretary of the Lao People's Revolutionary Party.

Shortly after the end of the Vietnam War, the North Vietnamese Army (NVA) joined forces with the Pathet Lao, started a coup on December 2, 1975 to overthrow the royalist Lao government, and established a communist government that continues to run the country to this day.

The current head of government is Prime Minister Thongloun Sisoulith, as of 2016. The current President is Bounnhang Vorachith. Government policies are determined by the party. Important government decisions are checked by the Council of Ministers.

Related pages
Laos at the Olympics
Laos national football team
List of rivers of Laos

References

 
Least developed countries
1949 establishments in Asia
Yes is an English word that shows acceptance or agreement, or making a positive response or exclamation. It is the opposite of no.

Yes may also mean:

In music:
 Yes (band), a progressive rock band from the United Kingdom
 Yes (album), their debut album
 The Yes Album, their third album
 Yes (Mika Nakashima album)
 Yes (Morphine album)
 Yes! (Chad Brock album)
 "Yes!" (song), a song from this album
 "Yes" (McAlmont and Butler song)

In other uses:
 Yes (movie), a movie by Sally Potter
 yes (Unix), a Unix shell command to print a string repetitively
 yes (Israel), an Israeli satellite television provider
 YES (Your Extraordinary Saturday), a children's program
 YES Network, the television home of the New York Yankees and New Jersey Nets
 YES! Magazine, an American magazine
 Yes! Roadster, a German sports car
 YES Prep Public Schools, a network of charter schools in Houston, Texas, United States
 Yale Entrepreneurial Society, an American non-profit organization
 Youth Empowerment Scheme, a children's charity in Belfast, Northern Ireland
 Young Epidemiology Scholars, a college scholarship program
 Yasuj Airport's IATA code

Basic English 850 words
Amaterasu (), Amaterasu-ōmikami ( or ) or Ōhirume-no-muchi-no-kami (), is a goddess in Japanese mythology. She is the Sun Goddess, and the most sacred of all Shinto deities. Her name, Amaterasu, means "(that which) illuminates Heaven." Her shrine is at Ise.

Tradition 
Amaterasu is the sister of Susano'o, the god of the sea and storms, and of Tsukuyomi, the god of the moon. All three were created from Izanagi, when he washed his face to clean the dirtiness of Yomi, the underworld. Amaterasu was born when Izanagi washed out his left eye, Tsukuyomi was born from the washing of the right eye, and Susano'o from the washing of the nose.

Story 
The tales tell of great rivalry between Amaterasu and Susano'o. When he was to leave Heaven forever because Izanagi ordered him to, he went to say goodbye to his sister. Amaterasu, suspicious, proposed him a challenge: each of them was to turn an object of the other's into people. Amaterasu created three women from Susanoo's sword while he created five men from her necklace. Amaterasu said the men were hers because they were born of her necklace. Susano'o destroyed her rice fields, threw a dead pony into her loom, and killed one of her assistants in anger. For this, Amaterasu, sad, angry and scared, went to hide inside Ama-no-Iwato, the "heavenly rock cave", so the Sun was hidden and the world became dark for a long time. The Oni (devils of Japanese mythology) came out to the dark world, and the gods could not make Amaterasu come out of the cave.

The intelligent goddess of happiness, Ama-no-Uzume (天宇受売命), took a big bucket, turned it upside down near the cave entrance, and began a dance on it, tearing off her clothing in front of the other Kami. They thought this was so funny that they laughed happily.

Amaterasu heard them, and looked out to see why the gods were laughing. When she opened the cave, she saw her wonderful reflection in a mirror Uzume had put on a tree, and slowly came out of the cave.

At that moment, the god Ameno-Tajikarao (天手力男命) closed the cave behind her, so she could not go back in. Another god tied a magic rope across the entrance. The sun goddess was then asked by the Kami Ame-no-Koyane (天児屋根命) to go back with the gods. She agreed, and light came back to the earth, but Susanoo was punished by being banished from Heaven.

Other websites 
 Shinbutsudo: A Web Page for the Study of Japanese Religions 

Japanese deities
Shinto
National personifications
An organism is an individual living thing. It is easy to recognize a living thing, but not so easy to define it. Animals and plants are organisms, obviously. Organisms are a biotic, or living, part of the environment. Rocks and sunshine are parts of the non-living environment.

Organisms usually have five basic needs to continue their metabolism. They need air, water, nutrient (food), energy, and a place to live. However, not all living things need all these at the same time. Many organisms do not need access to air at all.

A little thought is needed about viruses. There is no agreement as to whether they should be regarded as living. They are made of protein and nucleic acid, and they evolve, which is a really important fact. However, they exist in two quite different phases. One phase is dormant, not active. The other is inside a living cell of some other organism. Then the virus is very active reproducing itself. Consider the parallel with a computer program. When in use it is active; when it is not, it is completely inactive. It is still a program all the same.

Another example from biology is the spore, which is a distribution phase of a bacteria, fungus or some plants. They are not active until they get to the right situation. They have all the working parts to build a complete organism, but for the moment it is switched off.

Some organisms are made up of millions of cells. They are multicellular organisms. Many can be seen without using a microscope.

Most organisms are so small that they cannot be seen with the naked eye. You need a microscope to see them. They are called microorganisms. Organisms can be made up of just one cell. They are called unicellular organisms or single celled organisms. Examples include bacteria, and protozoa such as the Amoeba and Paramecium.

Origin
The Tree of Life project works on the relationships between living things. Identifying a LUCA (last universal common ancestor) is one of its main aims. The LUCA is estimated to have lived some 3.8 billion years ago (sometime in the Palaeoarchaean era).

A universal common ancestor is at least 102860 times more probable than having multiple ancestors.
A model with a single common ancestor but allowing for some gene swapping among species was... 103489 times more probable than the best multi-ancestor model...
The idea came from Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, "Therefore... probably all the organic beings which have ever lived on this earth have descended from some one primordial form..."

Related pages
 Earliest known life forms
 Origin of life
 Morphology (biology)

References

Other websites

About the Tree of Life Web Project
Maddison D.R. et al 2007. The Tree of Life Web Project. Pages 19-40 in: Zhang Z.-Q. & Shear W.A., eds. Linnaeus Tercentenary: progress in invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:1-766. Open Access PDF

Biology
Organisms
Kinetic energy is the energy that an object has because of its motion. This energy can be converted into other kinds, such as gravitational or electric potential energy, which is the energy that an object has because of its position in a gravitational or electric field.

Difference between Kinetic & Potential Energy 
Kinetic Energy is the maximum amount of work a moving body due to its motion can do, whereas Potential energy is the maximum amount of work a body can do due to its configuration or position in a field force.  Kinetic Energy is valid for all sorts of forces as seen from this derivation.

but Potential Energy is not as can be seen here

which clearly suggests that only conservative forces can have potential energy associated with them; see conservation of energy.

Translational kinetic energy
The translational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the mass (resistance to linear acceleration or deceleration);
  is the linear velocity.

Rotational kinetic energy
The rotational kinetic energy of an object is:

where
  is the moment of inertia (resistance to angular acceleration or deceleration, equal to the product of the mass and the square of its perpendicular distance from the axis of rotation);
  is the angular velocity.

References

Other websites 
 Rotational kinetic energy
 Differences between Kinetic energy and Potential energy

Energy
Mechanics
Basic physics ideas
A boat is a vehicle used to travel on water. It is smaller than a ship and can be lifted out of the water and carried on a ship. Some boats have sails, some are powered by rowing with oars, and some use motors. Those that use steam engines are steamboats

These boats are usually made of wood. However, some parts are made of metals like steel and aluminium. Expensive boats may have parts from fiberglass or composite materials and some even have helicopter pads. There are some boats that can even go underwater. They are called submarines.

A narrowboat is a boat designed to be used on narrow canals. It is sometimes called a barge.

The first boats were invented in the Netherlands in around 8000 BCE.

History 
The Pesse Canoe is likely the oldest boat recovered to date as it was built sometime around 8,000 BCE

References
The navian is the part of a country's military that fights on water using boats. People in the navy are called navians. The navy is mostly made up of warships. It may also have its own air force and soldiers. It may have special boats that can go underwater, called submarines, or another kind of special boat that is meant to carry airplanes, called aircraft carriers.

History 
Originally, Naval war was fought by ramming other ships and then jumping onto them to fight the crew. In Ancient Greece and Rome, the ships were usually powered by oars. During the Middle Ages, the cannon was invented. These could be shot at other ships from a great distance. Warships around this time also began to use sails instead of oars for power. In the middle 19th century, ships began to be plated in armor for protection. Steam engines allowed them move while carrying the armor, and better ones soon made them much faster. These early warships, called ironclads, are thought to have begun the type of Naval warfare used today. Ships soon became much larger.

Related pages

 Royal Navy
 United States Navy
 Royal Australian Navy
 Royal New Zealand Navy
An air force is the branch of a country's military which fights in the air. The air force is made up of aircraft such as fighters, bombers, helicopters and transport aircraft. When a navy has its own air force it is called Naval Aviation. 

Air forces began in the early 20th century, usually as part of the army. Most countries separated their air forces in the 1930s and 1940s. 

Aircraft in an air force sometimes fly in a formation. Formations are when the aircraft fly in a pattern. Air forces is part of the military.

The biggest air force in the world is the United States Air Force (USAF).

References
A
 Adobe
 Acrobat
 Algorithm
 AMD
 Android
 API
 Apple
 Application
 Analog

B

 Boot
 binary
 BIOS
 bitcoin
 byte
bot
 Botnet
 Browser

C 
 C programming language
 Cable
 Cache memory
 Captcha
 Connection
 Control
 Cookie
C++
Computer

D
 data
 database
datalake
 Debian
 decompress
 desktop
 dialer
 digital
 document
 disk operating system (redirect (or disambig) from DOS)
 download

E
 ENIAC Electronic Numerical Integrator and Calculator
 electricity
 email
 email attachment
 Encarta encyclopedia
 Epiphany web browser
 End User License Agreement (redirect from EULA)
 Explorer
 ext2 filesystem type
 ext3 filesystem type

F
 File allocation table (disambiguation from FAT or fat)
 FAT16 filesystem
 FAT32 filesystem
 file
 file types by ending
 filesharing
 filesystem
 firewall
 folder
 footnotes
 format
 FreeBSD
 freeware
 FTP
 Facebook
 ((Function))

G
 gigabyte (redir from gb)
 Gimp
 Gmail
 Gnome
 Google
 GNU
 GnuPG
 GPU
 Google Nest

H
 hacker
 hard disk (redirects from hard drive, hard disk drive, hard disk)
 hardware
 Hash_function
 HDMI
 home page
 HTML
 HTTP
 HTTP_Cookie

I
 Intel
 Icons
 Input device
 Internet

J

 MarA jio
 Joo
 Jio

 Java
 JavaScript
 J#

K
 KDE*
 kernel
 keyboard
 key
 keyword

L
 laptop
 licensing examples for computer software
 link
 Linux
 Lavasoft
 Live CD
 LibreOffice

M
 Macintosh
 Mac OS
 Mac OS X
 Malware
Mainframe Computer 
 Mandrake Linux
 Martus
 md5
 media
 megabyte (redir or disamb from mb)
 Microsoft
 modify
 monitor
 Motherboard
 mouse
 Mozilla web browser
 Mozilla Firefox web browser
 Modem
 mp4
 mpeg-4

N
 NTFS filesystem type
 Netscape
 Netscape Navigator web browser
 network
 NNTP
 non-commercial
 notebook computer
 Nvidia

O
 ogg file format for multimedia
 OpenOffice.org
 Open Site
 open source
 Opera web browser
 operating system
 operating systems, a list

P
 page
 Perl
 personal computer (PC)
 Petabyte
 pdf or more likely PDF
 peer to peer, P2P
 PGP
 PHP
 proprietary
 piracy
 pirate
 plug-in
 Python
 popup
 printer
 privacy
 program
 program release
 Python
 PRINT

Q
 QNX
 QuickBasic
 QuickTime.
 QWERTY

R
 Random_access_memory(redirect from RAM)
 ReactOS
 Read-only_memory(Redirect from ROM)
 RedHat
 Reiser FS filesystem type
 root
 RSA
 Recycle Bin
 Reboot

S
 scan
 search engine
 security
 server
 shared source
 shareware
 software
 spam
 spamming
 Spreadsheet
 spyware
 super computer
 super user
 surfing the internet
 Suse
 SDK
 SSD
 system
 synergy (synergistic)

T
 training for computers
 Trojan horse
 Terabyte (TB)
 Tablet

U
 Ubuntu
 undo
 UNIX
 update
 upload
 user
 USB

V
 version
 virtual community
 Visual Studio
 Visual Basic
 virus
 Vulnerability32]✓
 VPN

W
 Windows
 Wine (software)
Wi-Fi

X
 Xine
 XML
 x86, x32(processor)
 x86-64, x64(processor architecture)

Y
 Yahoo!
 Yotabyte

Z
 Z (file format)
Zoom in - Zoom out
ZIP
Zettabyte(ZB)

Other websites 
 A Gnu Dictionary of Computing - downloadable

Computing
Computer-related lists
Computers
Adware is an advertising computer program that can be put there by other people on someone's computer, sometimes without their permission. It is controversial because sometimes businesses put the program there so they can see what people are doing or what web pages they are browsing. They then put an advertisement that is of the same subject as the web-page the person is looking at. This can be good if the person is trying to buy something, but many people do not want advertisements. Many people also do not want other people to find out what they are doing or what web pages they are looking at. An example is in the popular peer-to-peer file sharing program, Kazaa. When someone downloads it, it installs adware on their computer that then sends advertisements to the computer. Some people do not like this so they use an illegally changed version of this program called Kazaa Lite.

Removal tools 
Removal tools have been developed to assist users in clearing out these unwanted programs.
Like many programs that people use for security, the program must be changed often. Updating allows the removal tool to recognize new types of adware. This can be done by downloading files over the internet using the 'update' option in the program.

Software
The Creative Commons licenses relates to the name of several copyright licenses released on December 16, 2002. The licenses were released by Creative Commons, a United States nonprofit corporation. Everybody can put their own creations under these licenses.

There are four basic license conditions. A simple overview of these four:

 Attribution (BY): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved versions of it. They must give the original creator credit for the work. 
 Noncommercial (NC): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform the work and evolved version of it. They are not allowed to make money with it. 
 No Derivative Works (ND): Allow others to copy, distribute, display and perform  the work. They are not allowed to change the work into something else.
 Share Alike (SA): Allow others to distribute evolved works only when they use the same license. See also copyleft.

It is possible to combine the license elements to allow people to use a work under certain conditions. For example, a combination of the first and fourth is called "CC BY-SA". This stands for "Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike". With this license other people can use the work for free, but they must give credit to the original creator, and when they make something new with the work they must give it the same "CC BY-SA" license.

Criticism 
The Free Software Foundation thinks that the Creative Commons system is confusing, because people often forget to tell which of the licenses they use. Instead they suggest to use the Free Art license.

Related pages
 Creative Commons
 Copyleft
 Free content

References 
 Portions of this article are taken from the Creative Commons website, published under the Creative Commons Attribution License v1.0

Other websites 
 The full selection of licenses
 Creative Commons web site

Software licences
The Republic of the Marshall Islands (RMI) is a Micronesian island nation in the western Pacific Ocean. The capital of Marshall Islands is Majuro. The official languages are Marshallese and English.

National Anthem: Forever Marshall Islands

Roughly 10% of the population of the Marshall Islands can now be found in northwest Arkansas, U.S. Most live and work in the city of Springdale, a community of roughly 50,000. Each year, the Marshallese host a homecoming event so friends and relatives can get together to celebrate, stay in touch with politics at home, and spread their island culture. They meet at the Jones Center for Families in Springdale and have dancing, feasting, volleyball, and basketball. As a population, they are devoted to family and church and bring island dance and song to this corner of Arkansas.
New York University, also known as NYU, is a research university in New York City. It is the largest private university in the United States, and is highly regarded in the nation as well as around the world.

Rankings
In 2020, it was ranked as the 11th best university in the United States by the QS World University Rankings: USA, and as the 28th best university in the world by U.S. News & World Report. In addition, NYU is highly ranked in the fields of Law, Medicine, Mathematics, Business, Psychology, Communications, Performing Arts, Film, Economics, and Philosophy.

History
The university was founded as University of the City of New York in 1831 by a prominent group of New York City residents led by then United States Secretary of the Treasury, Albert Gallatin. The school was officially renamed New York University in 1896.

37 Nobel Prize winners have been produced by NYU, the 12th most in the United States and 19th most in the world. Three heads of state attended NYU: Ma Ying-jeou of the Republic of China, Ephraim Katzir of Israel, and Guillermo Endara of Panama. Many American politicians also attended NYU, including Bill de Blasio, Carol Bellamy, and Rudy Giuliani. Many successful actors and movie directors attended NYU, including Martin Scorcese, Angelina Jolie, Alec Baldwin, Spike Lee, Ang Lee, Mahershala Ali, Woody Allen, and Adam Sandler. Other famous alumni include the creator of the polio vaccine Jonas Salk, singer Lady Gaga, Twitter founder Jack Dorsey, author Suzanne Collins, and former special counsel Robert Mueller.

NYU is one of the places where 5G was created, as well as where many of the foundations of modern electromagnetic theory were discovered.

Campus
In addition to its main campus in New York City, NYU also has degree-granting campuses in Abu Dhabi and Shanghai. NYU Abu Dhabi has produced more Rhodes Scholars per student than any other university in the world.

References

Association of American Universities
Colleges and universities in New York City
A vertebrate is an animal with a spinal cord surrounded by cartilage or bone. The word comes from vertebrae, the bones that make up the spine. Animals that are not vertebrates are called invertebrates. Vertebrates include birds, fish, amphibians, reptiles, and mammals. The parts of the vertebrate skeleton are:
Braincase: A braincase or cranium protects the brain.
Vertebrae: A series of short, stiff vertebrae are separated by joints. This internal backbone protects the spinal cord. The joints between the vertebrae let the backbone bend.
Bones: support and protect the body's soft tissues and provides points for muscle attachment.
Gill arches: Gill arches in the pharynx of fish and some amphibians support the gills. In the majority of vertebrates some of the arches have evolved into other organs, such as jaws.

Examples of vertebrates are mammals, birds, and fish. A few tens of thousands of species have been identified. The term "fish" is used to describe at least four different kinds of vertebrates.

Distinctions 
Vertebrates dominate amongst the animals in virtually all environments. They include the largest animals in each main ecosystem, though not the largest living things (because that would include trees). They are the only animals which have an adaptive immune system. These two facts may be connected.

Taxonomy and classification
 Subphylum Vertebrata
Agnatha (jawless vertebrates)
 Myxini
 Hyperoartia (lampreys)
 †Conodonta
 †Pteraspidomorphi
 †Thelodonti
 †Anaspida
 †Galeaspida
 †Pituriaspida
 †Osteostraci
  Gnathostomata (jawed vertebrates)
 †Placodermi (Paleozoic armoured forms)
 Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)
 †Acanthodii (Paleozoic "spiny sharks")
 Osteichthyes (bony fish)
Actinopterygii (ray-finned fish)
 Sarcopterygii (lobe-finned fish)
 Coelacanthimorpha (coelacanths)
 Dipnoi (lungfish)
 Tetrapoda (four-limbed vertebrates)
 Amphibia (amphibians)
 Amniota (amniotic eggs)
 Sauropsida (reptiles and birds)
 Lepidosauria (lizards, snakes and tuatara)
 Testudines (turtles)
 Archosauria (archosaurs)
 Crocodilia (crocodilians)
 †Pterosauria (pterosaurs)
 Dinosauria (dinosaurs)
 Aves (birds)
 Synapsida (mammal-like tetrapods)
 Mammalia

Related pages
 Invertebrate 
 Vertebrate brain

References

Other websites

 Tree of Life 
 Tunicates and not cephalochordates are the closest living relatives of vertebrates
An alpha male is the top-ranking male in a mammalian social group.

Origin
Some animals live in a social structure where the most powerful male in the group is decided by either fights or very aggressive battles that sometimes end in death (in the wild). The current alpha male must defend his position from younger members. When he is too old or not strong enough to win, he loses his position in the group. Sometimes, he will die or be forced to leave the group.

The result of this is that the alpha male usually has more opportunity to mate with the available females. This system developed because strong males will produce young which have a better chance for survival.

Examples
Some animal groups which may have alpha males:
 Lions
 Apes: chimpanzees, gorillas and orangutans
 Horses
 Deer

Humans
Alpha male can also refer to a high-ranked human in a group. This may be in a business setting or sometimes in other competitive areas, like sports. However, this is an extension by metaphor: humans do not have the same mating system as other social mammals. One reason is that the oestrous cycle in humans is different. This has the result that females may be sexually receptive at almost any time. Also, humans generally pair off, and alpha males do not have exclusive rights over all females in a group, except in rare circumstances.

Animals
Ethology
Johannesburg is the largest city in South Africa. It is the capital of the Gauteng Province. It was founded on October 4, 1886 and has the JSE Securities Exchange, which is the largest stock exchange in Africa.

Johannesburg houses the tallest office block in Africa, the Carlton Centre (50 stories) and the tallest tower, the Hillbrow Tower (270 metres, or 90 stories).  The city is nicknamed Egoli or Jozi, which means "place of gold", for the large gold deposit at Witwatersrand.   

 The Johannesburg Zoo was established in 1904, and historically, it has been owned and run by the city of Johannesburg. It houses the only two polar bears in Africa. Johannesburg is not seen as a tourist centre in South Africa, but rather as a commercial centre.

Johannesburg has a subtropical highland climate (Cwb in the Köppen climate classification). Snow is a very rare event. It only snows in Johannesburg once or twice in a century.

Nelson Mandela died there on 5 December 2013, aged 95. He was also given the "Freedom of the City" award.

References 

 
1886 establishments
1880s establishments in South Africa