cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Louis of France (16 August 1682 – 18 February 1712) was the eldest son of Louis, Dauphin of France, known as le Grand Dauphin and, as such, was known as le Petit Dauphin. He became Dauphin of France upon his father's death in 1711.

Biography

Louis de France was born in the Palace of Versailles, the eldest son of Louis, le Grand Dauphin, and his wife Maria Anna Victoria of Bavaria. At birth, he received the  title of Duke of Burgundy.

Louis grew up with his younger brothers; Philippe, Duke of Anjou and Charles, Duke of Berry. 

At the age of 15, he married his second cousin, Marie Adélaïde of Savoy, the daughter of Victor Amadeus II, Duke of Savoy and Anne Marie d'Orléans. This match had been decided as part of the Treaty of Turin, which ended Franco-Savoyard conflicts during the Nine Years' War. The marriage took place on 7 December 1697 at the Palace of Versailles. The two were in love with one another, a rarity at the court of Versailles.

Louis became Dauphin of France upon the death of his father in 1711. 

In February 1712, his wife contracted measles and died on the 12th of that month. 

The Duke of Burgundy, who dearly loved his wife and who had stayed by her side throughout the fatal illness, contracted the disease and died on 18 February, six days after her at the Château de Marly. Both of his sons also became infected, the eldest, Louis, Duke of Brittany, the latest in a series of Dauphins, succumbed to it on 8 March. The only one to survive was the two-year old Duke of Anjou, the future King Louis XV of France.

Children

Louis of France, Duke of Brittany (25 June 1704 – 13 April 1705) died of convulsions;
Louis of France, Duke of Brittany (8 January 1707 – 8 March 1712) died of measles;
Louis XV of France (15 February 1710 – 10 May 1774) first engaged to Mariana Victoria of Spain; married Marie Leszczyńska and had issue; died of smallpox.

Titles, styles, honours and arms

Titles and styles

16 August 1682 – 14 April 1711 His Royal Highness The Duke of Burgundy
14 April 1711 – 18 February 1712 His Royal Highness The Dauphin of France

Other websites

House of Bourbon
1682 births
1712 deaths
People from Versailles
Deaths from infectious disease
Dauphins and Dauphines of France
Burials at the Basilica of St Denis
The Dauphin was the heir apparent to the throne of France from 1350–1791, and from 1824–1830.

History
Guy VIII, Count of Vienne, had a dolphin on his coat of arms and had been nicknamed le Dauphin (French for dolphin). The title of Dauphin of Viennois descended in his family until 1349, when Humbert II sold his signeurie, called the Dauphiné, to King Philippe VI on condition that the heir of France assumed the title of le Dauphin and govern this territory. The Dauphin retained the title only. The estates belonged to the crown. On the death of the Dauphin, his eldest son inherits the title. If there is no son, his oldest brother succeeds him. If the king does not have a son the title does not go to anyone. It is never given to a brother of the king. The wife of the Dauphin was known as the Dauphine. The first French Dauphin was Charles V. The title is roughly equivalent to the English title Prince of Wales. The Dauphin was entitled to the use of the style of Royal Highness but this was only ever used in written form.

The title of Dauphin of Auvergne was used by the Count of Clermont.

Dauphins of France, 1349-1830 

 Charles V of France 1349–1364
 Charles, eldest son and heir of Charles V; future Charles VI 1368-1380
 Charles 1389
 Charles 1392–1401
 Louis, 1401–1415
 John, 1415–1417
 Charles VII of France  1417–1422
 Louis XI of France 1423–1461
 Charles VIII of France 1470–1483
 Charles Orland 1492–1495
 Charles 1496
 François 1497–1498
 François 1518–1536
 Henry II of France 1536–1547
 Francis II of France 1547–1559
 Louis XIII of France 1601–1610
 Louis XIV of France 1638–1643
 Louis, Grand Dauphin 1661–1711
 Louis, Petit Dauphin 1711-1712
 Louis 1712
 Louis XV of France 1712–1715
 Louis 1729–1765
 Louis XVI of France 1765–1774
 Louis Joseph, Dauphin of France 1781–1789
 Louis XVII of France 1789–1791 (in 1791 his title was changed to "Prince Royal")
 Louis XIX of France 1824–1830

Related pages
Prince of Wales
Titles of European royal heirs

References 

 
Ranks in the old Kingdom of France
Titles in the old Kingdom of France
Bust-A-Move 2 is the first sequel to Bust-A-Move, and is also known as Puzzle Bobble 2 outside Europe and North America. Released into the arcades in 1995, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, Nintendo 64 and PC conversions followed. The game was included in Taito Legends 2, but the US arcade version was included on US PS2 version instead. The game is a spin-off from Bubble Bobble.

The game builds on the original by adding a tournament style variation on the two player game for play against the computer and by adding a branching map to the one player game, allowing the player to periodically select one of two groups of five levels to play next, leading to different game endings. Some of the contestants in the new tournament mode are based on characters from Bubble Bobble, including variations on a Monsta and a Mighta.

Some versions of the game, including the PlayStation, feature time trial competitions in which a single player attempts to finish simple rounds quickly enough to beat previous time records or two players simultaneously attempt to beat the records and each other.

Completion of the single player game gives the player a code which can be entered to unlock 'Another World' for the single player game, which features subtle changes to the existing levels to increase their difficulty and changes to all backdrops to resemble levels from Bubble Bobble. The various enemies from Bubble Bobble also make an appearance in the background of the credits sequence.

Bust-A-Move 2X 
Taito later repacked Bust-A-Move 2 with an optional alternative set of levels and some new attract mode animations (including holiday-themed ones) as Bust-A-Move 2X (Also known as Puzzle Bobble 2X).

Ports of Bust-A-Move 2 to the PC and Sega Saturn are of Bust-A-Move 2X and additionally include a level editor/designer. A port of 2X was made to the PlayStation but was not released until some time after a port of Bust-A-Move 2 was released; therefore, it is not so well known.

Cover art
This game has become notorious for one version of its cover art. The original US version of the Saturn edition featured a picture of several large balls with screaming, blue, human faces with white sticks forcing their eyes open. This cover earned it a place on Gamespy.com's Top Ten Worst Covers list.

References

1995 video games
Arcade games
Game Boy games
Nintendo 64 games
PlayStation games
Puzzle video games
Sega Saturn games
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
Sally Margaret Field (born November 6, 1946) is an American actress, singer, producer, director, and screenwriter. She has been in many movies. These include Norma Rae, Murphy's Romance, Forrest Gump, Steel Magnolias, The Amazing Spider-Man, and Lincoln. She has also acted in television programs and won many awards for her movies and acting.

Personal life
Field married Steven Craig in 1968. The couple had two sons; Peter Craig, a novelist, and Eli Craig, an actor and director. Craig and Field divorced in 1975.

Sally Field was romantically involved with Burt Reynolds for many years.  During this time they co-starred in several movies. She married movie producer Alan Greisman in 1984. They had one son, Sam, in 1987. Field and Greisman divorced in 1993.

Field has osteoporosis.  She has become a vocal advocate for women's health issues, encouraging early diagnosis of such conditions through technology, such as bone density scans.

Filmography

Movie

Television

References

Other websites

 

1946 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
Academy Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Actors from Pasadena, California
Singers from Pasadena, California
Writers from Pasadena, California
W and Z bosons are a group of elementary particles. They are bosons, which means that they have a spin of 0 or 1. Both had been found in experiments by the year 1983. Together, they are responsible for a force known as "weak force." Weak force is called weak because it is not as strong as the strong force. There are two W bosons with different charges, the normal W+, and its antiparticle, the W –. Z bosons are their own antiparticle.

Naming
W bosons are named after the weak force that they are responsible for. Weak force is what physicists believe is responsible for the breaking down of some radioactive elements, in the form of Beta decay. In the late '70s, scientists managed to combine early versions of the weak force with electromagnetism, and called it the electroweak force.

Creation of W and Z bosons
W and Z bosons are only known to be created under Beta decay, which is a form of radioactive decay.

Beta Decay
Beta decay occurs when there are a lot of neutrons in an atom. Simplified diagram hints that neutron corresponds to one proton and one electron. When there are too many neutrons in one atom nucleus, one neutron will split and form a proton and an electron. The proton stays where it is, and the electron will be launched out of the atom. Resulting Beta radiation is harmful to humans.

Weak force is believed to be able to change the flavour of a quark. For example, when it changes a down quark in a neutron into an up quark, the charge of the neutron becomes +1, since it would have the same arrangement of quarks as a proton. The three-quark neutron with a charge of +1 is no longer a neutron after this, as it fulfills all of the requirements to be a proton. Therefore, Beta decay will cause a neutron to become a proton (along with some other end-products).

W boson decay
When a quark changes flavour, as it does in Beta decay, it releases a W boson. On average, W bosons only last for 3x10-25 seconds before themselves decaying into other particles, which is why we had not discovered them until less than half a century ago. Surprisingly, W bosons have a mass of about 80 times that of a proton. Keep in mind that the neutron that it came from has almost the same weight as the proton. In the quantum world, it is not uncommon for a more massive particle to come from a less massive particle; the extra mass comes from stored energy via Einstein's famous formula, . After the 3x10-25 seconds has passed, a W boson decays into one electron and one neutrino. Since neutrinos rarely interact with matter, we can ignore them from now on. The electron is propelled out of the atom at a high speed. The proton that was produced by the Beta decay stays in the atom nucleus, and raises the atomic number by one.

Z boson decay
Z bosons are also predicted in the Standard Model of physics, which successfully predicted the existence of W bosons. Z Bosons decay into a fermion and its antiparticle, which are particles such as electrons and quarks which have spin in units of half of the reduced planks constant.

References 

Elementary particles
Toxic shock syndrome or TSS is a non-common, deadly infection caused by toxins from bacteria.

Toxic shock syndrome is usually caused by Staphylococcus bacteria, but it can also be caused by Streptococcus bacteria.

Symptoms

Symptoms of toxic shock syndrome can show up suddenly, and the disease can be deadly. The symptoms are different when the toxic shock syndrome is caused by different bacteria. When it is caused by Staphylococcus aureus, the symptoms are generally high fever, low blood pressure, confusion, and malaise. If the disease is not treated, someone with toxic shock syndrome caused by Staphylococcus aureus can go into a coma.

When toxic shock syndrome is caused by Streptococcus pyogenes, it usually is a rash that was already there getting worse. People with toxic shock syndrome caused by Streptococcus pyogenes have pain where the rash is, then the symptoms below happen very quickly. 

The symptoms of toxic shock syndrome include:

A high fever that starts quickly

Low blood pressure

Vomiting or diarrhea

A rash that looks like a sunburn, mostly on the palms of the hand and soles of the feet

Confusion 

Muscle pain 

Redness of the eyes, mouth, and throat

Seizures 

Headaches

Causes

Toxic shock syndrome can be caused by many things. The most common reasons are injuries to the skin that allow bacteria to get into the bloodstream and tampons.

Treatment

Many people with toxic shock syndrome have to stay in the hospital. If it is very bad, they might have to go to the intensive care unit so that doctors can make sure that they are getting good care. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is because of tampon use, doctors will make sure that they take the tampon out. If the reason that they have toxic shock syndrome is an injury (an abscess or other infection), the injury has to be drained.

Antibiotics like cephalosporin, penicillin, and vancomycin are used to stop the bacteria from growing. Clindamycin and gentamicin stop the toxins from being produced.

Tampons and toxic shock syndrome

In 1978, Procter and Gamble (a United States company that sells many different products) started selling tampons called Rely. Rely tampons could be left in for a whole menstrual cycle, which is from 2 to 8 days. Women who used Rely tampons sometimes got toxic shock syndrome because of this. Other tampons that are left in for a long time can also cause toxic shock syndrome.

References

Diseases caused by bacteria
Kids is a 1995 American movie set in New York City. The movie is directed by Larry Clark and written by Harmony Korine. It is about teenagers, drugs and HIV. The movie caused serious controversy when it was released. Starring in the movie are Chloë Sevigny and Rosario Dawson. This movie was rated NC-17, though the rating was surrendered and the movie was released with no rating.

1995 crime movies
1995 drama movies
1990s crime drama movies
1990s teen drama movies
American crime drama movies
American teen drama movies
English-language movies
HIV/AIDS
Movies about drugs
Movies about virginity
Rape in movies
American independent movies
John Ford (February 1, 1894 – August 31, 1973) was an American movie director. He is best known as a director of western movies. He was born in Cape Elizabeth, Maine.

The Navy 
Ford was a soldier in World War II. He served for the United States Navy as the leader of the photography division. On D-day, Ford and his soldiers crossed the English Channel. The soldiers arrived at Omaha Beach and watched the first boats land on the shore. Ford went on to the beach and filmed the battle take place.

Directing career 
Ford started directing movies in 1917 after he moved to California. His first movies were made during The Silent Era, an era where there was no recorded sound in any movies. In 1956, Ford finished making a popular movie called The Searchers. The movie starred John Wayne as the hero. The Searchers is widely known today for its cultural and historical significance.

Death 
In the early 1970s, Ford broke his hip and had to be put in a wheelchair. Ford died on August 31, 1973 at his home Palm Desert, California from stomach cancer, aged 79.

References

1894 births
1973 deaths
Admirals
American military personnel of World War II
American movie directors
Deaths from stomach cancer
People from Maine
The Komodo National Park is a national park in Indonesia. It is on several islands in the Lesser Sunda Islands. The park is in the area between the East Nusa Tenggara and West Nusa Tenggara provinces. The park includes three larger islands: Komodo, Padar and Rincah. It also includes 26 smaller ones for a total area of 1,733 km² (603 km² of it land). The national park was founded in 1980 to protect the Komodo dragon. This animal is the world's largest lizard. Later it began protecting other species, including some in the ocean.  In 1991 the national park was named a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Geography and climate
The park is spread over several islands. It includes part of western coast of Flores, the three larger islands of Komodo, Padar, Rincah, and 26 smaller islands. It also includes ocean areas such as the Sape Straights. The islands of the national park are volcanic. The land is generally rugged, with some rounded hills to 735m. The climate is one of the driest of Indonesia. Each year between 800mm and 1000mm of rain falls in the park area. Temperatures in the dry season from May to October are around 40 °C.

Plants and animals
The Park is hot and dry. There are many savannah plants that make it a good place for the Komodo dragon.

Cloud forests are in only a few areas above 500 metres.  These forests are good places for some local plants. There are mangrove forests in some of the quiet bays of the three larger islands.

Large and complex coral reefs are along the north-east coast of Komodo. The park has many animals that live in the ocean, including whale sharks, ocean sunfish, manta rays, eagle rays, pygmy seahorse, false pipefish, clown frogfish, nudibranchs, blue-ringed octopus, sponges, tunicates, and coral.

Conservation
The island of Padar and part of Rinca were made nature reserves in 1938. Komodo Island became a nature reserve in 1965. UNESCO also began to protect the island in 1977. The three islands were named a national park in 1980,. The park was extended to include the nearby parts of the ocean and a part of Flores in 1984. In 1991 the national park was declared a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Since 1995, the national park authority has been supported by an American environmental organization called The Nature Conservancy (TNC).

Komodo National Park has been selected as one of 28 finalists to become one of the New7Wonders of Nature.

People living in the park and tourism
About 4,000 people live within the park. Scuba diving is popular because of the many different kinds of life living in the water. Ecotourism in the ocean is the main way to get money to support the park

However, several fishermen died since the 1980s. People disagree about what happened to them. Park patrol and military said they needed to protect themselves. Fishermen living in the area say the park management killed the fishermen on purpose.

References

Other websites

 Komodo National Park website 
 Official UNESCO website
 Komodo Island 
 New7Wonders of Nature 

World Heritage Sites in Asia
National parks in Asia
Lesser Sunda Islands
1980s establishments in Indonesia
Biosphere reserves
1980 establishments in Asia
is a noodle from Yamanashi, Japan. It is made by stewing flat udon noodles and vegetables in miso soup. Though hōtō is a type of udon, locals do not consider it to be an udon dish because the dough is prepared like dumplings rather than noodles.

Hoto of other prefectures
The adjoining prefectures, Nagano, Shizuoka and Gunma have similar noodle dishes with soy sauce. They are called "Okkirikomi", "Niboutou" etc. More recently, such Hoto culture has been promoted to encourage profit from tourism.

History
There are many different stories about the history of Hoto. In the old days, in Yamanashi, rice fields were replaced by mulberry fields, to grow silkworms. Then, cultivation of wheat become popular and dishes which use flour developed. In all of the dishes, Hoto was economical because it used many vegetables and stock. Also, its taste was good. Therefore, Hoto spread throughout Yamanashi.

How to cook
First, knead flour with a little water in a bowl. Then spread the dough with a stick. Fold the dough and cut widely. You do not need to let it sit, or add salt. Nowadays, you can buy Hoto noodles around Yamanashi prefecture. The soup tastes like soybean paste. Adding pumpkin paste into the soup is popular. The stock is made from dried small sardines. The main ingredient is vegetables. In summer, leeks, onions, potatoes and so on are used. In winter, pumpkins, taro, carrots, napa cabbage and so on are used. Sometimes pork or chicken are used.

Noodles
Labyrinthodont is a term which was used for fossil amphibia. Although it is no longer a formal term in taxonomy, it is still useful as an evolutionary grade, a kind of catch-all term. Labyrinth mean a maze and dont means tooth.

Labyrinthodonts are often called Temnospondyls.
The Labyrinthodontia is not a clade, because it is not monophyletic. It has been replaced in the classification by more correct terms.

The labyrithodonts were some of the dominant animals from the Devonian to the Lower Triassic (about 390 to 210 million years ago). The group is an evolutionary grade (a polyphyletic or paraphyletic group) of species which look rather similar.

The name describes the pattern of infolding of the dentine and enamel of the teeth, which often fossilise. They are also have a heavily armoured skull roof (so they also have an even older name "Stegocephalia"), and complex vertebrae.

Characteristics 

The labyrinthodonts flourished for more than 200 million years. Although there was much variation, these traits make their fossils distinct and easy to recognise:

 Strongly folded tooth surface, so that a cross section resembles a classical labyrinth (or maze).
 Massive skull roof, with openings only for the nostrils, eyes and a parietal 'third eye'. The skull was rather flat with thick dermal armour, accounting for the older term for the group: Stegocephalia. The amniotes (Sauropsids and Synapsids) developed deeper skulls.
 Otic notch behind each eye at the back edge of the skull. In the primitive waterbound forms it may have formed an open spiracle, and may possibly have held an ear-drum in some advanced forms.
 Complex vertebrae made of 4 pieces.

What the term included 
 †Ichthyostegalia : term no longer used; see 'Fishapods', below.
 †Temnospondyli (possible ancestors of modern amphibians)
 †Lepospondyli (possible ancestors of modern amphibians)
 †Reptiliomorpha (ancestors of reptiles): now referred to the Amniote stem-group or the Sauropsida.

Specifically excluded 
 Lissamphibians: modern amphibia
 Amniotes: The terrestrial cleidoic egg-laying animals, the Sauropsida and Synapsida.

Fishapods 

Early tetropods are now classified as lobe-finned fish (Sarcopterygii). This is because we now know they were aquatic when the limbs first evolved (see Tetrapod).

The informal term fishapods is often used for this group of Devonian animals.

A more formal term, used by Clack, is "stem-group tetrapods".

References 

Fossils
Amphibians
Puntland is a province of Somalia in the Horn of Africa. Officially it is called the Puntland State of Somalia. Its capital is Garowe. To the east of Puntland is Khatumo. To the south is Galmudug.

Overview
The economy is centered around Boosasso. The province covers about a third of Somalia, and about a third of the population of Somalia lives in the province.  Puntlanders want some degree of autonomy, but Puntlanders also want to stay within Somalia, and find a solution for the whole country.

Politics
Although it is a federal state, Puntland politicians often call themselves a government. The people inside Puntland are called Puntites or Puntlanders. The area of Puntland is part of the areas of Waqooyi meaning north or Bari meaning east. The president is usually Majeerteen and the vice-president is usually of the reer darawiish tribe.

References 

States of Somalia
Provinces
Khatumo
Tau (τ) leptons (aka tauons, tau particle) are one of the very small elementary particles. This means that they are believed to be so small that they can not be divided any more. Tau leptons can be thought of as very heavy electrons, as they are both leptons. This is because they have about 3,500 times as much mass as electrons, and about 17 times as much mass as muons. Since they only live for 2.9x10–13 seconds, they do not have a significant role in the regular world. However, they are very important in the decay of subatomic matter.

Like the other two basic leptons, tauons have a neutrino named after them (the tau neutrino).

Tau have a charge of -1, and can be written as τ–. Since antimatter has the opposite of charge of regular matter, anti-tauons have a charge of +1, and can be written as τ+. Tauons themselves are unstable, and can decay. Also, τ+ and τ– can annihilate each other in a form of decay. When a single tauon decays, it is the only lepton that can decay into hadrons (things made of quarks). τ+ and τ– can be formed by an electron-positron (antielectron) pair combining. The two tauons then decay into an electron and a positron or a muon and an antimuon, and four of the various neutrinos. However, a single tauon decays differently than a tauon and an antitauon.

A τ– will quickly decay into a tau neutrino and a W boson. The W boson will exist for 3x10–25 seconds, before it decays into an electron and an electron antineutrino, a muon and a muon antineutrino, or a down quark and an up antiquark.

References 

Elementary particles
Julian Paul Assange (born 3 July 1971) is an Australian computer programmer, publisher and journalist. He is a spokesman and editor-in-chief of WikiLeaks, which is a website that posts news leaks. He started the website in 2006. He was born in Townsville, Queensland. He also made a program called Rubberhose (file system) to hide secret information in a specific way that protects against torture.

Assange was the Readers' Choice for Time Person of the Year in 2010 after getting the most Internet votes. However, Mark Zuckerberg, who started Facebook, won the actual award.

In 2012, facing extradition to Sweden, he was granted political asylum by Ecuador and took refuge at the Embassy of Ecuador, London.

On 11 January 2018, it was announced that Assange had held Ecuadorian citizenship since 12 December 2017.

Ecuadorian President Lenín Moreno said on 27 July 2018 that he had begun talks with British authorities to withdraw the asylum for Assange. On 11 April 2019, Ecuador withdrew Assange's asylum and he was arrested by the Metropolitan Police shortly afterwards. His lawyers said they will fight extradition to the United States.

In November 2019, it was reported that Assange is in bad health, has depression and "could die in prison" if not hospitalized.

The extradition to the United States hearing (a pre-trial discussion in a court) for Assange began in London on February 24,  2020. The next set of hearings is scheduled for May.

References

1971 births
Living people
Australian journalists
Australian activists
Ecuadorian people
Extradition
University of Melbourne alumni
Writers from Queensland
Kaons are a specific type of meson (mesons are particles made of one quark and one antiquark). What makes kaons unique is that they are made of one up quark or down quark, and one strange quark. (One of the two quarks that make of a kaon must be an antiquark, and the other must be normal matter. For example, a kaon can be made of one up quark and a strange antiquark). The discovery of kaons was significant because it proved the existence of yet another flavour (type) of quark, the strange quark.

There are four types of kaons, but two of them are relatively easy to understand. There is the K+ and the K0. The + and 0 above the letter K refer to whether the charge is positive, or 0 (neutral). The K+ is made of one up quark, and one strange antiquark. Since antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart (and since normal strange quarks have a charge of -1/3), 2/3 + 1/3 = a +1 charge, or simply a + charge. (Also because antiparticles have the opposite charge of their counterpart, if you change the up quark in a K+ to an up antiquark and the strange antiquark to a normal strange quark, you get the opposite charge, forming a K–). Since down quarks and strange quarks have the same charge, if either one of them is an antiparticle, the overall charge is zero. Therefore, a K0 can either be made of one down quark and  strange antiquark, or one down antiquark and one normal strange quark.

Subatomic particles
The National Science Foundation (NSF) is a United States government agency where discoveries begin and supports fundamental research and education in all the non-medical fields of science and engineering. Its medical counterpart is the National Institutes of Health. With an annual budget of about US$6.87 billion (fiscal year 2010), the NSF funds approximately 20 percent of all federally supported basic research conducted by the United States' colleges and universities. In some fields, such as mathematics, computer science, economics and the social sciences, the NSF is the major source of federal backing.

The NSF's director, deputy director, and the 24 members of the National Science Board (NSB) are appointed by the President of the United States, and confirmed by the United States Senate. The director and deputy director are responsible for administration, planning, budgeting and day-to-day operations of the foundation, while the NSB meets six times a year to establish its overall policies.

References

Other websites 

NASA
NSF website
Royal Society

Research organizations in the United States
United States government agencies
1950 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Virginia
Alexandria, Virginia
Y tu mamá también (And your mother too) is a 2001 award-winning Mexican road movie. It was directed by Alfonso Cuarón and written by him and his brother Carlos Cuarón.

It was released without a rating in the United States because the movie's distributors believed a market-limiting NC-17 was unavoidable. This movie was released during 2002 in the US.

Other websites 

2001 drama movies
2000s LGBT movies
2000s road movies
2000s romantic drama movies
Mexican movies
Spanish-language movies
Movies directed by Alfonso Cuarón
Drosophila pseudoobscura is a species of fruit fly, used extensively in lab studies of the genetics of natural populations.

It was first used by Theodosius Dobzhansky and his colleagues. They collected samples from populations in western North America and Mexico, and grew them in 'population cages' in the laboratory. They were interested in natural selection, genetic drift, and other aspects of population genetics.

In 1989 Diane Dodd gave laboratory populations of D. pseudoobscura two different food types, starch and maltose. They rapidly evolved into two distinct groups after only eight generations with the different foods. As the two groups both showed a strong preference for mating with their own type, this was claimed as an example of speciation by reproductive isolation. Dodd's experiment has been repeated by others, and works with other kinds of fruit flies and foods.

In 2005, D. pseudoobscura was the second Drosophila species to have its genome sequenced, after Drosophila melanogaster.

References 

Drosophila
Evolutionary biology
Experiments
Model organisms
Fastball is an American rock band from Austin, Texas. It started in the 1990s with the name Magneto U.S.A., but later changed its name to Fastball.

Band history
Fastball became popular around Austin, Texas. It released its first album, Make Your Mama Proud, in 1996. However, the band did not became famous until it released its second album, All The Pain Money Can Buy in 1998. The first song on this album, The Way, became a hit. This song was about an elderly couple who got lost while traveling to a family reunion and died. However, band member Tony Scalzo, who wrote the song, gave the story a happier ending in the lyrics. The album had another big hit, Out Of My Head, and the song Fire Escape also was played on the radio. The band's next albums, The Harsh Light Of Day, Keep Your Wig On, and Little White Lies, did not sell as many copies as All The Pain Money Can Buy.

Members
Tony Scalzo (vocals, bass guitar, keyboards, guitar)
Miles Zuniga (vocals, guitar)
Joey Shufflefield (drums)

Albums 
 Make Your Mama Proud (1996)
 All the Pain Money Can Buy (1998)
 The Harsh Light of Day (2000)
 Keep Your Wig On (2004)
 Little White Lies (2009)
 Step into Light (2017)
 The Help Machine (2019)

References

American rock bands
American pop music groups
Musicians from Austin, Texas
Musical groups from Texas
Person of the Year is an issue of the United States magazine Time that has come out each year since 1927.  Until 1999, it was called "Man of the Year."

The "Person of the Year" is not always a person.  It can be a person, group, idea, or thing that "for better or for worse...has done the most to influence the events of the year".  This means that being chosen is not an award, like being chosen as the "best person of the year."  The Person of the Year may be an enemy of the United States, like Adolf Hitler (1938) or Joseph Stalin (1939 and 1942).  Every year, Time chooses the person who they think has had the most effect on the things that have happened in that year (whether those things were good or bad).

The first Person of the Year was aviator Charles Lindbergh, in 1927.  Since then, Persons of the Year have included groups, whole generations, important objects, and even the Earth.  Since the list began, every serving President of the United States has been a Person of the Year at least once, except for Calvin Coolidge, Herbert Hoover, and Gerald Ford.  Franklin D. Roosevelt is the only person to have been named Person of the Year three times.

The December 31, 1999 issue of Time named Albert Einstein the "Person of the Century". Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mahatma Gandhi were chosen as runners-up.

Persons of the Year

Photo gallery

1927  1950

1951  1979

1980  2000

2001  2021

References
Metalworking is the shaping of metals to create single parts, assemblies, or large scale buildings/objects. There are many ways of shaping metal, including machining, metalspinning, forging, casting, goldsmith and fabricating. Humans have been working metal for close to 7000 years.

Manufacturing
Metals
Joshua Paul Davis, (born June 29, 1972) known by his stage name DJ Shadow, is an American music producer, DJ and songwriter. He is an important person in the history of instrumental hip hop. He became well known after his first album Endtroducing....., which was made entirely from samples. He has a collection of over 60,000 records.

References

1972 births
Living people
American DJs
American songwriters
People from San Jose, California
Musicians from California
Thallium(I) sulfate, also known as thallous sulfate, is a chemical compound. Its chemical formula is Tl2SO4. It has thallium and sulfate ions in it. The thallium is in its +1 oxidation state.

Properties
Thallium(I) sulfate is colorless, odorless, and tasteless. It is very toxic, though. It dissolves easily in water and is similar to potassium sulfate.

Preparation
It is made by dissolving thallium ore or thallium metal in sulfuric acid.

Uses
It was used in rat poison, but since it is so similar to other chemicals, it poisoned some people and was outlawed. It was also used for some medicines before it was found that it was too toxic. It stops plants from germinating. It is the main source of thallium in the laboratory and is used to make thallium(I) sulfide.

Toxicity
Thallium sulfate, like all thallium compounds, is very toxic. This is because the size of the thallium ion is very similar to the size of the potassium ion. After it goes into the cells, it cannot be used like potassium is used and so kills the cell. It also gets absorbed through the skin. Eating more than 1/2 gram can kill. It gets deposited in the kidney, liver, brain, and similar places. It has been blamed for the extinction of the Brown Fish Owl.

Related pages
Thallium(I) chloride
Thallium(III) halide
Thallium(III) oxide

Thallium compounds
Sulfur compounds
The thallium halides come in two oxidation states: monohalides, where thallium has the oxidation state +1, and trihalides, where thallium generally has oxidation state +3.

Monohalides 

The monohalides all contain thallium with oxidation state +1.
Thallium(I) fluoride, a white crystalline solid. It is soluble in water, unlike the other thallium monohalides.
Thallium(I) chloride, sensitive to light. It is a white crystalline solid.
Thallium(I) bromide, sensitive to light. A pale yellow crystalline solid.
Thallium(I) iodide, at room temperature it is a yellow crystalline solid. At higher temperatures the colour changes to red.

Trihalides 
Thallium(III) halides are very rare. Some of them are unstable. The thallium(III) iodide does not form. They are quite different to aluminium, gallium and indium trihalides.

Thallium(III) fluoride, also known as thallic fluoride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and fluoride ions. It is made by reacting thallium(III) oxide with bromine trifluoride, fluorine, or sulfur tetrafluoride at a warm temperature.
Thallium(III) chloride, also known as thallic chloride, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and chloride ions. It disproportionates above 40°C, making thallium(I) chloride and chlorine. It is made by reacting thallium(I) chloride with chlorine in an organic solution.
Thallium(III) bromide, also known as thallic bromide, is made of thallium in its +3 oxidation state and bromide ions. It disproportionates at a low temperature to thallium(I) bromide and bromine. It can be made by reacting thallium(I) bromide with bromine in water or an organic solution.
Thallium(I) triiodide, a black crystalline solid. It does not contain thallium(III), but has the same structure as CsI3 containing the linear I3- ion.

References 

Thallium compounds
Up quarks are subatomic particles that help make up many larger particles, like protons. Up quarks have a charge of +2/3, and are the lightest of the six types (flavours) of quarks. Like all fermions (non force-carrying particles), up quarks have a spin of 1/2. They are affected by all four of the fundamental forces, which are gravity, the strong force, the weak force, and electromagnetism. Like all quarks, Up quarks are elementary particles, which means that they are so small that scientists believe that they can not be divided any more.

Protons (which have a total charge of +1) are made of two up quarks (which have a charge of +2/3) and one down quark (which have a charge of -1/3). Neutrons (which have a total charge of 0) are made of one up quark, and two down quarks. Up quarks can also be used to create more complex particles, such as pions.

Quarks
The Rape of the Lock is a poem written by Alexander Pope, mocking heros and heroines. It was first published anonymously in Lintot's Miscellany in May 1712.

Poem 

The poem is sarcastically laughing at the epic world of the gods. It was based on an incident that was remembered by Pope's friend, John Caryll. Arabella Fermor and Robert Petre were both from Catholic families at a time in England when Anglicanism was very important. Petre, lusting after Arabella, had cut a lock of her hair to keep without permission, which made the two families have a big argument. This was because in those days, cutting off a lock of the lover's hair was scandalous and symbolized improper love. Pope, also a Catholic, wrote the poem to make the two families reconcile and be happy again. He made the character Belinda to represent Arabella in the poem.

Pope's poem mocks all the traditions of classics. Although the poem is funny at times, Pope keeps a sense that beauty is fragile, and that just because Belinda loses a lock of her hair she is very deeply hurt.

Three of Uranus's moons are named after characters from The Rape of the Lock: Belinda, Umbriel, and Ariel.

Other websites 

 "The Rape of the Lock:" Study Guide With Complete Text and Detailed Explanatory Notes

References 

18th-century British poems
The Gorgonopsids  were Therapsids, a group of tetrapods which eventually gave rise to the mammals.

Gorgonopsids were a successful group which lived during the Permian period, about 260 million years ago. They became extinct in the Permian–Triassic extinction event. 

They were the major predators of their day. They had large, powerful, square-shaped jaws with huge, sabre-like canine and interlaced, socket-like teeth. Many fossils have been found in South Africa.

The largest known, Inostrancevia, was the size of a large bear with a 45 cm long skull, and 12-cm long sabre-like teeth.  

The Gorgonopsidae are divided into three sub-families: 
Rubidginae, which had large, broad skulls,
Gorgonopsinae, which included most of the gorgonopsid genera.
Inostranceviinae

Notes 

Therapsids
Fossils
Strange quarks are the third lightest quarks, which are subatomic particles that are so small, they are believed to be the fundamental particles, and not further divisible. Like down quarks, strange quarks have a charge of -1/3. Like all fermions (which are particles that can not exist in the same place at the same time), strange quarks have a spin of 1/2. What makes strange quarks different from down quarks–apart from having 25 times the mass of down quarks–is that they have something that scientists call "strangeness." Strangeness is basically a resistance to decay against strong force and electromagnetism. This means that any particle that contains a strange quark can not decay due to strong force (or electromagnetism), but instead with the much slower weak force. It was believed that this was a 'strange' method of decay, which is why the scientists gave the particles that name.

Strange quarks can be found in particles such as kaons and some hyperons. Scientists began noticing strangeness when these particles did not decay as quickly as their masses would have suggested they would have. However, it took them a long time to even guess strangeness was the answer because it took over 16 years to predict it after the discovery of kaons.

Quarks
Othniel Charles Marsh M.A PhD LL.D (October 29, 1831 – March 18, 1899) was one of the leading paleontologists of the 19th century. He discovered and named many fossils found in western North America.

Early life 
Marsh was born in Lockport, New York, into a family of modest means. However, he was the nephew of the very rich banker and philanthropist, George Peabody. 

He graduated from Yale College in 1860. He later studied geology and mineralogy in New Haven, and afterwards paleontology and anatomy in Berlin, Heidelberg and Breslau. He returned to the United States in 1866 and was appointed professor of vertebrate paleontology at Yale University. He persuaded his uncle George Peabody to establish the Peabody Museum of Natural History at Yale.

Career 

Marsh and his many fossil hunters were able to uncover about 500 new species of fossil animals, which were named by Marsh himself. 

In May 1871, Marsh uncovered the first pterosaur fossils found in America. He also found early horses, the Cretaceous and Jurassic dinosaurs Apatosaurus and Allosaurus, and described the toothed birds of the Cretaceous; Ichthyornis and Hesperornis. 

Marsh is also known for the so-called "Bone Wars" waged against Edward Drinker Cope. The two men were fiercely competitive, discovering and documenting more than 120 new species of dinosaur between them. Marsh eventually won the Bone Wars by finding 80 new species of dinosaur, while Cope only found 56.

References 

1831 births
1899 deaths
Scientists from New York
American paleontologists
People from Lockport, New York
A web application is a software application that can be run without being installed on the client and that has several parts: A part of it will run on the remote web server, another part will run on the client, usually inside a web browser. Both parts communicate over a computer network, for example the internet. The protocol they often use is  called HTTP. This kind of application design is called client-server model. The parts are usually called "tiers". The most common kind is a three-tier application: One tier is called Presentation tier, another is called Application tier, and the third is called Storage tier. Common examples of web applications are those used for web mail, or for online banking. Social media sites, such as Wikipedia are also web applications.

Benefits and drawbacks

Benefits 

 Web applications run "inside" a browser; no complex installation is needed.
 Web applications require very little disk space (or computing power) on the client. All the client does is display the data.
 Web applications solve some of the "compatibility issues" (Windows, Mac, Linux); all that is needed is a browser.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. As with other cloud computing, this can allow easy communication and cooperation. 
 Help for communication and mail

Drawbacks 

 Because they run inside a web browser, most web applications "look" very different to regular programs. The user experience or ease of use is different and some may dislike it.
 Web applications need to be coded so they follow standards. Any browser that also follows the standard can be used. Small changes in a given browser's implementation of a standard may prevent that browser from using the web application. 
 Web applications need a connection to the server where the application runs, all the time. The connection may need a certain bandwidth. Without an adequate connection, the application may not be usable; in the worst case, data may be lost.
 Many applications are dependent on the server that hosts them. When the server is switched off, or the company goes bust, the application is no longer usable. Traditional applications continue to work.
 The company offering the web application has complete control over it. This also means that they may launch a new version when they want to; the option to "skip" a less popular version does not exist.
 In many cases, the data is stored remotely too. It may not be possible to export the data so that it can be used with another application.
 The company can theoretically track anything the users do. This can cause privacy problems.

Other websites
HTML 5 Draft recommendation,  changes to HTML and related APIs to ease authoring of web-based applications.
The Other Road Ahead – An article arguing that the future lies on the server, not rich interfaces on the client

Web Applications Working Group at the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C)
Requirements to Become a Web Developer

 
Computer science
The boron group, also known as Group III and Group 13, is a group of elements on the periodic table. Most of its members are poor metals, except for boron. Boron is a semimetal. The rest of the elements are soft metals.

List
Boron, brittle hard black semimetal
Aluminium, common soft silvery metal
Gallium, easily melted silvery metal
Indium, soft silvery metal
Thallium, highly toxic very soft metal
Nihonium, unstable manmade element

Gallery

Periodic table
Top quarks or truth quarks are the heaviest known elementary particles (particles that are so small that they can not be divided). All quarks are elementary particles, and since they are fermions (which means that no two of them can exist in the same place at the same time), they have a spin of 1/2. Top quarks interact with all four of the fundamental forces, which are gravity, electromagnetism, strong force, and weak force. Almost all of the time, top quarks will decay into a bottom quark and a W boson, although it can sometimes decay into a strange quark.

One top quark weighs about as much as one atom of tungsten. Since top quarks are so massive, scientists have been able to make predictions about the mass of the theoretical particle known as a Higgs Boson. Unfortunately, top quarks are only believed to be able to exist for 5x10–25 seconds.

References

Quarks