cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Austrian Hockey League (Erste Bank Eishockey Liga) for sponsorship reasons, is the top level of ice hockey in Austria. EC KAC has won the most league titles, with 23.

Teams

Austrian Champions 

 1923 Wiener EV
 1924 Wiener EV
 1925 Wiener EV
 1926 Wiener EV
 1927 Wiener EV
 1928 Wiener EV
 1929 Wiener EV
 1930 Wiener EV
 1931 Wiener EV
 1932 Pötzleinsdorfer SK
 1933 Wiener EV
 1934 Klagenfurter
 1935 Klagenfurter
 1936 Not Played
 1937 Wiener EV
 1938 EK Engelmann
 1939-1945 Not played
 1946 EK Engelmann
 1947 Wiener EV
 1948 Wiener EV

 1949 Wiener EG
 1950 Wiener EG
 1951 Wiener EG
 1952 Klagenfurter
 1953 Innsbrucker EV
 1954 Innsbrucker EV
 1955 Klagenfurter
 1956 EK Engelmann
 1957 EK Engelmann
 1958 Innsbrucker EV
 1959 Innsbrucker EV
 1960 EC KAC
 1961 Innsbrucker EV
 1962 Wiener EV
 1963 Innsbrucker EV
 1964 EC KAC
 1965 EC KAC
 1966 EC KAC
 1967 EC KAC
 1968 EC KAC

 1969 EC KAC
 1970 EC KAC
 1971 EC KAC
 1972 EC KAC
 1973 EC KAC
 1974 EC KAC
 1975 ATSE Graz
 1976 EC KAC
 1977 EC KAC
 1978 ATSE Graz
 1979 EC KAC
 1980 EC KAC
 1981 Villacher SV
 1982 VEU Feldkirch
 1983 VEU Feldkirch
 1984 VEU Feldkirch
 1985 EC KAC
 1986 EC KAC
 1987 EC KAC
 1988 EC KAC

 1989 Innsbrucker EV
 1990 VEU Feldkirch
 1991 EC KAC
 1992 Villacher SV
 1993 Villacher SV
 1994 VEU Feldkirch
 1995 VEU Feldkirch
 1996 VEU Feldkirch
 1997 VEU Feldkirch
 1998 VEU Feldkirch
 1999 Villacher SV
 2000 EC KAC
 2001 EC KAC
 2002 Villacher SV
 2003 Black Wings Linz
 2004 EC KAC
 2005 Vienna Capitals
 2006 Villacher SV
 2007 Red Bull Salzburg
 2008 Red Bull Salzburg

 2009 EC KAC
 2010 Red Bull Salzburg
 2011 Red Bull Salzburg

bold - seasons in which league had teams outside Austria

Other websites

Erste Bank Eishockey Liga (EBEL) 
Austrian Hockey Association (ÖEHV)

Ice hockey leagues
Pietro Paolo Giovanni Ernesto Baracchi (1851–1926) was an Italian astronomer. He moved to Australia in the 1870's and worked at the Melbourne Observatory. In 1910 the Australian government asked him to find a suitable place for an observatory in the new Australian Capital Territory. Barrachi set up a small observatory on Mount Stromlo in May 1911. This was the first government building in Canberra and was the beginning of the Mount Stromlo Observatory. The observatory had a 9-inch (23 cm) telescope, donated by Ballarat gold miner, James Oddie.

References

1851 births
1926 deaths
Italian astronomers
The Melbourne Observatory, in Melbourne, Victoria, Australia, was built in 1861. It replaced an earlier observatory at Williamstown. The Melbourne Observatory is now part of Melbourne's Royal Botanic Gardens. The observatory had an important role as it used observations of the stars to keep accurate time. It also kept the weather records and scientists were able to make weather predictions.

In 1869 the observatory installed the Great Melbourne Telescope (48 inch) which at that time was the largest steerable telescope in world. There were problems with its size and image accuracy and by 1890 it was no longer used. As Melbourne increased in size the light from the city limited the use of the observatory for serious astronomy. The Great Melbourne Telescope was sold to the Mount Stromlo Observatory in Canberra in 1944. It was destroyed in a bushfire in 2003, but there are plans to rebuild it and set it up as a display at the Melbourne Observatory.

The Melbourne Observatory is no longer used, but the historic equipment is kept in working condition by the Astronomical Society of Victoria. This is an amateur group of volunteers interested in astronomy. They have regular tours, talks and observation nights using the telescopes. The historic buildings are now used as offices for the gardens, a cafe and a shop.

References

Other websites
 The Melbourne Observatory 

Observatories in Australia
Buildings and structures in Melbourne
1861 establishments in Australia
Matthew David Cooke (born September 7, 1978) is a former Canadian professional ice hockey left winger. He plays for the Minnesota Wild of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Vancouver Canucks, Washington Capitals and Pittsburgh Penguins.

He is known as a pest because of his way of aggravating opponents. He has also faced many suspensions by the NHL. In 2009, He won the Stanley Cup with the Pittsburgh Penguins.

Career statistics

Awards
He won a gold medal with Team Canada in the 2010 World Ice Hockey Championships.
He won the Stanley Cup in 2009. (Pittsburgh Penguins)

References

Other websites 

1978 births
American Hockey League players
Canadian ice hockey left wingers
Ice hockey people from Ontario
Living people
Minnesota Wild players
Ontario Hockey League players
Pittsburgh Penguins players
Stanley Cup champions
Vancouver Canucks players
Washington Capitals players
The term Radio frequency refers to electromagnetic radiation in the range of frequencies lower than microwaves. Radio waves at these frequencies have been found useful for long-range communications. Among these frequencies, shortwave radio communications operate at frequencies that can be reflected by the ionosphere and therefore can bounce around the earth. Longwave frequencies are used for relatively short range communications such as the most ordinary of the commercial amplitude modulation (AM) radio stations. Their transmissions ordinarily do not get long bounces.

Different short-wave frequencies (with wavelengths shorter than 120 meters) can be reflected well and transmitted by long bounces around the world during times when different conditions prevail in the ionosphere. So transmitters for such organizations as VOA (Voice of America) and BBC (British Broadcasting Corporation) will change operating frequencies from month to month and also from time to time during a 24 hour period.

Electromagnetic radiation
Radio technology
Christopher John Nilan (born February 9, 1958 in Boston, Massachusetts) is an American retired professional ice hockey forward. He played 15 seasons and 688 regular season games in the National Hockey League (NHL) with the Montreal Canadiens, New York Rangers and Boston Bruins organizations. He won the Stanley Cup with the Montreal Canadiens in 1986. His nickname was "Knuckles" because he was to fight with other players.

References

Other websites

1958 births
American ice hockey players
Sportspeople from Boston, Massachusetts
Boston Bruins players
Living people
Montreal Canadiens players
New York Rangers players
Stanley Cup champions
Saraikistan (Saraiki, Punjabi, ) is a term used by few Saraikis to mean the southern region of the Punjab province of Pakistan.

References

Pakistan
Chlordane is an insecticide, introduced in 1947. It is an organochloride that acts like a contact poison. It can be produced using the Diels–Alder reaction, and has at least 147 constituents. Its main use was in treating seeds, e.g. of potatoes, wheat, or vegetables. It was also used for wood preservation, and against ants and termites. Chlordane only degrades slowly, which means that it is relatively easy to spread it over long distances. It accumulates in the body of animals, in mammals mostly in the nervous system and the liver. Chlordane has been shown to cause cancer in mice; it may cause cancer in humans. Chlordane is toxic. It is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

References

Chemical compounds
Carcinogens
Aldrin is an insecticide, which was used against termites, locusts and the larvae of Click beetles. Most plants and animals convert it to Dieldrin. It is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, its production, use and trade are banned since 2004. Aldrin is a neurotoxin. People inhaling it can develop headaches, but also seizures. In humans, Aldrin is converted to dieldrin in the liver. The change will mean that it can leave the body again. The problem is that the change is slow, and the half-life is about a year. Aldrin may be a teratogen, and it probably causes cancer.

Production
Aldrin is produced by combining hexachlorocyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction to give the adduct.

Aldrin is named after the German chemist Kurt Alder, one of the coinventors of this kind of reaction.  An estimated 270 million kilograms of aldrin and related cyclodiene pesticides were produced between 1946 and 1976.

In soil, on plant surfaces, or in the digestive tracts of insects, aldrin oxidizes to the epoxide, dieldrin. Dieldrin is more strongly insecticidal than aldrin.

References

Chemical compounds
Mirex is a chlorinated hydrocarbon that was commercialized as an insecticide. It was later banned because it was harmful to the environment. This white crystalline odorless solid is a derivative of cyclopentadiene. It was popularized to control fire ants but by virtue of its chemical robustness and lipophilicity it was recognized as a bioaccumulative pollutant. However, the spread of the red imported fire ant was actually encouraged by the use of Mirex, as it also kills native ants that are highly competitive with the fire ants. The United States Environmental Protection Agency prohibited its use in 1976.

References

Hydrocarbons
Dieldrin is a chlorinated hydrocarbon originally produced in 1948 by J. Hyman & Co, Denver, as an insecticide. Dieldrin is closely related to aldrin. Aldrin reacts further to form dieldrin. Aldrin is not toxic to insects; it is oxidized in the insect to form dieldrin which is the active compound. Both dieldrin and aldrin are named after the Diels-Alder reaction which is used to form aldrin from a mixture of norbornadiene and hexachlorocyclopentadiene.

Dieldrin was developed as an alternative to DDT and has proved to be a highly effective insecticide. It was very widely used during the 1950s to early 1970s. Endrin is a stereoisomer of dieldrin.

However, it is an extremely persistent organic pollutant; it does not degrade easily. Furthermore, it tends to biomagnify as it is passed along the food chain.  Long-term exposure has proven toxic to a very wide range of animals including humans. For this reason it is now banned in most of the world.

It has been linked to health problems such as Parkinson's disease, breast cancer, and immune, reproductive, and nervous system damage. It can also adversely affect testicular descent in the fetus if a pregnant woman is exposed to Dieldrin.

Dieldrin is listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants.

Synthesis
It can be formed from the synthesis of hexachloro-1,3-cyclopentadiene with norbornadiene in a Diels-Alder reaction, followed by epoxidation of the norbornene ring.

Dieldrin is named after Otto Paul Hermann Diels, the co-inventor of the Diels-Alder reaction.

References

Chemical compounds
Endrin is an insecticide that was commonplace among cotton growers and for the treament of cereals. It was also used to kill rodents. It is a neurotoxin. It is a stereoisomer of Dieldrin. In the soil, it can take up to twelve years to decay. It is one of the twelve substances listed in the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants, and its production, trade and use is banned since 2004.

References

Chemical compounds
Organic compounds
Pollution
(also known as Lylat Wars in Australia and Europe) is a video game that was published by Nintendo and was developed by Nintendo EAD. The game was released on April 27, 1997 in Japan, June 30, 1997 in North America, October 20, 1997 in Europe, and October 20, 1997 in Australasia for the Nintendo 64. The game is a reboot of the original Star Fox for the SNES and is the first in the Star Fox series to be released on the Nintendo 64. Star Fox 64 was also the first Nintendo 64 game to include a Rumble Pak. The game received positive reviews with a 8.3 out of ten by GameSpot and 88 out of 100 from Metacritic. The game was ranked as #73 on Nintendo Power's "Top 200 Nintendo Games Ever" and was also listed as the 45th greatest game of all time by Guinness World Records Gamer's Edition in 2009.

Star Fox 64 3D
 is a remake released for the Nintendo 3DS console. It was released between July and September 2011. It includes use of the console's touch screen and better graphics.

References

Other websites
Official website (archive)

1997 video games
Nintendo 64 games
Virtual Console games
Nintendo Entertainment Analysis and Development games
Star Fox
Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey is a 1993 animal-adventure movie that was produced by Jeffrey Chernov and Franklin R. Levy and was directed by Duwayne Dunham. Homeward Bound: The Incredible Journey was released on February 3, 1993 in North America. It is a remake of the 1963 movie, The Incredible Journey which was based on the novel of the same name. The movie was xxxxxxxxxx the 1996 movie, Homeward Bound II: Lost in San Francisco. The movie received positive reviews with a 87% rating on Rotten Tomatoes.

References

Other websites 

1993 movies
American adventure movies
Disney movies
English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies about animals
Teltow is a place in Germany. The population is around 4,000 and it is in the province of Potsdam-Mittelmark.

References
Eric Carle (June 25, 1929 – May 23, 2021) was an American children's author and illustrator. Carle illustrated more than 70 books with some being best sellers. More than 102 million copies of his books have been sold worldwide. His best known work is the 1969 book, The Very Hungry Caterpillar which has been translated into over 50 different languages. 

Carle was born in Syracuse, New York. He was drafted into the U.S. Army during the Korean War and was stationed in Germany with the Second Armored Division and was appointed the position of mail clerk. Carle had a son and a daughter.

Carle died on May 23, 2021 at his studio home in Northampton, Massachusetts from kidney failure aged 91.

References

Website
Official website

1929 births
2021 deaths
Deaths from renal failure
American children's writers
Writers from New York
People from Syracuse, New York
American illustrators
Disease-related deaths in Massachusetts
American military personnel of the Korean War
The Very Hungry Caterpillar is a children's book by American writer Eric Carle. It is Carle's most famous book, it has been translated into over 50 different languages and has sold 30 million copies worldwide. The book is about a caterpillar that eats food until pupating and becoming a butterfly. The book was inspired by a hole puncher. The New York Times named it as one of the "Ten Best Picture Books of the Year" in 1969. Google celebrated the book's 40th anniversary in 2009 by changing the logo on its main search page to the style used in the book.

References

Other websites
 The Very Hungry Caterpillar reviews 

1969 books
English-language picture books
Children's books
Children's picture books
The 1920 Duluth lynchings occurred when a mob attacked and lynched three black circus workers in Duluth, Minnesota. Beforehand there were rumours that black people had raped a teenager.  A physician who examined the girl found no evidence of rape or assault.

The killings shocked the country, particularly because they had occurred in the northern United States. Four other lynchings had occurred in Minnesota before that time. In 2003, the city of Duluth erected a memorial to the murdered workers.

References

1920 in the United States
Deaths by hanging
Duluth, Minnesota
Murder in the United States
20th century in Minnesota
Lynching
Lynching is the execution of a person or persons, by the people of an area without the use of a court trial. Often the people lynched have been hanged. Other forms of lynching include being dragged to death behind a car, burning and use of a gun. What makes the execution a lynching is the nature of it being done without a court trial by people who believe the accused is guilty of a crime. Lynchings have been used in the southern states of the United States of America against African Americans during the time of slavery but more commonly after the abolition of slavery during the time of civil rights activism and the times of the various Ku Klux Klans. Lynching continues to be a problem to this day, and is not just limited to southern states. Lynching is murder, and many times the people who do it are never punished. One horrific example of Lynching is Lynching of Jesse Washington.

Lynching in the United States

United States lynchings rose in number after the American Civil War in the early-to-mid 1860s.

Most lynchings went down by the 1950s.

Most lynchings were of African American men in the South. But women were also lynched. Also, white lynchings of blacks happened in the Midwest and Border States. Sometimes whites were also lynched. There were also lynchings of Native Americans, Hispanics and Asian Americans in the West, including California.

References

Civil rights

Lynching
Grouped data is a statistical term used in data analysis. Raw data can be organized by grouping together similar measurements in a table. This frequency table is also called grouped data.

Example 
For example, someone gave a group of students a simple math question, and timed how long it took them to answer it. The numbers are below:

The smallest amount of time was 8 seconds, and the largest was 34 seconds. One method we could use to analyze the needed time is to group close numbers together. In order to keep the analysis fair, we'll make each group be the same number of seconds. We can then count how many students fell in each group. For example, if we organized scores into 5 second ranges:

Another way to group data is to organize the scores data into groups based on their performance. Suppose there are three types of students:
 Smart (5 to 14 seconds)
 Normal (15 to 24 seconds)
 Below average (25 or more seconds)

then the grouped data looks like the following:

Mean of grouped data 
An estimate, , of the mean can be calculated from grouped data.

x refers to the mid-point of the class intervals
f is the class frequency.

Note that this estimated mean may be different from the sample mean of the ungrouped data. The mean of the grouped data in the above example can be calculated as follows:

Therefore, the mean of the grouped data is

Related pages
Data binning
Level of measurement
Frequency distribution
Discretization of continuous features

Notes

References
Newbold, P., W. Carlson and B. Thorne (2009) Statistics for Business and Economics, Seventh edition, Pearson Education. .

R

Statistics
The Winnipeg Jets were a professional ice hockey team from Winnipeg, Manitoba. The Jets played in the National Hockey League for 17 seasons before being relocated to Phoenix, Arizona and were renamed the Phoenix Coyotes in 1996. A new Winnipeg Jets team was relocated back to Winnipeg from the Atlanta Thrashers in 2011.

References

1972 establishments in Canada
1996 disestablishments in North America
1990s disestablishments in Canada
Defunct National Hockey League teams
Ice hockey teams in Canada
Sport in Manitoba
World Hockey Association teams
La or A is the sixth note of the solfège. "A" is generally used as a standard for tuning. When the orchestra tunes, the oboe plays an "A" and the rest of the instruments tune to match that pitch. Every string instrument in the orchestra has an A string, from which each player can tune the rest of their instrument.

A0 is the lowest note on the standard piano. The octaves follow A1, A2, etc.. A7 is a few pitches lower than C8, the highest note on the standard piano. The note "A" is not considered to be a certain milestone or mark to hit with voice as, for example, Tenor C is, but it can be extremely demanding in certain octaves.

Designation by octave

Common scales beginning on A
A Major: A B C D E F G A 
A Natural Minor: A B C D E F G A 
A Harmonic Minor: A B C D E F G A 
A Melodic Minor Ascending: A B C D E F G A
A Melodic Minor Descending: A G F E D C B A
A Dorian: A B C D E F G A

Related pages
A major
A minor

Other websites
Standard Pitch or Concert Pitch for Pianos by Barrie Heaton
Virginia Tech Music Dictionary: A 

Musical notes
Gene silencing is a general term describing epigenetic processes of gene regulation. It is used to describe the "switching off" of a gene by a mechanism other than genetic engineering. That is, a gene which would be expressed ("turned on") under normal circumstances is switched off by machinery in the cell. When a gene is silenced it means that its RNA is unable to make a protein.

Genes are regulated at either the transcriptional stage, or later, before translation.  

Transcriptional gene silencing is done by histone modifications, which put heterochromatin around a gene. This means the transcriptional machinery (RNA polymerase, transcription factors, etc.) cannot get at the gene. Genes may be silenced by DNA methylation. This happens regularly during development, when genes are turned on and off at different stages.

Post-transcriptional gene silencing is done by blocking or destroying the mRNA of a particular gene. The destruction of the mRNA prevents translation to form an active gene product (in most cases, a protein). A common way mRNA gets silenced is by RNAi. 

Both transcriptional and post-transcriptional gene silencing are used to regulate genes. Methods of gene silencing also protect the organism's genome from transposons and viruses. Gene silencing thus may be part of an ancient immune system protecting cells from such infectious DNA and RNA.

Cell biology
Molecular biology
Neurospora is a genus of Ascomycete fungi. The best known species in this genus is Neurospora crassa, a common model organism in genetics and molecular biology.

The first published account of this fungus was from an infestation of French bakeries in 1843.

N. crassa is used as a model organism because it is easy to grow and has a haploid life cycle that makes genetic analysis simple since recessive traits will show up in the offspring. Analysis of genetic recombination is facilitated by the ordered arrangement of the products of meiosis in Neurospora ascospores. Its entire genome of seven chromosomes has been sequenced.

Neurospora was used by Edward Tatum and George Wells Beadle in their experiments for which they won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1958. Beadle and Tatum exposed N. crassa to x-rays, causing mutations. They then observed failures in metabolic pathways caused by errors in specific enzymes. This led them to propose the "one gene, one enzyme" hypothesis that specific genes code for specific proteins.  Their hypothesis was later elaborated to enzyme pathways by Norman Horowitz, also working on Neurospora.

In the 24 April 2003 issue of Nature, the genome of N. crassa was reported as completely sequenced. The genome is about 43 megabases long and includes approximately 10,000 genes. There is a project underway to produce strains containing knockout mutants of every N. crassa gene.

In its natural environment, N. crassa lives mainly in tropical and sub-tropical regions. It can be found growing on dead plant matter after fires. Neurospora is actively used in research around the world. It is important in the elucidation of molecular events involved in circadian rhythms, epigenetics and gene silencing, cell polarity, cell fusion, development, as well as many aspects of cell biology and biochemistry.

Strains and other materials for working with Neurospora are available from the
Fungal Genetics Stock Center

References 

Fungi
Model organisms
Rosemont is a village in Illinois in the United States. It is near the O'Hare Airport, just northwest of Chicago.  The Allstate Arena is in Rosemont.

References

Villages in Illinois
Settlements in Cook County, Illinois
Suburbs of Chicago, Illinois
Granada Television was a television production company. It owned an ITV television channel of the same name. It produced a number of shows for many television stations (like Channel 4 and Sky). The company is now known as ITV Studios, which is owned by ITV plc. Granada's best known programme is the long-running soap opera Coronation Street. 

Defunct companies of the United Kingdom
Entertainment companies
The Magellan Telescopes are two 6.5 meter diameter optical telescopes at the Las Campanas Observatory in Chile. The two were named after the Portuguese explorer, Ferdinand Magellan. Each telescope is also named; the Baade after astronomer Walter Baade, and the Clay after the philanthropist Landon T. Clay.

First light for the telescopes was on September 15, 2000 for the Baade, and September 7, 2002 for the Clay.

The Carnegie Institution for Science, University of Arizona, Harvard University, University of Michigan and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology worked together to build and operate the twin telescopes.

The Magellan Planet Search Program is looking for planets using a spectrograph mounted on the 6.5m Magellan II (Clay) telescope.

References

Other websites
 Magellan Project homepage

Telescopes
Astronomical observatories in Chile
Las Campanas Observatory  is an astronomical observatory in the southern Atacama desert in Chile.  It is owned and operated by the Carnegie Institution for Science. It was built in 1969 as the main observing site for the Carnegie Institution for Science. The headquarters are located in La Serena, Chile and the observatory is about  northeast of the city. The observatory is at  above sea level.

On February 24, 1987, Ian Shelton and Oscar Duhalde first saw the Supernova 1987A (SN 1987A).

Telescopes
 Magellan Telescopes — Two 6.5m telescopes, Magellan 1 named after Walter Baade and Magellan II after Landon Clay
 Du Pont Telescope — 2.5-meter (100-inch), named after Irénée du Pont and in operation since 1977 
 Swope Telescope — 1m, named after Henrietta Swope
 Warsaw Telescope — 1.3 m, owned by Warsaw University Observatory
 Giant Magellan Telescope (under construction) — 24.5 m effective (seven 8.4 m segments)
 NANTEN Telescope (closed) — 4m millimeter-wavelength radio telescope, transported to Atacama desert, Chile.

There are also the small "Pi of the sky" wide-angle cameras that filmed the gamma ray burst GRB 080319B in 2008. This was the largest explosion ever seen in the Universe, and could have been seen without a telescope.

Other websites
Las Campanas Observatory 
Carnegie Institution for Science

References

Astronomical observatories in Chile
Tyler Perry (born September 13, 1969 in New Orleans) is an American playwright and actor, whose work plays are usually for encouragement to African Americans. Having started writing plays at age 18, Perry created a successful touring theater company, videos of whose performances were sold on DVD. As of March 2005, the plays had grossed over $75 million in ticket and DVD sales. He is well known for his plays on Madea.  At age 16, he had his first name legally changed from Emmitt to Tyler in an effort to distance himself from his father.

Filmography

Film work

Play work

Television work

References

Other websites 
Tyler Perry Official website
Tyler Perry's 34th Street Films Official website

Interview with Tyler Perry on beliefnet.com

1969 births
Living people
Actors from Louisiana
African American actors
African American movie directors
African American movie producers
African American writers
American Christians
Screenwriters from Louisiana
Writers from New Orleans, Louisiana
A spectrograph  is an instrument that breaks up a wave into a frequency spectrum. These could be sound, light or radio waves. For example the frequency spectrum of light is the brightness (intensity) and the amount of each colour. There are several kinds of machines called spectrographs, used to look at different waves. The term was first used in 1884.

A spectrograph is closely related to a polychromator.

Spectrographs and astronomy
In astronomy, the first spectrographs used photographic paper as the detector. The star spectral classification and discovery of the main sequence, Hubble's law and the Hubble sequence were all made using photographic paper. The plant pigment phytochrome was discovered using a spectrograph that used living plants as the detector. New spectrographs use electronic detectors, such as CCDs which can be used for both visible and UV light. The type of detector depends on the wavelengths of light to be recorded.

Echelle spectrograph
An echelle spectrograph is a special machine which is able to break up light waves, with a high resolution and little interference. It does this by using very narrow slits which breaks light into beams, and then breaking up those beams again.

References

 James, John (2007), Spectrograph Design Fundamentals (Cambridge University Press)

Other websites
Spectrograph for astronomical Spectra 

Astronomy
Physics
Occupy Wall Street was a protest that started in 2011 in New York City and spread into other cities all over the United States. Citizens protested against how poor and wealthy people have lived in different ways and are treated differently by other people, and also against the way corporations used their money. People in New York started protesting in Zuccotti Park on September 17, and some people decided to camp there overnight. It grew to include several thousand people, with many different political views. Protesters included some communists, political moderates, liberals, conservatives, and libertarians.

Many of the Occupy protests in the rest of the country only started as in the middle of October. In some places, like Denver, Oakland, and New York City itself, police acted violently. In some places, including Miami, the protests were peaceful and some police officers supported the protests.  After 2011 the numbers of people involved dwindled away. 

2011 in New York (state)
2010s in New York City
Protests in the 2010s
Thelma is a female given name which in Greek means "will and volition". There are many celebrities going under this feminine name. Also, there are many television series featuring characters with the name Thelma. In addition, a deadly tropical cyclone by the name Thelma struck the Philippines in latter 1991.

People
 Thelma Catherine Ryan, wife of U.S. president Richard Nixon
 Thelma Ritter, American actress

Given names
In astronomy, first light is the first time a telescope is used to look at the Universe. This is often not the first time the telescope has been used. Tests will have been done during daylight to make sure everything is working. Images taken during first light are not normally of scientific interest. They are usually poor quality as the parts of the telescope have not been properly adjusted for best performance. Usually, a well-known and spectacular astronomical object is chosen. First light is always a moment of great excitement, both for the people who designed and built the telescope, and for the astronomical community.

For example, the 200-inch Hale Telescope saw first light January 26, 1949, targeting a nebula located in the constellation Monoceros. under the direction of American astronomer Edwin Hubble. The image was published in many magazines. 

The Large Binocular Telescope had its first light with a single primary mirror on October 12, 2005. This was a view of NGC 891, a spiral galaxy in the Andromeda constellation . The second mirror was installed in January 2006 and the telescope became fully operational in January 2008. 

In physical cosmology, first light refers to the light coming from the first generation of hyperstars. These were formed less than a billion years after the big bang, bringing an end to the cosmological Dark Ages.

References 

Telescopes
Esther Mary Vergeer (born 18 July 1981, Woerden) is a Dutch wheelchair tennis player. Vergeer has not lost a match in singles since February 2003. She has won 39 Grand Slam titles, five Paralympic Gold Medals and 21 Masters titles. Vergeer has been the world number one since 1999. Vergeer is also a former wheelchair basketball player. She was part of the team which won the European Championships in 1997.

Early life
In March 1988 after a swimming lesson Vergeer became dizzy and passed out. Vergeer was just six years old at the time. Doctors found out that Vergeer was bleeding in her head. The bleeding had caused Vergeer to pass out. Vergeer had the blood removed. Six weeks later she went home. Yet the next year in June Vergeer had more headaches. She also had pressure behind the eyes and pain in her neck. The doctors could not find what was wrong. They sent her home. In October, doctors found Vergeer to be bleeding in her head again. They drained the blood. The doctors also found that Vergeer had an Vascular myelopathy. This abnormality caused the strokes that Vergeer experienced. On the 15 of January 1990, after a nine-hour operation Vergeer was unable to move her legs. The operation took place near to her spinal cord. Vergeer had one final operation in March but still could not move her legs.

Wheelchair tennis
Vergeer won her eleventh British Open singles title beating Griffieon in the final. Against Griffieon, Vergeer beat her for the forty ninth time. It was the first time that Vergeer had beaten her without losing a game. The tournament win was Vergeer's tenth US Open USTA Wheelchair tennis championships. Vergeer won her sixth U.S. Open by beating van Koot. Vergeer was good enough to reach both the singles and doubles events at the Masters.

References

Other websites

Official site
bio – file interview with Esther Vergeer

1981 births
Living people
Dutch Paralympic gold medalists
Dutch Paralympic silver medalists
Dutch wheelchair basketball players
Dutch wheelchair tennis players
2000 Summer Paralympics
2004 Summer Paralympics
2008 Summer Paralympics
2012 Summer Paralympics
Sportspeople from Utrecht (province)
Nigel Keith Anthony Standish Vaz, known as Keith Vaz, was born 26 November 1956 in Aden, Yemen to Indian parents. He moved to Twickenham, London during his childhood. He is the MP for Leicester South.

In 2007, Vaz was diagnosed with Type 2 diabetes.

References 

1956 births
Living people

Labour Party (UK) MPs
Members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Politicians from London
Korie Homan (born 16 June 1986, de Wijk) is a retired Dutch wheelchair tennis player. Homan was part of the current Paralympic doubles champion team. Homan is the former Australian Open Champion. She has won all the Grand Slam doubles titles. In 2009 she complete the Grand Slam with Esther Vergeer. In 2011 Homan retired from playing because of a wrist injury.

Early life
Homan was born to Jan and Gina Willem. Homan has two older sisters. At the age of 12 Homan was involved in a car accident. In 2003, when she finished school she had her leg cut off.

Wheelchair tennis
Homan first appeared on the wheelchair tennis tour in 2003. By the end of the season she had reached number 23. Homan did not have a ranking at the start of the year.  In 2004 at the age of 17 Homan won her first Masters title. She won the doubles with Jiske Griffioen. At the 2005 US Open Homan reached her first Grand Slam finals. She reached both the singles and the doubles final. In the singles she lost in straight sets to Vergeer. But she won the doubles with Vergeer. In 2006 Homan won her first two series one titles. She won both the singles and doubles titles in Livorno. Homan also reached her second Grand Slam doubles final. At the US Open Maaike Smit was her team mate. They lost in straight sets to Vergeer and Griffioen. The pair also lost the final of the Masters. Homan started 2007 by losing in the final of the Australian Open doubles. Her partner in the event was Florence Gravellier. They lost the final in a match tiebreaker. At the US Open Homan was joined by Sharon Walraven. The pair reached the final before losing. Homan also had final defeats at the Super Series events of the British, Japan and US Opens. Homan lost both finals at the Masters. In 2008 Homan lost both the singles and doubles finals at the Australian and French Opens. She also lost in the singles final at the Masters. At the Paralympic Games Homan won a Gold Medal in the doubles event. She also won a silver medal in the singles. In the final she became the first player in over five years to hold match point against Vergeer. Homan's last competition was the 2010 Australian Open. In July 2011 Homan said that she had retired because of a wrist injury.

Outside of tennis
Homan has a degree in biomedical science. As of September 2010, she is studying Veterinary Medicine.

References

Other websites

Korie Homan  at the International Tennis Federation

1986 births
Living people
Dutch Paralympic gold medalists
Dutch Paralympic silver medalists
Dutch wheelchair tennis players
Sportspeople from Drenthe
Krishna is an important God(Para Brahman) in Hinduism. He is considered to have been an avatar of the god Vishnu. Krishna is believed to have been a real person who took part in the war known as the Mahabharata. He is a central character in the important Hindu scripture the Bhagavad Gita. Hindus often consider him a warrior, hero, teacher and philosopher and a great leader. He defeated King Kans, who was a crime and demon who put his sister, Devaki, and Vasudev to jail.

 
Hindu gods and goddesses
In an experiment, the variables used can be classed as either dependent or independent variables. The dependent variable is the possible outcome of the experiment; the effect. It depends on what happens to other variables in the experiment. The dependent variable is basically the part that you are changing. For example, if you want to know how much light a plant needs to grow, the amount of growth is the dependent. If you wanted to see if a plant would grow better in hot or cold areas your independent variable would be the temperature of the air.

The independent variable is the variable that you have control over, what you can choose and manipulate. It is usually what you think will affect the dependent variable. In some cases, you may not be able to manipulate the independent variable. It may be something that is already there and is fixed, something you would like to evaluate with respect to how it affects something else, the independent variable like color, kind, time. As an example, you are interested in how stress affects heart rate in humans. Your independent variable would be the stress and the dependent variable would be the heart rate. You can directly manipulate stress levels in your human subjects and measure how those stress levels change heart rate.

Mathematics
In mathematics, the dependent variable changes with the independent variable, hence the name (it depends on the independent variable).

In calculus, a function is a map whose action is specified on variables. Take x and y to be two variables. A function f may map x to some expression in x. Assigning gives a relation between y and x. If there is some relation specifying y in terms of x, then y is known as a dependent variable (and x is an independent variable).
A dependent variable is also known as a "response variable", "regressand", "measured variable", "responding variable", "explained variable", "outcome variable", "experimental variable", and "output variable".
 
If the independent variable is referred to as an "explanatory variable" then the term "response variable" is preferred by some authors for the dependent variable.

Experiments
Mathematics
Hamnet Shakespeare (baptised 2 February 1585 – buried 11 August 1596) was the only son of William Shakespeare and Anne Hathaway.  He was the twin brother of Judith Shakespeare. He died at age 11.  How he died is not known. There are several ideas about a possible relationship between Hamnet and his father's play Hamlet. Other ideas state there is a relationship between Hamnet's death and the writing of King John, Romeo and Juliet, Julius Caesar, and Twelfth Night. These ideas of a relationship became popular as early as the 18th century.  They continued into the 1930s.  In the 1930s, thinkers who believed in modernism and New Criticism said the relationship did not matter.  Modernism and New Criticism thinkers believe that a writer's life does not change his writing.   More recently, as New Criticism has become less popular, the ideas about Hamnet and his father's work have been talked about again.

References 

1585 births
1596 deaths
People from Warwickshire
Twin people from England
The Large Zenith Telescope (LZT) is a 6.0 metre diameter telescope. It is in the University of British Columbia's Malcolm Knapp Research Forest, about  east of Vancouver. It is one of the largest  telescopes in the world. 

A zenith telescope is only able to look straight up. This means that it can use a mirror which is a smoothly spinning pan filled with liquid mercury. The LZT uses 28 litres of mercury, spinning once every 8.5 seconds. This type of mirror can be made much larger and cheaper than a conventional mirror, which means it collects much more light. This light is focused into a CCD to make an image. The LZT is used for "transit imaging". This means that earth's rotation moves stars past the telescope. Images can be taken by moving the sensor electronically in step with this movement.

The telescope was made in 1994 using parts from the three-metre diameter NASA Orbital Debris Observatory telescope, which was retired a couple years earlier after several years of use.

References

Other websites
 Large Zenith Telescope homepage
 A picture of the design.

Canada
Telescopes
Stéphane Frédéric Hessel (20 October 1917 - 27 February 2013) was a German-French diplomat and political activist. He was born in Berlin and became a French citizen in 1939. He was active in the Resistance in France during the Second World War. After the war, he was secretary to one of the writers of the United Nation's Universal Declaration of Human Rights and took part in World Conference on Human Rights that adopted Vienna Declaration He also opposed inequality in wealth and war by Israel in Palestine.

References

Other websites
 "Time for Outrage!"

1917 births
2013 deaths
Deaths from natural causes
Political activists
French diplomats
People from Berlin
The Battle of Maryang San is known as Australia's greatest accomplishment in the Korean War. The battle occurred when the US General George Fleet called for forces to capture some positions just prior to the signing of the truce at Panmanjan.

Background 
The Commonwealth forces, fighting as part of the United Nations, consisted of a number of British, Australian and New Zealand units. These included three Battalions of the 28th British Commonwealth Brigade,  the 1st Battalion The King's Own Scottish Borderers (KOSB), 1st Battalion King's Shropshire Light Infantry (KSLI) and 3rd Battalion, Royal Australian Regiment. Brigadier George Taylor (United Kingdom) was the Brigade Commander. The British Commonwealth Division consisted of the 25th, 28th and 29th Brigades under the command of Lieutenant General James "Gentleman Jim" Cassels (later Field Marshal Sir James) and was part of 1 Corps. These units was arrayed against the Chinese Communist forces. 3 Battalion RAR was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel 'Frank' Francis Hassett.  Commonwealth forces main aims were to take a number of hill positions, and taking the main objective, Maryang San.

The first attacks saw the Australian A and B company of 3 RAR take Hill 199, and the 1st Battalion Kings Shropshire Light Infantry take Hill 208. The Kings Own Scottish Borderers (KOSB) had moved to take Hill 399 but were pinned down on its slopes by nightfall. The Australian's attacked at dawn, moving against the Chinese held Hill 200. Chinese infantry were driven from their trenches, and they fled, leaving behind some prisoners of war. The first gun emplacement was taken, and then the second, with the Chinese troops retreating down the slope of Hill 200.

A, B and D Companies attacked the Chinese units, and drew them away from Maryan San, the main objective. Following United Nations forces artillery and mortar fire, Chinese Troops withdrew from Maryan San, and the Australian troops moved to take the position. Australian troops moved against an area that was used by the Chinese for artillery bombardments, known as the Hinge. After taking the Hinge, they were subjected to constant attacks, which eventually became sporadic and died off. At about 8 pm, the Chinese launched an attack in huge numbers. The Australian units were well dug in, using the Chinese own trench positions, and responded to the waves of Chinese troops with machine gun fire. Chinese troops fell in their hundreds. South Korean porters moved forward constantly, bringing supplies and taking away wounded.

By 5 November, after the Australians were withdrawn to recover, Maryang San had been recaptured by the Chinese. It was a terrible blow to morale for those who had fought long and hard to capture it. The tactically important ground of Maryang San remained in the hands of Chinese forces for the rest of the war.

References

Further reading 

 
  
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 

1951
Korean War
1950s in Australia
Ferdinand I of Bulgaria (26 February 186110 September 1948) was a Bulgarian monarch, author, botanist, and philatelist.

Biography 
He was born in Vienna as Ferdinand Maximilan Charles Leopold Marie, Duke of Saxony, later becoming Prince of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha, the son of Augustus of Saxe-Coburg-Kohary (1818–1881) and his wife née Clémentine of Orléans (1817–1907). He was proclaimed prince regnant of Bulgaria on 25 June 1887 (O.S.)/7 July 1887 (N.S.).

On 20 April 1893 at the Villa Pianore in Luccia in Italy, he married Maria Luisa Pia Teresa Anna Ferdinanda Francesca Antonietta Margherita Giuseppina Carolina Bianca Lucia Appollonia, Princess of Bourbon-Parma, daughter of Roberto I of Parma. He was also thought to be bisexual, even after marrying his first wife.

They had four children, Boris III (1894–1943), Kyril (1895–1945), Eudoxia (1898–1985), Nadejda (1899–1958) and Maria Luisa died in 1899. On 28 February 1908 in Coburg Ferdinand married his second wife, Eleonore Caroline Gasparine Louise, Princess Reuss-Köstritz (1860-1917), daughter of Heinrich IV Reuss von Köstritz (1821–1894) and née Luise Caroline Reuss zu Greiz (1822–1875).

Ferdinand became king of Bulgaria after it became independent on 22 September 1908 (O.S.)/5 September 1908 (N.S.). He abdicated on 3 October 1918.

He died in Burglassschloßen in Coburg, and is buried in St. Augustin's Catholic Church.

References

Further reading 

Böttcher, Hans-Joachim: Ferdinand von Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha 1861 - 1948  -  Ein Kosmopolit auf dem bulgarischen Thron. Berlin 2019, ISBN 978-3-89998-296-1.

Other websites 
 
 Historical photographs of the royal palace in Sofia

Knights of the Golden Fleece
Bisexual people
1861 births
1948 deaths
Bulgarian people
Kings and queens
Botanists
Philatelists
Laava is the stage name of Brazilian singer Fernanda Brandao.

Career 
In 2002 Fernanda released her single Wherever You Are (I Feel Love).  Although her music originates from Germany, Brandao considers herself Brazilian. Born on March 5, 1983 in Belo horizons (Minas Gerais) she grew up it in Rio de Janeiro.  Already at the age of 4 Fernanda danced with the Karneval in Rio and recorded samba folklore songs. She came from a musical family. Her mother produced some successful Brazilian pop songs and her aunt and uncle are well-known singers in Brazil. Fernanda spent much of her childhood time in studios.

When Fernanda was nine years old, her mother fell in love with a German man and they moved to Hamburg. She commutes back and forth between Brazil and Germany to dance. She also took up jazz, modern Dance, hip-hop, ballet, as well as vocal lessons in Germany . Fernanda trained physically, following styles such as box CUT, Tae Bo, BBP and crew class and became a licensed fitness trainer. Fernanda speaks four languages (Portuguese, Spanish, German and English). In 2001 she quit school, in order to give her all in recording music. Fernanda is currently in the band Hot Banditoz. 

She had been in many music videos as a back-up dancer for major international artistes including Enrique Iglesias, Kylie Minogue, Pink, Shaggy, Coolio, Gabriella Cilmi, Safri Duo and rock group Seed.

References

Other websites 
 Fernanda Brandao Official website

1983 births
Living people
Brazilian singers