cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
A slum is a part of a city or a town where many poor people live. It is a place where people may not have basic needs. Some of these people may also have social disadvantages. There are slums in most of the big cities of the world. They may not be called slum, however; see shanty town.

Victorian London
Charles Dickens was a great author of Victorian London. His account of the St Giles rookery was:
"Wretched houses with broken windows patched with rags and paper; every room let out to a different family, and in many instances to two or even three – fruit and ‘sweetstuff’ manufacturers in the cellars, barbers and red-herring vendors in the front parlours, cobblers in the back; a bird-fancier in the first floor, three families on the second, starvation in the attics, Irishmen in the passage, a ‘musician’ in the front kitchen, a charwoman and five hungry children in the back one – filth everywhere – a gutter before the houses, and a drain behind – clothes drying, and slops emptying from the windows; ... men and women, in every variety of scanty and dirty apparel, lounging, scolding, drinking, smoking, squabbling, fighting, and swearing".

Dickens, Sketches by Boz, 1839.

Sources 
Mike Davis, Planet of Slums, 2006
Elizabeth Blum/ Peter Neitzke Favela Metropolis 2004

Other websites 

 http://skyscrapercity.com/showthread.php?t=131517
South Africa slum dwellers' movement
Slums of Victorian London 
Slums of New Delhi, India
Every third person will be a slum dweller within 30 years, UN agency warns; John Vidal; The Guardian; October 4, 2003.
Mute Magazine Vol 2#3, Naked Cities - Struggle in the Global Slums 

Cities
Shanty towns
Layyah is a city in the Punjab province of Pakistan and is the capital of Layyah District. Layyah gets its name from the wild short shrub commonly known as Layyan. Layyah is located between the rivers Indus and Chenab in central Pakistan.

Other websites 
Map of Layyah

Cities in Pakistan
Leo III (died June 12, 816) was Pope from 795 to 816. He is famous for the coronation of Charlemagne as emperor in 800.

Early life
Leo was born in Rome.

Pope
Leo reported his election to Charlemagne, sent him the keys of Saint Peter's tomb and the banner of Rome. Charlemagne replied that it was his function to defend the church and the Pope's to pray for the kingdom and for victory of the army.

Charlemagne went to Rome in November 800, and on December 1 held a council there with representatives of both sides. Leo, on December 23, took an oath of purgation concerning the charges brought against him, and his opponents were exiled. Two days later Leo crowned Charlemagne at St. Peter's tomb. Charlemagne did intervene in church affairs, not always successfully.

The reasons for the coronation, the involvement beforehand of the Frankish court, and the relationship to the Byzantine Empire are all matters of debate among historians.

Related pages
 List of popes

Other websites 

 Translation of Einhard's Life of Charlemagne (c. 817-830, translated in 1880)

8th-century births
816 deaths
Italian popes
Arendal is a city and municipality in the county of Aust-Agder, Norway. It is the administrative center of Aust-Agder county, and belongs to the geographical region of Sørlandet. The municipality is bordered in the southwest by Grimstad, in the northwest by Froland, and in the northeast by Tvedestrand municipalities.

The name 

The Norse form of the name was probably "Arnardalr". The first element is then the genitive case of "orn" m 'eagle', the last element is "dalr" m 'valley, dale'.

Other websites 
 Arendal Kommune official website
 Arendal official tourist information 

Cities in Norway
Municipalities of Norway
Port cities and towns of the North Sea
S.S. Lazio is an Italian football club based in Formello (Via di Santa Cornelia 1000, 00060 Formello). 

They play in light blue shirts, white shorts and socks. The name Lazio was chosen as the original founders wanted to name the club after something which was greater and encompassed more than just the city that they were from - Lazio is the name of the region where Rome is. The sky blue and white team colors were inspired by the Greek flag and more specifically the country which gave birth to Olympic tradition; the eagle as an acknowledgement by its founders.

League title 
 Serie A : 2
 1973/74, 1999/00
 Serie B : 1
 1968/69
 Coppa Italia : 7
 1958, 1998, 2000, 2004, 2009, 2013, 2019
 Supercoppa Italiana : 5
 1998, 2000, 2009, 2017, 2019
 Cup Winners' Cup : 1
 1999
 UEFA Super Cup : 1
 1999
 Coppa delle Alpi : 1
 1971

League position

Former position

Other websites 
 SS Lazio
 Serie A

Italian football clubs
Lazio
1900 establishments in Italy
[[Image:Punch.jpg|thumb|right|300px|1867 edition of the satirical magazine Punch]]

Satire is a form in art or writing which ridicules either a person, government, or an institution, often through the use of humour. Satire can either be in paintings, plays, books, songs, TV or movies. It also is used to stereotype people.

Satire was used long ago. It is a Latin word, though the plays of Aristophanes are often called satirical. Satire was widely known in Elizabethan times. Swift used it in his book Gulliver's Travels to make fun of people’s stupidity. Works like The Beggar’s Opera'' (1728) used satire to show how silly the politicians of the time were. The German playwright Bertolt Brecht used a lot of satire, as did Peter Cook. Jon Stewart and other comedians use it frequently.

Satire often points out ironic or bad things that powerful people are doing. Its adjective is satirical.

Related pages
Caricature
Cartoon
Humour
Irony
Black comedy

Other websites
MAD Magazine
The Onion

Non-fiction literature
The Iron Cross was a medal given to German soldiers for bravery during wartime. The award was created by King Frederick William III of Prussia. It was first given out on 10 March 1813. The Iron Cross was awarded during the Napoleonic Wars, the Franco-Prussian War, the First World War, and the Second World War. This medal was received by Adolf Hitler after World War I.

The medal is only given in wartime, so no Iron Crosses have been given out since the end of the Second World War in 1945.

Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross 
During the Second World War an extra type of Iron Cross medal was given. It was the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross and was given for acts of extreme battlefield bravery or successful leadership. The Knight's Cross was divided into five grades:

 Knight's Cross
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves and Swords
 Knight's Cross with Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds
 Knight's Cross with Golden Oak Leaves, Swords, and Diamonds

Military honors
History of Germany
Orders, decorations, and medals of Germany
1813 establishments
1810s establishments in Germany
In mathematics, a power series (in one variable) is an infinite series of the form

where an represents the coefficient of the nth term, c is a constant, and x varies around c (for this reason one sometimes speaks of the series as being centered at c). This series usually appears as the Taylor series of some known function; the Taylor series article contains many examples.

In many situations c is equal to zero, for example when considering a Maclaurin series.  
In those cases, the power series takes the simpler form

These power series appear primarily in analysis, but also appear in combinatorics (under the name of generating functions) and in electrical engineering (under the name of the Z-transform).  The familiar decimal notation for integers can also be viewed as an example of a power series, but with the argument x fixed at 10.  In number theory, the concept of p-adic numbers is also closely related to that of a power series.

Mathematics
The Volga is the longest river in Europe. In Russian it is called Волга, in the Tatar language its name is İdel. 

Many people see it as the national river of Russia. It flows through the western part of the country. It is Europe's longest river, with a length of 3,530 kilometres, and forms the core of the largest river system in Europe. 

It rises in the Valdai Hills of Russia, 225m above sea level north-west of Moscow. The Kama, Oka, Vetluga and the Sura are its main tributaries. The Volga and its tributaries form the Volga river system, which drains an area of about 1.35 million square kilometres in Russia. The Volga Delta has a length of about 160 kilometres. It includes 
555 channels and small streams. It is the largest estuary in Europe. It is the only place in Russia where pelicans, flamingoes, and lotuses may be found. The Volga freezes for most of its length for three months each year. Some of the biggest reservoirs in the world can be found along the river.

References 

Rivers of Russia
Tatarstan
Oi! is a type of punk rock that was started in the United Kingdom in the late 1970s. The people that started it wanted to connect punk with a working class street-level following. Oi! is a mixing of the styles of early punk bands, such as The Clash, Sex Pistols and the Ramones. It is also influenced by early British rock bands (such as The Rolling Stones and The Who), football chants, pub rock and glam rock bands. The music is often very simple, and the lyrics are blunt (brutally honest, without tact).

Punk rock began to become popular in the 1970s. Some perceived that it was becoming more and more commercialised. This was the kind of thing that punks were against. Oi! began partly as a response to this perception. It was also partly a response to stereotyping that others made about punks. One stereotype was that many people in the early punk rock scene were young people using big words and trying to be artistic, but failing.

Early Oi! bands such as Sham 69 were around for years before the word Oi! was used to describe their style of music. The word was first used as a name for the new genre in 1980, by journalist Garry Bushell. He took the name from the way the Cockney Rejects used "Oi!" during live shows to introduce their songs. "Oi! Oi! Oi!" was the title of the third track on their second album. The word is an old Cockney expression, meaning "hey" or "hello". Other bands that were labelled as Oi! bands in the early days of the genre included Angelic Upstarts, The 4-Skins, The Business, Blitz, The Blood, and Combat 84. More recent punk bands such as Rancid and Dropkick Murphys have credited Oi! as a source of inspiration.

References

Other websites 
OiOiMusic.com Weekly updated site with interviews and reviews
Punk and Oi! in the UK includes interviews and news about Oi! bands

Punk rock
The Brothers Grimm (German: Die Brüder Grimm, also Gebrüder Grimm) were the brothers Jakob and Wilhelm Grimm. They were German academics and most famous for their collections of folktales and fairy tales, and for their work in linguistics.

The Grimm brothers both became linguists. They are the inventors of German philology. They also did other language-related work, like publishing one of the first grammar books for the German language.

They also wrote fairy tales, and collected the tales which people told them. They published a collection of fairy tales known as Grimms' Fairy Tales (Grimms Märchen).

Other websites 

 The Museum of the Brothers Grimm in Kassel, Germany

Texts and recordings 
 Household Tales by the Brothers Grimm, translated by Margaret Hunt  (This site is the only one to feature all of the Grimms' notes translated in English along with the tales from Hunt's original edition. Andrew Lang's introduction is also included.)
 
 . Translated by Margaret Hunt.
 Brothers Grimm - Fairy Tales Audiobooks
 Recording of 63 Fairy Tales by the Brothers Grimm at LibriVox.org

Fairy tales
People from Hanau
Writers from Hesse
For other senses of this word, see identity.

In mathematics, the term identity has several important uses:

An identity is an equality that remains true even if you change all the variables that are used in that equality.

An equality in mathematical sense is only true under more particular conditions. For this, the symbol ≡ is sometimes used (note, however, that the same symbol can also be used for a congruence relation as well.)
In algebra, an identity or identity element of a set S with an operation is an element which, when combined with any element s of S, produces s itself. In a group (an algebraic structure), this is often denoted by the symbol .
The identity function (or identity map) from a set S to itself, often denoted  or , such that  for all x in S.
In linear algebra, the identity matrix of size n is the n-by-n square matrix with ones on the main diagonal and zeros elsewhere. It is often denoted by the symbol .

Examples

Identity relation
A common example of the first meaning is the trigonometric identity

which is true for all real values of  (since the real numbers  are the domain of both sine and cosine), as opposed to

which is only true for certain values of  in a subset of the domain.

Identity element
The concepts of "additive identity" and "multiplicative identity" are central to the Peano axioms.
The number 0 is the "additive identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all 

 and

Similarly, The number 1 is the "multiplicative identity" for integers, real numbers, and complex numbers. For the real numbers, for all 

 and

Identity function 
A common example of an identity function is the identity permutation, which sends each element of the set  to itself.

Comparison
These meanings are not mutually exclusive; for instance, the identity permutation is the identity element in the set of permutations of  under composition.

Related pages 

 Identity Property
 One
 Zero

References

Other websites 
 EquationSolver  - A webpage that can test a suggested identity and return a true/false "verdict".

Mathematics
Identity could mean:

Philosophy

 Identity (philosophy) is the sameness of two things.
 Identity theory of mind, in the philosophy of mind, holds that the mind is identical to the brain
 Personal identity

Mathematics

An identity is an equality that holds regardless of the values of its variables.
An identity object is an entity that does not change other objects; identity function, identity element and identity matrix

Social science and psychology

Identity (social science). In the social sciences, identity has specific meanings, stemming from cognitive theory, sociology, politics, and psychology.
Cultural identity is a person's self-affiliation (or categorization by others) as a member of a cultural group.
Gender identity is the gender with which a person identifies (or is identified by others).
Digital identity is the representation of identity in terms of digital information.
Online identity is the digital identity established by computer network users.
Psychological identity is the concept that an individual has a unique identity developed relatively late in history.

Business
An accounting identity is a basic accounting formulation that must, by construction, hold; for example, the balance sheet of a company must balance. The term may also be used to apply to formulations in economics that have the same characteristics, for example, the balance of payments must balance.
Corporate identity is the physical manifestation of a business brand.
Identity theft is the deliberate appropriation of someone else's identity (without that person's permission) for criminal purposes.

Computer science

Identity (object-oriented programming), a property of objects that allows those objects to be distinguished from each other.
Identity column in SQL Server represents a database field whose values are automatically generated by the server, and uniquely identify a row in the table.

Religion
 Christian Identity, a controversial religious belief which holds that Europeans and their descendents are the Biblical Israel

Television, film, music and literature

Identity (novel), a novel written by Milan Kundera
Identity (movie), a movie directed by James Mangold, starring, among others, John Cusack
Identity (album), an album from Zee with Richard Wright and Dave Harris
Identity (music), a transformation of pitches in music
Identity (game show), a game show on NBC hosted by Penn Jillette

Related pages
 Secret identity
 identity card
 Identification
In mathematics, two things are equal if and only if they are exactly the same in every way. That is, they have the same (mathematical) value and the same mathematical properties. Mathematicians use the equals sign (=) to say this. This defines a binary relation, equality. The statement "x = y" means that x and y are equal.

Equivalence in a more general sense is provided by the construction of an equivalence relation between two mathematical objects, that is, two mathematical objects are equivalent if they are related by this relation. In which case, the equivalence is often represented using the symbols  or .

A statement that two expressions denote equal quantities is an equation (or an equality). Equations are equal. Inequalities are unequal.

An equality is also a transitive relation. This means that if one object is equal to a second object, and the second object is equal to a third object, then the first object is equal to the third object as well.

Since a predicate is a way of describing something that is true, another way to say this is that if one thing that is true about a variable is not true about the other variable, then they are not equal as far as mathematical logic is concerned: two things are only equal if anything that is true about one has to be true about the other.

In geometry, the word congruence is often preferred. Numbers are equal, geometrical objects are congruent. Two shapes are congruent if one can be moved or rotated so that it fits exactly where the other one is. If shrinking or enlarging one of the two objects is needed, then they are not congruent. They are called similar instead. The congruence relation is often represented by the symbol , while the similarity relation is represented by the symbol .

In computer science, usually, the mathematical definition is used. Very often, the comparison is written == (and the assignment, the act of giving a value, is written as =, or :=). In object-oriented languages, or languages which have pointers, there is an additional problem. Those languages contain references (which are in fact pointers). If two such references do not reference exactly the same object, then they are different and a == b will be false in this case.

For this reason, many such languages have introduced another operator (in Java, this method is called equals). This operator compares the actual values of the objects—not where the variables that reference them point to.

In social sciences, two people are equal if many of the same things are true about them. For example. two people who have the same amount of education and money, and who are of the same age usually think of each other as equals. Another name for a person who is equal to another person is a peer.

Related pages
Equals sign
Equation
Inequality
Logical equality
Congruence

References 

Mathematics
Geometry
Ministry, in Christianity, is the activity that is done by members of the church to serve the purposes of the church. 

It can mean this activity as a whole, or specific activities, or organizations in a church that perform specific activities.

Age-specific Ministry 
As churches attempt to meet the needs of their congregations, they often separate their members into groups according to age categories. Age-specific groups meet for religious study including Sunday school programs, fellowship, and other activities. These age divisions may include:
Nursery
Pre-school
Children, generally elementary age students
Youth, generally middle and high school students
College and career, designed for university-age students
Adults, which is often broken up into single adults, couples ministry, men's and women's ministries, and senior adults.

Nearly all churches have some form of worship music, whether from a choir, orchestra, or worship band.

Service and outreach
Many churches sponsor ministries designed to reach out others on a local and global scale, usually grouped under the heading of missions. There are many organizations which perform missions on a fully-funded and organized level, such as North American Mission Board, operated by the Southern Baptist Convention.

Related pages
Christianity
Sermon

Church organization
Christian behavior and experience
For other meanings of the term ministry, see Ministry.

A ministry is a department of a government, led by a political minister. 
Ministries are usually subordinate to the cabinet, and prime minister, president or chancellor.  A government will usually have several ministries, each with a specialised field of service.  National ministries vary greatly between countries, but some common ones include Ministry of Defence, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Ministry of Finance, and  Ministry of Health.

Some countries such as Switzerland, the Philippines and the United States do not use the term "ministry" for their government departments, and instead simply call them departments.  In Hong Kong the term "bureau" is used.

In Canada, some provincial-level government departments are called "ministries" (such as in Ontario and British Columbia) but most are called "departments."  Their heads are referred to as "ministers" in both levels of government, however.

Related pages
 Cabinet

Government
Placebo effect may refer to:
 The placebo effect, the tendency of any medication or treatment, even an inert or ineffective one, to exhibit results simply because the recipient believes that it will work.
 Placebo Effect, an original novel written by Gary Russell and based on the long-running British science fiction television series Doctor Who.
Square foot gardening is a method of gardening made popular by Mel Bartholemew in 1981. It is based on the idea that wide rows, used in traditional gardening, waste time, work, water, seeds and soil. It shows that quality vegetables can be grown in less space with less work. In this method, the garden space is divided into beds, separated by paths. Each bed measures 4' × 4' ( × ), therefore covering an area of  (). These beds are further divided into sixteen squares of about one square foot ( per side, ). A different type of plant is grown in each of those squares. A single large plant, like broccoli, will use one of the squares. Smaller plants can be spaced more tightly; for example, four heads of lettuce together in one square, or sixteen carrots. All work (planting, removing weeds, watering and harvesting) is done from the pathways. This stops the soil from being compacted.

Benefits of square foot gardening 

 Less work. In traditional gardening methods, heavy tools are used to loosen the soil. In this method, the soil is never compacted and it remains loose. Weeding takes much less time.
 Water savings. The loose ground holds the water better. This type of garden needs water less often than other methods. Also, water is poured by hand near the plant roots. Less water is wasted.
 Very little weeding. The vegetables form a living mulch and shade out many weeds before they can start to grow.
 Pesticides or herbicides are not needed. Natural ways to keep insects away, like companion planting, work well in a tight space. Growing many different types of plants in a small area also makes it more difficult for plant diseases to spread.

Other websites 

 Website of the Square Foot Gardening Foundation, founded to promote the method.
 Journey To Forever, a resource for beginners.

Gardening
This article is about the kitchen appliance. For the 3D computer graphics program, see Blender (program)

A blender is an electric kitchen appliance used for making drinks, mixing liquids, and puréeing (chopping up into small bits) fruits and vegetables for sauces and soups.

Parts of a blender
A blender consists of a glass or plastic container with a mounted blade in the bottom, and a base that has an electric motor and switches to turn on the motor or change its speed.
Blenders are used to make milk shakes (a blend of ice cream and milk) and fruit smoothies (a mix of fruit and ice).

Food made with blenders
Blenders are also used to make cold alcoholic drinks that include crushed ice or ice cream, such as margaritas and Mississippi Mudslide drinks.

Cooking appliances
In music, a whole tone scale is a scale in which each note is separated from the next one by an interval of a whole tone.  There is always one note (a semitone) in between each neighbouring pair of notes of the whole-tone scale. Whatever note is started on, the whole tone scale will contain one of the following sets of notes: 
 C, D, E, F#, G#, A#
 or

 C#, D#, F, G, A, B

When a whole-tone scale is played on a piano, starting from a low note and moving up to high notes, while at the same time pressing the sustaining pedal (the right pedal), it makes a "dreamy" sound. It does not sound in any particular key, but floats along.  It also sounds very good on a harp.

Debussy uses the whole-tone scale a lot in his music, but he was not the first to do so. Russian composers such as Glinka in his opera Ruslan and Ludmila and Borodin in Prince Igor used the whole-tone scale.

Later composers to use it include Alban Berg in his Violin Concerto, and Béla Bartók in 
his String Quartet No. 5.  It has also been used in jazz.

Music theory
In music, a pentatonic scale is a scale with five notes in each octave. Pentatonic scales are very common and are found in folk music from all over the world.

Any scale using five notes is "pentatonic" ("penta" is Greek for "five"). However, the pentatonic scale which is used in most Western music uses notes which do not have any semitones. A pentatonic scale starting on C will use the notes C,D,E,G,A (the 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 5th and 6th notes of a major scale).. An easy way to find such a pentatonic scale is by using all the black notes of a keyboard.

Using the pentatonic scale is a good way for children to make up their own tunes. It does not matter too much which note is used for the start and the finish, because there is no feeling of a clear key. The notes always sound good when played together.

Many folk songs are pentatonic, or nearly pentatonic. Well-known songs such as "Land of the Silver Birch" or "Auld Lang Syne" are pentatonic tunes.

Classical composers have sometimes used pentatonic scales, especially Claude Debussy. His piano piece La fille aux cheveux de lin has a tune which is pentatonic except for one note. Maurice Ravel used it to write music which sounded Chinese, and in his Mother Goose suite (Ma Mère l'Oye) which sounds like a fairy tale.

The pentatonic scales used in Indonesian gamelan music are called slendro and pelog.

pentatonic song:
sing out your melody
sing out your song
sing a pentatonic scale
starting on lah
lah
doh
ray
meh
soh
lah!

Difficult words: Octave - An octave is the distance between two musical notes that have the same letter name.

Folk music - Folk music includes both traditional music and the genre that evolved from it during the 20th century folk revival. The term originated in the 19th century but is often applied to music that is older than that. Some types of folk music are also called world music.

Semitones - A semitone, also called a half step or a half tone, is the smallest musical interval commonly used in Western tonal music, and it is considered the most dissonant when sounded harmonically. It is defined as the interval between two adjacent notes in a 12-tone scale (e.g. from C to C♯). This implies that its size is exactly or approximately equal to 100 cents, a twelfth of an octave.

Major scale - The major scale or Ionian scale is one of the most commonly used musical scales, especially in Western music. It is one of the diatonic scales. Like many musical scales it is made up of seven notes: the eighth duplicates the first at double its frequency so that it is called a higher octave of the same note (from Latin "octavus", the eighth). 

Music theory
In music theory, the major scale or Ionian scale is one of the diatonic scales. It is made up of seven separate notes, plus an eighth which is the same as the first an octave higher. In solfege these notes correspond to the syllables "Do, Re, Mi, Fa, Sol, La, Ti/Si, Do". The simplest major scale to write or play on the piano is C major, the only major scale not to require sharps or flats, using only the white keys on the piano keyboard:

Shape

A major scale is a set of steps in the order "Whole:Whole:Half:Whole:Whole:Whole:Half" (tone, tone, semitone, tone, tone, tone, semitone). Western scales do not skip any line or space on the staff, and they do not repeat any note  with a different accidental. This means that the key signature of the scale will feature just sharps or just flats.

Names of scale degrees

1st – Tonic- key note
2nd – Supertonic
3rd – Mediant
4th – Subdominant
5th – Dominant
6th – Submediant
7th – Leading Tone
8th – Tonic ( or Octave)

The circle of fifths 
The Circle of Fifths was first described in 1728 by Johann David Heinichen in his book Der General-bass. It has been used ever since as a way to show the relations between scales.

The numbers inside the circle show the number of sharps or flats in the key signature, with the sharp keys going clockwise, and the flat keys counterclockwise from C major (which has no sharps or flats.) The circle depends on enharmonic relationships in the circle, which is six sharps or flats for the major keys of F = G and D = E for minor keys (Drabkin 2001). Seven sharps or flats make major keys (C major and C major) that are more easy to spell with five flats or sharps (as D major or B  major).

Harmonic properties 
The major scale is used more often than the minor scale in Western music because of its unique harmonic properties. For example, the major third is much stronger in the harmonic series (it is the 5th, 10th and 20th harmonic – see below) than the minor third (the 19th harmonic).

Related pages
Minor scale
Enharmonic
Equal temperament
Just intonation
Lydian mode
Major and minor
Music theory
Tetrachord

References 
Bower, Michael. 2007. "All about Key Signatures ". Modesto, CA: Capistrano School (K–12) website. (Accessed 17 March 2010)
Drabkin, William. 2001. "Circle of Fifths". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers.
Jones, George Thaddeus. 1974. Music Theory: The Fundamental Concepts of Tonal Music Including Notation, Terminology, and Harmony. Barnes & Noble Outline Series 137. New York, Hagerstown, San Francisco, London: Barnes & Noble. 
 Kennedy, Michael. 1994. "Key-Signature". Oxford Dictionary of Music, second edition, associate editor, Joyce Bourne. Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. .

Other websites 
 Proper fingering of the major and minor scales on the piano
 Listen to and download harmonised Major scale piano MP3s
 The major and pentatonic scales on the guitar  in several positions
 The major scale for guitar in one position, with derivation
Binary fission ("division in half") is a kind of asexual reproduction.  It is the most common form of reproduction in prokaryotes such as bacteria. It occurs in some single-celled Eukaryotes like the Amoeba and the Paramoecium. In binary fission DNA replication and segregation occur simultaneously.

In binary fission, the fully grown parent cell splits into two halves, producing two pools. After replicating its genetic material, the parent cell divides into two equal sized daughter cells. The genetic material is replicated, then equally split. The daughter cells are genetically identical (unless a mutation occurs during replication).

During binary fission, the DNA molecule divides and forms two DNA molecules. The cell then grows to create room for each molecule to move towards the opposite side of the bacterium. At the same time, the cell membrane divides to form 2 daughter cells. After division, the new cells grow and the process repeats itself.

Binary fission occurs in eukaryotic tissue cells, but the process is more complicated: see mitosis.      

Basically, a cell copies its DNA, and then splits down the middle, creating two daughter cells.

References

Methods of reproduction
Bacteria
Charisma Lee Carpenter (born July 23, 1970) is an American actress. She is best known for playing the character Cordelia Chase in the television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer and its spin-off Angel.

Personal life 
Carpenter was born in Las Vegas, Nevada. At 15, her family moved to Rosarito B.C., Mexico. Later, they moved to Chula Vista (a suburb of San Diego). After graduating high school, she was a San Diego Chargers cheerleader in 1991 before beginning her Hollywood career. She had also sky-dived. She married Damian Hardy on October 5, 2002. She gave birth to their son Donavan Charles Hardy on March 24, 2003.

Filmography 
 Josh Kirby... Time Warrior (TV series) (1995)
 Malibu Shores (1996) (TV series)
 Buffy the Vampire Slayer (TV series) (1997-1999)
 Angel (TV series) (1999-2003)
 The Groomsmen (2001)
 See Jane Date (TVM) (2003)
 Miss Match (TV series) (2003)
 Charmed (TV series) (2004)
 Voodoo Moon (2005)
 Veronica Mars (TV series) (2005-2006)
 Flirting with Danger (TVM) (2006)
 Cheaters Club (TVM) (2006)
 Relative Chaos (TVM) (2006)
 Desperate Housewives 2009 : "Allison"

References

Other websites 

 
 
 

1970 births
Living people
American movie actors
Whedonverse
Actors from Las Vegas, Nevada
Actors from San Diego, California
Models from Nevada
American television actors
Paul Watzlawick PhD (July 25, 1921 – March 31, 2007) was a theoretician in communication theory. He also commented in the fields of family therapy and general psychotherapy. He lived and worked in California until his death in 2007 in Palo Alto.

He formulated five axioms. They are:
 It is not possible to not communicate. Every behavior is some kind of non-verbal communication. 
 Every communication has a content. In addition, there is 'metainformation', which says how the communicator wants to be understood.
 All parters involved in a communication process also interpret their own behaviour during communication.
 Human communication involves both verbal and non-verbal communication. In addition to the spoken words, there are is also a non-spoken part (gestures, behavior, intonation..) which is part of the communication.
 Communication between humans is either symmetric or complementary. This is based on whether the relationship of those communicating is based on differences or parity.

Works
Watzlawick is author of 18 books (in 85 foreign language editions) and more than 150 book articles and book chapters. Books he has written or on which he has collaborated include:
 Invented Reality: How do we know what we believe we know? (Contributions to constructivism)
 Pragmatics of human communication 
 The situation is hopeless, but not serious 
 Ultra-solutions: how to fail most successfully 
 How real is real?
 Change
 The language of change

Other websites 
http://www.colorado.edu/communication/meta-discourses/Theory/watzlawick/

American psychologists
Austrian people
People from California

1921 births
2007 deaths
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers. They send information between neurons by crossing a synapse. Electrical signals are not able to cross the gap between most neurons. They are changed into chemical signals to cross the gap. Neurotransmitters act mostly on chemical synapses. Once they reach the next neuron they are absorbed. The neuron then changes this chemical signal back into an electrical signal called an action potential. The action potential passes across the next neuron and to the next synapse.

Many neurotransmitters are made from amino acids, which are part of your diet and it takes only a few steps to convert them. Neurotransmitters play a major role in shaping everyday life and functions. Scientists do not yet know exactly how many neurotransmitters exist, but more than 100 chemical messengers have been identified.

Each neurotransmitter has a different function. For example: dopamine is used in reward and pleasure and noradrenaline is used in an animal's "fight or flight" response. Neurotransmitters also regulate the passing of messages. This is because an action potential must be a certain strength before the neurotransmitters are released. The strength required to release the neurotransmitter is called a threshold.

The most common transmitter is glutamate, which is excitatory at well over 90% of the synapses in the human brain. The next most prevalent is called GABA, which inhibits at more than 90% of the synapses that do not use glutamate.

Neurotransmitters are transported within neurons by small "sacks" called vesicles. When these vesciles come into contact with the neuron's cell membrane, it opens. This releases the neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft.

Discovery
Until the early 20th century, scientists assumed that the majority of synaptic communication in the brain was electrical. However, through the careful histological examinations by Ramón y Cajal (1852–1934), a 20 to 40 nm gap between neurons, known today as the synaptic cleft, was discovered. The presence of the gap suggested chemical messengers moved across the synaptic cleft. In 1921 German pharmacologist Otto Loewi (1873–1961) confirmed that neurons can communicate by releasing chemicals. By experiments involving the vagus nerves of frogs, Loewi was able to slow the heart rate of frogs by controlling the amount of saline solution present around the vagus nerve.

Loewi asserted that sympathetic regulation of cardiac function can be mediated through changes in chemical concentrations. Otto Loewi also discovered acetylcholine (ACh)—the first known neurotransmitter. Some neurons do, however, communicate by electrical synapses through the use of gap junctions, which allow specific ions to pass directly from one cell to another.

References 

Neuroscience
Sally Beamish (born London,  26 August 1956) is an English composer.  She has written music for orchestra, chamber music, vocal and choral music.

Sally studied the viola at the Royal Northern College of Music.  Later she also studied in Germany and Italy.

Sally started her career playing the viola in a chamber group called the Raphael Ensemble.  The experience of playing in small groups was important for her development as a composer.  Her music often combines and contrasts solo instruments, exploring the sounds they can make.

She has written works for the Swedish and Scottish Chamber Orchestras and has had works performed at the BBC Proms.  Her trumpet concerto, written for Håkan Hardenberger and the National Youth Orchestra of Scotland was performed at the Proms in 2003 with Martyn Brabbins conducting.  She has also written concertos for the flute, viola, saxophone, percussion and accordion and is planning to write concertos for  viola (her third), saxophone quartet and cello.

She has written a stage musical about the Scottish Highlands.  She lives in Scotland with her husband and young daughter.

Other websites 
Sally Beamish  – official website

1956 births
20th-century English composers
21st-century English composers
Living people
Women composers
Nakhodka (Russian Находка) is a port city in Primorsky Krai, Russia. It is one of the most eastern cities in Russia. Nakhodka is a port on the Japan Sea. It is located around Nakhodka Bay. Nakhodka means "Lucky find" in Russian.

The village Amerikanka was the first permanent settlement at the location of the current city. It was founded in 1907. Nakhodka became an urban-type fishing settlement in 1941. It received  city status on May 19, 1950. This date is now called City Day.

Economy
The economy of the city is based mainly on the port and port-related businesses. This include processing and canning fish. In Soviet times, Nakhodka was the only Soviet port in the Far East open to foreign vessels. After Vladivostok started being used by foreigners in 1991, the port of Nakhodka is not used as much as before. Economic activity in the city has become much less because of this..

Nakhodka is still an important international port. It is the center of the coastal trade. Exports include timber, coal, fluorspar, honey, fish and seafood.

References

Cities in Russia
Sumatra, known also as Sumatera, is the sixth largest island in the world. It is in western Indonesia. It is to the west of the Sunda Islands, and is bordered by the Indian Ocean. Sumatra contains the provinces of Daerah Istimewa Aceh, Riau, Riau Islands, Bangka Belitung Islands, Jambi, Bengkulu, Lampung, North Sumatra, South Sumatra, and West Sumatra. Sumatra has an area of about 443,066 km².

Other websites
 Sumatera Online
The Whigs were a political faction and then a political party in the parliaments of England, Scotland, Great Britain and the United Kingdom. Between the 1680s and 1850s, they contested power with their rivals, the Tories. The British prime minister was usually from one of the two parties.

The Whigs played a central role in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, and were the enemies of the Stuart kings and pretenders, who were Roman Catholic. The Whigs took full control of the government in 1715. They held it until King George III, coming to the throne in 1760, allowed Tories back in. 

When they held power, the Whigs purged (got rid of) the Tories from all major positions in government, the army, the Church of England, the legal profession and local officials. 

Their most famous leader was Robert Walpole, who kept control of the government from 1721 to 1742.

References

Other websites

Karl Marx on the Tories and the Whigs (1852)

Former political parties in the United Kingdom
1678 establishments
1868 disestablishments
1670s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in England
19th-century disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Liberal Party (UK)
Sir Harrison Paul Birtwistle CH, (born Accrington, July 15, 1934) is one of Britain's most important composers today.

Early life
In 1952, Birtwistle entered the Royal Manchester College of Music in Manchester on a clarinet scholarship. While there he met other young composers like Peter Maxwell Davies and Alexander Goehr. Together with pianist John Ogdon and conductor Elgar Howarth, he formed the New Music Manchester group, which put on performances of modern music, especially music using serialism. 

Birtwistle left the college in 1955, then studied at the Royal Academy of Music and afterward made a living as a schoolteacher. In 1965 he got a Harkness Fellowship which gave him the opportunity to study composition in the United States.

In 1975 Birtwistle became musical director of the new Royal National Theatre in London, a post he held until 1983. He was given a knighthood in 1988 and was made a Companion of Honour in 2000. From 1994 to 2001 he was Henry Purcell Professor of Composition at King's College London.

Music 
His music is quite complicated and modern in style.  Sometimes it reminds one of Igor Stravinsky and Olivier Messiaen.  Sometimes he uses blocks of sound like Edgard Varèse.  His first opera Punch and Judy is quite different from a traditional Punch and Judy children's entertainment.  It is very serious and quite violent. He has written other operas: The Mask of Orpheus (1984), Sir Gawain and the Green Knight (1990),  The Second Mrs Kong (1994), and The Last Supper (2000), .

When Gawain was performed in 1994 at the Royal Opera House a group of hecklers booed and whistled loudly.  However, this only made the opera more famous as lots of people read about it and came to hear it.  He wrote a piece called Panic for alto saxophone, jazz drum kit and orchestra.  

It was a very loud, harsh piece and it was a shock for the audience when it was first performed at the Last Night of the Proms, a concert at which people normally expect to hear music with easy, sing-along tunes.

References 

1934 births
Living people

20th-century English composers
21st-century British composers
Companions of Honour
Knights Bachelor
Dominic Bernard Patrick Luke Monaghan (born 8 December 1976) is an English actor. He is well known for playing Merry Brandybuck in Peter Jackson's movie trilogy of J. R. R. Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. He is also well known for playing Charlie Pace on the television series Lost.

Personal life 
Monaghan was born in Berlin to British parents. He has a tattoo on his right arm of the English word "nine" written with the Tengwar script.  It means that his character was one of the nine members of the Fellowship of the Ring in The Lord of the Rings. Many other cast members also got similar tattoos during the making of the movie. On his left arm is a tattoo that says "Living is easy with eyes closed", a line from The Beatles' song "Strawberry Fields Forever". On Lost, Charlie's tape/bandage finger-rings with letters spelling out words were Monaghan's idea. He thought that because Charlie is an artist, he would still want to be creative even when trapped on an island. Monaghan also actually plays the guitar on Lost.

Dominic dated Evangeline Lilly while the two of them were on Lost. The two broke up in 2007.

References

Other websites 
 
 The Dominic Monaghan Resource 
 Dominic Monaghan interview 

1976 births
Living people
Actors from Berlin
English movie actors
English television actors
The article about the Sioux leader is at Crazy Horse

Le Crazy Horse Saloon or Le Crazy Horse Paris is a nightclub in Paris, founded in 1951. It is famous for its cabaret, which features nude female dancers. It was opened by Alain Bernardin, who also managed it until his suicide in 1994. Today the cabaret is run by Bernardin's children.

The franchise includes Crazy Horse Paris for one in Las Vegas (formerly La Femme), at the MGM Grand. 

Other cabarets with similar names are separate enterprises.

Buildings and structures in Paris
Theatres in France