cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Bathing is putting the body into a fluid, most often water, or a solution with water. Usually it is done for hygiene or for religious purposes, or for fun. Sometimes bathing is also done as a form of therapy.

When people talk about bathing, they most often mean being immersed in water. But people have also "bathed" in other substances. Some therapies involve bathing in mud. People have also bathed in other substances, like Champagne, beans, or chocolate. A form of bathing quite common is bathing in sunlight.

Reasons for bathing 

 
Bathing serves several purposes:
 Hygiene, and the physical appearance of cleanliness
 Decontamination from chemical, biological, nuclear or other exposure-type hazards.
 Recreation
 Therapy (e.g. hydrotherapy), healing, rehabilitation from injury or addiction, relaxation (e.g. Blessed Rainy Day)
 Religious, or, less frequently, other ceremonial rites (e.g. Baptism, Mikvah)
 Celebration and socialization, e.g. running through fountains after winning the World Series, or jumping through a hole cut in the ice over a lake on New Year's Eve.
 Ensuring people are free of certain items such as weapons or other contraband: In Chicago, Russian baths were a safe meeting place for rival gang leaders. Weapons are difficult to conceal on a nearly naked body. If the meeting resulted in reconciliation, the gangs would meet upstairs for bagels, cream cheese and borscht. Many homeless shelters, and almost all prisons have an intake facility or intake process that includes a supervised shower with change of clothes to ensure that no contraband or contamination enters the facility.

References

Other websites 
 A virtual exhibition about bathing in art, from Cranach to Fellini

Hygiene
Water
Pygmy marmosets are the smallest marmosets and one of the smallest of all primates. They inhabit Brazil, Ecuador, Peru and Colombia. Most pygmy marmosets lives in troops of two to nine individuals, with a dominant male, a breeding female, and up to four successive litters of offspring. The modal size of a standard stable  troop would be 6 individuals.
 
Pygmy marmosets have tawny agouti fur (the tip of the hair is a different color to the base) with an indistinctly dark-ringed tail. They can range in size from 4.6 in to 6 in but could possibly be half that size when they are first born since they are the size of a human thumb.

They are expected to live as long as 15-20 years.

Habitat 
They live in flooded forest near rivers, bamboo thickets and the edges of agricultural fields. They're mostly native in South Africa but can also be found around the western part of the amazon rainforest. Can also be found in Bolivia, Peru, Columbia, and Western Brazil.

Diet 
Pygmy marmosets mainly feed on gum (tree exudates, sap), but they also eat fruit, nectar and insects. They gouge holes in the bark of trees, and revisit these holes daily to collect the sap. The marmosets hang on with specially adapted claws.

References 
2. Tardif , S., Smucny , D., Abbott , D., Mansfield , K., Darkin, N. S., & Yamamoto , M. E. (2003). National Library of Medicine . Reproduction in Captive Common Marmosets (Callithrix Jacchus), 364–368.

3. University of Salford. (2018, February 27). Smallest monkey's evolutionary secret. ScienceDaily. Retrieved October 19, 2021 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2018/02/180227094726.htm

4. Jean P. Boubli, Maria N.F. da Silva, Anthony B. Rylands, Stephen D. Nash, Fabrício Bertuol, Mário Nunes, Russell A. Mittermeier, Hazel Byrne, Felipe E. Silva, Fabio Röhe, Iracilda Sampaio, Horacio Schneider, Izeni P. Farias, Tomas Hrbek, How many pygmy marmoset (Cebuella Gray, 1870) species are there? A taxonomic re-appraisal based on new molecular evidence, Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution, Volume 120

Marmosets
Mammals of South America
Patra () is the third biggest Greek city. Patra is in southwest Greece on the west coast of the Peloponnese. It is the capital of the prefecture of Achaia and also the capital of the Greek perifereia (district) of Western Peloponnese. 171,616 lived there in 2001. The total population of Patra, including all its suburbs, is over 200,000 people. Patra is a coastal city, so it has a big port. Patra's port connects Greece with east-facing Italian ports such as Bari, Brindisi and Ancona.

History 

Patra developed in the third century BC. During the Roman period, Patra became an important city. In Patra Christianity arrived quite early, approximately in the first century AD, by St Andrew, who was martyred there. During the Middle Ages Patra was not very significant. Patra developed again after the Greek liberation from the Turks, in 1830 following the Greek revolution of 1821.

Sights 

The most important site in Patra is the contemporary Bridge Rion-Antirion which links Peloponnese and Sterea Ellada. This bridge is located a short distance from Patra's center, in the district of Rio. Opposite Rio is Antirio and it ends at the bridge. Other significant sites in Patra are the church of Agios Andreas and the Apollon theater. The cathedral of Agios Andreas is the third biggest churches in Greece. Patra is known for its wines, with the famous and oldest Winery in Greece, Achaia Clauss founded in 1861.

References

Cities in Greece
Santiago de Compostela (also Saint James of Compostela) is the capital of the autonomous community of Galicia. It is a United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site. The city is in the northwest of Spain in the Province of A Coruña.

The city's Cathedral is the destination of an important pilgrimage route, the Way of St. James (Galician: Camiño de Santiago, Spanish: Camino de Santiago). Pilgrims have been following this route since the ninth century.

The cathedral is believed to be where James, son of Zebedee is buried. Saint James was one of the apostles of Jesus Christ.

Capital cities in Spain
Christopher Jonathan James Nolan (born 30 July 1970) is a British-American director, producer and screenwriter. He often works with his brother, author Jonathan Nolan. Nolan rose to prominence for directing the psychological thriller Memento, and for reviving the Batman movie franchise as the director of The Dark Knight Trilogy. Each of them are Batman Begins (2005), The Dark Knight (2008), and The Dark Knight Rises (2012). He is also the founder of the production company, Syncopy Films through which his movies Inception (2010), Interstellar (2014) and Dunkirk (2017) were released.

In July 2012, Nolan became the youngest director to be honored with a hand and footprint ceremony at Grauman's Chinese Theatre in Los Angeles.

The Dark Knight 

In the months following the release of The Prestige (another of Nolan's movies, released in 2006), Nolan made many comments suggesting that he would return to direct the sequel to Batman Begins. In late July 2006, the sequel was officially confirmed as The Dark Knight with Nolan at the helm and Heath Ledger joining the cast as The Joker, Batman's nemesis.  Nolan and his brother Jonathan wrote a script, based on a treatment written by himself and David S. Goyer.  The movie began production in early 2007. It was released on July 18 2008 in the United States, to overwhelming critical acclaim. It has also made a lot of money, setting the record for the highest-grossing weekend opening in the U.S. with over $158 million.

Casting 
Nolan has frequently cast the following;

Director filmography

Major motion pictures 
 Following (1998) (also writer/producer)
 Memento (2000) (also writer)
 Insomnia (2002)
 Batman Begins (2005) (director/also writer/producer)
 The Prestige   (2006) (also co-writer/producer)
 The Dark Knight (2008) (director/also co-writer/producer)
 Inception (2009) (director)
 The Dark Knight Rises (2012) (director/co-writer/producer)
 Man of Steel (2013) (producer/writer)
 Transcendence (2014) (producer)
 Interstellar (2014) (director/co-writer/producer)
 Dunkirk (2017) (director/writer/producer)
 Tenet (2020) (director/co-writer/producer)

Short movies 
 Tarantella (1989) (Also writer/producer)
 Larceny (1996) (Also writer/producer)
 Doodlebug (1997) (Also writer/producer)

References

Other websites 

NolanFans.com Fansite and community for Christopher Nolan. 
 Telegraph.co.uk  Interview with Christopher Nolan and Christian Bale

 
1970 births
Living people
English movie directors
English movie producers
English writers
Movie directors from London
Saturn Award winners
Writers from London
The Foucault pendulum, or Foucault's pendulum (named after the French physicist Léon Foucault) was pendulum created as an experiment to show the rotation of the Earth.

The experiment 

On  January 3, 1851, Foucault did the following experiment: He mounted a 2 metre long pendulum, and let it swing, in the basement of his house. On the floor, he marked the axis, along which the pendulum was swinging. After some time, he noticed, that the pendulum no longer swung along the axis he had marked on the floor, but on an different axis. When he tried to explain this, he considered, what could have caused the axis to change. He considered gravity. Gravity could not have caused the axis to change, as it only acts vertically. There were no other forces acting on the pendulum. So: according to Newton's laws, the pendulum did not change the axis it was swinging in. So it was the floor (or the earth) that changed this axis, because it rotated. 

Vincenzo Viviani (1662-1703) had made similar observations, but he didn't attribute them to the rotation of the earth.  

On the 3rd of February 1851, he repeated the experiment, with a 12m pendulum at the Paris observatory. On 26th of March he presented the experiment to the public: At the Panthéon, he used a 67m long pendulum, with a weight of 28kg. At the bottom of the pendulum, there was a tip that left a trace in a sandbox. This was an easy way to show the earth's rotation to common people. The metal ball of this pendulum still exists: Until 1946, it was stored at the Conservatoire national des arts et métiers, then it was returned to the Panthéon.

Caspar Garthe repeated the experiment at Cologne Cathedral, Friedrich Magnus Schwerd did in Speyer Cathedral. Their results were deceptive, and not nearly as good as those obtained in Paris. In 1879, Heike Kamerlingh Onnes wrote his thesis on the subject, doing extra calculations on the exact magnitude of the effect. In his thesis, he  also pointing out the problems the people had encountered in Cologne and Speyer.

An exact copy of the original has been operating in the Panthéon since 1995. It takes 31h 50min to do a full rotation (of 360 degrees). 

Because a Foucault pendulum is an easy way to show the rotation of the earth, such devices can be found in many science museums around the world today.

References 

Pendulums
Griffith's Experiment was an experiment done in 1928 by Frederick Griffith. It was one of the first experiments showing that bacteria can get DNA through a process.

Griffith used two strains of Streptococcus pneumoniae. He then uses the bacteria to infect the mice, which have many similar characteristics to humans. He used a type III-S (smooth) and type II-R (rough) strain. The III-S strain covers itself with a polysaccharide capsule that protects it from the host's immune system. This means that the host will die. The II-R strain does not have that protective shield around it and is killed by the host's immune system.

In this experiment, bacteria from the III-S strain were killed by heat, and their remains were added to II-R strain bacteria. While neither harmed the mice on their own, the blend of the two was able to kill mice.

Griffith was also able to get both live II-R and live III-S strains of S. pneumoniae from the blood of these dead mice. He concluded that the type II-R had been "transformed" into the lethal III-S strain by a "transforming principle" that was somehow part of the dead III-S strain bacteria.

Today, we know that the "transforming principle" Griffith saw was the DNA of the III-S strain bacteria. While the bacteria had been killed, the DNA had survived the heating process and was taken up by the II-R strain bacteria. The III-S strain DNA contains the genes that form the shielding polysaccharide part from attack. Armed with this gene, the former II-R strain bacteria were now protected from the host's immune system and could kill the host.

The exact nature of the transforming principle was confirmed in one of many experiments done by Avery, McLeod and McCarty, as well as Hershey and Chase.

Related pages
Genetics
Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment
Hershey–Chase experiment

References 

Hartl, Daniel and Jones, Elizabeth 2005. Genetics: analysis of genes and genomes. 6th ed, Jones & Bartlett. 
The original experiment by Griffith. Original article and 35th anniversary reprint available.

1928
Genetics experiments
Bacteria
Molecular biology
Frederick Griffith (1879 - 1941) was a English medical officer and geneticist. In 1928, during an experiment, he discovered what he called a transforming principle, but today we call DNA.

Early life
He was born in Hale, Lancashire and attended Liverpool University where he studied genetics. In his younger days he worked at the Liverpool Royal Infirmary, the Thompson Yates Laboratory, and the Royal Commission on Tuberculosis.

Griffith's experiment

The experiment began when Griffith was trying to make a vaccine to prevent pneumonia infections in the "Spanish flu" influenza pandemic after World War I, by using two strains of the Streptococcus pneumoniae bacterium.

Later life
Griffith was killed at work in his laboratory in 1941, along with longtime friend and bacteriologist William M. Scott in London during an air raid in the London blitz. Years later Griffith's "transforming principle" was identified as DNA by Oswald Avery, along with coworkers Colin MacLeod and Maclyn McCarty, in 1944. The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

References

Other websites
Frederick Griffith Lancet, (3 May 1941): 588. Obituary
The Famous DNA Experiments 
Griffith's Experiment on Bacterial Transformation 

1871 births
1941 deaths
English geneticists
English physicians
In biology, a strain is a low-level taxonomic rank below the rank of species. This is seen in microbiology where strains are got from a single cell colony, and are quarantined by being in a Petri dish. Strains are also commonly referred to in virology, in horticulture, and with rodents used in experimental studies.

Microbiology/Virology
A strain is a genetic variant or subtype of a microorganism, that is to say a virus or bacterium or fungus. For example, a "flu strain" is a certain biological form of the influenza or "flu" virus. Properly speaking, bacteria, archaea and viruses do not have species, because they do not have eukaryote-type sexual reproduction. Bacteria do exchange DNA, but they may exchange it between different kinds of bacteria, which shows their difference from eukaryotes. Strains are therefore an essential part of bacterial identification.

Plants
In botany, the term is not used to rank plants. It is sometimes used to refer to all the descendants produced from a common ancestor that share a uniform morphological or physiological character. A strain is a designated group of offspring that have descended from a modified plant, produced ether by conventional breeding or by biotechnological means or result from genetic mutation. 

For example, some rice strains are made by inserting new genetic material into a rice plant, all the descendants of the genetically modified rice plant are a strain with a unique genetic code that is passed on to later generations. The strain designation, a number or a formal name, covers all the plants that descend from the originally modified plant. The rice plants in the strain can be breed to other rice strains or cultivars, and if desirable plants are produced, these are further breed to stabilize the desirable traits; the stabilized plants that can be propagated and come true, are given a cultivar name and released into production to be used by farmers.

Rodents
A mouse or a rat strain is a group of animals that is genetically uniform. Strains are used in laboratory experiments. Mouse strains can be inbred or genetically engineered, while rat strains are usually produced by inbreeding.

Other websites
International Mouse Strain Resource (IMSR)
Rat strain index

References

rank32
Classical genetics
Dr. Johannes Schäfer, born 2nd October 1965 in Göttingen, Germany, was the bass player of the German rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse from the beginning (1987) until 1996. Today (2008) he is a doctor.

Schäfer's first band was 1982 the punk band Defekt in Hanover, Germany, where he was singer and bass player. From 1985 until 1987 he played in the jazz rock band CIT., together with Mousse T. and at the same time he worked as a studio musician at the Stakkato Studio in Hannover.

In 1987 Schäfer founded the rock band Fury in the Slaughterhouse together with Kai and Christian Wingenfelder, Rainer Schumann and Christoph Stein-Schneider. He played the bass in this band until 1996, when he was followed by Christian Decker. Together with his band Schäfer was awarded golden recording sales certifications for the Fury albums Fury in the Slaughterhouse (1988), Mono (1992), and the Hearing and the Sense of Balance (1995). Fury in the Slaughterhouse sold about three million recordings of albums made in their time with Hannes Schäfer (1987-1996).

After leaving Fury in the Slaughterouse Schäfer studied medicine and today (2008) he works as a doctor in the hospital Vinzenzkrankenhaus in Hanover.

Other websites
Homepage of Fury in the Slaughterhouse
the hospital Schäfer works at today

1965 births
Living people
German musical entertainers
The Prestige is a 2006 period movie directed by Christopher Nolan. The story follows Robert Angier and Alfred Borden, enemy stage magicians in fin de siècle London.  Obsessed with creating the best stage Magic, they take part in a competition with tragic results.

Cast and characters 
 Hugh Jackman as Robert Angier, a classy magician with a talent for performance.
 Christian Bale as Alfred Borden, a working-class magician who knows magic.
 Michael Caine as John Cutter, the stage engineer who works for Angier.
 Rebecca Hall as Sarah Borden, Borden's wife.
 Scarlett Johansson as Olivia Wenscombe, Angier's assistant and Borden's lover.
 David Bowie as Nikola Tesla, the inventor (Tesla was a real person) who creates a device for Angier.
 Piper Perabo as Julia McCullough, Angier's wife.
 Andy Serkis as Mr. Alley, Tesla's assistant.
 Ricky Jay as "Milton the Magician", an older magician Borden and Angier work for at the beginning of the story.
 Roger Rees as Owens, a solicitor working for Lord Caldlow.
 W. Morgan Sheppard as Merrit, the owner of a theater where Angier initially performs.

Release dates

Other websites 
 Official Website 
 
 
 Writer Christopher Priest's website 

2006 movies
American science fiction movies
Warner Bros. movies
Movies based on books

Movies directed by Christopher Nolan
A running back (RB) is the position of a player on an American football team. They are the players who carry the ball the most. They receive handoffs, catch passes, and block for other runners.

References 
 Football 101: Basic Football positions
 http://www.dummies.com/how-to/content/what-the-running-backs-do-in-a-football-game.html

American football positions
The Heisman Memorial Trophy Award (often known simply as the Heisman Trophy or The Heisman), named after the former college football coach John Heisman, is awarded annually by the Downtown Athletic Club of New York City to the most outstanding player in collegiate football.

Other websites 

The Heisman Memorial Trophy Award website
StiffArmTrophy.com (attempts to project the Heisman Trophy winner through "exit polls" of actual Heisman voters)
HeismanPundit.com (commentary and discussion)
New Home of the Heisman - Sports Museum of America
Run Fat Boy Run is a 2007 British romantic comedy directed by David Schwimmer, written by Michael Ian Black and Simon Pegg, and starring Pegg, Dylan Moran, Thandie Newton, Harish Patel, India de Beaufort and Hank Azaria. It was released in the UK on 7 September 2007, in Canada on 10 September 2007 and in the United States on 28 March 2008.

Characters and cast
 Simon Pegg as Dennis Doyle
 Thandie Newton as Elizabeth Olivia 'Libby' Odell
 Hank Azaria as Whit
 Dylan Moran as Gordon
 Harish Patel as Mr. Goshdashtidar
 India de Beaufort as Maya Goshdashtidar
 Matthew Fenton as Jake
 Simon Day as Vincent
 Ruth Sheen as Claudine
 Tyrone Huggins as Grover
 Nevan Finegan as Mickey

Guest appearances
 Chris Hollins (sports reporter)
 Peter Serafinowicz (reporter voice over)
 Denise Lewis (British athlete)
 Stephen Merchant (injured runner)
 David Walliams (customer in Libby's shop)

References

Other websites
 Official site
 
 
 
 
 
 Official Canadian site 
 Interview with director David Schwimmer at YouTube

2007 comedy movies
2007 romance movies
2000s romantic comedy movies
2000s sports comedy movies

British romantic comedy movies
English-language movies
Movies set in London
And Now for Something Completely Different is a British movie spin-off from the comedy television series Monty Python's Flying Circus. The movie feature favorite sketches from the first two seasons. The title was used as a catchphrase in the series.

Other websites 

 
 

1971 movies
British comedy movies
Abu Ghraib prison is a prison in Abu Ghraib, a city 32 km west of Baghdad, Iraq. It became known when Saddam Hussein tortured and executed dissidents there. After the United States had invaded Iraq, there was also a scandal where US forces tortured prisoners.

Prisons
Buildings and structures in Iraq
Thomas Wentworth "Tom" Wills (19 August 1835 – 3 May 1880) was an Australian all-round sportsman who helped invent Australian Football and helped write the Laws of Australian Football.

Wills was born in south-east New South Wales, Australia either near Gundagai or Queanbeyan.  

From the age of 14 he went to Rugby School in England.  At school he played both rugby football and cricket very well. By his final year in England, he was captain of the Rugby XI and he was listed in Bells Sporting Life as being one of the most promising young cricketers in England.

In 1859, Wills was involved with others in creating a set of football rules that were like a cross between rugby, soccer and Gaelic football. He made up the game for cricketers to keep in shape during the off-season (winter). Wills had help from people who included his cousin Henry Colden Harrison, and W.J. Hammersly and J.B. Thompson.  This game is now Australian Rules Football. 

Wills grew up with Indigenous Australians.  He spoke the language of the people who lived near him and played with the children.  It has been suggested that Australian Rules Football is based in part on Marn Grook, an Aboriginal game with some similar rules to Australian Rules Football. Because the indigenous people Wills played with as a child would have played Marn Grook, Wills would have been influenced by this game when creating the rules for Australian Rules Football.

Willis was an alcoholic. He committed suicide by stabbing himself in the heart.

References

1835 births
1880 deaths
Australian cricketers
Australian rules footballers
Sportspeople from New South Wales
Sportspeople who committed suicide
Suicides by blade weapons
Suicides in Australia
Simple Plan is the third, self-titled studio album by pop punk band Simple Plan.

Track listing
"When I'm Gone" - 3:49
"Take My Hand" - 3:51
"The End" - 3:22
"Your Love Is a Lie" - 3:42
"Save You" - 3:45
"Generation" - 3:02
"Time to Say Goodbye" - 2:56
"I Can Wait Forever" - 4:54
"Holding On" - 5:03
"No Love" - 3:15
"What If" - 5:54

References

2008 albums
Pop punk albums
Simple Plan albums
An N-type semiconductor is a impurity mixed semiconductor material used in electronics. 

The pentavalent impure atoms like phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth or some other chemical element are used to produce n-type semiconductors. These impure atoms are called donor impurities because they give free electrons to a semiconductor. The doping increases the number of charge carriers in the material for conduction (read more: why do we need doping in semiconductor?). A n-type semiconductor is a lot more conductive than the pure silicon or germanium.

Introduction
Semiconductor materials like silicon and germanium have four electrons in their outer shell. The outer shell of electrons is called the valence shell. The four electrons are used by the semiconductor atom in forming bonds with its neighboring atoms. This leaves a low number of electrons available for conduction. 

Pentavalent elements are those elements which have five electrons in their outer shell. To make the n-type semiconductor, pentavalent impurities like phosphorus or arsenic are added. Four of the impurities' electrons form bonds with the surrounding silicon atoms. This leaves one electron free. The resulting material has a large number of free electrons. Since electrons are negative charge carriers, the resultant material is called an n-type (or negative type) semiconductor. The pentavalent impurity that is added is called a 'dopant' and the process of addition is called 'doping'.

Manufacture
N-type semiconductors are manufactured by doping pure semiconductor material. The amount of impurity added is very small compared to the amount of semiconductor. The way this new semiconductor works is changed by controlling the quantity of the dopant.

Properties 

 n-type semiconductors are not the pure semiconductors. They are extrinsic semiconductors.
 To get n-type semiconductor, pentavalent atoms like Arsenic (As), Phosphorus (P) are doped in an intrinsic semiconductor like Si, Ge etc.
 Majority carriers in n-type semiconductors are free electrons. That means concentration of free electrons in n-type semiconductor is greater than the concentration of holes.
 n-type semiconductors can be converted into intrinsic or pure semiconductor by increasing its temperature to a high value.

Examples 
Arsenic doped Silicon, Phosphorus doped Silicon, Arsenic doped Germanium, Phosphorus doped Germanium etc. are the examples of n-type semiconductor.

Related pages
 Semiconductor
P-type Semiconductor

Other websites
 The Doping of Semiconductors - Hyperphysics
Intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductor material - Electronics & Physics
N-type semiconductor materials - concepts

Electronic components
A plug-in hybrid car is similar to a conventional hybrid vehicle—both use a gasoline engine as well as an electric motor. A plug-in hybrid differs primarily in that it can be plugged in to charge the batteries, while a conventional hybrid relies solely on energy generated from braking, coasting or from the gasoline engine.

However, a plug-in hybrid uses larger battery packs that can be recharged by connecting to common household electricity. Plug-in hybrids can be driven for long distances—from a few miles to as much as 40 miles—without using any gasoline. Plug-in hybrid cars are also known as plug-in hybrid electric vehicles or PHEVs. Plug-in hybrid cars that use a gas engine exclusively for recharging batteries—rather than directly powering the wheels—are also called Extended-Range Electric Vehicles or E-REVs.

Fueling a car with electricity is about 5 times cheaper than fueling it with gasoline. That is equivalent to buying gasoline at less than $1 per gallon. It also reduces greenhouse pollution and helps reduce crude oil imports. Also plug-in hybrids produced substantially lower greenhouse gas emissions than either conventional gasoline cars or unplugged hybrids. The reduction in emissions results from electric operation being much more efficient than gasoline operation.

Criticisms
Criticisms of the hybrid include the additional cost, weight, and size of a larger battery pack. But The extra weight of the batteries will be offset somewhat by the reduced weight of the gas engine. 

It is obvious for most people that internal combustion engine cars cannot represent the future anymore because of the oil reserves that are estimated to be finished in forty or fifty years. Obviously, Plug-in vehicles cannot be considered a short term option because we lack the needed infrastructure and capable batteries for increasing the autonomy that is currently limited. The general opinion was that, at least for the next seven or eight years, Plug-ins are not going to become the standard in hybrid vehicles and that regular HEVs will have the biggest proportion on the market.

Green vehicles
"IEEE" redirects here. It is not to be confused with the Institution of Electrical Engineers (IEE).

The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (or IEEE  for short) an international non-profit, professional organization for the advancement of technology related to electricity. It has the most members of any technical professional organization in the world, with more than 400,000 members in more than 160 countries. About 45% of IEEE's members live outside the United States.

It was formed in 1963 by the merger of the Institute of Radio Engineers (IRE, founded 1912) and the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, founded 1884).

The IRE concerned mostly radio engineering. The major interests of the AIEE were wire communications and light and electric power systems. As technology developing, the IRE and the AIEE became difficult to distinguish. And people who belong to both group were increasing gradually. After World War II, the leadership of both the IRE and the AIEE merged the organizations on January 1, 1963.

IEEE says its purpose is "scientific and educational, directed toward the advancement of the theory and practice of electrical, electronics, communications and computer engineering, as well as computer science, the allied branches of engineering and the related arts and sciences." In pursuing these goals, the IEEE serves a major publisher of scientific journals, provides learning opportunities within the engineering sciences, research, and technology and so on.

IEEE consists of 150 countries, 350,000 members, 39 societies, organized around specialized technical fields, with more than 300 local organizations that hold regular meetings. Famous presidents of IEEE and its founding organizations include Elihu Thomson, Alexander Graham Bell, Ernst Weber. In 2008 the president of IEEE was Lewis M. Terman.

IEEE produces 30 percent of the world's literature in the electrical and electronics engineering and computer science fields, publishing well over 100 peer-reviewed journals.  The content in these journals and from several hundred annual conferences are available in the IEEE's online digital library.

Standards and development process 
IEEE is one of the leading standards-making organizations in the world.  The IEEE Standards Association (IEEE-SA) makes and maintains standards for the IEEE.  IEEE standards affect a wide range of industries including: power and energy, biomedical and healthcare, Information Technology (IT), telecommunications, transportation, nanotechnology, information assurance, and many more.  In 2005, IEEE had close to 900 active standards, with 500 standards under development.  One of the more notable IEEE standards is the IEEE 802 LAN/MAN group of standards which includes the IEEE 802.3 Ethernet standard and the IEEE 802.11 Wireless Networking standard (Wi-Fi).

References

Other websites 
 IEEE Conferences Template – For authors looking to submit to IEEE conferences
 IEEE format template - For authors looking to submit to IEEE journals

International organizations
Electricity
Organizations in New York City
1963 establishments in New York (state)
A galvanometer is a type of ammeter. It is an instrument for detecting and measuring electric current. It is named after Luigi Galvani. It is an analog electromechanical transducer that produces a rotary deflection, through a limited arc, in response to electric current flowing through its coil. The term has been expanded to include uses of the same mechanism in recording, positioning, and servomechanism equipment.

Operation 
The most familiar use is as an analog measuring instrument, often called a meter. It is used to measure the direct current (flow of electric charge) through an electric circuit. The D'Arsonval/Weston form used today is constructed with a small pivoting coil of wire in the field of a permanent magnet. The coil is attached to a thin pointer that traverses a calibrated scale. A tiny torsion spring pulls the coil and pointer to the zero position.

When a direct current (DC) flows through the coil, the coil generates a magnetic field. This field acts against the permanent magnet. The coil twists, pushing against the spring, and moves the pointer. The hand points at a scale indicating the electric current. Careful design of the pole pieces ensures that the magnetic field is uniform, so that the angle of the pointer is proportional to the current. A useful meter generally contains provision for damping the mechanical resonance of the moving coil and pointer, so that the pointer settles quickly to its position without oscillation.

Tangent galvanometer 

A tangent galvanometer is an early measuring instrument used for the measurement of electric current. It works by using a compass needle to compare a magnetic field generated by the unknown current to the magnetic field of the Earth. It gets its name from its operating principle, the tangent law of magnetism, which states that the tangent of the angle a compass needle makes is proportional to the ratio of the strengths of the two perpendicular magnetic fields. It was first described by Claude Servais Mathias Pouillet in 1837.

A tangent galvanometer consists of a coil of insulated copper wire wound on a circular non-magnetic frame. The frame is mounted vertically on a horizontal base provided with levelling screws. The coil can be rotated on a vertical axis passing through its centre. A compass box is mounted horizontally at the centre of a circular scale. It consists of a tiny, powerful magnetic needle pivoted at the centre of the coil. The magnetic needle is free to rotate in the horizontal plane. The circular scale is divided into four quadrants. Each quadrant is graduated from 0° to 90°. A long thin aluminium pointer is attached to the needle at its centre and at right angle to it. To avoid errors due to parallax a plane mirror is mounted below the compass needle.

Electricity
Measuring tools
Machines
Magnetic tape is a long and narrow strip of plastic that thin magnetic material is coated on. Nearly all recording tape is of this type, whether used for recording audio or video or computer data storage.

Magnetic tape recording uses magnetic tape which moves on a recording head. Electrical signals are fed to the recording head, inducing a pattern of magnetization similar to the signal. A playback head can then pick up the changes in magnetic field from the tape and convert it into an electrical signal.

Devices that record and playback audio and video using magnetic tape are generally called tape recorders and videotape recorders respectively. A device that stores computer data on magnetic tape can be called a tape drive, a tape unit, or a streamer. Autoloaders and tape libraries are frequently used to automate cartridge handling.

History
Magnetic tape was first invented for recording sound by Fritz Pfleumer in 1928 in Germany. Pfleumer's invention used an iron oxide(Fe2O3) powder coating on a long strip of paper.

Magnetic tape has been used for data storage for over 50 years. In this time, many advances in tape have been made. Modern magnetic tape is most commonly packaged in cartridges and cassettes. 

Today, many other technologies like CD or DVD are replacing magnetic tape. However, innovation in the technology continues and tape is still widely used.

Strength and Weakness 
When storing large amounts of data, tape can be cheaper than disk or other data storage options. Tape storage has always been used with large computer systems. Modern usage is a high capacity medium for backups and archives. As of 2019, the highest capacity tape cartridge can store 330 TB of data without using compression.

Magnetic tape data storage uses the Sequential access method for reading data. Tape has a longer access time than disk for random accesses since the deck must wind the tape to move from one location to another.

Related pages
Audio cassette
Electrical engineering
Floppy disk

Other websites 

 History of Tape Recording Technology
 VidiPax Audio Format Guide

References

 
Storage devices
A cathode is a type of electrode through which electrons move. Electrodes are an electrical conductor (usually a metal) that is connected to something that is not a metal. Electric current is a flow of charges through a conductor. There are two theories; one theory is  conventional current flow and the other is actual current flow. The anode delivers conventional (or customary) current (which travels in the opposite direction as electrons) and the cathode receives that current. This means that electrons come out of the anode and electrons go into the cathode.  

This lets an electric current go into an electrical device such as a battery or other electrical cell. It can also end in a vacuum, like in a cathode ray tube. In this case, the electrons may go into open space.

In other words, a cathode is a positive electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell. Electric current is perceived as flowing in the opposite direction that the electrons are flowing. So electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of a battery, but electric current goes out. Electrons go into the + (positive) terminal of an electrolytic cell, but electric current goes out.

An electrode through which electrons flows out of the device is termed a cathode because it is negatively charged. A cathode is a negative electrode on a battery and a negative electrode on an electrolytic cell.

Related pages
Photocathode
Cold cathode

References
How to Define Anode and Cathode

Electronic components
The electrical telegraph is a telegraph that uses electric signals. In general the term electrical telegraph refers to a signalling system where an operator makes and breaks an electrical contact with a telegraph key which results in an audible signal at the other end produced by a telegraph sounder which is interpreted and transcribed by a human operator.

Types of electrical telegraphs

Gauss-Weber telegraph and Carl Steinheil
Carl Friedrich Gauss and Wilhelm Weber installed a 1000m long wire above the town's roofs. They were allowed to do this on 6 May 1833.  Carl August Steinheil was able to build a telegraph network in 1835–1836. He installed a telegraph line along the first German railroad in 1835.

Schilling telegraph
The telegraph had a transmitting device which had a keyboard with 16 black-and-white keys. These served for switching the electric current.

Alter and the Elderton Telegraph
Dr. David Alter created it one year before the much more popular Morse telegraph was invented. Alter demonstrated it publically.

Morse telegraphs
In the United States, the telegraph was developed by Samuel Morse and Alfred Vail. Morse created an electrical telegraph in 1837. His version was a design that could transmit over long distances using poor quality wire. Vail, his assistant, developed the Morse code signalling alphabet with Morse.

Related pages 
 Telegraph

Other websites 

1837 AD Samuel Morse Invents the Electric Telegraph
The Electric Telegraph (1838–1914)
Electrical telegraph 

Postal history
History of technology
Telecommunications
Smile, it's the End of the World is the second album by pop punk band Hawk Nelson.  It was released on April 4, 2006.

Track listing
"The One Thing I Have Left" – 3:07
"The Show" – 3:13
"Bring 'Em Out" – 3:23
"Everything You Ever Wanted" – 4:04
"Something On My Mind" – 4:19
"Is Forever Enough" – 3:22
"Zero" – 4:38
"Nothing Left To Show" – 2:54
"Head On Collision" – 4:07
"Hello" – 3:00
"It's Over" – 3:06
"Fourteen" – 4:50

2006 albums
Pop punk albums
Hawk Nelson albums
Tonbridge Grammar School (or just TGS) is a well known grammar school in Tonbridge, Kent. It has about 1050 students who are 11-18 years old. The school was called Tonbridge Grammar School For Girls until 2002, when boys were allowed into the 6th form.

History 
Tonbridge Grammar School started in 1905 on the top floor of the Tonbridge Library with only 13 pupils. The teacher and headmistress was called Mrs Taylor. In 1913 the school moved to the site in Deakin Leas as the school was growing quickly and the library was not big enough.

Buildings 
These are the buildings found at TGS today:
 The Main Building/ The Hans Building
 The Technology Block ("The Tech Block")
The Old Building/The Science Building

Other websites 
 School homepage

Grammar schools in England
Kent
1905 establishments in England
The 2005 Pacific hurricane season was a slightly inactive season that produced 17 tropical cyclones. It officially started on May 15 and ended on November 30, dates which conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeast Pacific Ocean. The first  tropical cyclone, Hurricane Adrian, developed on May 17, while the last storm Tropical Depression Sixteen-E, dissipated on October 20. During the year, a total of 17 tropical cyclones, 15 tropical storms, 7 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes formed. The most intense hurricane, Hurricane Kenneth remained out over open waters for the duration of its existence. However, the remnants of the storm caused minor flooding on the Island of Hawaii. September was the most active month of the year, as 6 of the 17 tropical cyclones formed during this time. 

The pre-season forecast from the U.S. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration called for 11-15 named storms and 6-8 hurricanes, of which 2-4 were expected to attain major hurricane status.

Very few storms impacted land throughout the season. Hurricane Adrian was the only landfalling system. It struck El Salvador as a dissipating tropical depression after rapidly weakening from hurricane status. Flooding in Nicaragua caused the only fatality during the season. Tropical Storm Dora and Hurricane Hilary brought tropical storm force winds to coastal Mexico, although no damage was reported. The remnants Tropical Depression One-C caused heavy rainfall on the Island of Hawaii, peaking at 8.8 in (223.52 mm). Hawaii was also affected by the remnants of Hurricane Kenneth which also caused heavy rains on the Island of Hawaii. The combined storms caused very little damage and only one fatality.

Pacific hurricane season
Pacific hurricane seasons
Pacific hurricane season
The 2007 Pacific hurricane season was a below average Pacific hurricane season with only one major hurricane. It officially started on May 15, 2007 in the eastern Pacific, designated as the area east of 140°W, and on June 1 2007 in the central Pacific, which is between the International Date Line and 140°W, and lasted until November 30, 2007. These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Pacific basin.

The season began slowly; through the end of July, the seasonal ACE was the third lowest since the geostationary satellite era began in 1966. The inactivity continued through the next month, which was the third quietest August in terms of ACE since reliable records began in the basin in 1971. Tropical Storm Barbara in June caused $55 million (2007 USD) in crop damage in southeastern Mexico from heavy precipitation. In August, Hurricane Flossie formed in the Eastern Pacific and crossed into the Central Pacific, threatening Hawaii but causing little damage. In early September, Hurricane Henriette dropped heavy rainfall in southwest Mexico, which caused nine fatalities and $25 million (2007 USD) in damage.

Storms
Tropical Storm Alvin 
Tropical Storm Barbara 
Tropical Depression Three-E 
Tropical Depression Four-E 
Tropical Depression Five-E 
Hurricane Cosme 
Tropical Storm Dalila 
Tropical Storm Erick 
Hurricane Flossie 
Tropical Storm Gil 
Hurricane Henriette 
Hurricane Ivo 
Tropical Depression Thirteen-E 
Tropical Storm Juliette 
Tropical Storm Kiko

Storm names

Retirement

No names were retired in 2007.

References 

Pacific hurricane seasons
Pacific hurricane season
Pacific hurricane season
The Klingon language (tlhIngan Hol, ) is a language that was made for the Klingons in the Star Trek universe. It is a constructed language, not one that developed naturally. Only a few people can speak the Klingon language well enough to talk in it. The Klingon Language Institute helps people learn Klingon.

History 
The first Klingon words were made by the actor James Doohan in 1979 for the first Star Trek movie. When they made the third movie in 1984, Gene Roddenberry wanted to have a real language for the Klingons. Marc Okrand, a linguist (a language scientist) made the Klingon language. He has written some books about the Klingon language.

Grammar 
Marc Okrand wanted the language to be as complicated as possible. He did this to make it sound very alien. The word order in a sentence is always object-verb-subject. This is the opposite of English's word order, which is subject-verb-object. The English sentence "I see the cat" is said as "the cat see I" in Klingon.

This language uses affixation to denote the subject and negation:

Writing 
When writing in Klingon, some letters are always in uppercase and some are lowercase. This never changes because the letters are spoken differently when they are written differently.

References

Star Trek
Constructed languages
A chief minister is the elected head of government of a sub-national or constituent federal state. Leaders with this role are usually elected in India or Australia.

References 

Heads of government
The Government of Sindh is based in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.

Other websites
 Government of Sindh

Government
Government of Pakistan
Blizzard of Ozz is a heavy metal album by Ozzy Osbourne, recorded in Surrey, UK and released on September 20, 1980 in the UK and on January 15, 1981 in the U.S..

This is Ozzy's  first solo album. The tracks "Crazy Train" and "Mr. Crowley" were released as singles. "Crazy Train" peaked at #9 on the Mainstream Rock Charts.

Blizzard of Ozz remains Osbourne's highest-selling album to date, selling over 4.1 million copies in the U.S. alone.

The album reached #21 on Billboard's Pop Albums chart, and is on the list of the top 100 best-selling albums of the 1980s.

Track listing 
All songs written by Ozzy Osbourne, Randy Rhoads, and Bob Daisley except where noted.

Side one 
 "I Don't Know" – 5:16
 "Crazy Train" – 4:56
 "Goodbye to Romance" – 5:36
 "Dee" (Instrumental) (Rhoads) – 0:50
 "Suicide Solution" – 4:21

Side two 
 "Mr. Crowley" – 4:55
 "No Bone Movies" (Osbourne, Rhoads, Daisley, Lee Kerslake) – 3:53
 "Revelation (Mother Earth)" – 6:09
 "Steal Away (The Night)" – 3:28

2002 Bonus Track 
 "You Lookin' at Me Lookin' at You" – 4:16

Personnel 
 Ozzy Osbourne - Vocals, Harmony Vocals, Producer
 Randy Rhoads - Guitar, Producer
 Bob Daisley - Bass, Gong, backing vocals, Harmony Vocals, Producer
 Lee Kerslake - Drums, percussion, Bells, Tympani, Producer
 Robert Trujillo - Bass (2002 reissue)
 Mike Bordin - Drums (2002 reissue)

Additional personnel 
 Don Airey - Keyboards
 Rudy Sarzo - Bass
 Tommy Aldridge - Drums, Percussion

Production 
 Max Norman - Engineer

References 

1980 albums
Debut albums
Heavy metal albums
William Floyd (December 17, 1734–August 4, 1821), was a signer of the United States Declaration of Independence as a representative of New York.

In honor
There are several places and institutions named after William Floyd, they include:
the William Floyd School District in present-day Brookhaven Town, which includes William Floyd Elementary, William Floyd Middle School and William Floyd High School.

William Floyd Parkway in the Town of Brookhaven.

The town of Floyd in Oneida County. General Floyd moved into the present day hamlet of Westernville, Oneida County before his death. His final resting place in the Westernville cemetery is marked with a simple stone plaque.

the General William Floyd Elementary School in the Holland Patent School District, Onieda County. 

Among his descendants are cinematographer Floyd Crosby and rock singer David Crosby. A second cousin twice removed was Abraham Lincoln.

References 

1734 births
1821 deaths
Signers of the U.S. Declaration of Independence
Politicians from New York