cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Penicillin is a common antibiotic, used to treat bacterial infections. It was one of the first to be discovered, and worked well against staphylococci and streptococci. Many strains of bacteria are now resistant. Chemists keep changing part of its structure in the effort to keep it working against the bacteria.

Penicillin was discovered by Scottish scientist Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, but it was not mass-produced until  1940. The antibiotic is naturally produced by fungi of the genus Penicillium. There is now a whole group of antibiotics derived from Penicillium including penicillin G, procaine penicillin, benzathine penicillin, and penicillin V.

Penicillin is sometimes used to treat syphilis, tonsillitis, meningitis, and pneumonia as well as other diseases. It was first used widely during World War II.

Penicillin was discovered when Fleming noticed a mold that was stopping bacteria from growing in a petri dish.  Australian scientist Howard Walter Florey made the penicillin mold into a medicine. Together with another scientist Ernst Boris Chain, Fleming and Florey were given the Nobel Prize for Medicine in 1945.

Some people are allergic to penicillin. Symptoms include nausea, diarrhea, or rash. Rarely, patients who are allergic to penicillin get a fever, vomit, or have serious skin irritation.  Because it is such a popular antibiotic, penicillin is the most common cause of serious allergic reactions to a drug. They are now used regularly in hospitals.

Total synthesis 
Chemist John C. Sheehan at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) did the first chemical synthesis of penicillin in 1957.

References 

Antibiotics
Depleted uranium is what is left over after uranium is enriched. Enriched uranium has enough uranium-235 to be used in nuclear reactors or nuclear weapons. Depleted uranium is made up mostly of the isotope uranium-238. Uranium-238 is mildly radioactive. Uranium is very dense, or heavy for its size. Because of this, depleted uranium is used in armor piercing bullets and heavy machine guns. Its high density allows weapons to put more energy into a fired bullet which causes more damage to its targets. Bullets made from it will burn when they hit something hard, and their smoke is dangerous to breathe. 

Depleted uranium has long been been used in nuclear reactors to make plutonium for producing nuclear energy. In 2010 a new kind of "traveling wave reactor" was proposed to use it more directly.

References 

Nuclear physics
Commuting is the act of travelling from home to a workplace every day. A commuter is a person who commutes. This was uncommon until the 19th century, when the word was invented for people who used public transport daily. For many commuters, home is a suburb and work is in the inner city; but the reverse is sometimes the case and is called a reverse commute. Commuters may use other transport, such as cars or bicycles.

References

Other websites 
US Commuting Averages (2002)
Some Commuters are travelling from France to London
Platform 11 - Ireland's National Rail Commuter Group

Everyday life
Transport
Anne Redpath (1895 – 1965) was a Scottish artist. She was born in Galashiels, Scotland.

She was the daughter of a tweed designer. Her father's work had an effect on her use of colour and texture in her paintings. "I do with a spot of red or yellow in a harmony of grey, what my father did in his tweed", she said. She went to France during 1920 – 1933.

Images
 Altar in Pigna 
 National Galleries of Scotland 
 Still Life with Two Figures
 Tate Gallery

1895 births
1965 deaths
Scottish painters
A CD-RW (which stands for Compact Disc ReWritable) is a Compact disc that can be recorded and erased multiple times. It can hold data or music. Most of the time it will hold data, since many CD players can not play CD-RWs. During its development, the format was known as CD-E, which stands for Compact Disc Erasable. The standard was introduced in 1997. It replaced the less successful CD-MO.

The disk used for this is an optical disc. Phase change technology is used to write to the disk. A laser beam is used to heat a certain point of the disk. Once this point is hot, the information stored there can be changed.

According to what the manufacturers of these disks say, it is possible to record and erase such a disk up to 1000 times. They behave very much like CD-Rs, otherwise. Entire sessions can be written. As long as there is space on the disc, new sessions can be appended. To be readable in an ordinary CD drive, all sessions must be closed though.

CD-RWs never gained the popularity of CD-Rs. This is because they are more expensive to make and to buy. Also, not all CD drives can read them. Reading and writing speeds are also lower than those of pre-made CDs and CD-Rs.

Also, like with the CD-R, it is impractical (and slow) to use these disks to quickly add or remove small files. Other formats, like Zip disk, Jaz disk, Magneto-optical disks, and USB flash drives are More used for quickly reading, writing, or erasing small (sets of) files. When a deletion needs to be made, the whole CD needs to be erased.

CD-RWs (like CD-Rs) are more used for backups.  They are usually cheaper than tape-based solutions.

Depending on the method used to write, and the type of disk used, usable capacities range from about 500 to 700 megabytes.

Pretty much the same concepts are used for DVD-RWs, which have a much higher capacity.

Compact Disc
The United States presidential line of succession is the order in which government officials replace the president of the United States if the president leaves office before an elected successor is inaugurated. If the president dies, resigns or is removed from office, the vice president becomes president for the rest of the term. If the vice president is unable to serve, the speaker of the House acts as president.

Previous lines of succession 
The United States Constitution says that the vice president of the United States is the person who will replace the president if the president is not able to continue. It is very important to know who the new president will be if they are not able to serve any longer. 

The laws about succession (after the vice president) were first created in 1792. The second in line, after the vice president was the leader of the Senate.  The next in line was the speaker of the House of Representatives.  In 1868, during the impeachment trial of President Andrew Johnson, Benjamin Wade was the leader of the Senate. He almost became president, but Johnson was found not guilty by one vote. Johnson had been the vice president for Abraham Lincoln. He became president after the assassination of Lincoln. Because of Lincoln's assassination, there was no vice president at the time. 

In 1886, after the death of Vice President Thomas A. Hendricks, Congress passed a law that took out the leaders of the Senate and House of Representatives from the line of succession. The new person behind the vice president in line was Secretary of State, followed by other Cabinet members.  The leaders of the Senate and House were restored to the line of succession by the Presidential Succession Act of 1947.

Present line of succession 
Below is the current line of succession for the president of the United States:

Notes

References

Other websites 
 Ask Gleaves: Presidential Succession
 Presidential Succession Act of 1792,  1 Stat. 239
 “Presidential Line of Succession Examined”, September 20 2003
 Presidential line of succession at various times in history

Presidency of the United States
Oulu () is a city in Northern Ostrobothnia, Finland. It is the biggest city in the Northern Finland. The population of Oulu was about 193,000 in January 2014. It is the sixth largest city in Finland.

Municipalities next to Oulu are Hailuoto, Ii, Kempele, Liminka, Lumijoki, Muhos, Pudasjärvi, Tyrnävä and Utajärvi.

There is a university in Oulu. The university is one of the largest in Finland, with over 15,000 students.

Many people work in technology firms making mobile phones, computers and software.

History

Oulu was established in 1605, so it is more than 400 years old. In the old days, Oulu was famous for selling tar all over the world.

Places to visit in Oulu 

 Oulu Cathedral
 Hupisaaret Park
 The market and the old market hall

Gallery

Population growth

References

Cities in Finland
Municipalities of Northern Ostrobothnia
1600s establishments in Europe
17th-century establishments in Finland
1605 establishments
James Boswell (October 29, 1740 - May 19, 1795) was a Scottish lawyer and author. He is best known for having written the Life of Johnson, a biography of his close friend Samuel Johnson, published in 1791. In the 1920s and 1930s, a large number of his personal papers and journals were discovered. They have since then been published by Yale University.

Other websites 
 James Boswell - a guide

1740 births
1795 deaths
Scottish writers
Lolita is a novel by Vladimir Nabokov. The book was written in English. It was published in Paris in 1955. It was translated into Russian by Nabokov. The story is about the sexual relationship that develops in the United States between a middle-aged British professor and a 12-year-old girl after he becomes her stepfather. It was a very controversial book. The novel was made into a movie by Stanley Kubrick in 1962, and remade in 1997.

Related pages
 Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

Other websites 
 National Public Radio: "50 Years Later, Lolita Still Seduces Readers"
 Stanford Magazine: "The Lolita Question" 
 Slate magazine: "Lolita at 50 - Is Nabokov's masterpiece still shocking?"
 Photos of the first edition of Lolita
 Lolita USA: The itineraries of Humbert's and Lolita's two voyages across the U.S.A. 1947–1949, with maps and pictures.
 Lolita Calendar—A detailed and referenced inner chronology of Nabokov's novel.
 Zembla—A resource of the Arts & Humanities Library of the Pennsylvania State University Libraries, home of the International Vladimir Nabokov Society and its publication The Nabokovian.

1955 books
English-language novels
Incest in fiction
Russian novels
Angela Haynes (born September 27, 1984 in Bellflower, California ) is a professional tennis player from the United States. Haynes's top WTA singles ranking is World No. 95 which she got in August, 2005. Angela was ranked World No. 157, race-singles World No. 120 and World No. 171 in doubles as of November 7, 2009.

Haynes' brother, Dontia Haynes, who used to be a San Diego State University tennis player ranked among the top 100 ranked collegiate tennis players in the United States, died on September 23, 2005.

Clothing
Angela's clothes are made by Adidas. Her racquets are made by Babolat. Angela's current racquet is believed to be the Babolat Pure Storm. Angela likes to wear bandanas while playing.

Appearances
Angela appears in Top Spin 2 which is for the Xbox 360, Nintendo Game Boy, and Nintendo DS.

References

1984 births
American female tennis players
Living people
People from Irvine, California
Sportspeople from California
Vania King (born February 3 1989) is an American tennis player. She was born in Monterrey Park, California. King was ranked the 50th best player in the world in 2006.

She won her first singles title against Tamarine Tanasugarn at Bangkok, Thailand. Vania won 2-6, 6-4, 6-4. King also won the doubles title at Bangkok with partner Jelena Kostanic. King got second place with her partner Alexa Glatch at the 2005 US Open Juniors.

Other websites 
Vania King's Official Site 
Vania King profile at Juniortennis.com
Interview with Vania King

1989 births
American female tennis players
Living people
Sportspeople from California
Bottle caps are used to seal the opening of bottles. For glass bottles, these are usually small, specially adapted pieces of metal. With plastic bottles, plastic caps are used instead. 

The original bottle cap was called Crown cork. It is pressed onto the bottle, and can be removed, using a bottle opener.

In recent years bottle caps with screw on mounts are used that way, a bottle opener is no longer required.

Other websites

Tools
A gargoyle is a grotesque statue that is attached to a building. It is carved out of stone, usually granite. It is used to get water away from the building when it rains. Gargoyles are often made to look like animals or people. The collected water comes out of their mouths. Most gargoyles were made a long time ago. People used to believe that they scared away evil spirits. Many cathedrals have gargoyles.

New buildings use rain gutters instead of gargoyles to move water. There are not many gargoyles in America.

Gargoyles are often confused with grotesques. They are similar, but only gargoyles get rid of rainwater through their mouths.

Statues
Architecture
Abuja  ()  is a city in Nigeria. It is the national capital of Nigeria. Around 2.5 million people live there. Abuja is in the middle of the country, in the center of the Federal Capital Territory, Nigeria.  It replaced Lagos, the country's most populous city but very small in size, as the capital on 12 December 1991.

Abuja is a planned city, which means that architects designed it specifically to be Nigeria's capital city. Construction of the first parts of the city was finished in the late 1980s.

References 

Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Nigeria
1980s establishments in Africa
Establishments in Nigeria
Irony is a term for a figure of speech. Irony is when something happens that is opposite from what is expected. It can often be funny, but it is also used in tragedies. There are many types of irony, including those listed below:
Dramatic irony, when the audience knows something is going to happen on stage that the characters on stage do not.
Socratic irony, when someone (usually a teacher) pretends to be stupid in order to show how stupid his pupils are (while at the same time the reader or audience understand the situation).
Cosmic irony, when something that everyone thinks will happen actually happens very differently.
Situational irony e.g. Mr. Smith gets a parking ticket. This is ironic because Mr. Smith is a traffic warden.
Verbal irony is an absence of expression and intention. Sarcasm may sometimes involve verbal irony.
Irony of fate is the misfortune in the result of fate or chance.
The difference between of things seem to be or reality.

Examples
In Shakespeare's play Romeo and Juliet, Juliet takes a potion that will put her to sleep, making her look dead. She does this in the hopes of being reunited with Romeo. He incorrectly learns of her death, and kills himself. This is an example of dramatic irony, as the reader/viewer knows she is not dead, but Romeo does not.
A common example of cosmic irony could be that a child wants some kind of pudding, and misbehaves to try to get it. The parent withholds it because of the child's behavior.
Verbal irony can be found in sarcasm, but not just that.
In Sophocles' play Oedipus Rex, Oedipus acts out based on the knowledge of his fate which in turn leads to the fulfillment of the tragic fate. This is an example of how fate plays on irony.

Related pages
 Cynic
 Paradox
 Parody
 Trope

References

Comedy
Figures of speech
An assault rifle is a rifle that has a removable magazine, automatic-fire and semi-automatic modes, and uses intermediate cartridges. These cartridges do not have as much power as other rifles’, like hunting rifles or battle rifles, but have more power and penetration than pistol cartridges fired by sub-machine guns.

Two rifles made in Italy and Russia before World War I are sometimes called assault rifles. The Germans were the first to use assault rifles in large numbers. 

Examples of an 'assault rifle' are the English L85, Russian AK-47, the American M16.

The term “assault rifle” comes from the firearm Sturmgewehr 44 (StG 44), translated to “Assault Rifle 1944”. The armed forces of other sovereign states adopted assault rifles later.

Other websites
Salvador Domingo Felipe Jacinto Dalí i Domènech, 1st Marquess of Dalí of Púbol  (; ; ; 11 May 1904 – 23 January 1989) was a Spanish painter who became famous for the unusual images he used in his paintings. He was born in Figueres, Catalonia, Spain. He was a key figure in surrealist art.

His most famous work was The Persistence of Memory (1931), which is now in MoMA, the Museum of Modern Art in New York. It is a dream-like landscape with a soft, melted pocket-watch.

Dalí died of heart failure in Figueras. Salvador Dalí had a wife called Gala Dalí.

Related pages
 Surrealism

References 

Cardiovascular disease deaths in Spain
Deaths from heart failure
People from Catalonia
Spanish painters
1904 births
1989 deaths
Anne de Mowbray, Baroness Mowbray (10 December 1472 - 19 November 1481) was the daughter of John Mowbray, 4th Duke of Norfolk and Elizabeth Talbot. She was born in 1472 in Framlingham Castle, Suffolk, England. She also became Baroness Segrave.

When Anne's father died in 1476 Anne became very rich. She also became Countess of Norfolk. Anne was married to Richard of York on 15 January, 1478 in Westminster Abbey. Richard was the son of King Edward IV of England and Elizabeth Woodville. Richard's father had married him to Anne so that he could have control of her fortune. When he married Anne became known as the Duchess of York

Anne died when she was 8 years old at Greenwich, London, England in 1481. Her body was placed in a lead coffin in the Chapel of St Erasmus of Formiae in Westminster Abbey. However, when this chapel was knocked down around 1502 to make room for the Henry VII Lady Chapel, Anne's coffin became lost.

In December 1964, construction workers in Stepney, London, accidentally found Anne's coffin. It was opened and Anne's remains were looked at by scientists. Anne's body still had a shroud wrapped around her and there was still red hair on her skull. Her body was later reburied in Westminster Abbey.

References 
From The Peerage.com

1472 births
1481 deaths
People buried in Westminster Abbey
British nobility
People from Suffolk
Earls and countesses
Framlingham Castle is a castle in Framlingham, Suffolk, England.  It was once the home of the Dukes of Norfolk, and was where Anne Mowbray, 8th Countess of Norfolk was born in 1472.

Castles in England
Warwick Castle (pronounced 'Worrick') is a large castle in Warwickshire, England. It is near the town of Warwick. The castle was once the family home of the Earls of Warwick. 

There are many rooms in the castle. Some of the rooms have mannequins in them that look like real people. These are dressed in . They are used to show how people might have lived in the castle hundreds of years ago. Warwick Castle has a dungeon. One part of the castle is said to be haunted. Actors play the part of the ghost and the servant who killed him in a dramatic "Spook Experience". Lights and sounds are used to add to the effect.

The castle has a very high wall walk. It can be explored, so that visitors can see from where the guards looked for enemies. A long, steep flight of steps leads up to the highest part of the castle where the flagpole is. 

There are many paintings in the castle. There are portraits of English Kings and Queens as well as of members of the family who owned the castle. It is possible to see the private chambers, or bedrooms, where the family and their most important guests slept.

Other websites 
 Warwick Castle
 Warwick Castle in photos 

Castles in England
Edinburgh Castle is a castle in Edinburgh, Scotland. It is built on the volcanic Castle Rock in the centre of Edinburgh, and is easy to see from the main shopping streets. In 1103, Edinburgh Castle was built which makes the Castle over 900 years old. The castle has a military display every year, called a tattoo, where soldiers show their skills at marching and competitions, and there are brass bands and bands of bagpipes. 

Castles in Scotland
Buildings and structures in Edinburgh
Alfred Charles Kinsey (June 23, 1894  August 25, 1956) was an American biologist. He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey.

In the first part of his career he was an entomologist specializing in gall wasps of the family Cynipidae. Later, he became famous for the research he did on human sexuality. His research had a great influence on social and cultural values in many parts of the world. It also had an influence on the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 70s.

Kinsey and his co-workers wrote two books which became known as the Kinsey Reports. They were based on thousands of interviews with men (first report), and then women. The aim was to find out how widespread or differentiated human sexual practices were. He developed the Kinsey Scale to measure sexual orientation. On one end of the scale, at the value 0, the individual is entirely heterosexual. On the other end, at value 6, he or she has a purely homosexual orientation. Kinsey was bisexual.

Kinsey died of heart disease and pneumonia in Bloomington, Indiana.

A biopic of him, Kinsey, was released in 2004.

References 

1894 births
1956 deaths
American biologists
Bisexual people
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from pneumonia
Infectious disease deaths in the United States
LGBT people from New Jersey
LGBT scientists
LGBT writers
People from Hoboken, New Jersey
Science writers
Scientists from New Jersey
Sexologists
Sexual revolution
Ruthenium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Ru. It has the atomic number 44. It is a rare metal. It is silver white. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Ruthenium is found in platinum ores.

Ruthenium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys.

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Niobium is a chemical element. It is sometimes named columbium. It has the chemical symbol Nb. It has the atomic number 41. It is a rare metal. Niobium is soft and grey. It is ductile. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. Niobium was discovered in a variety of a mineral called columbite (now called niobite). Niobite is an ore of niobium. 

Niobium is considered a technology-critical element. It is used in alloys, such as to make special steels and strong welded joints. Less than 0.1% of Niobium significantly improves the strength of steel. It is in the superconducting alloys used in MRI scanners, which are one of the most important medical inventions of the modern age.

References 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
An explosion is a fast increase in volume and increase in energy made available.  It normally makes high temperatures and makes gases. Many natural events can make explosions, such as lightning, volcanic eruptions, meteors, and supernovae. People make explosions mostly by using chemical explosive materials. 

A chemical explosion starts pressure waves in the medium where it happens.  Explosions are categorized as deflagrations if the pressure waves are subsonic and detonations if they are supersonic.  When a detonation happens, the resulting pressure waves are named shock waves.

Unintentional explosions 
Unintentional explosions can be caused when chemicals are mixed together, or when pressurized containers or flammable materials are heated or exposed to flames. To cause an explosion, pressure does not have to be present but is always a result of an explosion.

Several safety measures are used to prevent unintentional explosions.  Many countries require that chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers that may explode be labelled with warning labels.  As well, many countries have regulations restricting the possession and use of potentially explosive materials so they will only go to appropriate industrial and research uses.  Transportation regulations require potentially explosive chemicals, fuels, and pressurized containers to be transported safely.

Intentional explosions 
Intentional explosions are caused when armies fire artillery or when air forces drop bombs on enemies.  Military engineers handle explosives and arrange intentional explosions during wartime.  Intentional explosions are also used by civilians in demolition.  They break up old and obsolete buildings and bridges, and break rock and stone for construction.  Explosions are made for activities such as mining, construction, and large-scale civil engineering projects such as building tunnels, roads, railways, and dams.

Related pages
Explosion protection

 
Safety
Military
Rhodium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol Rh. It has the atomic number 45. It is a rare metal. It is silver white and hard. In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the transition metals. It is also part of the platinum group. Rhodium is found in platinum ores.

Rhodium is used as a catalyst in some platinum alloys. It is the most expensive precious metal.

References 

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Catalysts
Indium is a chemical element. It has the chemical symbol In. It has the atomic number 49. It is a rare metal which is soft, malleable, and poor (post-transition). Indium looks like zinc. Pieces of indium can easily be joined by pushing one piece into another. The chemistry of indium is quite like aluminium or gallium. Zinc ores are the main source of indium.

The main use of indium is in the chemical compound indium tin oxide in liquid crystal displays. It is also used in very thin layers as a lubricant. In World War II it was used to coat bearings in aircraft.

Chemical elements
Metals
Francium is a chemical element with the chemical symbol Fr and an atomic number of 87.  It is a metal.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements named the alkali metals.  Francium is very radioactive.  It is in very small amounts in uranium and thorium ores.  It has the lowest electronegativity and electron affinity of all the chemical elements.

Francium reacts violently with water, as do all of the elements in group 1 on the periodic table.

Francium is one of the hardest to find elements on the planet Earth.  It is estimated that there are only about 15 grams or half an ounce in the Earth's crust at a single time.

Although chemists knew the element number 87 in the periodic table should exist, it was a long time before it was discovered.  In the early 1900s, nearly all boxes on the periodic table had been filled. Chemists knew that one element had been found to fit into each box. Francium was discovered in 1939 by a French chemist called Marguerite Perey. She named it after her home country, France.

Isotopes
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232. Francium-223 and francium-221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature.

Francium-223 is the most stable isotope, with a half-life of 21.8 minutes. Francium-223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium-227. Francium-223 then decays into radium-223 by beta decay (1.149 MeV decay energy), with a minor (0.006%) alpha decay path to astatine-219 (5.4 MeV decay energy).

Francium-221 has a half-life of 4.8 minutes. It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium-225. Francium-221 then decays into astatine-217 by alpha decay (6.457 MeV decay energy).

References 

Chemical elements
Alkali metals
Rhenium is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol Re.  It has the atomic number 75.  It is a rare metal.  It is silver white.  In chemistry it is placed in a group of metal elements called the transition metals.  The chemistry of rhenium is similar to manganese. Discovered in 1908, rhenium was the second-last stable element to be discovered ('stable' meaning not radioactive). It was named after the river Rhine in Europe.

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. These alloys contain up to 6% rhenium, making jet engine construction the largest single use for the element. The second-most important use is as a catalyst: rhenium is an excellent catalyst for hydrogenation and isomerization. 

Rhenium found as a by-product of molybdenum refinement. 

Rhenium is used in some manganese alloys.  Rhenium-molybdenum alloys are superconductors.

History 
Rhenium was discovered by Walter Noddack, Ida Noddack, and Otto Berg in Germany. In 1925, they reported that they detected the element in a platinum ore and in the mineral columbite. They also found rhenium in gadolinite and molybdenite. In 1928, they were able to remove 1 g of the element from 660 kg of molybdenite.

Characteristics 
Rhenium is a silvery-white metal. It has the third highest melting points of all elements. It is also the third densest element.

Isotopes 
Rhenium has one stable isotope which is rhenium-185. Rhenium that is found in nature is made up of 37.4% rhenium-185 and 62.6% rhenium-187. Rhenium has 33 known radioisotopes. They range from rhenium-160 to rhenium-194. The longest-lived radioisotope of rhenium is rhenium-183 which have a half-life of 70 days.

Occurence 
Rhenium is one of the rarest elements in Earth's crust. It the 77th most abundant element in the Earth's crust. Rhenium may not be found free in nature. It is found in small amounts in the mineral molybdenite.

Production 
Commercial rhenium is gotten from molybdenum roaster-flue gas. Some molybdenum ores contain 0.001% to 0.2% rhenium. Rhenium metal is made by reducing ammonium perrhenate with hydrogen at high temperatures.

Uses 

Nickel-based superalloys of rhenium are used in the combustion chambers, turbine blades, and exhaust nozzles of jet engines. Rhenium is used in superalloys, such as CMSX-4 (2nd generation) and CMSX-10 (3rd generation). These superalloys are used in industrial gas turbine engines like the GE 7FA. Rhenium filaments are used in mass spectrometers, ion gauges and photoflash lamps in photography. Rhenium-platinum alloys are used as a catalyst for catalytic reforming. Rhenium-188 and Rhenium-186 are used to treat of liver cancer.

References

Chemical elements
Metals
Transition metals
Néstor Kirchner (February 25, 1950 - October 27, 2010) was President of Argentina between 2003 and 2007. He was born in Santa Cruz Province, Patagonia, where he was governor. On May 4, 2010 he became the first Secretary General of UNASUR. He died in Calafate on October 27, 2010 from heart failure which was caused by an earlier case of a heart attack. He was elected President in 2003, preceded by Eduardo Duhalde. Kirchner's widow, Cristina Fernández de Kirchner, is the current president of Argentina.

Related pages
 Death and state funeral of Néstor Kirchner

References

Other websites 
Office of the President  

1950 births
2010 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
 
Presidents of Argentina
First Ladies and Gentlemen of Argentina
Lake Victoria or Victoria Nyanza (also known as Ukerewe and Nnalubaale) is a lake in Africa. It is bordered and governed by the countries of Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya. The lake is in the western part of Africa's Great Rift Valley. 

Lake Victoria is 68,800 square kilometres (26,560 mi²) in size. It is Africa's largest lake, and the second largest fresh water lake in the world. It was named for Queen Victoria. The White Nile flows out of the lake.

Other websites 
 Lake Victoria Citizendium

Lakes of Africa
Geography of Tanzania
Uganda
Geography of Kenya
Inflammation is the first reaction of the immune system to an infection or irritation. It is an attempt of the immune system to dispel invaders and repair the body. It can happen in many parts of the body and often involves the following five steps:

 The inflamed spot becomes red.
 The inflamed spot becomes hot.
 The inflamed spot begins to swell.
 The inflamed spot begins to feel uncomfortable.
 The inflamed spot might cause surrounding organs to dysfunction.

The first four of these reactions have been known for a long time, since antiquity. Finding them is attributed to Celsus. The last one was added by Rudolf Virchow in 1858.

There are two types of inflammation: acute and chronic. Acute inflammations are more intense but short-lived, while chronic inflammations are less intense but long-lived. Examples of acute inflammation include skin disorders (e.g., psoriasis, dandruff) and arthritis, while chronic inflammation can be responsible for diseases such as cancer, heart disease, type 2 diabetes and Alzheimer's disease. Adoption of healthy diet, physical exercise and rest are some of the ways to reduce Inflammations.

Related pages 

 Infection
 Injury

References

Other websites
Car rental is when you rent a car. The company providing you the car becomes the car rental service provider, whereas you become the car hirer, as you hire the car for a fee.

A car rental agency or a rent-a-car (car hire in British English) is a company that rents automobiles for short periods of time (ranging from a few hours to a few weeks) for a fee.

Location 
They can be found primarily located near airports or busy city areas. The internet is changing the car rental industry with companies that are now called online car rental companies. Travelers can pre-book their rental car online anywhere across the globe directly from the service providers like Hertz, Budget, Alamo, Sixt Rent a Car, Thrifty, Travelauto.com, Dollar, Enterprise Rent-A-Car and Europcar.

Purpose 
Car rental agencies are mainly for people who need a car for a short period of time, for example travellers who are out of town, people whose cars were damaged or destroyed. Car rental agencies may also rent trucks for self-moving industry

Conditions 
Car rentals are subject to many conditions which vary from one brand to another. The vehicle must be returned in a good condition and must not exceed a maximum driven distance, otherwise extra fees may be incurred. Additionally, some companies set up a minimum age for the vehicle driver, which in some cases is as high as 25, even in countries where the minimum legal age to hold a driver's license is much lower. Recent conditions have used GPS technology to limit maximum speeds or driving to specific regions.

Global market 
North America and Europe are leading the car rental market, followed by Asia-Pacific. North America is dominating the car rental market, owing to the high usage rate of car rental services by daily commuters, office-goers, and tourists in the country. Also, the growing trend of car sharing also boosts the usage of car rental in this region.

References

Automobiles
Mechanical engineering is a branch of engineering that applies the principles of Mechanics and Materials science for analysis, design, manufacturing, and maintenance of mechanical systems. It involves the production and usage of heat and mechanical power for the design, production, and operation of machines and tools. They can range from building a rocket ship down to things as small as an integrated circuit. It is one of the oldest and broadest engineering disciplines.

Notes

Engineering disciplines
Paul Leonard Newman (January 26, 1925 – September 26, 2008) was an American actor. He was born in Shaker Heights, Ohio. His mother was a Slovak; his father was a Jew who had one parent from Hungary and the other from Poland. Although Paul Newman was not a Jew by Orthodox Jewish standards he considered himself Jewish and would have been accepted as one by other Jewish movements.

He was known especially for the 1969 movie Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid. He played Butch Cassidy in the movie. He was married to actress Joanne Woodward. He died of lung cancer in 2008.

Retirement 
Newman retired from acting in May 2007. He said "You start to lose your memory, you start to lose your confidence, you start to lose your invention. So I think that's pretty much a closed book for me."

He came out of retirement to narrate the 2007 documentary movie Dale, about the life of NASCAR driver Dale Earnhardt. He also narrated the 2008 BBC documentary Meerkats: The Movie. It was recorded at a studio near his home shortly before his death. The Meerkats was the last movie credit of Newman's long career.

References

Other websites 
 
 Newman/Haas Racing
 Newman's Own
 The Hole in the Wall Gang Camp

1925 births
2008 deaths
Academy Award winning actors
American movie actors
American movie directors
American philanthropists
American television actors
Cancer deaths in Connecticut
Deaths from lung cancer
Jewish American actors
Jewish philanthropists
Kennedy Center honorees
People from Shaker Heights, Ohio
Yale University alumni
The Olympiastadion is a sports stadium in Berlin, Germany. It was built for the 1936 Olympic Games.

Events 
 1936 Summer Olympics
 1974 FIFA World Cup
 2006 FIFA World Cup
 2009 World Championships in Athletics
 Hertha BSC Berlin(Bundesliga home Stadium)

Other websites 

 Official Olympiastadion Site 

Football stadiums in Germany
Buildings and structures in Berlin
Sport in Berlin
1936 Summer Olympics
The Athens Olympic Stadium () is a sports stadium in Athens, Greece.

Events 
1997 World Championships in Athletics
2004 Summer Olympics
2006 Eurovision Song Contest(at Olympic Hall)
2007 UEFA Champions League Final

Other websites 
Official site 

Sports buildings in Greece
Buildings and structures in Athens
The 2000 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XXVII Olympiad, took place in Sydney, New South Wales, Australia from September 15, 2000 until October 1, 2000.

199 National Olympic Committees (NOCs) were in the Sydney Games. Four were in the Olympics for the first time. These were Timor-Leste, Eritrea, Micronesia and Palau.

Returned medals
Marion Jones, winner of three gold and two bronze medals for the United States, gave back her medals in October 2007.  She said she took tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), a drug that could make her run faster, from September 2000 through July 2001.

On 2 August 2008, the International Olympic Committee took the gold medal from the U.S. men's 4x400-meter relay team. Antonio Pettigrew said he used a banned substance. Besides Pettigrew other athletes used performance-enhancing drugs.  These are twins Alvin and Calvin Harrison, and Jerome Young.

On 28 April 2010, the IOC took China's bronze medal from Gymnastics.  This was for using an underage gymnast.

Venues

Sydney Olympic Park

Olympic Stadium: Ceremonies (opening/closing), Athletics, Football (final)
Sydney International Aquatic Centre: Diving, Modern Pentathlon (swimming) Swimming, Synchronised Swimming, Water Polo (medal events)
State Sports Centre: Table Tennis, Taekwondo
NSW Tennis Centre: Tennis
State Hockey Centre: Field Hockey
The Dome and Exhibition Complex: Badminton, Basketball, Gymnastics (rhythmic), Handball (final), Modern Pentathlon (fencing, shooting), Volleyball (indoor)
Sydney SuperDome: Gymnastics (artistic, trampoline), Basketball (final)
Sydney Baseball Stadium: Baseball, Modern Pentathlon (riding, running)
Sydney International Archery Park: Archery

Sydney

Sydney Convention and Exhibition Centre: Boxing, Fencing, Judo, Weightlifting, Wrestling
Sydney Entertainment Centre: Volleyball (indoor final)
Dunc Gray Velodrome: Cycling (track)
Sydney International Shooting Centre: Shooting
Sydney International Equestrian Centre: Equestrian
Sydney International Regatta Centre: Rowing, Canoeing (sprint)
Blacktown Olympic Centre: Baseball, Softball
Fairfield City Farm: Cycling (mountain biking)
Ryde Aquatic Leisure Centre: Water Polo
Penrith Whitewater Stadium: Canoeing (slalom)
Bondi Beach: Volleyball (beach)
Sydney Football Stadium: Football
Olympic Sailing Shore Base: Sailing
Centennial Parklands: Cycling (road)
Marathon course: Athletics (marathon)
North Sydney: Athletics (marathon start)
Sydney Opera House: Triathlon

Outside Sydney
Bruce Stadium, Canberra: Football
Hindmarsh Stadium, Adelaide: Football
Melbourne Cricket Ground: Football
Brisbane Cricket Ground: Football

References
The 2002 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XIX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Salt Lake City, Utah, United States from February 8 2002 to February 24 2002. There were about 2,400 athletes from 77 nations. They were in 78 events. Utah was the fifth state in the United States to host the Olympic Games.

78 National Olympic Committees sent athletes to the Salt Lake City games. Cameroon, Hong Kong (China), Nepal, Tajikistan, and Thailand were in their first Winter Olympic games.

Highlights

The Olympic Flame was lit by the members of the gold medal-winning US Hockey Team of the 1980 Winter Olympics in Lake Placid, NY.
These Olympics were the first time a United States president opened an Olympic Winter Games.
These were the first Games to be held under IOC president Jacques Rogge.
Janica Kostelić won three golds and a silver which were the first Winter Olympic medals ever for Croatia It was the first three-gold performance by a female.
Skeleton returned as a medal sport in the 2002 Games for the first time since 1948.
2002 was the first time with the Women's Bobsled Event.
China won its first and second Winter Olympic gold medals, both by women's short-track speed skater Yang Yang (A).
One of the most memorable stories of the event was at the men's short track. Australian skater Steven Bradbury was behind in the semi-final. The winning skaters crashed into each other, letting him finish second and go through to the final. Bradbury was again behind in the final. Again all four other skaters crashed out in the final turn. He won the gold medal.This was the first gold for Australia—or any other country of the Southern Hemisphere—in the Olympic Winter Games.
Australia won their second gold medal when Alisa Camplin won in Women's Aerials. This was the first ever Winter Games gold won by a woman from the Southern Hemisphere.
The Canadian men's ice hockey team defeated the American team 5–2 to claim the gold medal. This ended 50 years without the hockey gold. The Canadian women's team also defeated the American team 3–2.

 
2002 in the United States
History of Utah
Salt Lake City
Gadolinium is a chemical element.  It has the chemical symbol Gd.  It has the atomic number 64.  It is part of a group of chemical elements in the periodic table named the Lanthanides.  It is a rare earth element.  It is silvery white, malleable and ductile.

Its main uses are as chemical compounds in color televisions and nuclear magnetic resonance radio contrast agents.  In color cathode ray tube televisions (the type first produced, not flat televisions) some of the pixels are dots gadolinium compounds. When the electrons from the cathode ray tube hit the  pixels and transfer energy to the gadolinium compounds they give out light as energy.  Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) imaging is used in medicine where it is named MRI (Magnetic resonance imaging).  It is used to take picture of inside the body.  How the pictures look is changed by the gadolinium compounds and how much water is around.  It makes the images clearer because it makes the difference in the concentration of water in different parts of the body look more clear (more contrast) in the picture that is made.

Related pages
 Periodic table
 List of common elements

Other websites 
 WebElements.com - Gadolinium
 It's Elemental – Gadolinium

Chemical elements
Lanthanides
Metals
The "Grand coalition" refers to if the two biggest political parties in Germany (the SPD and the CDU) join forces together ("form a coalition").

Politics of Germany
Persephone (, Persephonē) is the goddess of the dead and queen of the underworld in ancient Greek religion and myth. She is the daughter of Zeus and Demeter and is married to the god Hades, with whom she rules over the souls of the dead. As a vegetation goddess, she presided over the bounty of the harvest as it emerged during the season of spring. 

Persephone and her mother Demeter were the central figures of the Eleusinian Mysteries, which promised initiates a reward in the afterlife. The tale of her being abducted by Hades, during which she was tricked into eating seeds from a pomegranate (the food of the dead), served to explain the cause of the seasons, and is one prominently featured in ancient Greek literature. Her symbols included the pomegranate, flowers and seeds of grain. During the summer she would rise up from the underworld to be with her mother demeter. The goddess Proserpina is her Roman counterpart. 

Greek gods and goddesses
The German Bundestag (commonly referred to as Bundestag) is the legislature of Germany. It meets in Berlin, in the Reichstag building, which was specially rebuilt ready for the Bundestag to move from Bonn.

The Bundestag has at least 598 members. Every 4 years the German people vote. After the 2017 election there were 709 members. In the election of 26 September 2021, 735 members were assigned - the base 598 seats plus 137 overhang and leveling seats. The next elections are in 2025.

A party gets seats when it gets at least 5% of the votes. Every voter has two votes, one for a person and one for a party. 299 members each represent a constituency, just as in the British House of Commons or the US House of Representatives. The other half are elected from a party list in each Land. The total number of seats a party gets depends on the number of the second "party votes" it gets.

But if a party wins more constituency seats than its share of the party votes, then it keeps those extra seats. These extra seats, or extra mandates, are the reason the Bundestag sometimes has more than 598 members. If a party gets extra mandates, the other parties get some extra seats too to make sure every party gets exactly its share of party seats. This system of giving extra mandates was changed in 2013. Before 2013, if a party won extra mandates, then it got to put more members in the Bundestag, which gave the party more influence over the Bundestag than it won in the elections. 

The Bundestag president is named Bärbel Bas. She oversees the sessions of the body.

Related pages 
 Politics of Germany#Bundestag (election results of 2013)
 German federal election, 2017

 
Politics of Germany
Parliaments
Ur was the one of the world's first cities, in Mesopotamia. It was a Sumerian city-state, founded around 3,800 BC. There are written records dating from the 26th century. Ur was once a coastal city near the mouth of the River Euphrates on the Persian Gulf. It is now well inland, south of the Euphrates on its right bank,  from Nasiriyah, Iraq.

Ziggurat 
In the Sumerian city, the Ziggurat of Ur was a skyscraper over the city. It was about 20 metres (66 feet) tall. The only level that remains today is the bottom. There were big staircases to get up and down. They tell a lot about the people who built them. Sumerians had no tools and machinery like us. They were careful brick builders. Brickmakers formed mud bricks that were perfect. After drying they took them to the site and set them in place with bitumen. Bitumen is a thick sticky black stuff. It's like asphalt, the stuff they use to pave roads. They braided reeds so they would be stronger, and hooked them up like steel cables. Later the Ziggurat became more than a place for gods. There were workshops for craftworkers. For the priests, there were temples to do worship.

Social classes 
Ur had three social classes. The richer, like government officials, priests, and soldiers, were at the top. The second level was for merchants, teachers, laborers, farmers and craftmakers. The bottom were for slaves captured in battle. Burials at Ur give insight into people's social standing. Kings and queens were buried with treasure. Since irrigation gave Ur abundant crops, not everybody needed to work on farms. People learned other skills. Sir Leonard Woolley found a tablet that listed Ur's special workers. The chisel workers made sculptures, the gem cutters made gems, and the fullers stomped on woven wools to make them soft. The metal workers made weapons.

References 

Mesopotamia