cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Antoine-Laurent de Lavoisier (26 August 1743 – 8 May 1794) was a French nobleman, chemist and biologist. He is often called the "Father of Modern Chemistry". His work is an important part of the histories of chemistry and biology. It also contributed to the beginnings of atomic theory. He was the first scientist to recognise and name the elements hydrogen and oxygen. He was executed, as were hundreds of other nobles, during the French Revolution.

Early life 
Antoine de Lavoisier began studying at the Collège Mazarin in Paris in 1754, when he was 11 years old. Collège Mazarin was one of the best secondary schools in France then. He studied to be a lawyer like his father and his grandfather. He got his degree in 1763 and practised law at the parliament; however, he really preferred scientific research to law, so he also studied chemistry, botany, astronomy, and mathematics. He got his law degree in 1763, but never practised as a lawyer. He started a career as a scientist instead.

Science career 

During his career, Lavoisier brought major changes to the study of chemistry. Much of his research was done on combustion. He is the person who explained combustion by oxidation. To prove this, Lavoisier studied the air. In order to do this, in 1776, he burned mercury in an enclosed vase. His conclusion: the air is a combination of oxygen and is not a chemical element.

He also discovered the law of conservation of mass that is nothing is lost, nothing is created, everything is transformed. It says that the mass of the final products of a chemical reaction is the same as the reactants’ ones. Today, this principle is the basis of modern chemistry.

Lavoisier, together with L. B. Guyton de Morveau, Claude-Louis Berthollet and Antoine François de Fourcroy, created the first system of chemical nomenclature in the 1780s.

POLITICAL CAREER :

While he was doing research for chemistry, Lavoisier was also working at the house. During this time, the French Revolution began in 1789. Antoine kept his position in the government. But, two years later, a new government arrived in power. This new government was suspicious of Lavoisier's great success as a scientific researcher and as a public administrator. He was accused of selling modified tobacco. He was arrested for conspiracy against the people. Even though there was no proof that showed that Antoine de Lavoisier broke the law, he was sentenced to death on 8 May 1794. He was executed using the guillotine.

References 

1743 births
1794 deaths
French chemists
French biologists
People executed by decapitation
Scientists from Paris
The Tequila Sunrise is an alcoholic cocktail made using tequila. Mexico is known for having Tequila in its bars. It is named afer the way it looks when it is poured into a glass, similar to the sky at sunrise. 

Alcoholic drink
Daisy Duck is a cartoon character created in 1940 at Walt Disney Animation Studios. Daisy is the girlfriend of Donald Duck. She is characterized by her big ribbon on her head. Her best friend is Minnie Mouse. Minnie Mouse is Mickey Mouse's girlfriend. 

Daisy made her official debut (an earlier love interest for Donald called Donna was introduced in the 1937 short 'Don Donald') in the 1940 short Mr. Duck Steps Out.

She likes shopping and she is a showboat. Daisy Duck is popular among women though she has made relatively few appearances in media compared to Mickey Mouse and Donald Duck..

Related pages
 Walt Disney Pictures
 List of Disney movies

Fictional characters introduced in 1940
Duck, Daisy
Duck, Daisy
This is The Hockey News top 100 National Hockey League players of all-time. The Hockey News is a newspaper that write about ice hockey. This list is included in the book The Top 100 NHL Players of All-Time ().

Judges 
The judges who helped make the selections for this list included writers, journalists, and broadcasters (Don Cherry, John Davidson, Milt Dunnell, Stan Fischler, Dick Irvin, Brian McFarlane, Bob McKenzie, Jim Matheson, Harry Neale, Frank Orr), as well as coaches, referees, general managers, and former players (Al Arbour, Scotty Bowman, Emile Francis, Howie Meeker, Scotty Morrison, Roger Neilson, Bud Poile, Sam Pollock, Marcel Pronovost, Billy Reay, Glen Sather, Harry Sinden, Red Storey).

The list 
Players in boldface were active when the list was published in early 1998.  Flags of players born outside of Canada (regardless of nationality) are included next to their names.
 Wayne Gretzky
 Bobby Orr
 Gordie Howe
 Mario Lemieux
 Maurice Richard
 Doug Harvey
 Jean Beliveau
 Bobby Hull
 Terry Sawchuk
 Eddie Shore
 Guy Lafleur
 Mark Messier
 Jacques Plante
 Ray Bourque
 Howie Morenz
 Glenn Hall
 Stan Mikita  
 Phil Esposito
 Denis Potvin
 Mike Bossy
 Ted Lindsay
 Patrick Roy
 Red Kelly
 Bobby Clarke
 Larry Robinson
 Ken Dryden
 Frank Mahovlich
 Milt Schmidt
 Paul Coffey
 Henri Richard
 Bryan Trottier
 Dickie Moore
 Newsy Lalonde
 Syl Apps
 Bill Durnan 
 Charlie Conacher
 Jaromir Jagr  
 Marcel Dionne
 Joe Malone
 Chris Chelios  
 Dit Clapper
 Bernie Geoffrion
 Tim Horton
 Bill Cook
 Johnny Bucyk
 George Hainsworth
 Gilbert Perreault
 Max Bentley
 Brad Park
 Jari Kurri  
 Nels Stewart
 King Clancy
 Bill Cowley
 Eric Lindros
 Busher Jackson
 Peter Stastny  
 Ted Kennedy
 Andy Bathgate
 Pierre Pilote
 Turk Broda
 Frank Boucher
 Cy Denneny
 Bernie Parent
 Brett Hull
 Aurel Joliat
 Toe Blake
 Frank Brimsek  
 Elmer Lach
 Dave Keon 
 Grant Fuhr
 Brian Leetch 
 Earl Seibert
 Doug Bentley''
 Borje Salming  
 Georges Vezina
 Charlie Gardiner
 Clint Benedict
 Steve Yzerman
 Tony Esposito
 Billy Smith
 Serge Savard
 Alex Delvecchio
 Babe Dye
 Lorne Chabot
 Sid Abel
 Bob Gainey
 Johnny Bower
 Sprague Cleghorn
 Mike Gartner
 Norm Ullman
 Sweeney Schriner  
 Joe Primeau
 Darryl Sittler
 Joe Sakic
 Dominik Hasek  
 Babe Pratt
 Jack Stewart
 Yvan Cournoyer
 Bill Gadsby
 Frank Nighbor

Notes

Lists of ice hockey players

en:The Hockey News#All-time NHL player rankings
The James Norris Memorial Trophy is given out to the National Hockey League's best "defense player who demonstrates throughout the season the greatest all-round ability in the position". The James Norris Memorial Trophy has been awarded 53 times to 22 different players since it was first created in 1954. At the end of each season, members of the Professional Hockey Writers' Association vote to decide the player who was the best defenseman during the regular season.

History
The trophy is named in honour of James E. Norris, owner of the National Hockey League's Detroit Red Wings from 1932 to 1952. The trophy was first awarded at the end of the 1953–54 NHL season. 

Bobby Orr of the Boston Bruins won the award for a record eight seasons in a row (1968–75). Doug Harvey and Nicklas Lidström has won the award seven times, while Ray Bourque has won it five times during his career. The Boston Bruins have won the most Norris Trophies with 14. The Montreal Canadiens are second with 11.

There are only two players that have won both the Norris and Hart Memorial Trophy for the same season: Bobby Orr, who won both trophies for the 1969–70, 1970–71 and 1971–72 seasons, and Chris Pronger, who won the Hart and Norris for the 1999–2000 NHL season.

Seven different defensemen won the Hart Trophy before the Norris Trophy's establishment: Billy Burch, Eddie Shore (four times), Herb Gardiner, Albert "Babe" Siebert, Ebbie Goodfellow, Tommy Anderson and Babe Pratt.

The voting is done at the end of the regular season by members of the Professional Hockey Writers Association, and each voter picks their top five candidates on a 10–7–5–3–1 points system. Three finalists are named and the trophy is awarded at the NHL awards ceremony after the end of the playoffs.

Winners

Related pages
List of NHL players
List of NHL statistical leaders

References
General
James Norris Memorial Trophy history at NHL.com
James Norris Memorial Trophy history at Legends of Hockey.net

Specific

National Hockey League trophies and awards
Colossians is the fifty-first book in the Christian Bible, and the twelfth in the New Testament.

Author  
This book has been long thought to have been written by the Apostle Paul to the Christians in Colossae, a small Phrygian city in modern day Turkey. Some modern scholars think it was written by a follower of Paul based on how it describes Jesus.  They believe those ideas took some time to be thought out. It is not as certain that Paul wrote this letter as it is with his other letters.

Date 
The letter may have been written by Paul at Rome when he was in jail the first time. Other scholars have suggested that it was written from Caesarea or Ephesus. This could have been about 62 A.D.,but it could have been later.

Content 
The letter to the Colossians says that Jesus Christ is over the entire created universe and tells Christians to lead godly lives. The letter consists of two parts: first a teaching section, then a second section about how to live. Some believe that the letter was needed to warn about growing heresy in the church. In both parts of the letter are warnings about false teachers who have been teaching wrong things to the people. Others see both sections of the letter as mainly about encouraging and teaching a growing church.

In the first two chapters the letter strongly says that Christ is over all that has been created. All things were created through him and for him, and the universe is kept by him. God had chosen to fully live in Christ. The "cosmic powers" honored by the false teachers had been defeated at Christ's death. Christ is the master of all angels and the head of the church. Christ is the only one who can be a go between with God and humans. It is the Father (God) in Colossians who is said to have saved us from darkness and put us in the kingdom of His well loved Son, Jesus also in some way restores all of the created world as well ("all things, whether things on earth or things in heaven").

The second part of the letter, chapters 3 and 4, tells the Christians how to live based on what they know about Jesus.  They are told to think about things that are above, to kill the bad desires of their old nature, and to put on the new (Christian) person. Many special duties of the Christian life are also taught.  These show that we are true Christians. The letter ends with prayer, instruction, and greetings.

References

Other websites 
Colossians (KJV)
Colossians (NIV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
Bernhard Rensch (21 January 1900 – 4 April 1990) was a German evolutionary biologist, and ornithologist who did field work in Indonesia and India. He is probably best known as one of the architects of the modern evolutionary synthesis, which he popularised in Germany. His work on the evolution of geographically isolated populations, and on evolution above the species level, contributed to the modern synthesis. He also worked extensively on animal behavior (ethology).

Rensch's education and scientific work was interrupted by service in the German military during both World War I and World War II. His autobiography, published later in life, translates as 'Life of a biologist in a turbulent century'.<ref>Rensch B. 1979. Lebensweg eines Biologen in einem turbulenten Jahrenhundert. A short memorial was published in Verh. Dtsch. Zool. Ges.
83:673-675 (1990).</ref>

Works
This is a select list of books alone and includes English translations.
(1930) Eine biologische Reise nach den kleinen Sunda-Inseln. Berlin: Bornträger
(1947) 
(1947) Evolution above the Species Level. London: Methuen. (German original 1947; 3rd enlarged ed. 1972.)
(1971) Biophilosophy. New York: Columbia University Press. (German original 1968.)
(1972) Homo sapiens: From Man to Demigod. London: Methuen. (German original 1959.)
(1973) Gedächtnis, Begriffsbildung und Planhandlungen bei Tieren. Berlin: Parey.
(1979) Lebensweg eines Biologen in einem turbulenten Jahrhundert. Stuttgart: Fischer.
(1979) Gesetzlichkeit, psychophysischer Zusammenhang, Willensfreiheit und Ethik. Berlin: Duncker and Humblot.
(1984) Psychologische Grundlagen der Wertung bildender Kunst. Essen: Die blaue Eule.
(1985) Biophilosophical Implications of Inorganic and Organismic Evolution''. Essen: Die blaue Eule.

References 

German evolutionary biologists
Autobiographers
Ornithologists
1900 births
1990 deaths
Kinect is a device that was made by Microsoft for the Xbox 360 and Xbox One. Kinect uses cameras and a special microphone to see and hear Xbox 360/One users. The device also uses equations to know what is a person and what is not. It was first shown at E3 in Los Angeles in May of 2009. It has won many awards. Kinect allows a user to move his or her body to control games, movies, and more. People can move their hand to go through menus, or they can use their whole body to control a body in a game. Kinect is special because it is the first way to play games that does not use a controller.

Kinect was released to retail stores in late 2010. The retail price is $149.99 and the Kinect is also optionally bundled with a new Xbox 360 S model that includes a game called Kinect Adventures!. Microsoft has said they will advertise it almost like a new video game console. They want Kinect to increase the time that people make games for Xbox 360 before a new video game console is made. In the future, Microsoft hopes Kinect starts a new idea of people using televisions, computers, and games with their hands and voices. PlayStation Move, which is for the PlayStation 3 console, is Kinect's main competitor.

The Kinect was named the "Fastest selling consumer electronics device" by the Guinness World Records, selling an average of 133,333 kinects per day with a total of 8 million units in its first 60 days.

A new version of the Kinect sensor was released with the Xbox One, which was released on November 22, 2013.

However, on October 2017, Microsoft stopped making Xbox One Kinect devices and the Xbox One Kinect doesn't want to work for Xbox One dashboard anymore, but only works for games.

Following the discontinuation of the Xbox line of Kinect sensors, Microsoft released a non-gaming version as the Azure Kinect, which uses Microsoft Azure cloud computing applications.

References

 USPAT 20100225746 REFERENCE IMAGE TECHNIQUES FOR THREE-DIMENSIONAL SENSING
 USPAT 20100118123 DEPTH MAPPING USING PROJECTED PATTERNS

Other websites
the Kinect on Xbox.com

Video game technology
Kevin Clash (born September 17, 1960) is an American puppeteer and voice actor. Clash currently performs Elmo on Sesame Street. He has also performed Splinter from Teenage Mutant Ninja Turtles, Clifford from Muppets Tonight, and Baby Dinosaur from Dinosaurs. Mr. Clash is an important part of Sesame Street Workshop. He often performs Elmo in hospitals for sick children. Mr. Clash is well known for his ability to improvise.

Filmography

1960 births
Living people
American voice actors
American puppeteers
An atomic clock is a clock that works with atoms, as opposed to most other clocks which are mechanical. The frequency comes from the crossing radiation of electrons. Atomic clocks are currently the most exact clocks of the world. They are also called primary clocks.

Most clocks know the time  because they count how many times something moves back and forth. Atomic clocks count how many times an atom wiggles back and forth.

Worldwide, there are over 260 atomic clocks at over 60 different places. All data is collected at the International Bureau of Weights and Measures in Paris, France. The International Atomic Time is calculated there.

The basics were developed by Isidor Isaac Rabi. He was an American physicist at Columbia University. He got the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1944.

References

Clocks
Physics
Typography is the practical art of arranging how the printed word appears on the page. Typography was born when print was born. Early types were based on the letterforms of scribes, and the letters cut into Trajan's Column ("monumental inscriptions"). Later, gradually, type designs were based on the special needs of books, pamphlets, newspapers and advertisements.

Typography includes not only letters, but all the set of symbols in a font, and it includes the overall design of a page or document. It applies to any medium which may be read; therefore it includes text on computer screens. A typographer may design type, select fonts, and design the layout of pages and books. The term does not cover the act of printing itself, though many of the early printers were themselves typographers.

Typography in the 20th century was greatly influenced by three things:
Modernism and the modern art movement.
Information about the effectiveness of typography and design. Some of this comes from formal 'scientific' experiments, but most comes from commercial sources. Naturally, sales results before and after a book or magazine redesign are compared. A redesign of the typography on the jacket of a book (Roget's Thesaurus) "nearly doubled the sales". Typographers themselves carry out mini-experiments to test alternatives. This is an extension of scientific method to what is, at heart, an artistic process. 
The development of modern computer technology, which affected type design, and changed printing methods.

A traditional aim of the typographer would be to produce a page which is, above all, legible and attractive to read, without its being obtrusive. For display typography, such as advertising, the display must be noticed before it is read. This had led to the development of many display typefaces which are highly visible, and which are available in large sizes.

Related pages 
 Printing
 Typeface
 Writing
 Calligraphy

References 

 
Graphics
Communication
Book terminology
History of printing
A cape can mean any outer piece of clothing that has no sleeves. However, it usually it is long and covers only the back half of the wearer, It fastens around the neck. Capes were common in medieval Europe, especially when combined with a hood. Capes have had periodic returns to fashion. Roman Catholic clergy wear a type of cape known as a ferraiolo, which is worn for formal events. Capes are often used as rain wear in various military units and police forces. In modern times, comic-book super-heroes, such as Superman and Batman, are often shown wearing capes.

Clothing
Cabell "Cab" Calloway III (December 25, 1907 – November 18, 1994) was an American jazz musician and actor. He was famous for his "scat" style singing. He was the leader of one of the most famous big bands in the 1930s and 1940s. Calloway's band featured many famous musicians including Dizzy Gillespie.

In 1931 he recorded his most famous song, '"Minnie the Moocher."'

In his later career Calloway became a popular actor in movies and stage shows. In 1980 he acted and sang in the movie "The Blues Brothers." In the movie he sang "Minnie the Moocher." He sang the song "The Jumpin' Jive" on the famous children's TV show Sesame Street.

In May 1994, Calloway suffered a stroke. He died six months later on November 18, 1994.

Other websites

The Official Cab Calloway website

1907 births
1994 deaths
Deaths from stroke
Musicians from New York
Singers from New York
Grammy Award winners
People from Rochester, New York
The Stranger (sometimes known as The Outsider) is an existentialist novel written by French writer Albert Camus. It was written in 1942.

The title is "L'Etranger" in French. It discusses philosophical ideas.

Related pages

 Le Monde's 100 Books of the Century

1942 books
French novels
French literature
In music, a whip or slapstick is a percussion instrument.  It consists of two pieces of wood joined by a hinge.  The pieces of wood are slapped together. This makes a noise like a whip.   There is a handle on each of the pieces of wood so that the player can hold it and slap them together without trapping his fingers.

The whip is often heard in modern orchestras, bands and percussion groups.  Examples of a whip in classical music can be heard at the beginning of Ravel's Piano Concerto in G Major (1st movement), and in Britten's Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra.

There is another type of whip, in which one plank is longer than the other.  It can be played with one hand.  The player shakes the instrument quickly and the small plank moves away from the large one, then slaps back onto it.  It makes a different kind of sound from the whip, and is properly called a slapstick.   It has been used by several composers including Mahler, Richard Strauss, Ravel, Mussorgsky and Hindemith. The first whip was designed in the 14th century.

References
The Illustrated Encyclopedia of Musical Instruments published by Konemann, 

Percussion instruments
The First Epistle to the Thessalonians is the fifty-second book in the Christian Bible, and the thirteenth in the New Testament.

This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to a church in Thessalonica in modern-day Greece. It is likely the first of Paul's letters, probably written by the end of AD 52 (however, some scholars believe the Epistle to Galatians may have been written at an earlier date: AD 48).

Composition
Most New Testament scholars believe Paul wrote this letter from Corinth, most of the letter has personal information, with only the last two chapters teaching things about what Christians are to believe. Paul's main goal is to encourage and reassure the Christians there. Paul tells them to go on working quietly while waiting in hope for the return of Christ.  Paul also teaches that the dead will be resurrected prior to those still living, and both groups will greet the Lord (Jesus) in the air. These verses are often read at funerals of Christians to comfort their families.

Unlike later Pauline epistles, 1 Thessalonians does not focus on faith or questions of Jewish–Gentile relations, things that are covered in all his other letters. Many scholars see this as an indication that this letter was written before the Epistle to the Galatians, where Paul's teaching on these matters were given.

References

Other websites 
I Thessalonians (NIV)
I Thessalonians (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The Second Epistle to the Thessalonians is the fifty-third book in the Christian Bible, and the fourteenth in the New Testament.

Why it was written
This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to a church in Thessalonica a part of ancient Greece.  Thessalonica was the second city in Europe where Paul taught and left a Christian church. After the first letter was sent, probably soon, some of the Thessalonians were not sure that those who had died would share in the Second Coming of Jesus. This letter was written to answer this concern.

When it was written
Many believe it was written around 51–52 AD, shortly after the First Epistle. Others think a date of around 80–115 AD is more likely. These are scholars who say that the second letter is quite different from the First Epistle to the Thessalonians and may have been written by someone else.  Those who believe Paul wrote Second Thessalonians also note how Paul signed it himself: "I, Paul, write this greeting with my own hand, which is how I write in every letter.".

What was written in the letter

The first part of the letter praises this church for keeping their faith even though others were against them.

The letter has a whole chapter mainly about the Second Coming of Christ. Someone had told the Thessalonians that Christ had already returned. Paul says this is not true. (chapter 2, verses 1 to 12),  He tells the Thessalonians that a great tribulation (time of trouble) must occur before Christ's return. Since this  has not yet happened, Christ cannot have returned yet. He then gives thanks that his readers were chosen by God for salvation and saved by His grace through faith, and so would not be deceived by false teachings. (Chapter 2, verses 13 and14)

The letter then tells the Thessalonian church to stand firm in their faith, and to "keep away from every brother who leads an unruly(evil) life and not according to the tradition which you received from us... do not associate (stay) with him, so that he will be put to shame. Yet do not regard him as an enemy, but admonish him as a brother" (Chapter 3, verses 6,7, 14 and 15).

How people have used the teachings of this letter

A passage from this book reading "For even when we were with you, this we commanded you, that if any would not work, neither should he eat", (Chapter 3, verse 10), was later adapted by Vladimir Lenin as an rule of the Soviet Union, "He who does not work, neither shall he eat" .

Christian groups who work with poor people sometimes also use the verse to help people to help themselves instead of just taking help from others. They try to help them find a job instead of just giving them food.

References

Other websites 
II Thessalonians (NIV)
II Thessalonians (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The First Epistle to the Timothy is the fifty-fourth book in the Christian Bible, and the fifteenth in the New Testament. 

This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Timothy. It  is one of three letters in the New Testament of the Bible that are called the Pastoral Epistles, along with Second Timothy and Titus. These letters are called "pastoral", because the are sent to persons who are pastors of Christian churches.Timothy was a pastor in Ephesus (Chapter 1, verse 3). The letter gives advice on the organization of the Church and how the leaders in it should act. They are also told to be faithful to the truth even though all around them were false ideas.

Background
For many years Paul was a mentor to Timothy. Timothy is first mentioned in chapter 16 of the Book of Acts. His mother Eunice, and his grandmother, Lois, are mentioned in 2 Timothy Chapter 1, verse 5. All that we know of his father is that he was a Greek, not a Jew.

Paul's second visit to Lystra, a city in Asia Minor is when Timothy first met Paul; (). Paul not only brought Timothy into the faith but he was Timothy’s main mentor in Christian leadership (). They preached and started churches together. Timothy would have received his authority to preach in churches directly from Paul who of course was the greater known and accepted of the two and an apostle.

Content of the letter

The most important things in the letter are the use of The Law (), warnings against false teachings, instructions for prayer (), roles of women in the church, qualifications for leaders of the church (), and the treatment of widows, elders, masters, youth, and church members in general. The verse about women teaching, Chapter 2,verse 12 is much talked about in churches that do or do not allow women to be pastors.  There are many different ideas about what this verse means.

Other websites 
 I Timothy (NIV)
 I Timothy (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The Second Epistle to the Timothy is the fifty-fifth book in the Christian Bible, and the sixteenth in the New Testament. 

This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Timothy. It is thought to be the last letter Paul wrote before his death although some think is was written by one of Paul's followers some time after his death.

Content

In the letter, Paul tells Timothy not to have a "spirit of fear" and not to "be ashamed to talk openly about our Lord (Jesus)" (Chapter 1, verses 7 and 8). He also tells Timothy to come to visit him before winter, and to bring Mark with him (cf. Philippians Chapter 2, verse 22).  He thought that "the time of his death was at hand" (Chapter 4 ,verse 6), and he tells his "son Timothy" to work hard and be strong in the face of false teachings, and to be faithful in all the duties of his office of pastor (Chapter 4, verses 1 to 5), knowing that he would someday stand before the Judge of the living and the dead (God).

Paul thinks he will soon be killed and talks about that. In Chapter 4, verses 6 to 8 he writes "For I am now ready to be offered, and the time of my departure is at hand.  I have fought a good fight, I have finished my course(race), I have kept the faith: in the future there is laid up for me a crown of righteousness, which the Lord, the righteous judge, shall give me at that day: and not to me only, but unto all them also that love his appearing."

Other websites 
 II Timothy (NIV)
 II Timothy (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The Epistle to Titus is the fifty-sixth book in the Christian Bible, and the seventeenth in the New Testament. This book is believed to a letter from the Apostle Paul to Titus. Titus was a pastor and church leader.  The letter tells what church leaders should be like and lists their duties.  These leaders are called elders and bishops. This letter is one of three "Pastoral epistles"  since it was sent to a pastor and is mainly about pastors.

Who was Titus?
Titus was mentioned in Galatians (Chapter 2, verses 1 and 3) where Paul wrote of going to Jerusalem with Barnabas, along with Titus. He was then sent to Corinth, Greece, where he helped the Christians there to follow Paul's teachings. Titus was later left on the island of Crete to help organize the Church, and later met back with the Apostle Paul in Nicopolis. He soon went to Dalmatia (now Croatia). Then he served as the first bishop of Crete.

Content of the letter

False teachers
In Chapter 1, verse 9, Paul says that some among the Jewish Christians are false teachers. Paul says the false teachers are rebellious, empty talkers who claim to teach the law "without understanding" They cause the Christians to believe false things. Calvin wrote that vain (empty) talking (Greek: mataiologia) is not the same as useful doctrine. The false teachings don't help people to show piety and fear of God.

How different groups should act

In Chapter 2, Paul tells how the people in the church should act. He talks about older men, older women, younger women, young men, and slaves.  Each group is given their proper way to live. All are told to live for God while they wait for the return of Jesus who died to buy us back from evil living and make us into good people.

More about right living

Chapter 3 tells the Christians to obey the government leaders and to live a good life and be gentle.  The adds that Jesus has saved us not because of the good things we had done, but through his grace and mercy and now wants to make us into people always who do good things. The letter ends with a final warning against those who stir up fights and some personal greetings.

Epimenides paradox

In the Epistle to Titus it says in chapter 1 verse 12 and 13 "One of the Cretans, a prophet of their own, said, 'Cretans are always liars'". This is called a logical paradox since if a member of a group says that all members of the group are liars we can't know if what he says is true since he must also be a liar. Students of logic think about this and try to find an answer. The one who said this was Epimenides, so it is named for him.

References

Other websites 
Titus (NIV)
Titus (KJV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The Epistle to Philemon is the fifty-seventh book in the Christian Bible, and the eighteenth in the New Testament. Almost everyone agrees that letter was written by the Saint Paul to Philemon. It is the shortest of Paul's letters, consisting of only 335 words in the Greek text.

Why Paul wrote the letter

Paul wrote this letter on behalf of Onesimus, who may have been a runaway slave who had wronged his owner Philemon. We don't know what Onesimus had done, but perhaps he ran away after stealing money. Paul says in verse 18 that if Onesimus owes anything, Philemon should charge it to Paul's account. It is thought that Philemon lived in Colossae; in the letter to the Colossians, Onesimus (the slave who fled from Philemon) and Archippus (whom Paul greets in the letter to Philemon) are said to be members of the church there.

Paul says that Onesimus has been very helpful to him while he was in prison in Rome.  He would like for Philemon to free him and send him back to Rome.  Paul says that Philemon should receive him not as a slave but as a brother. Paul did not seem to think that Onesimus should be punished, even though Roman law allowed the owner of a runaway slave to punish or even kill them.

Importance

Some see this letter as a step towards thinking of slaves as fully human. Before Paul, Ruden argues, a slave was considered subhuman, and entitled to no more consideration than an animal.  Others think that Paul and the early Christians should have done more to combat the evil of slavery. In history, some Christians used the book to justify slavery. Pope Benedict XVI refers to this letter in the Encyclic, Spe salvi, to tell of the power of Christianity to improve society. He says that Christianity was very important to the large decrease of slavery during the Middle Ages and after.

References

Notes 

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
The First Epistle of Peter is the sixtieth book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-first in the New Testament.  This book is believed to be a letter from Peter to fellow Christians. The traditional Roman Catholic belief is that was written during his time as Bishop of Rome or Bishop of Antioch but that is not said in the letter, which says that it was written from Babylon. In the Book of Revelation Babylon is used as a code word for Rome. The letter was sent to Christian churches in Asia Minor that were being persecuted for their faith.

Who sent the letter

Many students of the book believe that Peter was not the author of the letter because it seems been written by someone who had learned rhetoric and philosophy, and had studied the Greek language, none of which would be usual for a Galilean fisherman. Others believe that Peter used an educated secretary to help him write the letter or that he studied relevant subjects in the decades-long period between Jesus' death and Peter's writing of the letter.

To whom it was sent

1 Peter was sent to the “elect resident aliens” living in Pontus, Galatia, Cappadocia, Asia, and Bithynia. These were Roman provinces in Asia Minor. In Chapter 1, verse 17, they are told to “live in reverent fear during the time of your exile". Peter calls them "strangers", in the first verse of the letter.  This could mean Christians wishing for their home in heaven, or people in a different place from where they were born. While local people may have been unkind to the Christians, Peter tells them to stay loyal to both their religion and the Roman Empire (Chapter 2, verse 17).

What Peter tells the Christians
 
(1) to keep faithful even when other treat them badly. (Chapters 1 and 2) 
(2) to live a holy life in every day ways. (Chapter 2 and 3)
(3) He uses the example of Jesus Christ and other reasons to be patient and holy in Chapters 3 and 4.
(4) He concludes with advice to pastors and people (Chapter 5).

References

Other websites 
I Peter (NIV)
I Peter (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
The Second Epistle of Peter is the 61st book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-second in the New Testament. This book is believed to be a letter from Peter, who was a disciple of Jesus.

When it was written

Since Peter was killed in about 69 A.D. by Nero, the emperor of Rome, if Peter is the author it was written about 65 to 69 A.D.  In the letter the writer says,  ("since I know that the putting off of my body will be soon, as our Lord Jesus Christ made clear to me").  Chapter 1, verse 14  Some think that the book was written by a later unnamed follower of Peter, and it could have been any time between 60 and 160 A.D. In both ancient and modern times, people have disagreed about this but the letter was finally accepted as part of the Bible by most Christians.

The content of the letter

In both content and style this letter is very different from 1 Peter.

The epistle mentions many verses in the Old Testament. In Chapter 3, verses 15 and 16 one of Paul's letters is mentioned. This is probably 1 Thessalonians chapters 4 and 5. Peter calls Paul's writings scripture and mentions that they are hard to understand so that some people try to change their meaning.

The letter begins with a greeting. Next the writer tells the Christians to live a good life of faith, knowledge, self control, and love. In Chapter 2, there are warnings about false teachers.  In Chapter 3 are teachings about the Second Coming of Jesus. The letter ends by saying again that the Christians should live properly. Then there is a final blessing.

References

Other websites 
II Peter (NIV)
II Peter (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
The First Epistle of John is the sixty-second book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-third in the New Testament.

This book is believed to a letter from John.

There is some disagreement over whether the John who wrote the letters of John, the John who wrote The Gospel of John, and the John who wrote the Book of Revelation are the same person.

This letter was probably written in Ephesus in AD 95–110. It was written to show that Jesus really came "in the flesh", and not only as a spirit, as some false teachers were saying. John says they are "anti-Christ", meaning against Christ. This false teaching is known as docetism. It says that Jesus only seemed to be a human person with a real body. John's letter says that Christians can tell if teachers are true. True teachers will say that say that Jesus came in the flesh. True teachers are also known by their ethics, and by their love.

John wrote the letter so that the joy of his readers would "be full" (Chapter 1, verse 4).
Also he says that as true Christians they would "not practice sin" (keep sinning) (Chapter 2, verse 1); that "we should love one another" (Chapter 3, verse 11); and that "you who believe in the name of the Son of God... may know that you have eternal life." (Chapter 5, verse 13). So we see that the aim of the letter was to make the Christians more full of joy, and also to help readers to know if they are really saved.

References

Other websites 
I John (NIV)
I John (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
The Second Epistle of John is the sixty-third book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-fourth in the New Testament. This book is believed to a short letter from John. In number of verses, it is the shortest book in the bible.

There is some disagreement over whether the John who wrote the letters of John, the John who wrote The Gospel of John, and the John who wrote the Book of Revelation are the same person.

To whom it is written

The letter is sent to "the elect lady and her children" (some bibles translate this phrase as "elder lady and her children"), and closes with the words, "The children of your chosen sister greet you."

The lady has often been seen as a picture of the church, the church being the body of Christians as a whole and as local congregations. It is also possible the letter was sent to a real lady who John knew, and the children are real children, not members of the church.

What is written

What this letter says is similar to the Third Epistle of John.  The traditional view is that all the letters are by the hand of John the Apostle, and the language and words used and arguments made all seem to support this idea.

The letter also warns against people who say that Jesus was not a flesh-and-blood figure: "For many deceivers are entered into the world, who say that Jesus Christ has not come in the flesh." This shows that, from the time the epistle was first written, there were those who had docetic ideas about Jesus, believing that the human person of Jesus was really a pure spirit or did not come at all. John says that these people are deceivers and even calls them Antichrist that is against Christ. He says Christians should not receive such people.

References

Other websites 
II John (NIV)
I John (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
The Third Epistle of John is the sixty-fourth book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-fifth in the New Testament. This book is believed to a short letter from John. In number of verses, it is the shortest book in the bible, except for Second John.

There is some disagreement over whether the John who wrote the letters of John, the John who wrote The Gospel of John, and the John who wrote the Book of Revelation are the same person.

To whom it is written 

This book is believed to a letter from John to his friend Gaius.

What is written

What this letter says is similar to the Second Epistle of John.  The traditional view is that all the letters are by the hand of John the Apostle, and the language and words used and arguments made all seem to support this idea.

The letter commends Gaius for keeping strong in his faith in Jesus.  It tells Gaius to help people who are working along with him to spread the gospel message.  It says that Diotrephes doesn't like John's message and John hopes to come to visit and to tell others that Diotrephes is wrong when he doesn't accept the Christian message and people who are telling that message.  John also says that Demetrius is living properly.  We don't know much about either of these men.

References

Other websites 
III John (NIV)
III John (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
The Epistle of Jude is the sixty-fifth book in the Christian Bible, and the twenty-sixth in the New Testament. It is one of the shortest books in the Bible, at only 25 verses long.

Who wrote it

The writer calls himself Jude.  This may not be the same person as Jude the Apostle. This Jude calls himself a brother of James, who was a leader in the church at Jerusalem.  Both Jude and James were probably half brothers of Jesus. They did not believe that he was the Christ, until after the Resurrection. (John chapter 7, verse 5)  The book may have been written between 60 and 80 A.D. and was sent to many places.  This is called a "General" epistle.

The content of the letter

The writer of this book seems to have a good knowledge of the Old Testament books and also of some of the other books that were known as Jewish writings, but which are not in the bible. 

He warns of "people who change the message about the grace of God in order to excuse their immoral ways" (verse 4).  He says this is not the faith "once delivered to the saints". He warns that we have stories in the bible of people who turned from trusting God to evil.  He lists the fallen angels, those saved from slavery in Eqypt and the people of Sodom and Gomorrah.  He also mentions individuals such as Cain who killed his brother, Balaam, and Korah.  

He tells everyone to keep their faith, keep praying, love others, and wait for the second coming of Jesus.  The letter closes with a blessing that is sometimes used to end church meetings.  "Now to the one who is able to keep you from falling, and to cause you to stand, rejoicing, without blemish before his glorious presence, to the only God our Savior through Jesus Christ our Lord, be glory, majesty, power, and authority, before all time, and now, and for all eternity. Amen." ( Verses 24 and 25)

Other websites 
Jude (NIV)
Jude (KJV)

New Testament books
General Epistles
General epistles (also called Catholic Epistles) are books in the New Testament in the form of letters.  The letters attributed to Paul are not included.  Paul's letters are named for the church or person addressed.  The General Epistles are named for their author instead of the church or person to whom they were written.   Most of the General Epistles are written to all Christians.  The second Epistle of John may have been written to an unnamed lady and the Third Epistle of John was written to his friend Gaius.

Listed in order of their appearance in the New Testament, the General Epistles are

Epistle of James
First Epistle of Peter
Second Epistle of Peter
First Epistle of John
Second Epistle of John
Third Epistle of John
Epistle of Jude

Related pages 
Epistle

Other websites
Catholic Encyclopedia: Catholic Epistles
Augustine Volcano is a  high volcano in southwestern Cook Inlet, about  southwest of Anchorage, Alaska. More than half the people of Alaska live no more than about  from it. It has erupted six times since the 1812 eruption; 1883, 1935, 1964-65, 1976, 1986. and 2006. The 1976 and 1986 eruptions started with a series of vent-clearing explosions. There were clouds of volcanic ash that went straight up into the sky. These were followed by eruptions of rocks and mud slides down the side of the volcano. In 1812, 1935, 1964-65, 1976, and 1986, unlike some prehistoric eruptions, the top of the mountain did not collapse. However, in the 1883 eruption, a part of the top of the volcano broke loose starting an avalanche that flowed down to the sea. The avalanche started a small tsunami that reached the Kenai Peninsula at English Bay,  east of the volcano.

Clouds of volcanic ash are a major problem to jet aircraft using Anchorage International and other local airports. Ashfall from future eruptions could disrupt oil and gas operations and shipping activities in Cook Inlet. Eruptions like the historical and prehistoric eruptions are likely in Augustine's future.

References

Islands of Alaska
Mountain ranges of Alaska
Volcanoes of the United States
Paul Daniel "Ace" Frehley (born April 27, 1951) is an American guitarist best known as one of the first members of the rock band Kiss. He was the lead guitar player in the band. When the band started wearing costumes and face paint onstage Frehley chose paint that made him look like he was from outer space. Frehley played with the group from 1973 until 1982.  

When he left Kiss he started making his own music as a solo musician. In 1996 he went back to playing with Kiss. His second time playing with Kiss stopped in 2002 when he left the band at the end of their world tour.

He went back to his solo career. His last album was finished in September, 2009.

Other websites
 Ace Frehley Official Website

1951 births
Living people
American rock guitarists
American songwriters
Musicians from New York City
American heavy metal musicians
Kiss