cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Richard Henry "Peter" Sellers,  , (8 September 1925 – 24 July 1980) was an English  comedian and actor best known for his three roles in Dr. Strangelove, as "Inspector Clouseau" in The Pink Panther movies, and as Clare Quilty in the original 1962 screen version of Lolita.

References

Other websites

1925 births
1980 deaths
Actors from Hampshire
British radio actors
Comedians from Hampshire
Deaths from myocardial infarction
English movie actors
English television actors
People from Portsmouth
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
nUbuntu or Network Ubuntu is a project to take the existing Ubuntu operating system and remaster it as a Live CD and Full Install with tools needed for penetration testing servers and networks. The main idea is to keep Ubuntu's ease of use and mix it with popular penetration testing tools. Besides usage for network and server testing, nUbuntu will be made to be a desktop distribution for advanced Linux users.

Contents 
nUbuntu uses the light window manager Fluxbox. 

It includes some of the most used security programs for Linux, such as Wireshark, nmap, dSniff, and Ettercap.

History 
 2005-12-18 - nUbuntu Project is born, developers release Testing 1
 2006-01-16 - nUbuntu Live developers release Stable 1
 2006-06-26 - nUbuntu Live developers release version 6.06
 2006-10-16 - nUbuntu featured in Hacker Japan, a Japanese hacker magazine
 2007-12-31 - nUbuntu developer TomB retires from project, Brendan Almonte takes over
 2008-07-16 - nUbuntu Live developers release version 8.04 Alpha

Releases 
Below is a list of previous and current releases.

Other websites 
Darknet 10 Best Security Live CD Distros for pen-test, forensics, and recovery
SecurityDistro screenshots of nUbuntu 
SecurityDistro's nUbuntu section 
SecurityDistro's nUbuntu forum page

Live CD
Linux distributions
Ubuntu (operating system) derivatives

de:Liste von Linux-Distributionen#Ubuntu-Derivate
Prussian blue, also known as Berlin blue, is a dark blue colour that is artificially made.

It is one of the first pigments made synthetically.  It was accidentally found in 1704 by two chemists in Berlin.

The dark blue uniforms of the Prussian army were dyed this colour.

Colour 

A colour can be shown by hex triplet is a six-digit, three-byte hexadecimal number used in HTML, CSS, and other computing applications. The hex triplet to represent Prussian blue is 003153.

When using the RGB color model where red, green, and blue light are added together, Prussian blue has the RGB code of 0, 49, 83

Use as a medicine 
Prussian blue is a medicine that is sometimes given by doctors to help remove certain radioactive materials from people’s bodies.  It has been used this way since the 1960s.

Potential use in computer storage 
Prussian blue is a chemical compound. One of the chemical elements in this compound is iron.  

Researchers have experimented replacing some of the iron atoms in Prussian blue with cobalt. When the Prussian blue compound is lit with a red light at -150 C, the compound shifts from being non-magnetic (off) to magnetic (on). The magnetic shift does not change back except if deliberately reversed (or undone) with heat.

This magnetism is due to the transfer of an electron from the cobalt to the iron, with light providing the energy, while the electron moves back when heat is applied, the researchers said.

This magnetic property means the compound can be used in computer storage. Because the compound can be turned "on" and "off" in a controlled way, it can remember binary information. Binary information is used for computer storage.

This way of using the compound is still being developed.

It is also used as a machinists dye to check wear patterns.

Tones of Prussian blue color comparison chart

Related pages
 Indigo
 List of colors
 Navy blue

References
Somali () is a Cushitic language. It is spoken by ethnic Somalis in Somalia, Djibouti, Ethiopia, Yemen and Kenya, as well as by the Somali diaspora around the world -- an estimated total population of between 10 and 16 million speakers.

The writing system of the Somali language has been Latin alphabet since 1960.

Cushitic languages
Languages of Ethiopia
Somalia
Gravy is an English sauce made often from the juices that run naturally from meat or vegetables during cooking. It is a smooth, non-chunky liquid. Ready-made cubes and powders can be used as a substitute for natural meat or vegetable extracts. Canned gravies are also available.  Gravy is commonly served with roasts, meatloaf, rice, and potato dishes. It it is very popular because it is used on mashed potatoes sometimes.

References 

Sauces
Breastfeeding is when a mother feeds her babies milk from her breasts. The baby puts its mouth on to their mother's nipple and sucks the milk out of the breast's mammary gland. Breast milk is healthier for the baby than baby formula or cow's milk. Not all women can safely feed their baby. If a woman has AIDS, tuberculosis or takes illegal drugs, then the milk is not good for the baby. There are many reasons to breastfeed. Babies that breastfeed have a reduced risk for several diseases. In addition, it makes for cheaper feeding and health care. In both developing and developed countries, breastfeeding without giving the baby any other drinks leads to fewer deaths from diarrhoea.

References 

Babies
Milk
Breasts
Satyajit Ray () (2 May 1921–23 April 1992) was a Bengali Indian movie director. Many people consider him as one of the greatest film-makers of 20th century movie business.
He was born in the city of Kolkata. His Bengali family was prominent in arts and letters. Ray studied at Presidency College and at the Visva-Bharati University. He started his career as a commercial artist. Ray was interested in filmmaking by meeting French filmmaker Jean Renoir and seeing the Italian movie Bicycle Thieves during a visit to London.

Ray directed thirty-seven movies. These include feature movies, documentaries and shorts. Ray's first movie, Pather Panchali, won eleven international prizes, including Best Human Document at Cannes Film Festival. This movie along with Aparajito and Apur Sansar form the Apu trilogy. Ray did scripting, casting, scoring, cinematography, art direction, editing and designed his own credit titles and publicity material. He was a fiction writer, publisher, illustrator, graphic designer and movie critic. Ray won an Academy Award in 1992.

References 

1921 births
1992 deaths
Indian movie directors
Academy Award Honorary Award winners
Illustrators
Francesco Petrarca  (20 July 1304 – 19 July 1374), known in English as Petrarch, was an Italian scholar, poet, and one of the earliest Renaissance humanists. 

Petrarch is often called the "father of humanism". Based on Petrarch's works, and to a lesser extent those of Dante Alighieri and Giovanni Boccaccio, Pietro Bembo in the 16th century created the model for the modern Italian language. Petrarch is credited with developing the sonnet with his Canzoniere to a level of perfection that would be unsurpassed to this day and spreading its use to other European languages. His sonnets were admired and imitated throughout Europe during the Renaissance and became a model for lyrical poetry. Petrarch was also known for being one of the first people to call the Middle Ages the Dark Ages, although the negative myth as we know it today is largely the legacy of romantic literature.

References

Other websites 

 Canzoniere (different edition) and other works
 Petrarch and Laura Multi-lingual site including many translated works (letters, poems, books) in the public domain and biography, pictures, music.  
 Petrarch from the Catholic Encyclopedia.
 Excerpts from his works and letters
 The Petrarchan Grotto
 Francesco Petrarca (Petrarch) (1304-1374)
 
 Poems From The Canzoniere, translated by Tony Kline.
 Petrarch - the poet who lost his head April 6, 2004 article in The Guardian regarding the exhumation of Petrarch's remains.
 Francesco Petrarca at The Online Library of Liberty
 De remediis utriusque fortunae, Cremonae, B. de Misintis ac Caesaris Parmensis, 1492. 

1304 births
1374 deaths
Italian poets
Medieval poets
Language planning is the attempt to influence how a language is used. This is usually done to make it possible to use the language for more subjects. Goals, objectives and strategies are made to change the way a language is used. For many languages there are special organisations, that look after the language. Examples of such organisations are the Academie Française for French or the British Council for English.

In general, there are different forms of language planning:

Corpus planning creates new words, expressions or changes old ones to have a new meaning. Corpus planning is involved with creating standards for a language, such as spelling and grammar, or to create dictionaries. Linguistic purity is about avoiding foreign influences to a language because they are seen as bad. It also belongs to corpus planning.
Status planning wants to change the way a language is used. It is about making some languages (or dialects) official languages for a territory. Very often, part of status planning is creating a writing system for a language that was only spoken before.
Acquisition planning is about teaching the language. It looks at ways to make it easier or more attractive to learn a language. Very often, acquisition planning also involves making the language more attractive to learn for speakers of other languages.

For further readings Nahir's work on language planning can be read.

Relating pages 
Language reform
Languages
Johnny Marr (born John Martin Maher on 31 October 1963)  is an English guitarist, keyboardist, harmonica player, and singer. Marr was born in Ardwick, Manchester to Irish immigrants. When he was younger, he wanted to be a football player. He rose to fame in the 1980s as the guitarist in The Smiths, where he formed an influential songwriting partnership with Morrissey. In 2013 he was given NME's Godlike Genius award. He released his first solo album, The Messenger, in 2013.

1963 births
Living people
English guitarists
English singer-songwriters
Keyboardists
Musicians from Manchester
The Smiths members
The Indus Waters Treaty is a water-sharing treaty between the Republic Of India and Islamic Republic Of Pakistan. The treaty was signed in Karachi on September 19, 1960 by the then Indian Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru and the then President of Pakistan Field Marshal Mohammad Ayub Khan. The World Bank is a signatory as a third party.

Provisions 
The Indus System of Rivers comprises three Western Rivers - the Indus, the Jhelum and Chenab and three Eastern Rivers - the Sutlej, the Beas and the Ravi; and with minor exceptions, the treaty gives India exclusive use of all of the waters of the Eastern Rivers and their tributaries before the point where the rivers enter Pakistan. Similarly, Pakistan has exclusive use of the Western Rivers. Pakistan also received one-time financial compensation for the loss of water from the Eastern rivers.

The countries agree to exchange data and co-operate in matters related to the treaty. For this purpose, treaty creates the Permanent Indus Commission, with a commissioner who will be appointed by each country.

Foreign relations of Pakistan
Foreign relations of India
This article is about the studio album, the mental condition is at Folie à deux

Folie à Deux is the fifth studio album by American rock band Fall Out Boy. It was released through Island Records on December 16, 2008 in the United States. The album title is French for "a madness shared by two." The album reached #8 on the US Billboard 200 album chart with 150,000 sales in its first week, making it Fall Out Boy's third top 10 album in a row. The first single was "I Don't Care" which reached #21 on the Billboard Hot 100 songs chart. It is certified gold in the US for shipments of 500,000 copies. It got positive reviews by music critics. It is the final album the band made before taking a break.

Tracks
"Lullabye (hidden pregap track)
"Disloyal Order of Water Buffaloes"
 "I Don't Care" - 3:39
 "She's My Winona"
 "America's Suitehearts"
 "Headfirst Slide Into Cooperstown On A Bad Bet" - 3:55
 "The (Shipped) Gold Standard"
 "(Coffee's for Closers)"
 "What a Catch, Donnie"- 5:01
 "27"
 "Tiffany Blews"
 "w.a.m.s."
 "20 Dollar Nose Bleed"
 "West Coast Smoker"

2008 albums
Fall Out Boy albums
Island Records albums
Rock albums
The Stade de Suisse Wankdorf is a football stadium in Bern, Switzerland. It is the home stadium of the Berner Sport Club Young Boys (they are often simply called the "BSC Young Boys"), which is a Swiss football team. The Wankdorf is currently the second biggest football stadium in Switzerland. The stadium has seats for 32,000 people. The field is 105 m x 68 m and has got an artificial turf surface. It was one of the venues for the European Football Championship in 2008.

About the building 
The Stade de Suisse was built in the place where the old Wankdorf Stadium, which was destroyed in 2001, had been. It cost 350 million francs to build the stadium. There are solar panels on the roof. There are many shops in the stadium. The stadium is 2 kilometers away from the city. The stadium was officially opened on July 30, 2005. However, the first game of football was played there on July 16, 2005. In the first game, The BSC Young Boys played against the Olympique Marseille. The BSC Young Boys lost by a score of 2-3. 14,000 people watched the game. The building's official name is "Stade de Suisse, Berne, Wankdorf". Still, most people call it the "Wankdorf". The building has also hosted Hockey games and musical concerts.

European Football Championship 2008 

The Wankdorf was one of the venues for the European Football Championship in 2008 (often called Euro2008). Three games were played here for the tournament. During Euro2008, the real grass inside the stadium was replaced with fake grass, which is called artificial turf. The stadium's operators removed the artificial turf after the championship.

The hot seat 

All the seats are either black or yellow, but there is one red seat in sector A. It is called the "hot seat". The ticket for that seat is often given to former players of Young Boys or famous visitors. The first person who sat in the "hot seat" was the most successful goalkeeper of the BSC Young Boys, Walter Eirich.

References

Other websites 
The official website of the Stade de Suisse  

Buildings and structures in Switzerland
Football stadiums in Europe
Football in Switzerland
Bern
2005 establishments in Europe
2000s establishments in Switzerland
Vatnajökull (English: Glacier of Lakes) () is the largest glacier in Iceland. It lies in the south-east of the island, covering more than 8% of the country. 

The average thickness of the ice is 400 m, with a maximum thickness of 1,000 m. Iceland's highest peak, Hvannadalshnúkur (2,110 m), is located at the southern tip of Vatnajökull, near Skaftafell National Park. It is classified as an ice cap glacier.

Vatnajökull has been shrinking for some years now, possibly because of climatic changes and recent volcanic activity. Until 1930 it was growing. 

According to Guinness World Records Vatnajökull is the object of the world's longest sight line, 550 km from Slættaratindur, the highest mountain in the Faroe Islands. GWR state that "owing to the light bending effects of atmospheric refraction, Vatnajökull (2119m), Iceland, can sometimes be seen from the Faroe Islands, 340 miles (550 km) away". This may be based on a claimed sighting by a British sailor in 1939. The validity of this record is analysed/undermined in mathematical and atmospheric detail by J.C. de Ferranti

Other websites

 Photos of Vatnajökull from www.islandsmyndir.is 
 Search engine and map of Iceland 
 Viewfinder Panoramas
 What it's like to explore the ice cap in winter. 

Geography of Iceland
The InterCity 225 is an electric train operating in the United Kingdom. Its top speed is 225km/h, hence its name. From 2017, some will be replaced by the British Rail Class 800.

References

Rail transport in the United Kingdom
Cobra is a  name of a snake and a girl cobra is called 'cobra Kai.' In English it is the common name for various venomous snakes. Most of those species are in the family Elapidae, and most of them can spread their neck ribs to form a flattened, widened hood.

The name "cobra" is short for cobra de capelo or cobra-de-capelo, which is Portuguese for "snake with hood", or "hood-snake".

Cobras usually live in tropical and desert regions of Asia and Africa. When feeling threatened, cobras can tilt back and flatten their heads into their warning posture. The rest of the time their heads are symmetrical and they look much like any other snakes.

Cobra may refer to:
 The genus Naja, the typical or "true" cobras (they raise the front part of the body and flatten their neck in a warning signal when alarmed). They are a group of elapids found in Africa and Asia. They include over 270 species, including Naja nivea, the Cape cobra, a medium-sized, highly venomous cobra which lives in biomes across southern Africa; Cleopatra's "asp" (the Egyptian cobra, Naja haje); and the Asiatic spectacled cobra Naja naja; and the monocled cobra, Naja kaouthia.
 Spitting cobras, a subset of Naja species which squirt venom from their fangs in self-defence.

Most so-called, and all "true", species of cobras belong to the family Elapidae

References 

Elapidae
The Cape cobra (Naja nivea) is a cobra inhabiting the regions of South Africa. It averages 4 feet (120 cm) long but may grow to be 6 feet (180 cm) long. The color varies from location to location, and those from the Kalahari are normally yellow with brown speck uniformly all over the body.

References

Elapidae
The Kalahari Desert is a large arid to semi-arid sandy area in southern Kgalagadi Africa extending 900,000 km² (362,500 sq. mi.), covering much of Botswana and parts of Namibia and South Africa. It has huge tracts of excellent grazing after good rains.

The Kalahari Desert is the southern part of Africa, and the geography is a portion of desert and a plateau. The Kalahari supports some animals and plants because most of it is not a true desert. There are small amounts of rainfall and the summer temperature is very high. The driest areas usually receive  of rain per year, and the wettest just a little over .

The surrounding Kalahari Basin covers over 2.5 million km² extending farther into Botswana, Namibia and South Africa, and encroaching into parts of Angola, Zambia and Zimbabwe. The only permanent river, the Okavango, flows into a delta in the northwest, forming marshes that are rich in wildlife. Ancient dry riverbeds—called omuramba—traverse the Central Northern reaches of the Kalahari and provide standing pools of water during the rainy season. Previously havens for wild animals from elephant to giraffe, and for predators such as lion and cheetah, the riverbeds are now mostly grazing spots, though leopard or cheetah can still be found.

Game reserves 

The Kalahari has a number of game reserves—the Central Kalahari Game Reserve (CKGR, the world's second largest protected area), Khutse Game Reserve and the Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park. Animals that live in the region include brown hyenas, lions, meerkats, giraffe, warthogs, jackals and several species of antelope (including the eland, gemsbok, springbok, hartebeest, steenbok, kudu, and duiker), and many species of bird and reptiles. Vegetation in the Kalahari consists mainly of grasses and acacias but there are over 400 identified plant species present (including the wild watermelon or Tsamma melon).

Bushmen 
The Bushmen of the Kalahari were hunter/gatherers. They hunted for meat and gathered the food of the desert to eat. They did not keep animals. They moved from place to place to find food and water. They owned very few things because they had to carry everything themselves. Very few people still live this way anywhere in the world.

Settlements within the Kalahari 
Botswana
 Ghanzi
 Tshane
 Tshabong
 Orapa

Namibia
 Gobabis
 Mariental

South Africa
 Rietfontein
 Noenieput
 Severn

References 

Deserts
Geography of Botswana
Geography of Namibia
Geography of South Africa
Silverstein is a Canadian post-hardcore band formed in Ontario, Canada, in 2000. Their name come from a children-book writer, Shel Silverstein.

First three years 
After the several changes in the band's line up, Billy Hamilton joined the band. He found out about they needed a bass player while online. In the autumn of 2002, the band signed to their record label - Victory Records. They left Victory Records in 2010 and joined Hopeless Records.

Albums
In January 2003, their first (debut) album was released. The title was When Broken Is Easily Fixed.

In 2005, Silverstein performed on the "Never Sleep Again" tour along with fellow emo band Hawthorne Heights. The next year, 2006, they toured on the "Vans Warped" tour. This is an event in the United States taking place in the summertime. The second album, Discovering the Waterfront contains the singles Discovering the Waterfront and Smile in Your Sleep.

Summertime last year, 2007, Silverstein released their third album, Arrivals and Departures. It includes the new single Still Dreaming. On MySpace, a social networking site, they posted a new song called Broken Stars. Singer Shane Told has been trained by a vocal coach named Melissa Cross.

In Spring 2009, Silverstein released their fourth full length album, Shipwreck in the Sand.

In Spring 2011, Silverstein released their fifth album, Rescue.

References 

2000s music groups
Emo bands
Canadian rock bands
Post-hardcore bands
Pakistan State Oil (PSO) is the oil market leader in Pakistan. The well established infrastructure, built at par with international standards, representing 82% of country’s storage, provides PSO an edge over its competitors.

Economy of Pakistan
Mahmud II (Ottoman Turkish: محمود ثاني Mahmud-ı sānī) (July 20, 1785 – July 1, 1839) was the 30th Sultan of the Ottoman Empire. He ruled from 1808 until his death. Mahmud was the son of Sultan Abdül Hamid I. His time as sultan is notable mostly for the major legal and military changes he caused.

Mahmud II was born in Istanbul.  He was 23 years old wheb he came to the throne.  He was a calligraphy artist, composer and poet.  He wrote poems under the pseudonym "Adli".  He was a brave, strong will, patient and prudent temperament.  He replaced the old military organization maintained by the governors of irregular auxiliaries (sekban - I Cedid).  When the soldiers shortly after arose, he defeated them with this.  The 1808 revolting insurgents killed Alemdar Mustafa Pasha. 

In 1812 the peace treaty was signed in Bucharest with the Russians.  In 1813, with the help of Muhammed Ali Pasha, he defeated the Wahhabis, who desecrated the holy places and shrines in Mecca and Medina. 
 In 1821 the Greek War of Independence broke out and  thousands were killed. 
 In the “Auspicious Incident” the corps of Janissaries was abolished and replaced by a conscription army.
 In 1827 the war with Russia began again.
 In 1829 the peace treaty was concluded in Edirne.
 In the years 1831 and 1839, riots broke out in Egypt. 

In July of 1839 the Sultan Mahmud II died as the ill effects of life experienced by him calamitous events he was afflicted with tuberculosis and died.
His body was buried in the Türbe in Divanyolu.
Mahmud II was devoted to many works of the highest degree in any field.
He opened many new schools, and ordered to build large buildings. 
All the great mosques of Istanbul were repaired in his time. 
The bridge was built in Unkapani his time. 
In Mecca, he had built a madrasa and mend the Great Mosque (Mescid-i Aksa) in the holy city of Jerusalem.
The poet and Sümbülzâde Vehbi Kececizâde Izzet Molla died at this time.

His sons: Abdülmecid I *, * Abdulaziz, 4 Sehzades names Ahmet, Bayezid, veliaht Abdulhamid, Suleyman, 2 Sehzades called Mehmed Murad Nizameddin, Abdullah Osman.
 
His daughters: Emine Sultan, Sultan Hamide, Hayriye Sultan, Sultan Saw, * Saliha Sultan, Ayse Sultan, Sultan Atike *, 2 Fatma Sultan, Sultan Münire, Mihrimah Sultan *, * Adile Sultan.

1785 births
1839 deaths
Sultans of the Ottoman Empire
Mahmud II (Kabızlık; died 1131) proclaimed himself the Seljuk sultan of Baghdad in 1118 after the death of Mehmed I (probably Mahmud's father). Mahmud fought against the Seljuk Sultan of Khorasan, Ahmed Sanjar, whom Mehmed I had revolted against in 1105. Mahmud was succeeded by Dawud.

Persian people
Kings and queens
1100s births
1131 deaths
Baghdad
Mahmud of Ghazni (, ; (2 November 971 – 30 April 1030) was the ruler of the Ghaznavid Empire from 997 until his death. He turned the former provincial city of Ghazni into the rich capital of an extensive empire which included modern-day Afghanistan, most of Iran, and parts of north-west India including modern-day Pakistan. He was also the first ruler to carry the title Sultan, signifying his break from the power of the Islamic Caliph.

Mahmud of Ghazni was known as Yāmīn al-Dawlah Maḥmūd (in full: Yāmīn al-Dawlah Abd al-Qāṣim Maḥmūd Ibn Sebük Tegīn). He was the eldest son of Emir Subuktigin. When he was young, Mahmud helped his father gain land through military campaigns against Turk nobles. In 997, he overthrew his younger brother, Ismail, who had been nominated for the throne after his father’s death. As soon as he had the throne, he went out to conquer territory.

Between 1000 and 1026, he invaded India at least 17 times. He was the first major Muslim army to invade India. His raid of Punjab was the last invasion where he increased his territory in India. From then on, most of Mahmud’s raids were to gain wealth. Mahmud's last and most famous raid was on Somnath. This is a temple city on the Gujarati coast that was also a pilgrimage site. The temple had many riches: heavy golden chains and thousands of jewels. The battle was violent, and more than 50,000 people died. Mahmud's army won.

With all his riches, Mahmud founded a university, a library, and a museum, a grand mosque and richened his capital. When Mahmud was about to die, he ordered all of his riches to be placed before him.  Mahmud died on 30 April 1030.

Related pages 
 Ghaznavid Empire

References 
 "Mahmud of Ghazni." World Book Advanced. World Book, 2013. Web.  4 Dec. 2013.
 "Mahmud of Ghazni." Encyclopedia of World Biography. Detroit: Gale, 1998.Biography in Context. Web. 4 Dec. 2013.

971 births
1030 deaths
Turkic peoples
Monarchs of Afghanistan
Emperors and empresses
The Ghaznavid Empire was a Khorāṣānian Turkic Sunni Muslim state, which existed from 975 to 1187. It was centered in Ghazni, a city in present Afghanistan, and ruled much of Persia, Transoxania, and the northern parts of the Indian subcontinent.

History of Iran
History of Afghanistan
History of Pakistan
Royal dynasties
963 establishments
12th-century disestablishments in Asia
960s establishments in Asia
1186 disestablishments
Sultan Mahmud Shah (died 1528) ruled Malacca from 1488 to 1528. He was the son of Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah.

References

History of Malaysia
1528 deaths
Year of birth missing
Mahmud Shah Durrani (1769 - 1829) was the ruler of the Durrani Empire between 1801 and 1803, again between 1809 and 1818. He was the son of Timur Shah Durrani and half-brother of his predecessor, Zaman Shah. On July 25, 1801, Zaman Shah was deposed, and Mahmud Shah ascended to rulership. He then had a chequered career; he was deposed in 1803, restored in 1809, and finally deposed again in 1818. He died in 1829. Between his two stints, the country was ruled by Shoja Shah, another of his half-brothers.

1769 births
1829 deaths
Afghan leaders
Kings and queens
The Durrani Empire (actually Afghan Empire) was established in 1747 by Ahmad Shah Durrani at Kandahar, Afghanistan. It included the land that is now called Afghanistan, Pakistan, eastern Iran and western India. The Durrani Empire is considered the foundation of the modern state of Afghanistan, with Ahmad Shah Durrani (Ahmad Shah Baba) being the "Father of the nation". 

The Durrani dynasty diminished in the early 19th century when Afghanistan was fighting defensive wars with Persia on one side and British India on the other side. The Barakzai dynasty took over control of the kingdom but lost many of Afghanistan's territories by the end of the 19th century. It became to what is now Afghanistan after the Anglo-Afghan Treaty of 1919 when the state became officially recognized by all the major countries in the world.

Related pages
Hotaki dynasty
Delhi Sultanate

References

History of Afghanistan
History of Pakistan
History of Iran
1747 establishments
1919 disestablishments
18th-century establishments in Iran
Cognitive psychology is a branch of psychology that looks at basic actions of the mind. These are aspects of the higher brain, such as thought, feeling, problem solving, memory, and language. Cognitive psychologists often look at mental changes that happen after a stimulus (things that can be felt by the five senses) and before a behavioral response (what a person does after sensing something).

The general idea of cognitive psychology was surveyed in several 19th century works:
Carpenter, William Benjamin 1874. Principles of mental physiology. London: Henry S. King. Reprinted: 
James, William 1890. Principles of psychology. 2 vols, Harvard University Press. Reprinted by Dover Publications in 1950, vol 1: , vol 2: .

Cognitive psychology had its beginnings in the Gestalt psychology of Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Köhler, and Kurt Koffka, and in the work of Jean Piaget, who came up with a theory of "stages" or "phases" that describe children's cognitive development.

Major research areas 
Perception
Learning
Memory
Psycholinguistics (the psychology of language)
 Grammar and linguistics
 Phonetics, phonology, and acoustics
 Pragmatics
Thinking

References

Related pages 
Social psychology

Cognition
Branches of psychology
Mahmut Celâl Bayar (16 May 1883 – 22 August 1986) was a Turkish politician, statesman and the third President of Turkey. At the time of his death, he was the longest lived former head of state, living over 103 years (he was surpassed in 2008 by Chau Sen Cocsal Chhum).

Centenarians
Presidents of Turkey
1883 births
1986 deaths
Abid Al-Hamid Mahmud al-Tikriti ( 21 September 1957 - June 7, 2012) was an Iraqi lieutenant general under Saddam Hussein's deposed regime, and he was Saddam's bodyguard. He was executed on June 7, 2012.

1957 births
2012 deaths
Executed people
Generals
Iraqi military people
Social psychology is the study in psychology of how people and groups interact. Researchers in this field are often either psychologists or sociologists. All social psychologists use both the individual and the group as their unit of analysis.

Despite their similarity, psychological and sociological researchers tend to differ in their goals, approaches, methods, and terminology. They also favor separate academic journals and professional groups. The greatest period of collaboration between sociologists and psychologists was during the years immediately following World War II. Although there has been increasing isolation and specialization in recent years, some degree of overlap and influence remains between the two disciplines.

References

Relating pages
Cognitive psychology
Erich Fromm
Sociology

Branches of psychology
Ivan Petrovich Pavlov  (14 September 1849 – 27 February 1936) was a Russian physiologist, psychologist, and physician.

He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1904 for research about the digestive system. Pavlov is widely known for first describing classical conditioning.

Early life and education 
The son of a priest, and a theology student, Pavlov turned to science after being influenced by progressive ideas.  He took natural sciences at the University of St Petersburg, and got a doctorate in 1878.

Works 
In the 1890s, Pavlov was investigating the gastric function of dogs by externalizing a salivary gland so he could collect, measure, and analyze the saliva and what response it had to food under different conditions. He noticed that the dogs tended to salivate before food was actually delivered to their mouths, and set out to investigate this "psychic secretion", as he called it. Pavlov performed and directed experiments on digestion, eventually publishing The work of the digestive glands in 1897, after 12 years of research. His experiments earned him the 1904 Nobel Prize in Physiology and Medicine.

Legacy

The concept for which Pavlov is famous is the "conditioned reflex" he developed with his assistant Ivan Tolochinov in 1901.

As Pavlov's work became known in the West, particularly through the writings of John B. Watson, the idea of "conditioning" as an automatic form of learning became a key concept in the developing specialism of comparative psychology, and the general approach to psychology called behaviourism.

The British philosopher Bertrand Russell was an enthusiastic advocate of the importance of Pavlov's work for philosophy of mind.

Pavlov's research on conditional reflexes greatly influenced not only science, but also popular culture. The phrase "Pavlov's dog" is often used to describe someone who merely reacts to a situation rather than using critical thinking. Pavlovian conditioning was a major theme in Aldous Huxley's dystopian novel, Brave New World, and also to a large degree in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow.

It is popularly believed that Pavlov always signalled the food by ringing a bell. However, his writings also record the use of many stimuli, including electric shocks, whistles, metronomes, tuning forks, and a range of visual stimuli. Catania did not believe Pavlov ever actually used a bell in his famous experiments. Littman tentatively attributed the popular imagery to Pavlov’s contemporaries Vladimir Bekhterev and John B. Watson, until Thomas found several references that clearly said Pavlov did, indeed, use a bell.

It is less widely known that Pavlov's experiments on the conditional reflex included children, some of whom apparently underwent surgical procedures, similar to the dogs, for the collection of saliva.

References 

1849 births
1936 deaths
Physiologists
Russian psychologists
Russian Nobel Prize winners
Russian physicians
Soviet people
Saint Petersburg State University alumni
Hamilton College is a private, independent, liberal arts college in Clinton, New York. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report ranked Hamilton the 17th best liberal arts college in the United States.
The college is known for its emphasis on writing and speaking. The school was founded in 1793, chartered as Hamilton College in 1812, and has been coeducational since 1978, when it merged with Kirkland College.

The Sacerdote Great Names Series at Hamilton 
Starting in 1996 the Sacerdote Great Names Series has brought some of the most sought after speakers to campus for presentations. While most of these have been in the form of speeches, they have also included concerts by B. B. King and Aretha Franklin.

To date the speakers that have been part of this series are:

 Jon Stewart, November 14, 2008 (announced)
 Aretha Franklin, April 5, 2008
 Al Gore, April 26, 2007
 Tom Brokaw, April 27, 2006
 Bill Clinton, November 9, 2004
 Bill Cosby, October 15, 2003
 Rudolph Giuliani, September 24, 2002
 Madeleine Albright, March 6, 2002
 Jimmy Carter, April 30, 2001
 Desmond Tutu, April 11, 2000
 Lady Margaret Thatcher, December 9, 1999
 B.B. King, October 20, 1998
 F.W. de Klerk, April 8, 1998
 Elie Wiesel, April 3, 1997
 James Carville, and Mary Matalin October 15, 1996
 Colin Powell, April 1, 1996

Facts and Figures about the College Community

Other websites 
 Official website
 Hamilton College Wiki
 America's Best Colleges 2008, Hamilton College At A Glance
 Graduates for a Greener Hamilton 
 Hamilton College Alumni for Governance Reform

References 

Colleges and universities in New York
1793 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in New York (state)
Jon Stewart (born Jonathan Stuart Leibowitz; November 28, 1962), is an American comedian, actor, writer, and producer. He is best known as the host of Comedy Central's The Daily Show and for his political satire. Stewart started as a stand-up comedian, but later branched out to television, hosting Short Attention Span Theater for Comedy Central. He went on to host his own show on MTV, called The Jon Stewart Show and then hosted another show on MTV called You Wrote It, You Watch It.” Stewart is Jewish.

In 2014, Stewart directed his first movie, a drama about Iran called “Rosewater.”

Filmography

References

Other websites 

1962 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
Comedians from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
American television presenters
American television writers
Comedy Central personalities
Emmy Award winners
Grammy Award winners
Jewish American actors
Jewish American writers
Television talk show hosts
Writers from New York City
The Quagga (Equus quagga quagga), also Cape Quagga,  is a recently extinct zebra.

It was one of the six subspecies of plains zebra. It was a yellowish-brown zebra with stripes only on its head, neck and forebody, and looks similar to an Okapi. The Quagga was native to dry grassy plains in the south of the African continent. It was found as far north as the Orange River. It is believed to have separated from other plains zebras between 120,000 and 290,000 years ago. The name Quagga comes from the noise that they made. (kwa-ka-ka) (qua-ga-ga).

The Quagga was hunted for food, for their skin and also because farmers did not want it to eat the grass they needed for their sheep and goats. The last wild Quaggas died during a drought in 1878. The last captive Quagga died in the Amsterdam Zoo on 12 August 1883. Her body is now in a museum. There are 23 Quagga specimens in museums, seven skeletons, and some skulls and other bones.

A foundation in Africa is trying to bring Quaggas back to life by taking zebras that have very light stripes and breeding them. They began in 1987 and the first Quagga foal was born in 2005.

References

Equids
Extinct species
IUCN Red List extinct species
Mammals of Africa
Odd-toed ungulates
Zebras
Przewalski's horse (Equus przewalskii or E. ferus przewalskii),  the Mongolian wild horse, is a close relative of the domestic horse.  The two are the only equids that can cross-breed and produce fertile offspring. Przewalski's horse is a rare and endangered subspecies of the wild horse, Equus ferus. It is native to the steppes of central Asia, especially Mongolia.

At one time extinct in the wild, it has been reintroduced to its native habitat in Mongolia from stock in zoos. It is now in several nature reserves and national parks. As of 2002, the world population of these horses was about 1,000.

Relationships between horses 
Most "wild" horses today, such as the American mustang or the Australian brumby, are feral horses descended from domesticated animals which escaped and adapted to life in the wild. In contrast, Przewalski's horse has never been successfully domesticated, and remains a truly wild animal today.

Przewalski's horse is one of three known subspecies of Equus ferus, the others being the domesticated horse, Equus ferus caballus and the extinct tarpan, Equus ferus ferus. Przewalski's horse is the only remaining truly wild "horse" in the world. There are still a number of other wild equines, including three species of zebra and various subspecies of the African wild ass, onager (including the Mongolian wild ass) and kiang.

Relation to domestic horse 
Although Przewalski's horse can hybridize with domestic horses to produce fertile offspring, it has an extra pair of chromosomes.

"Mitochondrial DNA research has shown that Przewalski's horse is not the ancestor of modern domestic horses. [There are] a number of consistent differences in their appearance. Przewalski's horses, unlike domestic horses, shed their tail and mane hair once per year. Thus it is clear that Przewalski's and domestic horses are very closely related and have in the past interbred, but the fixed chromosomal number difference between them indicates that they are distinct populations".

In zoos 
According to ISIS, about 480 Przewalski's were reported in captivity.

References 

Horses
Mammals of Asia
The nation state is a certain form of state that has a territory on which mainly one nation is located. The state is a political entity (the government, etc.); the nation is a cultural and/or ethnic entity. The term "nation state" means that both are on the same territory, which distinguishes the nation state from the other types of stats that had existed.

Examples 
Clear examples of nation states include:
 Iceland: although the inhabitants of Iceland are ethnically related to other Scandinavian groups, the national culture and language are found only in Iceland. There are no cross-border minorities since the nearest land is too far away.
 Japan: Traditionally seen as a good example of a nation-state, Japan includes minorities of ethnically distinct Ryūkyū peoples, Koreans; Chinese; and, on the northern island of Hokkaidō, the indigenous Ainu minority. See also Japanese Demographics .
 Portugal: although surrounded by other lands and people, the Portuguese nation has occupied the same territory for almost 900 years. A long time ago, Portugal was formed from groups of people that were be separate. They all passed through and settled in the area that later became Portugal. They included native Iberian peoples, Celts, ancient Mediterraneans (Greeks, Phoenicians, Romans), Germanic peoples like the Suebi and the Visigoths, the invading Berbers and Arabs, and Jews.

Before nation-states 

In Europe, in the 18th century, the classic non-national states were empires of many ethnicities, (Austria-Hungary, the Russian Empire, the Ottoman Empire, the French Empire and the British Empire).

Characteristics 
 Nation states have a different attitude to their territory from dynastic monarchies. No nation would swap territory with other states simply, for example, because the king's daughter got married.
 They have a different type of border that is mostly defined by where the cultural/ethnic (nation) group settles, but many nation states have also had borders based on geography like rivers and mountain ranges.
 The most noticeable characteristic is how much nation states use the state as an instrument of national unity in economic, social and cultural life.

References

Further reading 
 Hobsbawm, Eric J. (1992). Nations and Nationalism Since 1780: Programme, Myth, Reality. 2nd ed. Cambridge University Press. .
 White, Philip L. (2006). "Globalization and the Mythology of the Nation State," In A.G.Hopkins, ed. Global History: Interactions Between the Universal and the Local Palgrave Macmillan, pp. 257–284.

Related pages
 City-state
 Ethnic group
 Nation
 Nationalism
 Secession
 Sovereignty
 State

Other websites 
 From Paris to Cairo: Resistance of the Unacculturated (Identity and the Nation state)

Political geography
Nationalism
Joseph Raymond McCarthy (November 14, 1908 – May 2, 1957) was an American politician. He was a Republican U.S. Senator from the state of Wisconsin from 1947 until his death in 1957. Beginning in 1950, McCarthy became the most visible public face of a period of intense anti-communist suspicion inspired by the tensions of the Cold War.

He made claims that there were large numbers of Communists and Soviet spies and sympathizers inside the federal government and elsewhere. The term "McCarthyism," coined in 1950 in reference to McCarthy's practices, was soon applied to similar anti-communist pursuits.

During World War II he was a captain in the United States Marine Corps.

McCarthy died of hepatitis at the Walter Reed National Military Medical Center.

Other websites

 Retrieved on 2008-07-11

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1908 births
1957 deaths
American military personnel of World War II
American Roman Catholics
Anti-Communists
Deaths from hepatitis
Disease-related deaths in Maryland
Infectious disease deaths in the United States 
United States senators from Wisconsin
US Republican Party politicians
"Hot N Cold" is a single by pop singer Katy Perry. The song came from the album One of the Boys. The single was released on September 30, 2008.

The song reached number one in Canada, Denmark, Norway, Finland, Switzerland, Germany, Austria, and Belgium (Wallonia). It climbed to the top three in the US and the top five in the UK, Australia, and New Zealand.

References 

2008 songs
Katy Perry songs
Dance-pop songs
"If I Were a Boy" is a song by American singer Beyoncé, written by Toby Gad, BC Jean and Beyoncé Knowles for her third studio album, I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008).

Music video 
The music video for "If I Were a Boy" was directed by Jake Nava and portrays Knowles as an NYPD officer. It begins with Knowles and her husband reciting words such as "honesty" and "commitment". It later shows Knowles on patrol with her male partner. The video tells of the ways a both men and women hurt each other in a relationship. Knowles stated: "It's about all of the little things that mean so much in a relationship[…] At the end of the clip, you realize that I was acting out his life, and it all starts over again. He was a cop and everything that happened was really him doing the same thing to me."

Track Listing

References 

2008 songs
2000s ballads
Beyoncé songs
Pop ballads
R&B ballads
Songs with feminist themes
"Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" - is a song by American singer Beyoncé Knowles. It was written by The-Dream, Tricky Stewart and Beyoncé Knowles for her third studio album, I Am... Sasha Fierce (2008).

Music video 
The music video for "Single Ladies (Put a Ring on It)" was shot on September 14, 2008 and directed by Jake Nava and released to major outlets on October 13, 2008. In the video, Knowles is performing as Sasha Fierce. The video features much choreography, showing Sasha with two other female dancers in all black leotards.

The video is based upon a 1960s routine performed by Gwen Verdon.

It was uploaded to YouTube on October 3, 2009.

Track listing

References 

2008 songs
Beyoncé songs
Dance-pop songs
R&B songs
Songs with feminist themes
Secure Shell (SSH) is an Internet communication protocol used mostly to allow users to log into other computers and run commands. It lets people exchange data using a secure channel between two computers. It is used mainly on Linux, Macintosh and Unix computers. It is a lot like Telnet, but is safer. It is less likely to be hacked than Telnet is. 

A person can make a key out of numbers. This key has two parts, a private part that should not be shared and a public part that should be. These parts are mathematically related to each. To send a message to a computer, the message is encrypted with the sender's private key and the receiver's public key. This is done in such a way that the message can only be read if the receiver has their private key and the sender's public key. This means that an attacker cannot read the messages without both keys.  

SSH was designed by Tatu Ylönen in 1995 to replace the less secure protocols rlogin, Telnet and rsh, which were used to access shell accounts on remote computers.

Related pages
 Internet protocol suite
 Communications protocol

Other websites 

 Putty - SSH on Windows

Internet security
Computer protocols
An Application Programming Interface (API) is a set of functions, procedures, methods or classes used by computer programs to request services from the operating system, software libraries or any other service providers running on the computer. A computer programmer uses the API to make
application programs.

An API works by communicating with and exchanging data with other systems, acting as a messenger between the user and the system to retrieve the necessary data the user is requesting from the system. 

Main types of web APIs:

 Open APIs - available to the public; they can be accessed by any external users.
 Partner APIs - available to strategic business partners; they are exposed to a public API developer portal.
 Internal APIs - available to a company's internal development teams; they are exposed to a private API developer portal.
 Composite APIs - are a sequence of tasks bundled into a single API call. 

Types of API include web services API like the Twitter API, which allows programs to use the API to receive updates on tweets.

References

Software