cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Gelsenkirchen (UK: /ˈɡɛlzənkɪərxən/, US: /ˌɡɛlzənˈkɪərxən/, German: [ˌɡɛlzn̩ˈkɪʁçn̩]; Westphalian: Gelsenkiärken) is a city in Germany in the state of North Rhine-Westphalia. It is about  north of Cologne in the so-called Ruhr Area.

About 269,000 people live there. In the past it was dominated by coal mining and steel industry. The city is famous for its football (soccer) club FC Schalke 04.

References

Other websites 
 Official City Website 
 Official Schalke 04 Website
 Gelsenkirchen Blog
 Official MiR Website
Nuclear missiles are missiles (rockets that land on the earth or hit something in the air, the water, or whatever) with atomic bombs inside. 

In the time of Cold War the USA and the Soviet Union were enemies and thought the other side was going to attack them. To dissuade the other side from attacking, both sides built many nuclear missiles to ensure Mutual assured destruction. This meant a country that attacked would be destroyed.  Treaties were made to reduce the numbers of missiles to make everyone safer.

Missiles
Nuclear weapons
The pituitary gland (or hypophysis) is an important part of the endocrine system.  It is at the base of the brain between the eyes. The pituitary is attached to the hypothalamus, which is also a gland. The pituitary controls a whole range of vital functions by secreting hormones.

The pituitary gland consists of two parts: the anterior pituitary and the posterior pituitary. It is functionally linked to the hypothalamus by the pituitary stalk (also called the infundibulum).

The hypothalamus releases factors down the pituitary stalk to the pituitary gland where they cause the release of pituitary hormones. Although the pituitary gland is known as the 'master' endocrine gland, both of the lobes are under the control of the hypothalamus.
Endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by regulatory hormones released by neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus.

Hormones released 
The gland releases several kinds of hormones.

Anterior pituitary 
The endocrine cells of the anterior pituitary are controlled by neurosecretion from the hypothalamus. The anterior pituitary cells synthesizes and secretes these important endocrine hormones:

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): released under conditions of stress. Increases corticosteroids.
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): regulates thyroid gland.
Growth hormone ('HGH'): stimulates cell division and growth.
Prolactin (PRL): stimulates milk production in breasts.

The two gonadotropins;
Luteinizing hormone (LH): in females, it triggers ovulation. In males it stimulates testosterone (acts with next).
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): regulates development, growth, puberty, reproduction.

Intermediate lobe 
Here one hormone is produced:
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): stimulates the production and release of melanin by melanocytes in skin and hair. MSH signals to the brain have effects on appetite and sexual arousal.

Posterior pituitary 
The posterior pituitary is actually an extension of the hypothalamus. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus have axons that go right down into the posterior pituitary. The posterior pituitary stores and secretes the hormones produced by these neurosecretory cells:
Oxytocin, most of which is released from the hypothalamus: has effects on nerve transmission, and on females during and after birth. Has a role in pair-bonding, mating and maternal behaviour. Functions not yet entirely understood.
Antidiuretic hormone (ADH, also known as vasopressin): controls the reabsorption of molecules in the tubules of the kidneys. Increases arterial blood pressure. It plays a key role in homeostasis, and the regulation of water, glucose, and salts in the blood.

Oxytocin is one of the few hormones to create a positive feedback loop. For example, uterine contractions stimulate the release of oxytocin from the posterior pituitary, which, in turn, increases uterine contractions. This positive feedback loop continues throughout birth labour.

References 

Glands
Hormones
Endocrine system
The Boeing Company ( ) (NYSE: BA ) is an American company which makes aircraft and defense items.  The company was started in 1916 by William E. Boeing in Seattle, Washington. Boeing has grown to become very big. It bought its main rival, McDonnell Douglas, in 1997.  Boeing moved its headquarters from Seattle to Chicago, Illinois in 2001. Boeing is made up of many smaller parts. These parts are called divisions. The divisions are Boeing Commercial Airplanes (BCA); Boeing Defense, Space & Security (BDS); Engineering, Operations & Technology; Boeing Capital; and Boeing Shared Services Group.

Boeing is one of the biggest aircraft manufacturers in the world. It is the second-biggest defense contractor in the world as of 2011.

References

Other websites
 Boeing

Aircraft companies
Companies based in Chicago, Illinois
1916 establishments in the United States
Satanism is a word that has several different meanings. It can describe different religions and philosophies.  

Sometimes the word Satanism is just used to say that the person using it does not like a group, but the group themselves do not think of themselves as Satanists.  Used like this, it is just used to say the speaker disapproves of a group.  A lot of groups, like Pagans, or even Protestants have in the past been called Satanists by some people.

The word is often used by people who do not know much about Satanists, who think that Satanism means the worship of an evil being called Satan, and that Satanists want him to win in a war against good represented by "God".  This is not true for most Satanists.  For them, Satan is only a symbol for the freedom to be themselves, and the word Satan is used as a symbol for man's inner desires and for knowledge.  These people read the writings of Anton LaVey and are sometimes called LaVeyan Satanists.  There are several modern Satanic groups of different types, with the most well known being the Church of Satan, created in 1966 by Anton LaVey, who also wrote The Satanic Bible. Even though these types of satanists are atheists, meaning they do not believe in a higher being, they do practice magic. They believe that there is no afterlife.

Other types of Satanists do worship Satan.  They are called theistic or traditional Satanists, because they believe their religion is older.  They believe their religion is similar to that of Witches.

Other websites

LaVeyan Satanists 
 Church of Satan: The Official Web Site
 First Satanic Church - Official Website

Theistic Satanists 
 Diane Vera's site about Theistic Satanism
 Satan's Den
Decatur is a city in the American state of Illinois.  In the 2000 census, there were more than 80,000 people living in it.  Many people drive in and out of Decatur on Interstate 72.  There is a shopping mall in nearby Forsyth, a suburb of Decatur.

Decatur is the county seat of Macon County.  Macon County was the home of the young Abraham Lincoln, later U.S. President, for a short time.  The place where the Lincoln family built a log cabin and spent the winter of 1829-1830 is now a state park, the "Lincoln Trail Homestead State Park."

Cities in Illinois
County seats in Illinois
Elba () is third largest island of Italy, after Sardinia and Sicily. The land area of the island is about 224 square kms. The coastline is about 147 km. The highest mountain is Monte Capanne at 1018 metres (3340 feet). Elba and the other islands (Gorgona, Capraia, Pianosa, Montecristo, Giglio and Giannutri) of the Tuscan Archipelago are protected in the National Park of the Tuscan Archipelago. The French island of Corsica lies about 50 km to the west. Recently,the island has become famous for its wine.

The island is divided into eight communes: Portoferraio, Campo nell'Elba, Capoliveri, Marciana, Marciana Marina, Porto Azzurro, Rio Marina and Rio nell'Elba. The island has a population of about 30 000 people.

History
The island was well known in to the last century for the iron resources. Mines were created by the Etruscans first and (after 480 BC) the Romans. After the end of the Roman Empire, the island knew barbarians and Saracens. In the early 11th century it became a part of the Republic of Pisa. In 1398, was sold to the Visconti family of Milan. After a few years, the island was acquired by the Appiani, Lords of Piombino, who kept it for two centuries. In 1546 part of the island was controlled by Cosimo I de' Medici. He fortified Portoferraio and renamed it "Cosmopoli". In 1577, the rest of the island was returned to the Appiani. In 1603 Philip II of Spain captured Porto Azzurro and built two fortresses there.

In 1802 the island became a part of France. Following the Treaty of Fontainebleau, French emperor Napoleon I was exiled to Elba after his forced abdication in 1814 and arrived at Portoferraio on May 3, 1814 to begin his exile there. He was allowed to keep a personal guard of six hundred men. Napoleon stayed on Elba for 300 days before he escaped and returned to France on February 26 for the Hundred Days. Thanks to Napoleon Elba is well-known around the world. In the Congress of Vienna the island was given to the Grand Duchy of Tuscany. In 1860 it became part of the new unified Kingdom of Italy.

French troops landed on Elba on June 17 1944, freeing the island from the Germans in World War II.

Airport 
There is an airport on the island, the "Airport Marina di Campo", that can connect the island with the big cities of: Friedrichshafen, Munchen and Zürich.

Other websites
 Elba Geology  a site about Elba's Geology.
 War story about the WWII battle
 Elba Island All information for your holiday on Elba Island

Islands of Italy
Wine regions
Events 
 March 1 – Federalist James Ross becomes President Pro Tempore of the United States Senate.
 March 7 – Napoleon captures Jaffa in Palestine and his troops proceed to kill more than 2,000 Albanian captives.
 March 29 – New York passes a law aimed at gradually abolishing slavery in the state.
 July 7 – Ranjit Singh's men had taken their positions outside Lahore.
 July 15 – In the Egyptian port city of Rosetta, French Captain Pierre Bouchard finds the Rosetta Stone.
 July 25 – At Aboukir in Egypt, Napoleon I of France defeats 10,000 Ottoman Mamluk troops under Mustafa Pasha.
 November 9 – Napoleon overthrows the French Directory.
 December – Napoleon becomes First Consul.
 The Dutch East India Company is dissolved.
 The Place Royale in Paris is renamed Place des Vosges when the Department of Vosges becomes the first to pay new Revolutionary taxes.
 The American System of manufacturing is invented.

April 17 - Edward Williams Clay, American artist (d. 1857)

 August 29 – Pope Pius VI, Roman Catholic pope during the French revolution. (b. 1717)
Sanskrit is an ancient Indian language. It is a sacred language of Hinduism, Buddhism, and Jainism and is the origin of most Indian languages. Today, about 14,000 people in India use it as their daily language. It is one of the 22 official languages of India.

Sanskrit is a standardized dialect of Old Indo-Aryan. Its linguistic ancestry can be traced back to Proto-Indo-European. The Indo-Aryan migration theory proposes that the Indo-Aryans migrated from the Central Asian steppes into South Asia during the early 2nd millennium BC, which brought the Indo-Aryan languages. The main script used to write Sanskrit is Devanāgarī, but it can be written in the scripts of various other Indian languages and is sometimes written in the Latin alphabet. 

William Jones, working as a judge in India in the 18th century, studied Sanskrit and recognized its similarities to Latin and Greek. This led to the Indo-European languages being recognized as a group of related languages.

Literature
Sanskrit literature includes poetry and drama. There are also scientific, technical, philosophical and religious texts. Sanskrit continues to be widely used as a ceremonial language in Hindu religious rituals and Buddhist practice in the form of hymns and chants.

Grammar
The language has a very complex grammar, with eight grammatical cases, the grammatical genders, and three grammatical numbers. Words are also described based on their qualities. The language is considered highly scientific, as each word in a sentence can describe the number, gender, and action of the subject.

References
Dementia is a group of diseases with symptoms, which affect the way people think and interact with each other. It can often be linked to a disease or damage done to the brain. Very often, short-time memory, mind, speech and motor skills are affected. Certain forms of dementia cause a change in the personality of the sufferer. A person suffering from dementia will lose certain skills and knowledge they already had. This is the main difference to other conditions affecting the mind. People who suffer from learning problems, or lower intelligence will never acquire certain skills, people suffering from dementia will lose skills they have acquired. Dementia is more common in older people, but younger people can be affected as well. Certain forms of dementia can be treated, to some extent. The most common form of dementia is Alzheimer's disease, which accounts for between 50 and 60 percent of all cases. Other types include vascular dementia and lewy body dementia.

Famous people who suffered from dementia include Augusto Pinochet, the Chilean leader, and also Rosa Parks, the civil rights activist.

People who see the following worsen may suffer from dementia:
 Decision-making ability
 Judgment
 Orientation in time and space
 Problem solving
 Verbal communication

Behavioral changes may include: 
 Eating
 Dressing (may need assistance)
 Interests
 Routine activities (may become unable to perform household tasks)
 Personality (inappropriate responses, lack of emotional control)

Some types dementia are reversible. This means the damage can be undone. Other types are irreversible. This means that they cannot be undone. Irreversible dementia is usually caused by an incurable disease, such as Alzheimer's disease.  

Reversible causes of dementia also include diffuse axonal injury after injuries to the head or the brain, known medically as Traumatic brain injury.

Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease causes a dementia that gets worse quickly, over weeks or months, and is caused by prions. ,other forms like encephalopathy or delirium may develop relatively slowly, over a number of years.

The two leading causes of dementia are Alzheimer's disease and Multi-infarct disease. Glioma related tumors are another kmown cause. Alcohol dementia, is sometimes associated with Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome, and is caused by long-term or uncontrolled, heavy alcohol abuse.

Possible metabolic causes are such as liver failure or kidney failure; and chronic subdural hematoma. Possible other causes may include brain infection by illnesses like meningitis leading in cases to viral encephalitis drug toxicity (e.g. anticonvulsant drugs). A recent report by Science Daily says that researchers at the University of Bergen, in Norway have discovered a connection between Oral health and Alzheimers disease.

Related pages
Alzheimer's disease
Vascular dementia
Meningitis
Encephalitis 
Primary central nervous system lymphoma

References

Other websites 
 

Neurology
Economic elasticity is at elasticity (economics)

Something that is elastic can be stretched or deformed (changed) and returned to its original form, like a rubber band. It tries to come back to its first shape. The stress is the force applied; the strain'' is how much the shape is changed, and the elastic modulus is the ratio between those numbers.

This idea was first suggested by Robert Hooke in 1675.

References 

Basic English 850 words
A harmonica is small musical instrument that is played with the mouth by blowing into holes in its side. Harmonicas are cheap and easy to play. Harmonicas produce their musical sounds from the vibrations of reeds in the harmonica's metal case. Harmonicas are used in blues music, folk music, rock and roll music, and pop music. A special type of harmonica, the chromatic harmonica, is used in jazz and classical music. Harmonicas are made in several different keys: G, A♭, A, B♭, B, C, D♭, D, E♭, E, F, and F♯. Each key can play a different range of notes.

How they are played
Harmonicas are played by blowing or sucking air into one side. On this side, there are many holes. Each hole has a different note. Different notes are played when you blow or suck air.

Harmonica players
Bob Dylan is a famous harmonica player from the 1960s folk rock scene.
Willi Burger is a famous classical harmonica player.eez
Neil Young is a folk/grunge musician who plays the harmonica.
Steven Tyler, from Aerosmith, plays the harmonica.
Little Walter, one of the most well known blues harmonica players ever.
Yvonnick Prene is a groundbreaking jazz harmonica player.

Other Harmonica players
*Bluesharp players

Jazz
 Larry Adler
 Matthias Broede
 Jens Bunge
 Hermine Deurloo
 Maurício Einhorn
 Adam Glasser
 Howard Levy
 Hendrik Meurkens
 Richard Oesterreicher
 Toots Thielemans

Types of harmonicas
Another type of harmonica is the chromatic harmonica.  More songs can be played on it than a regular harmonica, because chromatic harmonicas can play more different notes. Chromatic harmonicas have a button which moves a sliding bar. By pressing the button, the player can play a larger range of notes.

Different names
The harmonica is called many different names, such as: mouth organ, mouth harp, Hobo Harp, French harp, Reckless Tram, harpoon, tin sandwich, blues harp, Mississippi saxophone, or simply harp.

Other websites
 todoarmonica.org 
 Virtual harmonica lessons HarmoPoint
 Harmonica's blog 
 Harmonica Riff 

Woodwind instruments
An electron microscope is a scientific instrument which uses a beam of electrons to examine objects on a very fine scale. In an optical microscope, the wavelength of light limits the maximum magnification that is possible. As electrons have a smaller wavelength, they can achieve a higher magnification, and can see very small objects - typically around 1,000 times smaller than those seen in an optical microscope. The outline of objects, as revealed by the flow of electrons, is changed into a picture using visible light for people to see. Electron microscopes were invented in Germany in the 1930s.

Types of electron microscope

Transmission Electron Microscope TEM  
A beam of electrons is sent towards the specimen - some electrons are reflected, while some pass through. Those that pass through are detected and used to form an image of the specimen at a magnification of about 500,000 times. This microscope is more powerful than a light microscope.

Reflection Electron Microscope (REM) 
Similar to a Transmission Electron Microscope, but the reflected electrons are detected. By measuring the reflected electrons, some information about the surface of the specimen can be gathered.

Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) 

A narrow beam of electrons is moved across the specimen and a picture is built up piece by piece by detecting how the electrons are reflected or absorbed as it moves.

Scanning Transmission Electron Microscope (STEM) 
It combines the high magnification of TEM with the better surface detail of SEM. It can be used to perform complex analysis on the specimen, which cannot be done using TEM alone.

Related pages

 Scanning tunneling microscope

Microscopes
Insomnia is when people cannot sleep for long or short periods. A person with this problem is called an insomniac. Insomnia can mean a problem with getting to sleep or a problem with staying asleep. Insomnia is a symptom and not a disease or illness.

Different kinds of insomnia 
There are at least three different types of insomnia:
 Transient Insomnia: this lasts from one night to a few weeks.
 Acute Insomnia: lasts from a few weeks to about six months.
 Chronic Insomnia: lasts for years at a time.

Causes 
There are many causes of insomnia. Some of them are:
 As people get older, their sleep patterns change. They will sleep shorter periods of time, but more often. Younger people usually sleep longer. This is normal.
 Some insomnia issues are caused by stimulant drugs, such as amphetamine, cocaine and nicotine. Coffee stimulates the body, and people tend to drink quite a lot of it when they are at work. If they drink too much of it, they will have problems falling asleep in the evening. (The same is true for tea, colas, or any other drink with caffeine in it.)
 Some people worry a lot. Their worries during the day will bother them at night. They might have nightmares, or they may wake up sweating.
 Some substances, like alcohol can have a bad effect. It can be very hard to sleep after drinking a lot of alcohol. The world may spin and there can be an urge to vomit as soon the person closes their eyes. Drugs can also have this effect, even some "sleeping" pills.
 A very rare disease called fatal familial insomnia prevents some people from falling asleep. In this disease, a person can no longer sleep and after a while will die from being so tired. It is caused by a protein similar to the one that causes mad cow disease which is a very bad disease that comes from eating infected meat.
 People with disorders of their circadian rhythms often have trouble sleeping at normal times.
 Insomnia is a common symptom of some mental disorders: bipolar disorder, major depressive disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder, schizophrenia, obsessive-compulsive disorder, dementia and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder.

Treatments
There are drugs available that can help treat the different kinds of insomnia. In some cases, there are also certain herbs that can help. A third way that seems to help is a type of therapy that aims at changing the behaviour of those affected.

References 

Sleep disorders
A priest or priestess is a person who  is allowed to do religious rites. Their office or position is the priesthood, a word which can also be used for such persons collectively. In most religions and cultures in history there have been priests, although they have a lot of different names, and follow different rules.

In Christianity 

A priest is a member of a church that has been told to look after his (spiritual) community. He is the head of a parish.

Catholic priests are ordained (put in place) by the Pope (or in his absence: a bishop).
Orthodox priests are ordained by the Patriarch
Anglican priests are ordained by their bishop.
Most Protestant groups do not ordain priests.

To become a Catholic priest, you are required to study Theology. The Orthodox and Protestant Churches also have laymen as clergy.

Catholic priests are not allowed to marry meaning that they have to be celibate. Orthodox priests can be married, but they must not marry after they become a priest. Anglican priests can get married before or during the time they are a priest.

The Catholic Church does not allow women to become priests. However, some Anglican Churches allow women to be priests.

Higher priests are called Bishops and Archbishops in the Anglican Church. John Sentamua and Rowan Williams are the archbishops of York and Canterbury. In some denominations only men can become priests.

The Orthodox Church has a higher priest called a Patriarch. The Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria, like the Roman Catholic Church has a Pope, Pope Tawadras.

Protestantism
Many Protestant churches have ministers or pastors instead of priests.

Japan
In Japan there are Buddhist priests and nuns, Shinto priests and priestesses (kannushi) as well as clergy in the Christian traditions.

Other websites

 
Religious occupations
Christian religious occupations
The Red Sea is a sea between the Arabian Peninsula of Asia in the northeast and Africa in the southwest. It is a part of the Indian Ocean. The Red Sea is about 2200 km long and  less than 330 km wide.

Many ships go through the Red Sea because the Suez Channel at the north end connects the Red Sea to the Mediterranean Sea. Bab-el-Mandeb in the south is a gate to the Indian Ocean. Ports include Suez, Port Sudan, Massawa, Yanbu al-Bahr, Jeddah, Aqaba and Eilat. 

The Red Sea has that name because it sometimes looks red from the red algae. The water has more salt and is clearer than water of most other seas because almost no rivers run into it.

The climate is dry and warm. Many people, including those from Europe, like to vacation there. Some of them are divers and want to see the beautiful coral reefs and fish. Seaside resorts include Sharm el-Sheikh, Eilat or Hurghada.

Geography 
The countries next to the Red Sea are Egypt, Sudan, Eritrea, Yemen, Saudi Arabia, Jordan and Israel.

In the Bible 
According to the book of Exodus, God parted it for Moses and the Israelites so they could escape from the Egyptian Army.

References 

Seas of the Indian Ocean
+9203484674251 following is a list of country calling codes. These are area codes for telephone numbers.

Zone 1 - North American Numbering Plan Area 
Places in NANPA (North American Numbering Plan Area) have been given area codes as if they were all areas inside one country.

For more information please see nanpa.com

Zone 2 - Mostly Africa

Zone 3 - Europe

Zone 4 - Europe

Zone 5 - Mexico, Central and South America, West Indies

Zone 6 - South Pacific and Oceania

Zone 7 - Russia and its vicinity (former Soviet Union) 
 7 - Russia; Kazakhstan; Abkhazia (disputed with Georgia)

Zone 8 - East Asia and Special Services

Zone 9 - West, South and Central Asia, Middle East

Zone 0 
 0 - unused

India 
 http://www.lincmad.com/world.html
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-LT.1-2015-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164D-2016-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.itu.int/dms_pub/itu-t/opb/sp/T-SP-E.164C-2011-PDF-E.pdf
 http://www.wtng.info/

Lists of countries
Telephone numbers
Country codes
Mestizo (meh-STEE-tzo) is a Spanish term for a person who is of mixed European (usually Spanish) and Amerindian ancestry.

Mestizos have existed since the time when Spain controlled much of what is now Latin America. A mestizo was usually the son of a Spanish father and a Native American mother. Mestizos form the largest part of the population in some Latin American nations, a large minority of mestizos makes up most of the population in Mexico, which is the Spanish-speaking nation with the largest population in the world.

During the colonial era, many Native Americans were converted to Roman Catholicism and began using the Spanish language instead of their traditional one. This was because of the concept that existed in the Spanish colonies which gave more "value" to European people over Native Americans and Africans. Because of this, many Native Americans gained better social status by calling themselves "mestizos" instead of "indios."

Indo-Mestizo 
Indo-Mestizo (also known as Cholo) is a Spanish term for a person who is around 3/4 Native American and 1/4 Caucasian ancestry and an unfortunate derogatory term used by the European cast system for racial discrimination against Original Native people https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Casta

Indo-Mestizos term is a racial slur used  mostly to discriminate against Original Native people  in Eastern and Southern Mexico, much of Northern Central America,in South American West Pacific Side Ecuador, Peru, Chile Colombia and Bolivia

Indo-Mestizos usually have more Native American traits, but may have a light pigmentation with completely Native American features, or a dark pigmenation with some obvious Caucasian features.

Famous Indo-Mestizos include Maya Zapata, George Lopez, and Danny Trejo. They are so called because of their appearance, not because of known genetic background. 

Native American
Spanish people
Ethnic groups
The Royal Air Force (sometimes called RAF, its acronym), is the air force of the United Kingdom. The RAF began in 1918 when the Royal Flying Corps (spoken as 'core') and the Royal Naval Air Service joined together. It is the oldest air force in the world.  The first man to lead the RAF was Hugh Trenchard. The RAF has many bases across the world, including the UK, Falkland Islands, Cyprus and Gibraltar. Some examples of the UK bases are RAF Lossiemouth in Scotland, RAF Valley in Wales, RAF Aldergrove in Northern Ireland and RAF Linton-on Ouse in England. The RAF has very new planes including the Eurofighter Typhoon, Panavia Tornado and the BAe Systems Hawk. The Hawk is used to train fast-jet pilots.

World War II 
The RAF were very busy during World War II. Many important planes were built for the RAF. The Supermarine Spitfire and Hawker Hurricane helped defend Britain during the Battle of Britain. The Avro Lancaster bomber attacked Germany with strategic bombing. The RAF lost great numbers of pilots and aircraft, fighting around the world and especially against the Luftwaffe, the German Air Force.

References

Other websites 
 241 Squadron RAF  1918 Great War Forum
 The RAF website
 pictures of RAF planes in action

 
1918 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in the United Kingdom
Military of the United Kingdom
The Book of One Thousand and One Nights is an old cycle (or group) of stories that mostly come from Arabia and Persia, and a few also from India, Central Asia and China. All these stories were later collected together. There are different layers of the stories:

 Uppermost is the story of Queen Scheherazade who needs to entertain her husband, the Sultan or King Sheheryar, or she would be put to death.
 The next layer is made up of the actual stories, such as Ali Baba and the Forty Thieves, Aladdin and the Magic Lamp, etc.
 In those stories, there is often also a narrator who tells the story.

Related pages
 Sinbad the Sailor

References

Other website links
 The Thousand Nights and a Night in several classic translations, including unexpurgated version by Sir Francis Burton, and John Payne translation, with additional material.
 Stories From One Thousand and One Nights, (Lane and Poole translation): Project Bartleby edition
 The Arabian Nights (includes Lang and (expurgated) Burton translations): Electronic Literature Foundation editions 
 The Medieval Arabic Nights  - a study
 Jonathan Scott translation of Arabian Nights
 Notes on the influences and context of the Thousand and One Nights 
 1001 Resources and Links for A Thousand and One Nights  University of Houston
 The Book of the Thousand and One Nights  by John Crocker
 (expurgated) Sir Burton's ~1885 translation, annotated for English study.
 Arabian Nights' Tales  Dedicated site with just the stories of 1001 nights listed in order.

Persian literature
Arabic literature
A coup d'état (pronounced []), or just coup ([]) for short, is the removal of a head of state and/or head of government from power (overthrow). Unlike a revolution, which usually takes large numbers of people to take over, a coup can be done by a small number of people. Even one person can cause a coup, such as Idi Amin for example, who controlled the Ugandan army. Coups can also be done by other countries, such as the 1953 Iranian coup d'état. One well-known failed coup was the Beer Hall Putsch, where Adolf Hitler tried to take over the government of the state of Bavaria in Germany.

The term comes from French for "a (sudden) blow (or strike) to a state".

Informally, coup is sometimes used to refer to takeovers, or wins, in places other than government, such as inside a company or corporation.
The Eucharist, also called holy communion, the sacrament, or the Lord's supper, is a kind of religious ritual in many Christian churches. It started when Jesus Christ told his followers to eat bread (His body) and drink wine (His blood) in memory of him, at the Last Supper.

In the Roman Catholic Church
According to the Roman Catholic Church, the Eucharist is the true presence of Jesus Christ, the Son of God. During a Mass, through the act of transubstantiation, the bread and wine offered change, and are no longer bread and wine.  They become the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ. The bread and wine do not change appearance, but they are the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ, which Catholics in good standing (not in the state of mortal sin) come and receive Christ—they consume Him.  This follows what was said by Christ "Eat my Body and Drink my Blood" (John ch.6). Most Protestant denominations believe that this was meant as a symbol, while the Catholic Church bases its beliefs on the tradition handed down through the church. 

First century St. Ignatius of Antioch, disciple of the beloved disciple John, in speaking of "the heretics plaguing the church" in their day, wrote:  "They abstain from the Eucharist because they do not confess that the Eucharist is the flesh of our Savior Jesus Christ" (Smyrnaeans, 7).

From the second century, St. Justin Martyr wrote:
"This food we call Eucharist, which no one is allowed to share except the one who believes that our teaching is true, and who has been washed with the washing that is for the remission of sins, and unto regeneration, and so lives as Christ has handed down. For we do not receive these as common bread and common drink; but just as Jesus Christ our Savior, having been made flesh by the word of God, had both flesh and blood for our salvation, so likewise we have learned that the food over which thanks has been given by the prayer of the word which comes from him, and by which our blood and flesh are nourished through a change, is the Flesh and Blood of the same incarnate Jesus" (The First Apology).

In other churches

In most Protestant churches, not including Lutheranism, the sacrament of communion involves eating small wafers or Matzos and drinking wine or grape juice, and not believing that it is the actual body and blood of Jesus, but as a very important symbolic observance, and fulfillment of what Christ commanded. Some churches offer it daily, some weekly, some monthly, and some a few times a year.

Unlike the Catholic teaching, Lutherans teach that the bread and wine is Jesus' body and blood, but is bread and wine also (consubstantiation).

In the Latter Day Saints or "Mormon" Church, followers eat small pieces of bread and drink water. They believe that this is a symbol of the body and blood of Jesus, and they call it the Sacrament. They also believe that it helps them to make the promises of baptism all over again.

Sacraments
Christian terminology
The Wizard of Oz is an American musical movie. It was produced by MGM and released by RKO in 1939. The movie is based on the children's book The Wonderful Wizard of Oz by L. Frank Baum. This book was first published in May 1900. The book and movie are about a little girl's adventures in the land called Oz. This is still watched from 1939 to 2017.

The song "Over the Rainbow" won the Academy Award for Best Original Song. The movie was first televised in 1956. It became an annual Thanksgiving television special for many years. The movie was named the most-watched motion picture in history by the Library of Congress.

In 1998, the movie was sixth on the American Film Institute's 100 Years... 100 Movies list. The movie has been chosen for preservation in the United States National Film Registry.

Story 

Dorothy (Judy Garland) lives on a drab Kansas farm with her Auntie Em and Uncle Henry (Clara Blandick and Charlie Grapewin). A powerful storm sweeps her away to the Land of Oz. She accidentally kills a wicked witch. She wants to go home, but only the Wizard of Oz (Frank Morgan) can send her home. She must go to the Emerald City to see him. She sets off on the Yellow Brick Road wearing the witch's ruby slippers. She makes three friends on the road: a Scarecrow, a Tin Man, and a Cowardly Lion (Ray Bolger, Jack Haley, and Bert Lahr).

On the way to Emerald City, the friends are tormented by The Wicked Witch of the West (Margaret Hamilton). She is the sister of the witch Dorothy killed. She wants the ruby slippers. Dorothy won't give the slippers to the witch. The friends arrive in Emerald City. The Wizard sends them off to kill the witch. The friends are captured by the witch. Dorothy throws a pail of water over the witch. The witch melts.

In the Emerald City, the four friends are welcomed as heroes. The Wizard prepares his hot air balloon to take Dorothy back to Kansas. The balloon takes off without her. A good witch called Glinda (Billie Burke) tells Dorothy she can go home by just clicking the heels of the ruby slippers together and thinking about home. She does this. She wakes up in her bed. Her adventures have been a dream.

References

Other websites 
Official DVD Website

Greatest Films
RaveCentral 
The Wizard of Oz tornado - on the set
Moria.co.nz Review 

1939 movies
1930s fantasy movies
1930s musical movies
American family movies
American fantasy movies
American musical movies
English-language movies
Movies based on books
Movies set in Kansas
United States National Film Registry movies
Movies that won the Best Original Song Academy Award
MGM movies
Movies directed by Victor Fleming
Movies directed by King Vidor
Movies about dreams
Gillian Leigh Anderson,  (born August 9, 1968) is an American-British film, television and theatre actress, activist and writer. Her credits include the roles of FBI Special Agent Dana Scully in the long-running and widely popular series The X-Files, ill-fated socialite Lily Bart in Terence Davies' film The House of Mirth (2000), and DSI Stella Gibson on the BBC crime drama television series The Fall. Among other honours, Anderson has won a Primetime Emmy Award, a Golden Globe Award and two Screen Actors Guild Awards.

After beginning her career on stage, Anderson achieved international recognition for her role as FBI Special Agent Dana Scully on the American sci-fi drama series The X-Files for all ten seasons (1993–2002, 2016). Her film work includes the dramas The Mighty Celt (2005), The Last King of Scotland (2006), Shadow Dancer (2012) and two X-Files films: The X-Files: Fight the Future (1998) and The X-Files: I Want to Believe (2008). Her other notable television credits include: portraying Lady Dedlock in the successful BBC production of Charles Dickens' Bleak House, Wallis Simpson in Any Human Heart, portraying Miss Havisham in Great Expectations (2011) and Dr. Bedelia Du Maurier on Hannibal. In 2013, Anderson began starring as DSI Stella Gibson on the critically acclaimed BBC crime drama television series The Fall. She has been serving as an executive producer from its second series. She will be appearing as goddess Media in the upcoming TV series American Gods. Anderson is the co-writer of The EarthEnd Saga novel trilogy and the self-help guide book WE: A Manifesto for Women Everywhere.

Aside from film and TV, Anderson has taken on the stage and has received both awards and critical acclaim. Her stage work includes Absent Friends (1991) – for which she won a Theatre World Award for Best Newcomer, A Doll's House (2009) –  that earned her a Laurence Olivier Award nomination, and a portrayal of Blanche DuBois in A Streetcar Named Desire (2014, 2016) – for which she won the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actress and received her second Laurence Olivier Award nomination for Best Actress.

Anderson has been active in supporting numerous charities and humanitarian organizations. She is an honorary spokesperson for the Neurofibromatosis (NF) Network and the co-founder of South African Youth Education for Sustainability (SAYes). Anderson was appointed an honorary Officer of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire (OBE) in 2016 for her services to drama.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
  Gillian Anderson at Emmys.com

1968 births
Actors from Chicago
American activists
American feminists
American movie actors
American stage actors
American television actors
American voice actors
DePaul University alumni
Emmy Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Honorary Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Living people
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
Debt is what someone owes to someone else. Usually, debt is in the form of money, but it can also be items, services, favors, or other things. Thus if you make an agreement to give or do something for someone else, you now owe a debt. Unpaid debt can lead to problems such as the Greek government-debt crisis. Debt is used by many corporations and individuals to make large purchases that they could not afford under normal circumstances. Popular types of debt owed by households and individuals are mortgage loans, car loans, credit card debt, and income taxes. In the case of individuals, debt is a way to use an anticipated income combined with the future purchasing power at present before earning the same. 

On the other hand, corporates have a multitude of options when it comes to debt. Debts can be short term or long term. Companies may use debt for their working capital or day-to-day operations.

Types of debt 
Goods, services or money borrowed with the intent of repayment (in kind or not) creates a debt. Debt can be classified as either secured debt, unsecured debt, revolving debt, or a mortgage.

A secured debt uses collateral, which is an asset that is promised to the debt-holder until the debt has been repaid. If the repayment is not made in full, the lender gets the collateral asset. For instance, a car loan typically creates a secured debt. If you still owe money on the car loan and do not make timely payments, the note-holder can take back (or repossess) the car and sell it to get the money still due. A home mortgage is similar. 

An unsecured debt is more risky to the debt-holder (the lender, also called creditor). In the event of non-payment of the debt, the lender cannot take assets. Credit card debt is typically unsecured. If you charge items to a credit card and do not make the monthly payments, the credit card issuer can report the non-payment to the credit-reporting agencies. That will reduce your credit score so others will not lend you money. But usually they cannot take back whatever you bought with the card.

Revolving debt is a line of credit or an amount that a borrower can continuously borrow from. In other words, the borrower may use funds up to a certain amount, pay it back, and borrow up to that amount again.

A mortgage is a debt issued to purchase real estate, such as a house or condo. It is a form of secured debt as the subject real estate is used as collateral against the loan.

Related pages 
Debt bondage
Loan

References 
Basic English 850 words
Economics
Everyday life
Aquitaine (Occitan: Aquitània; ; ) is a part of southwestern France. It was once an administrative region but is now part of the administrative region of Nouvelle-Aquitaine. With over 41,000 square kilometers, it is one of the largest regions of mainland France (the largest of all French regions is French Guiana, in South America).

Its capital was Bordeaux, the largest city. The French name of the people living in the region is Aquitain.

The five departments in the region were Dordogne, Gironde, Landes, Lot-et-Garonne, and Pyrénées-Atlantiques.

Geography
The Aquitaine region was the third largest region of Metropolitan France, after Midi-Pyrénées and Rhône-Alpes. Its area was . It bordered with three French regions: Poitou-Charentes to the north, Limousin to the northeast and Midi-Pyrénées to the east. To the south is Spain (Aragon and Navarre) and to the west the Atlantic Ocean. The coast along the Atlantic Ocean, part of the Bay of Biscay, is called the Côte d'Argent (Silver Coast).

The Greenwich Meridian passes through Aquitaine.

Most of Aquitaine is in the Aquitanian basin, a relatively flat and geologically young landscape. High mountains are found only in the south of Aquitaine, in the Pyrenees mountain range. The Pic Palas (), at , is the highest point of Aquitaine; it is on the border with Spain.

The main rivers of the region are the Garonne, that flows through the Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; the Dordogne, that flows through the Dordogne and Gironde departments; the Lot, that flows through the Lot-et-Garonne department; the Dropt, that flows through the Dordogne, Gironde and Lot-et-Garonne departments; and the Adour, that flows through the Landes department.

The climate is mild - except in the high mountains - all year round. On the Atlantic coast, the annual average temperature is above 15 °C, in Bordeaux is about 14 °C and on the border of Limousin is still 11 °C. Rainfall is relatively high and is higher in the south of the region.

History
In the Middle Ages Aquitaine was at times a kingdom and a duchy. Various wars made it larger and smaller. Aquitane came into the control of England when Eleanor of Aquitaine married Henry II of England in 1152. It remained in English control until 1453 at the end of the Hundred Years' War.

Departments
The Aquitaine region is formed by five departments:

Demographics
The Aquitaine region had a population, in 2012, of 3,285,970, for a population density of  inhabitants/km2.

The 10 most important cities in the department are:

Gallery

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Regional Council of Aquitain official website  
 Visit Aquitaine
 Regional information and tourist attractions
 Aquitaine: the cradle of humanity
Frances Winfield is the wife of an American politician, L. Paul Bremer III.  They have two children.

Life
She is an author.  She was born in Connecticut.  She met her husband at a music concert.  They fell in love in college.  They got married in 1966.  Both she and her husband are strong Roman Catholics.  They are ministers in their home state of Maryland.

Her books
 Running to Paradise, 2000, 
 Coping With His Success:  A Survival Guide for Wives at the Top, 1984

Other websites 
Web Opens New Window On Prayer, Washington Post March 2, 2003
 Faith Gives Him Strength, The Catholic Standard, June 19, 2003
Misty Valley Hosts Author of Paradise , August 2005

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
Writers from Connecticut
Writers from Maryland
A nightmare is a very powerful dream that the sleeper finds disturbing or frightening. Nightmares usually have either physiological causes, like a high fever, or psychological ones, like trauma or stress in the sleeper's life.  Nightmares are common, but nightmares that happen very often can cause problems with sleep. They may cause people to get medical help.

Nightmares usually happen during REM sleep.

In earlier times 
In earlier times, people thought that such nightmares were really the work of demons. They thought people were having nightmares because an Incubus was sitting on the chest of the sleeper. This can also be seen on the image. Sometimes people also thought magic and demonic possession were involved. 

In the 19th century, people thought their diet was responsible. When Ebenezer Scrooge sees a ghost in A Christmas Carol, by Charles Dickens, he thinks "... an undigested bit of beef, a blot of mustard, a crumb of cheese, a fragment of an underdone potato..." is responsible. Similarly, the Household Cyclopedia (1881) offers this advice about nightmares:

"Great attention is to be paid to regularity and choice of diet. Intemperance of every kind is hurtful, but nothing is more productive of this disease than drinking bad wine. Of eatables those which are most prejudicial are all fat and greasy meats and pastry... Moderate exercise contributes in a superior degree to promote the digestion of food and prevent flatulence; those, however, who are necessarily confined to a sedentary occupation, should particularly avoid applying themselves to study or bodily labor immediately after eating... Going to bed before the usual hour is a frequent cause of night-mare, as it either occasions the patient to sleep too long or to lie long awake in the night. Passing a whole night or part of a night without rest likewise gives birth to the disease, as it occasions the patient, on the succeeding night, to sleep too soundly. Indulging in sleep too late in the morning, is an almost certain method to bring on the paroxysm, and the more frequently it returns, the greater strength it acquires; the propensity to sleep at this time is almost irresistible."

References 

Psychology
Melilla is a city in North Africa, right opposite Spain. It belongs to Spain, and is all surrounded by Morocco, which believes it should belong to them. Ceuta is another such city.

Its surface is about 20 square kilometers, and there are almost 70,000 people living there.

Other websites 

 Google Maps entry for Melilla

Exclaves