cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The International Opium Convention was the first drug control treaty (or agreement).  It was signed at The Hague in The Netherlands on January 23, 1912.  The United States organised a conference between 13 countries called the International Opium Commission in 1909 in Shanghai, China because people complained more and more about opium trade. The treaty was signed by Germany, the United States, China, France, the United Kingdom, Italy, Japan, The Netherlands, Persia, Portugal, Russia, and Siam. The Convention said that "The contracting Powers shall use their best endeavours to control, or to cause to be controlled, all persons manufacturing, importing, selling, distributing, and exporting morphine, cocaine, and their respective salts, as well as the buildings in which these persons carry such an industry or trade."

The Convention was implemented in 1915 by the United States, Netherlands, China, Honduras, and Norway. It went into force around the world in 1919 when it became part of the Treaty of Versailles.

A modified International Opium Convention was signed on February 19, 1925, which started on September 25, 1928. It introduced control system to be looked after by a Permanent Central Opium Board, part of the League of Nations. Egypt, with support from 
China and United States, recommended that a ban on hashish be added to the Convention.

India and other countries did not agree, saying social and religious customs and that wild-growing cannabis plants being available in many places, that would make it difficult to enforce, so this never made it into the final treaty. A compromise was made that banned the export of Indian hemp to countries that have banned its use.  Importing countries were made to issue certificates approving the import and stating that the shipment was required "exclusively for medical or scientific purposes." It also required Parties to "exercise an effective control of such a nature as to prevent the illicit international traffic in Indian hemp and especially in the resin." These restrictions still made it easy for countries to allow production, internal trade, and use of cannabis for recreational purposes.

The Convention was superseded by the 1961 Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs.

References

International law
Drugs
The Hague
The 1998–99 NHL season was the 82nd regular season of the National Hockey League. Twenty-seven teams played 82 games each. 

The Dallas Stars finished first in regular season play. They won the Stanley Cup Championship over the Buffalo Sabres with a disputed overtime goal by Brett Hull. 

Goaltenders continued to rule the league; only two teams, the Toronto Maple Leafs and the New Jersey Devils, averaged more than three goals scored per game. In addition, no player reached the 50-goal plateau. A total of 160 shutouts were recorded for the second-straight regular season.

Regular season

Final standings

Eastern Conference

Western Conference

Scoring leaders
Note: GP = Games played; G = Goals; A = Assists; Pts = Points

Postseason

Playoff bracket

Eastern Conference Quarterfinals

Western Conference Quarterfinals

Eastern Conference Semifinals

Western Conference Semifinals

Eastern Conference Final

Western Conference Final

Finals

NHL awards

All-Star teams

First games
The following is a list of players of note who played their first NHL game in 1998–99 (listed with their first team, stars(*) mark start in playoffs):
Martin St. Louis, Calgary Flames
Jean-Pierre Dumont, Chicago Blackhawks
Chris Drury, Colorado Avalanche
Milan Hejduk, Colorado Avalanche
Tom Poti, Edmonton Oilers
Dan Boyle, Florida Panthers
Jason Blake, Los Angeles Kings
David Legwand, Nashville Predators
Karlis Skrastins, Nashville Predators
Kimmo Timonen, Nashville Predators
John Madden, New Jersey Devils
Eric Brewer, New York Islanders
Sami Salo, Ottawa Senators
Vincent Lecavalier, Tampa Bay Lightning
Tomas Kaberle, Toronto Maple Leafs

Last games
The following is a list of players of note that played their last game in the NHL in 1998–99 (listed with their last team):
Dale Hunter, Colorado Avalanche
Wayne Gretzky, New York Rangers
Ron Hextall, Philadelphia Flyers

References

Hockey Database
http://nhl.com/
Bagh District () is one of the eight districts of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. The district, which had been part of Poonch District, was created in 1988. The district is bordered by Muzaffarabad District to the north, by Punjab in the east. It also borders the divided district of Poonch, to the south is the Poonch District of Azad Kashmir and to the east is the Poonch District of India's Jammu and Kashmir state. The total area of the district is 1,368 square kilometers. Bagh District is linked to Muzaffarabad by two roads, one via Sudhan Gali (80 km) and the other through Kohala (97 km). It is 46 km from Rawalakot. The district is well known for its confectionery and bakery products.

People
The total population of the district according to the 1998 census was 395,000 which is estimated to have increased to 434,000 in 2003, with an annual growth rate of 2%.

Administration
The district is divided into 3 tehsils:

 Bagh Tehsil
 Dheerkot Tehsil
 Hari Ghel Tehseel

Districts of Azad Kashmir
Bhimber () is the southernmost of the eight districts of Azad Kashmir, the district is between Latitude: 32-48 to 33-34 and Longitude: 73.55 to 74-45, and has an area of 1516 km². The chief town is Bhimber

History
The area is very rich in archaeological remains because of its location. The Mughal Emperors used to travel through the area quite a lot to visit the Kashmir Valley.

Until 1995 Bhimber was a sub-division (tehsil) of Mirpur District. In 1996 the tehsil of Bhimber was removed from Mirpur and made into a separate district.

Location
The district is bounded by Mirpur District to the northwest (and is 50 km from Mirpur city), and Punjab province in the west and south. It also shares borders with Indian Kashmir to the east.

Administration
The total area of the district is 1516 square kilometres and is divided into three tehsils.

 Barnala Tehsil
 Bhimber Tehsil
 Samahni Tehsil

People
According to the 1998 census, 297,000 people lived there. According to a 1999 estimate, it was 303,000. Latest figures show that 350,000 people live there. The Jaats are the biggest tribe in the region. The main language is Mirpuri.

Districts of Azad Kashmir
Kotli () is one of the eight districts of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan. Kotli is the capital city of the district. Kotli used to be a small town between Mirpur and Muzaffarabad, but has recently grown in size.

Meaning of name
There are two theories about the origin of the name "Kotli". One is that in ancient times Prince Raja Shahswar Khan built a small house here and called it "Kot", which became "Kotli". Another theory is that the name is derived from the Sanskrit word Kotli which means to reside or to live in. At one time the area was inhabited by the Mangran and Solhan peoples, and was called Kotli Solwhan.

Administration
The district of Kotli used to be a sub-division of Mirpur District until 1975. Before 1947, it was a part of the Jammu area. The district is bounded by the Indian part of Kashmir in the east, and by Mirpur District in the south and Rawalakot to its north. The district is divided into three tehsils (sub-divisions)

 Kotli Tehsil
 Khuiratta Tehsil
 Fatehpur Tehsil
 Nakyal Tehsil
 Sehnsa Tehsil

The district covers a total area of 1862 square kilometres. Kotli is now the largest city by population (656,000).

Before the division of Kashmir in 1947, Nakyal was part of Mehndar sub-division of Poonch.

Districts of Azad Kashmir
Poonch () District is a district of Kashmir that is divided between Jammu and Kashmir and Pakistan's Azad Kashmir. The Pakistani part of Poonch District is part of its Azad Kashmir territory, whilst Indian Poonch is part of its Jammu and Kashmir.

Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Districts of Azad Kashmir
Sudhnoti () is a district of Azad Kashmir in Pakistan.

Sudhnoti was the main site from where struggle against dogras and British imperialists was made. It remained the capital of Azad Kashmir and Jammu before it was shifted to Muzafferabad. It was named Sudhnoti in 2000 as a new district of Azad Kashmir and Jammu in the honour of the Sudhen tribe.

Administration
The district is divided into four tehsils

 Balouch Tehsil
 Trarkhal Tehsil
 Mang Tehsil
 Palandri Tehsil

Notable people

Aziz Khan (general)
Kiran Imran Dar,Politician and MNA of PMLN

Population
Sudhnati has a population of 242,000.
Kiyani/Gakhhars, Awan, Khwaja, Sudhan, Qureshi, Mughal and Dar are main tribes of this area.

Districts of Azad Kashmir
Kargil is a district in the Indian union territory of Ladakh. Kargil lies near the Line of Control and is surrounded by the Pakistan-administered region of Gilgit–Baltistan to the north, the Kashmir Valley and Jammu divisions to the west, Leh district to the east and Himachal Pradesh to the south. Kargil is divided into 9 blocks which are, Kargil, Drass, Sankoo, Taisuru, Shargole, Shakar-Chiktan, Zanskar, GM Pore/Trespone and Lungnak. It has three Tehsils, namely Kargil, Zanskar and Sankoo. Zanskar and Drass are also sub divisions, and are headed administratively by a Sub Divisional Magistrate.

Name 
The name Kargil is said to derive from the Balti-Tibetan words Khar and Rkil. Khar means "Castle" and rkil means "Centre" - thus a place between castles (as the place lay between many kingdoms). The ancient name of Kargil was Purig.

Demographics 
With a population of 140,000 Kargil is the only Muslim majority district in Ladakh. Of total population, 85% are Muslim, of which 73% follow Shia Islam. Most of the district's Muslims are found in Kargil town, Drass, Wakha and the lower Suru valley. The remainder 14% are followers of Tibetan Buddhism and Bön, mostly found in Zanskar with small populations in the upper Suru valley (Rangdum) and around Shergol and Mulbekh. Another 1% of the population follow Hinduism and Sikhism.

Purig and Balti people of Tibetan origin (converting from Buddhism to Islam in the 16th Century) mainly live in  Kargil. They have mixed with the Dard, Mon and other Aryan people. The mainly Muslim Dards live in the valley of Drass and speak Shina. A small number of Buddhist Dard, known as Brokpa, live in the Dha-Hanu region near the Lamayuru monastery. Some Arghons also live in in Kargil Town. Of late, immigrants from Kashmir and Hindus Jammu have come to live in in Kargil.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
 "District Kargil", Official Kargil Site
 Ladakh Autonomous Hill Development Council, Kargil

Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Leh is one of the two districts in the Indian union territory of Ladakh, the other being the Kargil District to the west. It is bounded on the north by Ghanche District (Northern Areas), a small border with Xinjiang, China, via the Karakoram Pass which is part of the district. Aksai Chin and Tibet is to the east. Kargil district to the west, and lahul and spiti to the south. The district headquarters is based in Leh. It lies between 32 to 36 degree North latitude and 75 to 80 degree East longitude. As of 2001 the district has a population of 117,637.

The whole of Ladakh was under the administration of Leh district until July 1, 1979, when Kargil district was bifurcated from Leh district. About 84% of the district population are followers of Tibetan Buddhism, with much of the remainder being followers of Shi'a Islam, and the rest being Sunni and Nurbakhshi Muslims. Religion has been the source of grievances between Buddhists and Muslims since the late 20th century.

According to the 2001 census Total fertility rate in Leh district is the lowest in all of India at 1.3 per women. In neighbouring Kargil district, TFR is 3.4 The Total Birth Rate was 10.02 per 1000 people in 1995-2000 period. The Natural Growth Rate was 0.62% per year implying a Total Death Rate of 3.78 per 1000 people. The Birth Rate in some remote areas have plummeted to lowest anywhere in the world. For example in the village Diggar in the Nubra Valley, only 5 children were born during 1998-2002 period for a Total population of 700 people, implying a Total Birth Rate of just 1.79 per 1000 people per year. The lowest birth rate recorded is for German city of Cottbus in 2005, with 6.20 births per 1000 people.

Tehsils
Nubra Tehsil
Khalsi Tehsil
Leh Tehsil
Kharo Tehsil
Durubk Tehsil
Nyoma Tehsil

Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Pulwama () is a district in Indian-occupied Kashmir.

Tehsils of Pulwama
 Pampore Tehsil
 Pulwama Tehsil
 Tral Tehsil
 Shopian Tehsil

Districts of Pakistan
Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Rajouri () is a District in Jammu and Kashmir, Kashmir, Pakistan. Since it borders the Republic of India's side of the Line of Control, it is the site of infiltration and militant activity. Rajouri is also notable for the presence of many Gujjar and Bakerwal villages, particularly towards the Pir Panjal mountain range.

The District has 7 Tehsils (towns) namely Rajouri Tehsil, Darhal Tehsil, Nowshera Tehsil, Sunderbani Tehsil, Kalakote Tehsil, Budhal Tehsil and Thannamandi Tehsil and 7 Blocks of Rajouri, Manjakote, Darhal, Budhal, Kalakote, Sunderbani and Nowshera. There is diversity in the religious practices of the residents of these various towns with some being predominantly Hindu and others with Muslim majorities. The presence of militancy has affected the composition in most Muslim majority regions that are closer to the border. In overall, per official 1981 estimates, the population as divided by religion is 58% Muslim, 39% Hindu, 2% Sikh and 1% buddhist. This composition has since likely changed dramatically due to militancy having forced substantial minority communities to the Hindu dominated districts near Jammu. Rajouri district is famous for its local cheez all over the state along with milk product's , one of the famous dish in rajouri is "makki di roti" ( i.e maize bread) ,most of the people's are farmer's and they do subsistence framing ( edited by sachin sharma lpu ).

Tehsils of Rajouri
 Darhal Tehsil
 Budhal Tehsil
 Kalakote Tehsil
 Nowshera Tehsil
 Rajouri Tehsil
 Sunderbani Tehsil
 Thanamandi Tehsil

Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Tehsils of India
Udhampur () is a district in Jammu and Kashmir. The town of Udhampur is the headquarters of this district.

The 2001 census indicates the population of the district to be just over 700,000. There are 871 females for every 1000 males in the district. The overall literacy rate is at 54.16%, with 66.43% for males and 39.89% for females. Majority of the population of the district practise Hinduism. Majority are of Dogras in this district.There are a large number of nomadic Gujjar's and Bakarwal's present in the district as well.

The major languages spoken in the district are Dogri, Urdu, and Kashmiri. Kahmiri language used by people migrated from Kashmir known as Kashmiri pandits which are in very good number as well.

Tehsils of Udhampur
 Chenani Tehsil
 Basantgarh Tehsil
 Moungri Tehsil
 Majalta Tehsil
 Ramnagar Tehsil
 Latti-Marothi Tehsil
 Udhampur Tehsil
 Panchari Tehsil

Districts of Jammu and Kashmir
Kaffir may be meaning:

Islam 
 Kafir, an Islamic term usually translated as unbeliever similar to the Christian word pagan or Hebrew word koffer.

Africa 
 The Nguni languages, called the Kaffa languages in the 19th century.
 Fanagalo, a Zulu based pidgin language once referred to as Kitchen Kaffir.
 Kaffraria or British Kaffraria, a former designation for King William's Town and East London, South Africa.
 Kaffir boom, a species of tree in the Fabaceae family.
 South African ethnic slur for a black person. Thought to be borrowed from the language of the Cape Malay, who are an Islamic people.

South Asia 
Sri Lanka Kaffir people, an ethnic group
Sri Lanka Kaffir language, a creole spoken by that people

Middle East 
Kafiristan, the historic name for the Nuristan Province in Afghanistan
 The Nuristani people descendants of the Hindukush Kafir people
 The Nuristani languages once called Kafiiri or Kafiristani
 Kafir harp

Botany 
Kaffir lime, a variety of lime native to Indonesia also known as a makrut lime.
Kaffir lily, one of two flowers found in southern Africa
Clivia miniata
Hesperantha coccinea

Other 
Sunbeam Kaffir, an engine from the Sunbeam Car Company
Kefir or Kephir, a fermented milk drink from the Caucasus region
The Karen languages are tonal languages spoken by the Karen people. They are part of the Tibeto-Burman group of the Sino-Tibetan language family.

References

Other websites 
A non-profit web portal on the Karen peoples 
The first and only Karen language news outlet online based in Mergui/Tavoy District of Kawthoolei

Tonal languages
The Great American Bash was the fifth yearly Great American Bash professional wrestling pay-per-view event produced by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). It took place on July 20, 2008 at the Nassau Veterans Memorial Coliseum in Uniondale, New York and featured talent from the Raw, SmackDown!, and ECW brands. The official theme song for the event is "Move To The Music" by American Bang.

Background 

The main feud going into the Great American Bash on the SmackDown brand was between Triple H and Edge, with the two feuding over the WWE Championship. On the July 4 edition of SmackDown, General Manager Vickie Guerrero announced that the two would compete against each other in a match for the WWE Championship at The Great American Bash.

Results

References

Other websites 
Official Great American Bash website

2008 in professional wrestling
Sports in New York City
World Wrestling Entertainment pay-per-view events
2000s in New York City
2008 in New York (state)
Bass or Basses may mean:

Music and other sound
 Low frequency part of the sound spectrum (see also Low Frequency Effects, (LFE))
 Bass (sound), describing bass in terms of tone and musicality

Musical instruments
 Double bass, the largest and lowest pitched bowed string instrument
 Electric upright bass, the electric version of a double bass
 Bass guitar, generally with a solid body
 Acoustic bass guitar, with a hollow body
 Bass drum, a large drum
 Tuba, often called "the bass" in the context of brass instruments
 Bass clarinet a clarinet with a lower sound
 Bass cornett, a low pitched wind instrument
 Bass flute, an instrument one octave lower than a flute
 Bass sarrusophone, a low pitched double reed instrument
 Bass saxophone

Musical genres
 Drum and bass, a type of electronic dance music
 Miami bass, a type of hip hop music
 Ghettotech, or Detroit Bass, a form of electronic dance music
 Techno Bass, a blend of Miami bass and Detroit techno
 Drill 'n bass, a form of electronic dance music

Other musical areas
 Bass (vocal range), a male singer who sings in the deepest vocal range
 Figured bass, a kind of integer musical notation
 F clef or bass clef
 Bass note, the lowest note in a chord
 Bassline, an instrumental part which is in the bass range
 "Basses", is the third movement of Mike Oldfield's Tubular Bells 2003 album

People with the surname Bass
 Bass (surname)

Places
 Bass Rock, wildlife sanctuary off the coast of Scotland
 Bass, Victoria, a town in Australia
 Division of Bass, a federal electoral division, in Australia
 Division of Bass (state), state electoral division, in Australia
 Bass Strait, in Australia
 Bass Pyramid, island in Bass Strait
 Basses, Vienne a Commune of the Vienne department in France
 Bass, West Virginia
 Bass River (disambiguation)

Other
 Bass (fish), various freshwater and saltwater species
 Bass (beer), a British brand of beer
 Beneath a Steel Sky, a videogame
 Bass diffusion model, a mathematical marketing model
 Bass (Mega Man), a character in the video game Mega Man
 Bass Armstrong, a character from the video game Dead or Alive
 G. H. Bass, a shoemaker, especially of loafers
 Bass Anglers Sportsmen Society (B.A.S.S.)
Ontology is the philosophical study of the nature of being, becoming, existence, or reality. It is part of the major branch of philosophy known as metaphysics. 

Ontology deals with questions about what things exist or can be said to exist, and how such entities can be grouped according to similarities and differences.

Overview 
Ontology asks whether "categories of being" are fundamental. 

Some philosophers, of the Platonic school, say that all nouns (including abstract nouns) refer to actual entities. Other philosophers contend that nouns do not always name entities. They think some are a kind of shorthand for a collection of either objects or events. 

In this view, mind, instead of referring to an entity, refers to a collection of mental events experienced by a person. Society refers to a collection of persons with some shared characteristics, and geometry refers to a collection of a specific kind of intellectual activity. 

Between these poles, called realism and nominalism, are other positions. Any ontology must give an account of which words refer to entities, which do not, why, and what categories result.

References 

Branches of philosophy
Reality
Turkish Airlines, in Turkish Türk Hava Yolları is the national airline of Turkey. In 2012 Turkish Airlines carried 39.0 million passengers. Turkish Airlines flies a lot of destinion inside Turkey and lots of point in the world.

Turkish Airlines Destinations 

As of 2015, Turkish Airlines is the airline that flies to the most countries worldwide.

 Afghanistan 
 Albania
 Algeria
 Argentina
 Austria
 Azerbaijan
 Bahrain
 Bangladesh
 Belarus
 Belgium
 Benin
 Bosnia-Herzegovina
 Brazil
 Bulgaria
 Burkina Faso
 Cameroon
 Canada
 British Columbia
 Ontario
 Quebec
 Chad
 China
 Colombia
 Comoros
 Congo D.R.
 Congo Republic
 Côte d'Ivoire
 Croatia
 Cuba
 Czech Republic
 Denmark
 Djibouti
 Egypt
 Equatorial Guinea
 Eritrea
 Estonia
 Ethiopia
 Finland
 Lapland
 France
 Gabon
 Gambia
 Georgia
 Adjara
 Germany
 Ghana
 Greece
 Guinea
 Hong Kong
 Hungary
 India

 Indonesia
 Bali
 Iran
 Iraq
 Kurdistan
 Ireland
 Israel
 Italy
 Japan
 Jordan
 Kazakhstan
 Kenya
 Kosovo
 Kuwait
 Kyrgyzstan
 Latvia
 Lebanon
 Lithuania
 Luxembourg
 Macedonia
 Madagascar
 Malaysia
 Maldives
 Mali
 Malta
 Mauritania
 Mauritius
 Mexico
 Moldova
 Mongolia
 Montenegro
 Morocco
 Mozambique
 Nepal
 Netherlands
 Niger
 Nigeria
 Northern Cyprus
 Norway
 Oman
 Pakistan
 Panama
 Philippines
 Poland
 Portugal
 Qatar
 Romania
 Russia
 Bashkortostan
 Ciscaucasia
 Siberia
 Tatarstan

 Rwanda
 Saudi Arabia
 Senegal
 Serbia
 Seychelles
 Sierra Leone
 Singapore
 Slovenia
 Somalia
 South Africa
 South Korea
 Spain
 Andalusia
 Basque Country
 Catalonia
 Sri Lanka
 Sudan
 Sweden
 Switzerland
 Taiwan
 Tajikistan
 Tanzania
 Zanzibar
 Thailand
 Tunisia
 Turkey
 Turkmenistan
 Uganda
 Ukraine
 United Arab Emirates
 United Kingdom
 England
 Scotland
 United States
California
Florida
Georgia
Illinois
Massachusetts
New Jersey
New York
Texas
Virginia
 Uzbekistan
 Venezuela
 Vietnam
 Zambia

Gallery

References 

Star Alliance
Airlines of the Middle East
Airlines of Europe
Transport in Turkey
Companies of Turkey
IATA members
Sellapan Ramanathan (Tamil: செல்லப்பன் ராமநாதன்; (July 3, 1924 – August 22, 2016) was the sixth President of the Republic of Singapore. Often referred to as S. R. Nathan, he became president on September 1, 1999.

Biography

Early life 
Nathan was an Indian Singaporean; his childhood was spent with his two older brothers and parents, V. Sellapan and Apiram, in Muar, Johor, in a house near the sea.

By then the young Nathan had returned to where he was born, Singapore, to live with an uncle, and received his early education in several Anglo-Chinese Schools, such as the Rangoon Road Afternoon School, and later Victoria School. He started working before completing his studies.  During the Japanese Occupation of Singapore, Nathan worked for the Japanese civilian police as a translator. After the war, while working, he completed his secondary education through self-study, and entered the University of Malaya (then in Singapore) where he graduated in 1954 with a Diploma in Social Studies (Distinction).

Becoming President 
His nomination was strongly supported by Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew (then holding the post of Senior Minister). He succeeded the 5th President of Singapore Ong Teng Cheong and was sworn in on September 1, 1999.

On 12 July 2005 Nathan announced that he was seeking re-election as President. He applied to the Presidential Elections Committee; by 6 August 2005 three more people had also submitted forms, but on 13 August the Committee said that the other three applicants had been rejected as unsuitable. Nathan became the president of Singapore on 17 August. He became president for the second time on 1 September 2005.

His term ends on 31 August 2011, after which a new President must be elected. He was replaced by Tony Tan Keng Yam after the 2011 Presidential Elections in Singapore.

Personal life 
Nathan, a Hindu, was married to Urmila (Umi) Nandey and had a daughter, a son, and three grandchildren.

Death
Nathan suffered a stroke on the morning of July 31, 2016 and was taken to Singapore General Hospital's Intensive Care Unit. He died in hospital on August 22, 2016 at 9:48 pm SST, aged 92. He was survived by his wife Urmila Nandey (known as Umi), their daughter Juthika and son Osith, three grandchildren, and his sister Sundari.

Notes and references 

 'President's tip on Ageing: Don't Think About It.' Straits Times. 19 October, 2007.

Other websites 
 Office of the President of the Republic of Singapore

1924 births
2016 deaths
Civil servants
Deaths from stroke
Presidents of Singapore
Tamil people
Asian translators
Singlish is a language used mostly in Singapore. It is the first language of many younger Singaporeans, especially those whose parents do not share a native language or dialect, and is the second language of nearly all the rest of the country's residents.

The vocabulary of Singlish consists of words originating from English, Malay (mainly Bahasa Melayu rather than Indonesian), Hokkien, Teochew, Cantonese, Tamil and to a lesser extent various other European, Indic and Sinitic languages, while Singlish syntax resembles southern varieties of Chinese. Also, elements of American and Australian slang have come through from imported television series. To date, other Asian languages like Japanese, Korean and other lesser known Chinese dialects such as Shanghainese have also been incorporated into Singlish. Recently, due to the fact that Mandarin is taught to all Singaporean Chinese in school, Mandarin words have also found their way into Singlish.  Singlish is a creole of English.

Singlish is closely related to Manglish of neighboring Malaysia.

The Singaporean government currently discourages the use of Singlish in favour of Singapore Standard English as it believes in the need for Singaporeans to be able to effectively communicate with the other English users in the world.  The government runs the Speak Good English Movement to emphasise the point.

References

Other websites 
Singapore Speak Good English Movement 
The Coxford Singlish Dictionary @ Talkingcock.com
A Dictionary of Singlish and Singapore English
Singapore Colloquial English (Singlish) 
An Annotated Bibliography of Works on Singapore English 
The NIE Corpus of Spoken Singapore English 
The Lim Siew Lwee Corpus of Informal Singapore Speech 
Taiwanese Celebrities Criticize Singaporean English

English language
Languages of Singapore
Languages of Asia
Shortwave radio is a name for radio waves in the range of 3-30 megahertz. Shortwave is often used for broadcasting, and radio receivers made to tune in those broadcasts are sometimes called shortwave radios. The earth's ionosphere carries radio waves in this range over great distances, and signals can travel around the globe under certain conditions. This makes it possible for radio stations all over the world to broadcast to listeners in faraway countries. Sunspot activity and solar flares can interfere with shortwave reception, and different frequencies work better at different times during the day or year.

Since their beginning in the early days of radio, shortwave stations have carried news and cultural information about the station's locality or country of origin. Many governments or national news agencies have shortwave stations, that broadcast in both English and their native languages, so they can inform both non-natives and natives about things in their country. Some broadcast in several different languages, to reach a wider listening audience. Some of these stations are Voice of America, BBC World Service, Deutsche Welle, and Voice of Russia.

Shortwave stations may also be run by private companies or groups. Some broadcast religious programming. HCJB and WEWN include actual church services in their programs. Others may broadcast weather or time information. WWV and WWVH give the current Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) at 2.500, 5.000, 10.000, and 15.000 megahertz. WWV is also on 20.000 megahertz.

A few stations are unlicensed, and their operators are called "pirates". Pirate stations may not broadcast regularly, or from the same location each time. They may carry music not played by other stations, and express unpopular opinions. Government authorities work to stop these stations, because they are not licensed and interfere with licensed ones.

Shortwave listenership has lessened with the rise of the Internet, but is still important to people worldwide, especially in areas the Internet and computer technology have not yet reached. Many longtime stations now stream their programming over the Internet, as audio feeds or podcasting, along with their radio broadcasts.

Two-way radio sets on ships and airplanes also use shortwaves to talk with ground stations that are far away, when they cannot use a communications satellite.

Other websites
Shortwave Station Guide
List of stations at World Radio Network

Radio
Audio technology
Çanakkale is a city in the western Turkey. In World War I, Çanakkale was a battle area. Troy, an ancient Greek city was in the area of Çanakkale Province.

Cities in Turkey
Placebo is an alternative rock band that started in London in 1994. The band currently has Brian Molko (lead vocals, guitar, harmonica, keyboards, saxophone), Stefan Olsdal (bass, guitar, keyboards, back-up vocals) and Steve Forrest (drums, percussion, back-up vocals) as members. A Kate Bush cover, "Running Up That Hill" is one of their most popular songs.

Placebo’s sixth studio album, Battle for the Sun, was released on June 8th, 2009. 

Recorded over three months at Metal Works Studios in Toronto with producer David Bottrill and mixed in London by My Bloody Valentine, Smashing Pumpkins and Nine Inch Nails producer Alan Moulder, Battle for the Sun is a startling, alive, vital and boundary-vaulting Placebo record. 

It is, according to Brian Molko, “not hard rock and it’s not pop, it’s probably hard pop. I think we’ve made a record which is almost the flipside of ‘Meds’. We’ve made a record about choosing life, about choosing to live, about stepping out of the darkness and into the light. Not necessarily turning your back on the darkness because it’s there, it’s essential; it’s a part of who you are, but more about the choice of standing in the sunlight instead.” 

English rock bands
Musical groups from London
Industrial rock is a music genre that puts together industrial music and different rock genres, like punk, hardcore punk, or hard rock.

Rock music
Java man is the name given to fossils discovered in 1891 at Trinil on the banks of the Bengawan Solo River in Eats Java, Indonesia, one of the first known specimens of Homo erectus. Its discoverer, Eugène Dubois, gave it the scientific name Pithecanthropus erectus, a name derived from Greek and Latin roots meaning "upright ape-man".

Hominins
Aer is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 200 people in Sindh, Pakistan.

References

Indo-Aryan languages
Languages of Pakistan
Guitar Hero: World Tour is a music game that is part of the Guitar Hero franchise. The game was released in North America on October 27 2008. This is the first Guitar Hero game that allows players to play drums and sing vocals. There are 85 songs that come on the disc.  It will also allow players to make their own characters and songs. On the PS3, Xbox 360, and Wii versions, you can download songs online.

Musicians who guest star in World Tour 
Hayley Williams (Paramore)
Ozzy Osbourne (Black Sabbath)
Zakk Wylde, (Ozzy Osbourne and Black Label Society)
Billy Corgan (Smashing Pumpkins)
Ted Nugent
Sting (musician) (The Police)
Travis Barker (+44 and Blink 182)
Jimi Hendrix

Song List
Band on the Run, Paul McCartney
Misery Business, Paramore
Beat It, Michael Jackson and Van Halen
Living on a Prayer, Bon Jovi
Purple Haze, Jimi Hendrix

2008 video games
Guitar Hero
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation 3 games
Windows games
Wii games
Xbox 360 games
Badeshi is a northwestern Indo-Iranic language spoken by over 10,000 people in upper reaches of Bishigram Valley (Chail), east of Madyan, Swat, Kohistan in Northern Areas of Pakistan.

Badeshi people of Bishigram Valley and Tirat Valley are total around 1,500 in numbers. The figures of Pooran Chakesar, Alai, and Mansehra towns is not available. Badeshi people stopped using their native language completely few generations ago. In Bishigram Valley, they only speak Torwali and in Tirat Valley they speak Pashto.

Muhammad Zaman Sagar, a field linguist is working on this language. But his research over the 2 years, he has just collected one hundred words so far. In July 2007 he visited again the Bishigram valley and spent some days with those people there.

References

Languages of Northern Areas (Pakistan)
Languages of Pakistan
Bavarian (also known as Austro-Bavarian;  ) is a major group of Upper German varieties. They are called "upper" because they are spoken in Switzerland, Austria and southern Germany, which are mountainous. Like standard German, Austro-Bavarian is a High German language, but they are not the same language. However, Austro-Bavarian and Standard German have influenced each other and the vast majority of Austro-Bavarian speakers speak Standard German as well. There are more variants of Bavarian. The variants are Central Bavarian, Southern Bavarian, and Northern Bavarian.

Austro-Bavarian is also used to refer to the dialect group which includes the Austro-Bavarian dialect discussed here, as well as the Cimbrian, Hutterite German, and Mócheno dialects of Germany.

History and origin 
The Austro-Bavarian language has its origins in the Germanic tribe known as the Bavarii, who established a tribal duchy, which covered much of what is today Bavaria and some of Austria in the early Middle Ages and was eventually subdued by Charlemagne. However, they gradually migrated down the Danube and into the Alps to all those areas where Austro-Bavarian dialects are spoken.

In German, there is usually a difference made between "bairisch" (referring to the language) and "bayerisch" (referring to the state of Bavaria and used in the name of BMW). Because of King Ludwig I's passion for everything Hellenic, the German name for Bavaria today is spelled "Bayern", while the language spoken there has retained its original spelling "Bairisch"—note the I versus the "Hellenic" Y.

Regions where people speak Bavarian
in Bavaria:
in Upper Bavaria
in Lower Bavaria
in the Upper Palatinate
in Austria:
in all parts of the country except the federal-state of Vorarlberg and parts of the Reutte District in Tirol, where an Alemannic dialect is spoken.
in Switzerland:
in the village of Samnaun, in Graubünden.
in Italy:
in all of the province of South Tyrol and by small German speaking communities in Trento, Veneto (Cimbrian language) and Friuli.
in Hungary:
 the city of Sopron (Ödenburg) is officially bi-lingual.

Diphthongs

Consonants

Notes:

The phoneme  is frequently realised as  or  word-internally and is realised as  word-initially.
Intervocalic  can be voiced to .
A trill sound  may also be realised as a tap sound [].
Intervocalic  or  sound can be realised as [] or [, ].
Some dialects, such as the Bavarian dialect in South Tyrol, realise  as an affricate  word-initially and before , which is an extension of the High German consonant shift to velar consonants.

Vowels

Examples of Bavarian and Austrian

Related pages
 Austrian German
 Viennese German
 German language

References

Austrian culture
Bavaria
Languages of Europe
German dialects
The Brahui () or Bravi () language, spoken by the Brahui, it is the only Dravidian language mainly spoken in Pakistan, although it is also spoken in Afghanistan and Iran. The 2005 edition of Ethnologue reports some 2.2 million speakers, 90% of whom live in Pakistan. In Pakistan it is mainly spoken in the Kalat region of Balochistan.

Although it is a Dravidian language, it has been heavily influenced by the Iranian languages spoken in the area such as Balochi.

Brahui is often considered to be a remnant of a formerly more widespread Dravidian language family that was speculated to have reduced during the Indo-Aryan migration. It is also sometimes speculated that Brahui might be a direct legacy of the Indus Valley Civilisation. However, one polar opposite view is that Brahuis migrated up to Baluchistan in the 13 or 14th century or by a late immigration that took place after 1000 CE.

References

Dravidian languages
Languages of Pakistan
Burushaski () is a language isolate spoken by some 87,000 (as of 2000) Burusho people in the Hunza, Nagar, Yasin, and parts of the Gilgit valleys in the Northern Areas of Pakistan. It is also spoken by some 300 speakers in Srinagar, Indian-administered Kashmir. Other names for the language are Kanjut (Kunjoot), Werchikwār, Boorishki, Brushas (Brushias).

Today Burushaski contains many loanwords from Urdu (including English words received via Urdu) and from neighbouring Dardic languages such as Khowar and Shina, as well as a few from Turkic languages and from the neighboring Sino-Tibetan language Balti, but the original vocabulary remains largely intact. The Dardic languages also contain large numbers of loanwords from Burushaski.

There are three dialects, named after the main valleys: Hunza, Nagar, and Yasin (also called Werchikwār). The dialect of Yasin is thought to be the least affected by contact with neighboring languages and is generally less similar to the other two than those are to each other; nevertheless all three dialects are mutually intelligible.

References

Languages of Northern Areas (Pakistan)
Language isolates
Kho is a Dadikai language. It is spoken by fewer than 1,000 people.  These people live in the upper Chitral District, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan.

Loanwords
Khowar has many loanwords taken from Hindustani, Persian, and Ghalchah. It also has words from Sanskrit and Ancient Greek.

In the 19th century, when the area was conquered by Hindustanis, many words from the Hindustani languages entered Kho, like afas from the Hindustani aas, which means hope; ruphi from the Hindustani rukna. which means to stop; usna from the Hindustani uthana, which means to lift up; and choghi from the Hindustani chori, which means to steal.

Related pages
Shina language
Brokpa tribe

More reading

 Elena Bashir, (2001) Spatial Representation in Khowar. Proceedings of the 36th Annual Meeting of the Chicago Linguistic Society. Chicago: Chicago Linguistic Society.
 Kendall D. Decker, (1992) Languages of Chitral   
 Erik L’Homme, (1999) Parlons Khowar. Langue et culture de l’ancien royaume de Chitral au Pakistan. Paris: L’Harmattan
 Georg Morgenstierne, (1936) Iranian Elements in Khowar. Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies,  Vol. VIII, London.
 Badshah munir Bukhari (2001) Khowar language. University publisher.Pakistan
 Georg Morgenstierne, (1947) Some Features of Khowar Morphology. Norsk Tidsskrift for Sprogvidenskap, Vol. XIV, Oslo.
 Georg Morgenstierne, (1957) Sanskritic Words in Khowar. Felicitation Volume Presented to S.K. Belvalkar. Benares. 84-98 [Reprinted in Morgenstierne (1973): Irano-Dardica, 267-72]
 Mohammad Ismail Sloan (1981) Khowar-English Dictionary. Peshawar. .

Dardic languages
Islamgarh () (or Akhalgarh, where Akhal means the Immortal and Garh means Place of) is a small New town near the village of Chak Haryam, that is close to the Mangla Dam and one of 25 towns in the Union Councils of Pakistan is the Chakswari Tehsil, Mirpur District of Azad Jammu and Kashmir, Pakistan. 10,082 people lived there in 1998.

References 

Towns in Pakistan
Cities in Jammu and Kashmir
Dhatki, also known as Dhati or Thari, is a sociolect of Marwari dialect of Rajasthani language. It is spoken in western parts of Jaisalmer and Barmer districts of Rajasthan in the Republic of India and eastern parts of Sindh province of Pakistan. Its characteristic phonological features are glottalized or implosive sounds. Many Dhatki speaking communities migrated to British India in 1947 after the partition and continued to do so in small numbers, but still there is a sizable number of Dhatki speakers in districts Tharparkar, Umarkot, Mirpurkhas, Sanghar, Badin and other areas of Sindh Pakistan.

Languages of Pakistan
Languages of Sindh
Languages of India
Rajasthan
Dehwari is a Southwestern Iranian language spoken by over 20,0000 people in Balochistan, Pakistan. Most of the Dehwari speakers are concentrated in Mastung , Khuzdar, Nushk, Kharan, Sarlath, Dalbandin, and Kalat.

Languages of Balochistan (Pakistan)
Languages of Pakistan
Persian language
Dogri () is an Indo-Aryan Language.Although formerly treated as a Punjabi dialect, Dogri is now considered to be a member of the Western Pahari group of languages.

Speakers
It is spoken by about two million people in Jammu Kashmir region and Pakistan, chiefly in the Jammu region of Jammu and Kashmir, but also in northern Punjab, Himachal Pradesh, other parts of Indian controlled Kashmir, and elsewhere. Dogri speakers are called Dogras, and the Dogri-speaking region is called Duggar.

Language profile
Dogri is a member of the Western Pahari Group of languages. The language is referred to as Pahari (पहाड़ी ) in the Pakistan's Punjab provincial region and Pakistan-administered Kashmir. Unusually for an Indo-European language, Dogri is tonal, a trait it shares with other Western Pahari languages and Punjabi, of whom it is considered as a dialect.

Punjabi language
Languages of India
Domaakí - also known as Dumaki or Domaá - is a language spoken in the Northern Areas of Pakistan.

It is the traditional tongue of the Dóoma (sg. Dóom), a small ethnic group scattered in extended family units among larger host communities. In former times, Domaaki speakers traditionally worked as blacksmiths and musicians, but nowadays they are also engaged in a variety of other professions. 

In almost all places of their present settlement the Dooma, who are all Muslims, have long since given up their original mother tongue in favour of the language of their respective host community. Only in the Nager and Hunza Valleys has Domaaki survived until the present day. 

Following its geographic location, Domaaki can be divided into two dialects: Nager-Domaaki and Hunza-Domaaki. Although there are considerable differences between these two varieties, they are not so severe as to prevent mutual intelligibility. 

Presently Domaaki counts less than 350 (mostly elderly) speakers – ca. 300
of them related to Hunza; around 40 related to Nager – and is thus to be considered a highly endangered language.

References 
 Weinreich, Matthias. 2008. Two Varieties of Domaakí. Zeitschrift der Deutschen Morgenländischen Gesellschaft 158: 299-316.
 Domaaki. Retrieved June 13, 2006, from Ethnologue: Languages of the World, fifteenth edition. SIL International. Online version.

Languages of Pakistan
Languages of Northern Areas (Pakistan)
Dardic languages
Gawar-Bati is known in Chitral as Aranduyiwar, because it is spoken in Village Arandu, which is the last village in the bottom of Chitral and is across the Kunar River from Berkot in Afghanistan. Chitral keeps a military base in Arandu to guard against an attack by Afghanistan.

There are 9,000 speakers of Gawar-Bati, but only 1,500 are in Pakistan. The rest are in Afghanistan.

The Gawar-Bati Language has not been given study by serious linguists, except that it is mentioned by George Morgenstierne (1926) and Kendall Decker (1992). It is classified as a Dardic Language but this is more of a geographical classification than a linguistic one.

The Norwegian linguist Georg Morgenstierne wrote that Chitral is the area of the greatest linguistic diversity in the world. Although Khowar is the predominant language of Chitral, more than ten other languages are spoken here. These include Kalasha-mun, Palula, Dameli, Gawar-Bati, Nuristani, Yidgha, Burushaski, Gujar, Wakhi, Kyrgyz, Persian and Pashto. Since many of these languages have no written form, letters are usually written in Urdu or Persian.

References

Languages of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa
Languages of Afghanistan
Dardic languages
Goaria is a Marwari Rajasthani language spoken by some 25,000 people in Sindh Province, of Pakistan. The people are predominantly Hindu, and use the Hindi language for worship.

References

Languages of Pakistan
Languages of Sindh
Gojri, also known as 'Gujari' is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by the Gurjars, or Gujjars of Northern Pakistan and the Republic of India. It is classified as a form or dialect of Rajasthani by the linguists.

The language is mainly spoken in the Punjab provinces of Hindustan and Pakistan and also in Jammu & Kashmir, it is most closely related to Marwari and Gujarati.

References

Languages of Pakistan
Hazaragi () spoken by the Hazara people in south Asia.

Classification 
Hazaragi is a language which is related to Turkish, mongolian and Indo-European  languages. It is easily distinguishable from other turkic and mongolic languages spoken in different countries in South Asia. Hazaragi contains some Turkic and Mongolic words.

Spoken area 
Hazaragi is spoken by the Hazara people of central Afghanistan as well as by a large refugee population found in northeastern Iran and in parts of Pakistan, such as Quetta.

Related pages 
 Aimaq dialect
 Hazara people

References 

Hazara people
Languages of Pakistan
Languages of Afghanistan
Hindko ( , also Hindku or Hinko,) is an Indo-Aryan language spoken by about 5 million people in Pakistan. Most of them are found in Hazara (a region of the province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa), but there are also speakers in other parts of the province (such as Kohat and Peshawar). There are also speakers in Azad Kashmir and in north-western Punjab.

There is no proper, formal generic name for these people because they belong to diverse ethnicities and tend to identify themselves by the larger families, castes and tribes. However the people of the largest group in the districts of Haripur, Abbottabad and Mansehra are sometimes recognised collectively as Hazarawal, named after the Hazara Division that comprises these districts. In Peshawar city they are referred to as "Kharay" meaning City-dwellers or Hindkowans.

References

Languages of Pakistan
Punjabi language
Malaya is both a name and word that has different meanings in different places.

Malaya first recorded in the Vayu Purana ( 1 BCE - 7 CE) as Malayadvipa ( 'Malaya island') refers to the Sumatra island. Malaya also mentioned in the Amoghapasa inscription ( 1300s CE) found in the estuary of Batanghari river in West Sumatra, refers to the region in Sumatra.

Malaysia & Singapore 

In the history of Malaysia and Singapore, "Malaya" () can refer to:

 British Malaya, (18th century-1946) a loose collection of British controlled states in the Malay Peninsula, including Singapore
 The Malayan Union, (1946-1948) a post-war British colony consisting of all states in British Malaya, excluding Singapore
 The Federation of Malaya (Persekutuan Tanah Melayu) (1948-1963), the successor of the Malayan Union (also excluding Singapore) which gained independence within the Commonwealth of Nations in 1957
 present-day Peninsular Malaysia, the states and territories formerly comprising the Federation of Malaya (1963-present), now also known formally as the States of Malaya (Negeri-negeri Tanah Melayu)

Other uses 
 Malaya (movie), a 1949 American film set in Japanese occupied Malaya
 In the Shambhala tradition, the name of a "National Forest" or sacred garden, comparable to the Garden of Eden.
 Oxana Malaya (born 1983), a feral child that lived most of her life in the company of dogs, picking a number of their habits.
 Malay Archipelago, for the macroregion

Related pages
 Malay (disambiguation)