cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Therizinosaurs  (or segnosaurs) are  a clade of theropod dinosaurs which appear to be herbivorous. 

Therizinosaur fossils have been found in Cretaceous deposits in Mongolia, the People's Republic of China and Western North America. Various features of the forelimbs, skull and pelvis show they are theropods and maniraptorans, close relatives to birds.

History
Early finds were incomplete, and showed strange anatomy with features typical of theropods, prosauropods and ornithischians. This led some scientists to think that segnosaurs were a late-surviving suborder of primitive dinosaurs.  

It was not until the mid-1990s, that their true identity as herbivorous descendants of the carnivorous theropods became generally accepted. Alxasaurus was discovered, and had more typical theropod features; and Therizinosaurus was recognized as a member of the segnosaur group. 

The connection between the therizinosaurids and other theropods was made clear when primitive members of the group, such as Beipiaosaurus (1999) and Falcarius (2005) were discovered. The scientists who described Falcarius noted that it seemed to represent an intermediate stage between carnivorous and herbivorous theropods, a sort of "missing link" between predatory maniraptorans and plant-eating therizinosaurs. 

Although they are now classified as theropods, therizinosaurs had skulls similar to those of sauropods and the shape of their teeth and jaws do make it likely that they were herbivores.

References 

Coelurosaurs
Prunes are dried plums. They look like very large raisins, but they are in the genus Prunus.

plums
Aamras is the pulp of mangos that is usually eaten in India.

Other websites 
How to make aamras

Fruits
Hexen is a first person shooter video game. It is a sequel to the computer game Heretic, created by ID Software and Raven Software. The player can choose to play as a fighter, a cleric (knight), or a mage (wizard). Each character can use 4 different weapons. The monsters are like the monsters in Heretic, but there are a few new ones. This game uses a better design and plays much better than Heretic. In Hexen, doors can open forward instead of just going up, you can jump, glass can break when you shoot it, and monsters can make things happen when they die, like making an item. There is also more of a story in Hexen.

Other websites 
 Official Hexen website from Raven
 Official Hexen website from id Software 
 Official website for the Deathkings of the Dark Citadel expansion

Shooter video games
1996 video games
Sega Saturn games
Ratchet & Clank is a series of video games. As of 2013, there are 13 separate video games. In addition to the games, the characters are featured as action figures, in a manga, comic series and as cameo appearances in several other video games. An animated film has been announced for release in 2015. 

The main characters of the series are Ratchet and Clank. Ratchet is a lombax, a type of alien made up for the game. Clank is his robot friend. They travel in space ships through the universe on many adventures. In each game, Ratchet and Clank must work together to fight evil or bring cruel rulers to justice. The series is noted for using unique and extreme weapons and devices. Because of the popularity, the developer Insomniac Games added this feature to its other video games.

Games in the series 
Ratchet and Clank was released on November 4, 2002 in North America.

Ratchet & Clank (2002)
Ratchet & Clank: Going Commando (Ratchet & Clank 2: Locked and Loaded in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Up Your Arsenal (Ratchet & Clank 3 in Europe)
Ratchet Deadlocked (Ratchet Gladiator in Europe)
Ratchet & Clank: Size Matters 
Ratchet & Clank Future: Tools of Destruction
Secret Agent Clank
Ratchet & Clank Future: Quest for Booty
Ratchet & Clank Future: A Crack in Time
Ratchet & Clank: All 4 One
Ratchet & Clank: Full Frontal Assault
Ratchet & Clank: Into the Nexus
Ratchet & Clank (2016)
Ratchet & Clank: Rift Apart

Other websites 

The Insomniac Games official website
Official page (redirects to Sony site)
The Ratchet & Clank series at NeoSeeker

3D platform games
Video game series
Ratchet & Clank
Diablo II is a fantasy action role-playing  computer game. The game was created by Blizzard Entertainment. It sold more than 1 million copies in the first two weeks after its release. It has sold over 15 million copies worldwide. The developer is remaking the game, with graphical improvements et cetera, known as  Diablo 2: Resurrected .

Storyline and quests
The game is divided into 4 acts. Each act is one part of the story.  There are up to six quests in each act that must be completed before the player can go to the next act.  The last quest is always the one where the player has to beat a boss.  The bosses for each act are:

Act I: Andariel
Act II: Duriel
Act III: Mephisto
Act IV: Diablo

Quests are parts of the story where the player has to complete certain tasks in order to continue on with the game.

Gameplay

Characters Classes
The game has five different types (or classes) of characters to chose from. Each character has a set skill tree, which is listed below.
Amazon - A bow and javelin using female character. She is good at attacking from a distance.
Barbarian - A male fighter who is good with all weapons.
Necromancer - A male magic user who uses the undead as his weapon.
Paladin - A male holy warrior that uses both magic and weapons in a fight.
Sorceress - A female magic user who uses the powers of Lightning, Fire and Ice.

Leveling
To increase a characters level in Diablo II, the player must run the character around killing the monsters that appear in the different areas.  Once a monster is defeated, it sometimes drops items or coins. When a monster is killed, it will not come back until the game is saved and started again.  Each character has a certain amount of experience that they needs to gain before they can become the next level.  This number depends upon what level the character is.  The higher the level, the more experience is needed to level.

Characters gain bonuses when they level:
Each character gets 5 points each level to increase their attributes.  Players usually decide what to increase by what character class they are.  Necromancers and Sorceresses tend to get more Energy than Strength and Defense, while Barbarians and Paladins tend to get the opposite.
Each character gets 1 skill point each level to spend on a particular skill.  Many players choose only one part of the skill tree to train in. That is the only one they put their skill points into.  Others put their points into more than 1 of the skill trees listed above per character.

Diablo II: Lord of Destruction Expansion
Adds Druid and assassin classes
Adds Act 5

Related pages 
 Diablo (video game)

References

Other websites 
 Official Site 
 The Arreat Summit , official Strategy Guide
 DiabloII.net - Diablo, Hellfire, Diablo II Fansite

2000 video games
Blizzard video games
Role-playing video games
Windows games
Corfe Castle is a small village and ruined castle dating back to the 11th century. It is in a gap in the Purbeck Hills, five miles south of Wareham, in Dorset, England. 

The oldest surviving structure on the castle site dates to the 11th century, although there are good reasons to suppose that there was a stronghold there before the Norman Conquest. Edward the Martyr was killed at the site on March 18, 978.

The castle was besieged in the English Civil War. After it was captured it was partly demolished (slighted).

References

Other websites 

Corfe Castle Website
Corfe Castle information at the National Trust
Sources on Corfe Castle

Castles in England
Château-d'Œx is a commune in Vaud canton Switzerland. The other members of its canton have birds in their flags.

References

Municipalities of Vaud
Sir John Major  (born 29 March 1943) is a British politician who was Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and Leader of the Conservative Party from 1990 to 1997. He served as a member of the Cabinet under Margaret Thatcher as Chief Secretary to the Treasury (1987–1989), Foreign Secretary (1989) and Chancellor of the Exchequer (1989–1990).

Early life and career 
Major was born at St Helier Hospital and Queen Mary's Hospital for Children in St Helier, London, in England and left school at the age of 16. He became a Conservative councillor in 1968. At the 1979 general election, Major was elected Member of Parliament (MP) for Huntingdonshire (Huntingdon after 1983).

Prime Minister
After holding several cabinet positions, Major was elected to replace Margaret Thatcher as Prime Minister and party leader. On taking office, he saw British action in the Gulf War (1991) and his party's narrow re-election in the 1992 general election. 

After this, the Conservatives under Major became unpopular because of the "Black Wednesday" stock market crash in late 1992 and how they became divided over the issue of European Union. Beaten at the 1997 general election, Major stood down as Prime Minister for Tony Blair of the Labour Party, and was replaced as Conservative leader by William Hague. He stood down as an MP at the 2001 general election.

Personal life
Major married Norma Johnson (now (Dame) Norma Major ) on 3 October 1970. She was a teacher, and a member of the Young Conservatives. They became engaged after only ten days. They have two children; a son, James, and a daughter, Elizabeth. They have a holiday home on the coast of north Norfolk, near Weybourne.

He is a keen follower of cricket, motor racing, and also a supporter of Chelsea Football Club.

Major has so far declined a life peerage on standing down from Parliament.

References

Other websites
 
 
 
 
 

1943 births
Living people
Chancellors of the Exchequer
Companions of Honour
English Anglicans
Former Conservative Party (UK) MPs
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Knights of the Garter
Leaders of the Conservative Party (UK)
Leaders of the Opposition (United Kingdom)
People from Surrey
Politicians from London
Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom
Secretaries of State of the United Kingdom
UK MPs 1979–1983
UK MPs 1983–1987
UK MPs 1987–1992
UK MPs 1992–1997
UK MPs 1997–2001
Spencer Perceval (1 November 1762 – 11 May 1812) was a British statesman and Prime Minister. He is the only British Prime Minister to have been assassinated.

Perceval was the seventh son of John Perceval, 2nd Earl of Egmont by his second wife. His father, a close friend of Frederick, Prince of Wales and King George III, had served in the Cabinet as First Lord of the Admiralty. 

Perceval was Prime Minister when William Wilberforce passed his Bill (law) ending the slave trade. 

The Orders in Council against trade which Perceval had written in 1807 became unpopular. In the winter of 1811 the Luddite riots started. They were also a cause of the War of 1812 with the United States of America. Perceval was forced to have an inquiry by the House of Commons. 

On 11 May 1812, Perceval was on his way to attend the inquiry. In the lobby of the House of Commons he was shot through the heart by John Bellingham. Perceval's body lay in 10 Downing Street for five days before burial. Bellingham gave himself up immediately. Tried for murder, he was found guilty and hanged a week later. 

Bellingham had a grievance, but it was not political. Bellingham petitioned the United Kingdom government for compensation over his imprisonment in Russia. This had been caused by his employer, but Bellingham blamed the British government for not getting him compensation.

Perceval was an Anglican and considered Anglicanism to be essential to the security of the state. He opposed Catholic emancipation. He is buried at St Luke's Church in Charlton, south-east London.

References 

1762 births
1812 deaths
Assassinated people
Attorneys general
British conservatives
Chancellors of the Exchequer
English Anglicans
English murder victims
Former members of the British House of Commons for English constituencies
Murders by firearm in England
People murdered in London
Politicians from London
Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who created the binomial nomenclature. In this system, every kind of animal and plant is given a name consisting of two Latin words, for its genus and species. This became used by biologists all over the world, so he is known as the "father of modern taxonomy". He was a good linguist, and famous in his time. He was made a noble by the Swedish king.

Biography

Early life 
Carl was born in Sweden. He was going to be a priest, but did not do well enough in school for that. Instead, Carl studied at a college for botany because he liked it.  He studied in Lund and tried to improve the garden there.  He later went to another college..

Travels and research 
In 1735, Linnaeus moved to the Netherlands for three years.  There, he earned his degree in medicine. He also published his book on plant classification.  His book was called Systema Naturæ. His book explained how to classify living things by putting them into groups.  Some of these groups are bigger than others.

Later he moved to Stockholm and practiced as a doctor. In 1739, Linnaeus married Sara Morea in Stockholm. Throughout the 1740s he conducted many field trips to places in Sweden to name plants and animals. When not on travels, Linnaeus worked on his classification, so it would work for plants, animals, and minerals.

The Swedish king Adolf Fredrik made Linnaeus a noble in 1757, and Linnaeus took the last name von Linné, later often signing just Carl Linné.

Last years 
After he was made a noble, he continued teaching and writing. His reputation had spread over the world, and he talked with many different people. Linnaeus was upset by weak health, and he had gout and tooth aches. A stroke in 1774 weakened him, and two years later he had another, losing the use of his right side. He died on January 1778 and was buried in Uppsala cathedral.

Mankind 

Linnaeus classified man as among the primates, which was already well understood by anthropologists like Blumenbach and natural historians like Buffon. It attracted the criticism of the Swedish church. The Lutheran Archbishop of Uppsala accused him of "impiety".

Linnaeus recognised four races in the human species. These were European whites, American reds (Native Americans), Asian browns, and African blacks. Blumenbach's classification was similar, with the addition of a Mongolian (= Chinese) or yellow race. Thus recognition of man's position as a primate and the existence of races was  quite widespread before the theory of evolution was formulated.

Related pages 
List of biologists

Notes and references

Sources 
 Sörlin & Fagerstedt, Linné och hans lärjungar, 2004.
 J.L.P.M.Krol, Linneaus' verblijf op de Hartekamp In: Het landgoed de Hartekamp in Heemstede. Heemstede, 1982.

1707 births
1778 deaths
Taxonomy
Swedish physicians
Naturalists
Swedish biologists
Botanists
Deaths from stroke
A botanist is a scientist who studies plants, including flowering plants, and plant-like things such as moss and seaweed. Botany is a scientific study of plants along with their growth, structure, evolution, and uses.  

Botanists may specialize in certain areas of botany. Some important areas of study include: 
 Plant taxonomy
 Plant ecology
 Chemical biology 
 Photosynthesis, the process that turns carbon dioxide from the air into food using sunlight
 Apoptosis, what makes a cell "decide" to die. This study area has been important for cancer research.

 
Science occupations
Modulation, in music, means that the music changes key.   A piece of music might, for example, be "in the key of C major" (meaning that it uses the notes of a C major scale, and the C sounds like the "home key" or "tonic" as it is called in music theory).  Then it could modulate to G major so that the G now feels like the home key and the notes of a G major scale are used (the Fs will be F sharps).

Modulations like the one above are very common, because G is closely related to C (it is the 5th note in a C major scale: the "dominant").  A modulation to the subdominant (4th note of the scale) is also common (e.g. from C major to Fmajor).  Music often modulates to the relative minor (e.g. C major to A minor).

A modulation that goes to a key whose tonic is not part of the original key is called a "chromatic modulation".  Modulating from C major to A flat major would be a chromatic modulation because A flat is not a note in the C major scale.

Most pieces of music will modulate, especially if they are long pieces.  It gives the music variety and helps to give it shape:  the farther away from the tonic it goes the more tension there is.  When the music eventually returns to the original key it feels like a homecoming.

Related pages
Tonality

Music theory
A member of parliament (usually shortened to MP) is a person in the United Kingdom or in Canada who represents the people of an area (called a "constituency") in the House of Commons. They are voted for by the people in a general election. The Prime Minister chooses when to hold a general election, but must have an election at least once every five years. MPs are usually members of a group called a political party. 

In the UK, the main political parties are:
 Conservative party
 Labour Party
 Liberal Democrats
 Scottish National Party
 Green Party

In Canada, the main political parties are:
 Liberal Party
 Conservative Party
 New Democratic Party (NDP)
 Bloc Québécois (BQ)
 Green Party

Members of provincial legislatures in Canada are sometimes referred to as member of provincial parliament (MPP) and other times member of legislative assembly (MLA).

British politicians
Parliaments
A chromatic scale is a musical scale which uses every note as it goes up or down i.e. it goes up and down in semitones (half tones).  To play a chromatic scale on the piano every note is played: both white and black notes (e.g. C, C sharp, D, D sharp, E, F etc.).  A chromatic scale can start on any note.

Meaning of the word “chromatic”

The word “chromatic” comes from the Greek word “chromos” meaning “color”.  Organists in the 16th and 17th centuries such as Sweelinck liked to write “Chromatic Fantasias”.  These were pieces based on tunes which were chromatic.  In those days, because of the tuning systems used, not all the semitones were exactly the same size.  Going up a chromatic scale would have been like walking up a staircase with steps which were slightly larger or smaller in depth.  This made chromatic scales very interesting and “colourful” which is why they were called “chromatic”.

Chromatic harmony

Chromatic harmony means harmony (chords) which use notes which do not belong to the key the music is in (they are not in the key signature).  Although Bach in the 18th century used chromatic harmony it was the 19th century composers who used it more and more.  Wagner wrote music which was very chromatic: there were lots of sharps and flats and it kept modulating to different key areas.  The chord at the beginning of his opera Tristan and Isolde is so famous that it is known as the Tristan chord.  It is very chromatic.  The music is full of tension because it leaves us wondering which key the music is in.

Related pages
Scale (music)
Tonality
Serialism

Music theory
A coffin (also known as a casket) is a box used to store dead bodies, either for burial or after cremation. Coffins used after cremation are what is known as an urn, where the ashes of the person are stored. 

The word comes ultimately from Greek kophinos, a basket. In English, the word was not used in a funeral sense until the 1500s. 

Any box used to bury the dead in is a coffin. 

The main distinction between a coffin and a casket is the shape. A casket regularly has 6 – 8 sides while coffins have a rectangular shape.

Material and design 
Many coffins are made out of materials such as wood, steel (which would have been used in Ancient Egyptian sarcophaguses), and many others. These types of coffins, for example wooden ones can have a rectangular or any other design, whereas a steel or any other metal used in making coffins (or sarcophaguses) could have the exact same but include religious marking added to make it look more appealing.

Other websites 
 Museum of Funeral Customs
 BBC Business News 2001-12-28: Bamboo Coffins "Coffin-maker resurrects tradition"
 Plans For Building A Halloween Coffin
 Difference between a casket and a coffin

Death customs
Agent Orange is a very powerful herbicide that was used in the Vietnam War. It is a defoliant that destroys forests. It was used by the United States military so their enemies had no place to hide.

Problems
The problem with Agent Orange is that when it is released, some dioxins are also generated. Dioxins stay a long time in the environment. They are very toxic, and cause genetic modifications and cancer.

Other websites 
Operation Ranch Hand: Herbicides In Southeast Asia  History of Operation Ranch Hand
 Air Force Health Study  Study of Operation Ranch Hand veterans
 Veterans and Agent Orange: Update 2004 Institute of Medicine analysis of research on dioxin
 Vietnam war orange agent  Collection photos of victim caused by orange agent in Vietnam war and information about the orange agent, disease, effect and symtom

Human issues
War
Chemical compounds
Events 
 Mamluk sultan Baibars of Egypt invades the weakening kingdom of Makuria to the south.
 Charles I of Anjou, King of Naples, occupies Durres in Albania and establishes an Albanian kingdom.
 Count Floris V of Holland makes an unsuccessful attack on Frisia in an attempt to recover the body of his father, Count William II.
 King Edward I of England departs for England from the failed Ninth Crusade and becomes King when his father, King Henry III, dies.
 November 21 – Edward becomes King of England.
 King Alphonso III of Portugal eliminates the last Moorish community in Portugal at Faro.
 The city of Strasbourg becomes an Imperial Free City of the Holy Roman Empire.
 The Worshipful Company of Cordwainers receives the right to regulate the leather trade in London, England.
 In astronomy, the recording of the Alfonsine tables is completed.
 The first recorded reference of cricket dates back to 1272.

Births 
 Bernardo Tolomei (died 1348)
 King Frederick III of Sicily (died 1337)
 Otto I of Hesse (approximate date; died 1328)

Deaths 
 March 17 – Emperor Go-Saga of Japan (born 1220)
 March 18 – John FitzAlan, 7th Earl of Arundel (born 1246)
 April 2 – Richard, 1st Earl of Cornwall, Holy Roman Emperor (born 1209)
 April 27 – Saint Zita
 August 6 – King Stephen V of Hungary
 November 16 – King Henry III of England (born 1207)
 December 13 – Bertold von Regensburg, German preacher
 William of Saint-Amour, French scholastic philosopher (born 1200)

1272
Sergio Leone (3 January 1929 – 30 April 1989) was an Italian movie director. He is well known for his Spaghetti Western films; particularly his Dollars trilogy (also known as The Man with No Name trilogy) starring American actor, Clint Eastwood.

Leone was born in Rome and died there of a heart attack.

Movies directed 
 The Last Days of Pompeii (1959) aka Ultimi giorni di Pompei (Italy)
 Il Colosso di Rodi (1961) aka The Colossus of Rhodes (USA)
 A Fistful of Dollars (1964) aka Per un pugno di dollari (Italy)
 For a Few Dollars More (1965) aka Per qualche dollaro in piu (Italy)
 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) aka Il buono, il brutto, il cattivo (Italy)
 Once Upon a Time in the West (1968) aka C'era una volta il West (Italy)
 A Fistful of Dynamite (1971) aka Giù la testa (Italy)
 My Name Is Nobody (1973) aka Il mio nome è Nessuno (Italy) aka Lonesome Gun (USA)
 Un genio, due compari, un pollo (1975) aka A Genius, Two Friends, and an Idiot (USA)
 Once Upon a Time in America (1984) aka C'era una volta in America (Italy)

Other websites 

1929 births
1989 deaths
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Italy
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Italian movie directors
Italian movie producers
Italian screenwriters
An Italian American is a U.S. citizen of Italian descent. It may mean someone born in the United States with Italian parents or grandparents or someone born in Italy who moved to the United States. The largest group of Italians moved to the United States in the early 1900s; two million moved between 1900 to 1914. Only Irish and Germans moved to the United States in bigger numbers. In 2000 the government counted 15.6 million Italian Americans in the United States. This means that in the year 2000, for every 1000 Americans, 56 of them were Italian Americans.

Italian Americans have been an important part in building the United States. Many great politicians, inventors, scientists, soldiers, musicians and film makers (actors and directors) have been Italian Americans. The Mafia in the United States was made by some Italian Americans but nearly all Italian Americans have nothing to do with it.

Most of them came from southern Italy, in regions such as Sicily, Naples and Calabria, only a sizeable minority of Italian Americans have ancestral roots in Northern Italy.

New York City has more Italian Americans than any other city in the United States.  More than 3 million Italians live in or near New York. The states of New Jersey, Pennsylvania, California, Florida and Massachusetts also have large Italian American populations.  There are large Italian-American populations in the cities of Chicago, Boston, Philadelphia, Detroit, Ohio, which each have over a half million Italians.

Ethnic groups in the United States
America
Samuel Anthony Alito, Jr. (; born April 1, 1950) is an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States. He was nominated by President George W. Bush and has served on the court since January 31, 2006.

Background
Alito was born to Italian American parents. He served in the U.S. Army reserves from 1972 to 1980, as Assistant United States Attorney for the District of New Jersey 1977-1981, as Assistant to U.S. Solicitor General 1981-1985, as Deputy Assistant Attorney General, 1987-1990, and from 1990 on as a member the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit before his 2006 nomination to the Supreme Court. Alito holds an originalist view of the law. The vote by the U.S. Senate to confirm Alito to the Supreme Court judge was the second narrowest in recent U.S. History to that point (58-42), the only narrower one being the 52-48 vote to confirm Clarence Thomas. Alito is from Trenton, New Jersey.

References

1950 births
Living people
People from Trenton, New Jersey
American Roman Catholics
United States Supreme Court justices
Lawyers from New Jersey
Politicians from New Jersey
US Republican Party politicians
William Wrigley Jr. (September 30, 1861 – January 26, 1932) was an American businessman. He was the founder of the Wm. Wrigley Jr. Company. His company makes Wrigley brand chewing gum.

Wrigley, Willian 02
1861 births
1932 deaths
Daniel Constantine Marino, Jr. (born September 15, 1961) is a Hall of Fame quarterback who played for the Miami Dolphins in the National Football League. Many think of him as one of the greatest quarterbacks ever.

Marino started his career playing for University of Pittsburgh as a quarterback. Marino finished his career with the university having thrown 74 touchdown passes. In 2002 he was voted into the College Football Hall of Fame. He had a long and successful career as a quarterback for the Miami Dolphins, breaking many passing records but never leading his team to win the NFL Super Bowl.

References

1961 births
Living people
Miami Dolphins players
American football quarterbacks
Sportspeople from Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania
Once Upon a Time in America is a 1984 movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Robert De Niro and James Woods as Jewish gangsters. The movie was Sergio Leone's last before his death.

The movie is set at three different times; 
the early 1920s; the characters as children,
the early 1930s; the characters as adults,
1968; the few still living characters in their old age.

When Leone finished making the movie it was 229 minutes (3 hours and 49 minutes) and started with an old character (Robert De Niro) remembering his past; it then showed him as a child and as a young adult. We call this flashbacks; it can happen in movie but certainly not in real life. But when it was first shown to American audiences it was made much shorter and set in chronological order; meaning the movie first showed the characters as children, then as young adults and then as older adults; or 'from start to finish'. We call this chronological; this is what would happen in real life. Many people agree that the longer version is much better than the shortened chronological version.

1984 movies
American crime drama movies
Italian drama movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Sergio Leone
Liu-bo is an Italian martial art. It started in Sicily.

History
In Sicily, the art of paranza, moving the stick by hand in order to attack or in order to defend oneself, was being taught to sons by their fathers for centuries. Many people who took care of sheep were masters of it. They often were asked to fight in order to decide problems of honor. Recently, rules have been created and it was made a sport. This sport has become well-known and has been made official by the National Educational Sport Center (CSEN).

The stick
The stick is made from the wood of olive, rowan,  or bitter orange tree. It is used as a base for a number of actions. It is held in one or both hands.

Other websites 
 http://www.liu-bo.it/ 
 http://bastone-siciliano.com/

European martial arts
Events 
 King Athelstan succeeds to the throne of Mercia

Deaths 
 July 17 – Edward the Elder of England
 Ælfweard of Wessex, son of Edward the Elder
Edmund I (922  26 May 946), the Elder, the Deed-Doer or the Magnificent, was King of England from 939 until his death. He was a son of Edward the Elder and a half-brother of Athelstan. Edmund was the first king to start his rule with a united England.

Early in his rule, the Norse king, Olaf Guthfrithson, took back much of the north of England. By 941, Edmund regained his northern lands from the Norse. He defeated a revolt by the Welsh and killed the Scottish King of Strathclyde, Donald MacDonald. He signed a treaty with Malcolm I of Scotland and set up a policy of safe borders.

He was married twice. With is first wife, St. Aelfgith, he had two children who became King Eadwig All-Fair and King Edgar the Peacemaker. After she died in 944  Edmund married Ethelflaed of Damerham. They did not have children.

During the Feast of St. Augustine, on 26 May 946, at Pucklechurch in Gloucester, Edmund was killed fighting a thief who would not leave the feast. He was succeeded by his brother Edred. Edmund is buried at Glastonbury Abbey.

References 

921 births
946 deaths
House of Wessex
Corals are formed by small animals, the polyps of the phylum Cnidaria.

Characteristics

The corals are marine, either on continental shelves or round oceanic islands. They live in colonies.

All the polyps in a colony are zooids: they are all clones, genetically identical. Inside the colony they breed by asexual reproduction. They also reproduce sexually. Colonies of the same species release gametes together, over one, two or three nights around a full moon.

Each coral animal is like a small bag. The opening on top is the mouth. Tentacles (little arms) around the mouth carry stinging nematocysts, which paralyse the small animals eaten by the coral polyps.

Coral usually grows in tropical oceans. A few corals grow in cold water, like the oceans around the British Isles and Norway.

Symbiosis 
Most corals get energy and nutrients from symbiosis with photosynthetic unicellular algae called zooxanthellae. Such corals need sunlight and grow in clear, shallow water, typically at depths less than 60 metres (200 ft).

Many corals (and some other cnidaria) live with zooxanthellae of the genus Symbiodinium, which are dinoflagellates. Usually, each polyp harbours one species of algae. By photosynthesis, these provide energy for the coral, and help calcification.

The algae benefit from a safe place to live and consume the polyp's carbon dioxide and nitrogenous waste. Due to the strain the algae can put on the polyp, the coral often ejects the algae. Mass ejections are known as coral bleaching, because the algae contribute to coral's brown coloration. Ejection increases the polyp's chance of surviving short-term stress—they can regain algae, possibly of a different species, at a later time. If the stressful conditions persist, the polyp eventually dies.

Coral reefs 
A coral reef is a place where many corals grow. The reef makes good places for many other animals, such as fish, crabs, clams, and sponges.

Each coral animal secretes calcium carbonate around itself. This makes the solid structure of the colony. When the animal dies, new polyps live on top of the older structure. The rock they make is also called coral.

They are called coral skeletons. Each different kind of coral colony builds a different kind of skeleton, so that colonies can be shaped like a brain, a mushroom, a cabbage, or many other things. With all these corals gathered together building skeletons around themselves, large coral formations are made. Together, all the coral formations in one place make up a coral reef.

Coral can also be used as jewellery.

Gallery

References

Other websites 
Coral Reefs and Hard Grounds information  from the Florida Fish and Wildlife Conservation Commission Fish and Wildlife Research Institute 
 Coral Reefs of the Tropics : facts, photos and movies from The Nature Conservancy
 Australian Coral Records Research Group 

Cnidarians
Sweyn I, or Sweyn Forkbeard, (17 April 963 - 3 February 1014)  was King of Denmark from about 985-3 February 1014 and King of England from 25 December 1013-3 February 1014. 

Sweyn's father was Harald Bluetooth, King of Denmark.  Sweyn invaded England many times between 990 and 1013, when his army took control of London on Christmas day. Sweyn briefly became King of England until he died 40 days later on 3 February 1014 after being hurt in a fall from his horse.

References 

960 births
1014 deaths

Kings and Queens of Denmark
The Dollars trilogy, also known as The Man with No Name trilogy, refers to the three Spaghetti Westerns starring Clint Eastwood and directed by Sergio Leone:
 A Fistful of Dollars (1964)
 For a Few Dollars More (1965)
 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966)

Western movies
Series of movies
Blue Line International  is an international maritime company. They deal in the transportation of passengers and vehicles between Croatia and Italy.
 
Blue Line International was started in 1993. Its first passenger ship Kraljica mira sailed towards Italy carrying humanitarian aid and refugees. Kraljica mira was sailing at that time under the flag of SEM Maritime Company (SMC). In 1997, the passenger ship Split 1700 joined the same company. In 2003, Blue Line International replaced SMC.

The passenger ship Ancona, the largest ship in the Adriatic Sea was bought in 2003. It has been sailing together with the passenger ship Split 1700 for several years on Blue Line's regular route. They maintain the seasonal lines between Ancona and Hvar and between Ancona and Vis.

Other websites 
 Blue Line International web page

Transport companies of Italy
Water transport
Companies of Croatia
Establishments in Croatia
1990s establishments in Italy
1993 establishments in Europe
Frederick Bean "Tex" Avery (February 26, 1908 – August 26, 1980) was an American animator, cartoonist and director. He is famous for creating animated cartoons during the Golden Age of Hollywood. He did his most major work for the Warner Bros. and Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer studios. He created the characters of Porky Pig, Daffy Duck, Bugs Bunny, and Droopy. His had an effect on almost all of the animated cartoon series by various studios in the 1940s and 1950s.

Further reading
 Adamson, Joe  (1975). Tex Avery: King of Cartoons. New York: Da Capo Press. .
 Barrier, Michael (1999). Hollywood Cartoons: American Animation in Its Golden Age. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
 Benayoun, Robert (1988). Le mystère Tex Avery. Paris: Editions du Seuil. .
 Canemaker, John (1996). Tex Avery: The MGM Years, 1942–1955. Atlanta: Turner Press. .
 Morris, Gary (September 1998). What's Up, Tex? A Look at the Life and Career of Tex Avery . Bright Lights Film Journal.

Other websites 

 
 Tex Avery Tribute website

1908 births
1980 deaths
American animators
Deaths from liver cancer
The McIntosh is a type of apple. It is red and green like a Gala apple only brighter in color. Tart and crisp, it snaps when bitten into.

Apples
Mozilla Thunderbird is a free cross-platform e-mail client developed by the Mozilla Foundation.

References 

Software
E-mail
Mozilla
Sauropsids are a group of land vertebrates which includes all existing "reptiles" and birds and their fossil ancestors. They are one of the two groups which evolved from egg-laying amniotes in the first part of the Carboniferous period.

The synapsids are the other group which evolved from amniotes. They gave rise, eventually, to the mammals.

Living sauropsids include lizards, snakes, turtles, crocodiles, and birds. Extinct sauropsids include non-avian dinosaurs, pterosaurs, plesiosaurs, ichthyosaurs, and many others.

Origin of tetrapods
More or less, the evolution of tetrapods has taken this course:
Sarcopterygii
Coelacanthimorpha (Coelacanths)
Dipnoi (lungfish)
Tetrapodomorpha (fishapods)
The earlies tetrapods lived in water. Clear fossil tetrapod tracks from the mid-Devonian predate previous tetrapod records by 18 million years.

Nine genera of Devonian tetrapods have been described. These earliest tetrapods were not terrestrial. They lived in swampy habitats like shallow wetlands, coastal lagoons, brackish river deltas, and even shallow marine sediments.

Romer's gap
Between the lobe-finned fish tetrapods and the first amphibia and amniotes in the Middle Carboniferous lies a gap of 30 million years, with few satisfactory tetrapod fossils. This, noted in 1950, is Romer's gap. Some new fossils were found in the 1990s, such as Pederpes, right in the middle of the Romer Gap. The gap still obscures the details of the tetrapod transition.

Sometime, in the later Devonian or earliest Carboniferous, the fishapods became mainly land-based. One group of them kept their link to the water, and always laid their eggs in water. They became the amphibians. The others evolved a way of laying eggs on land. They were the amniotes, whose key innovation was the cleidoic egg.

Sometime in the middle or lower Carboniferous, the amniotes split into two lines. One line lead to the reptiles of all kinds, and we call that the Sauropsida. The other line led eventually to the mammals, and we call that the Synapsida. It is not right to say "mammals evolved from reptiles" because both groups derived from early amniotes. In any event, modern reptiles are vastly different from modern mammals. Both groups have evolved for over 300 million years from the early amniotes.

Tetrapods
Land-dwelling tetrapods
Amphibians > amniota and present-day amphibians
Amniota
Sauropsida > present-day reptiles and birds
Synapsida > present-day mammals

References
Abstract algebra is a part of math which studies algebraic structures. These include:
 groups
 rings 
 fields 
 Matrix
 vector spaces 
 algebras
 Boolean algebra
It is normal to build a theory on one kind of structure, like group theory or category theory. 

The purpose of the theory of each concept is to organize the precise definition of the concept, examples of it, its substructures, the ways to relate different examples of the concept algebraically (these are called morphisms in some cases), and the concept's applications, both inside its own theory and outside in other areas of mathematics.

During history, different fields of mathematics have used algebras. Algebras are about finding or specifying rules on how to calculate with certain mathematical formulas and expressions. Another algebra (which is not abstract) is elementary algebra, for example.

Examples 
 Solving equations with many variables. This leads to matrices, determinants and linear algebra.
 Finding formulas for polynomial equations. This led to the discovery of groups, as an expression of symmetry. 
 Quadratic and higher-degree equations and Diophantine equations - especially when Fermat's last theorem was proved led to the definition of rings, and ideals.

Sources
 Allenby, R. B. J. T. (1991), Rings, Fields and Groups, Butterworth-Heinemann, ISBN 978-0-340-54440-2
 Artin, Michael (1991), Algebra, Prentice Hall, ISBN 978-0-89871-510-1
 Burris, Stanley N.; Sankappanavar, H. P. (1999) [1981], A Course in Universal Algebra
 Gilbert, Jimmie; Gilbert, Linda (2005), Elements of Modern Algebra, Thomson Brooks/Cole, ISBN 978-0-534-40264-8
 Lang, Serge (2002), Algebra, Graduate Texts in Mathematics, 211 (Revised third ed.), New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-95385-4, MR 1878556
 Sethuraman, B. A. (1996), Rings, Fields, Vector Spaces, and Group Theory: An Introduction to Abstract Algebra via Geometric Constructibility, Berlin, New York: Springer-Verlag, ISBN 978-0-387-94848-5
 Whitehead, C. (2002), Guide to Abstract Algebra (2nd ed.), Houndmills: Palgrave, ISBN 978-0-333-79447-0
W. Keith Nicholson (2012) Introduction to Abstract Algebra, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons ISBN 978-1-118-13535-8 .
 John R. Durbin (1992) Modern Algebra : an introduction, John Wiley & Sons

Algebra
Trotskyism is the form of communism that is based on the ideas of Leon Trotsky. Trotsky described himself as an "orthodox Marxist". This is a different way of seeing the ideas of Karl Marx than the way other communists like Mao Zedong and Joseph Stalin saw them. The biggest difference is in Trotsky's idea that there needs to be an international "permanent revolution". A permanent revolution is the idea that proletarian revolution needed to spread in countries worldwide, even where capitalism was not as advanced as only the proletarian revolution could carry out the tasks of the unfinished bourgeois revolutions in these countries. This is different to the Stalinist idea of trying to preserve a single nation's revolution from within. Trotsky also supported a less authoritarian government and more democracy.

The largest Trotskyist organizations today are the  Reunified Fourth International, International Socialist Tendency, the International Communist League, and the  Committee for a Workers' International. 

Communism
Marxism
A Fistful of Dollars (1964) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the first movie in the Dollars trilogy and was the first Spaghetti Western to be released in the United States. The second movie in the Dollars Trilogy is For a Few Dollars More; the third is The Good, the Bad and the Ugly.

References

Other websites 

Fistful-of-Leone.com
The Spaghetti Western Database

1960s western movies
1964 movies
Italian movies
Spanish movies
German movies
Movies directed by Sergio Leone
Movies composed by Ennio Morricone
For a Few Dollars More (1965) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the second movie in the Dollars trilogy and was released in the United States in 1967. The first movie in the trilogy is A Fistful of Dollars; the third is The Good, the Bad and the Ugly.

Other websites 

The Spaghetti Western Database

1960s western movies
1965 movies
Italian-language movies
Italian movies
Spanish movies
German movies
Movies directed by Sergio Leone
The Good, the Bad and the Ugly (1966) is a Spaghetti Western movie directed by Sergio Leone and starring Clint Eastwood. It is the third and final movie in the Dollars trilogy and was released in the United States in 1967. The first movie in the trilogy is A Fistful of Dollars; the second is For a Few Dollars More.

This movie and Once Upon a Time in the West are considered to be the greatest western movies ever.

Other websites 

 
 Official Site
 www.spaghetti-western.net The Spaghetti Western Database
 Dvdreview.com Review 

1966 movies
1960s western movies
Italian movies
Spanish movies
German movies
American western movies
Italian-language movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by Sergio Leone
Ennio Morricone (November 10, 1928 – July 6, 2020) was an Italian classical composer famous for making movie scores. He composed the scores for more than 500 movies and television programs. He is well known for composing the scores to Western movies, particularly Spaghetti Westerns. 

In 2007 he received the Honorary Academy Award for his many great movie scores. In his career, the composer sold over 50 million records worldwide. In 2016, he won an Academy Award for his work on The Hateful Eight.

Morricone was born in Rome. He died at a hospital in Rome on July 6, 2020 from problems caused by a fall, aged 91.

References 

Academy Award winning composers
Golden Globe Award winning composers
Grammy Award winners
BAFTA Award winners
1928 births
2020 deaths
Accidental deaths from falls
Movie score composers
Italian composers
Italian conductors
Italian musicians
Writers from Rome
XTC was an English rock band. Its members were: Andy Partridge, Colin Moulding, Barry Andrews, and Terry Chambers. XTC started in 1976. They had their biggest success in the late 1970s and most of the 1980s. XTC was best known in their home country of England, but they had some fame in other countries like the United States. Their 2 biggest hits in the U.S. are "Dear God" and "The Mayor Of Simpleton". Some of XTC's other hit songs include "Making Plans For Nigel", "Senses Working Overtime", and "Are You Receiving Me".

XTC made a total of 13 studio albums. Their last album came out in 2000 and they broke up in 2005. Andy Partridge, the band's singer, says he doesn't think XTC will ever get back together.

One interesting thing about XTC is that they almost never did live concerts since 1982. The reason for that is because Andy Partridge sometimes got very nervous performing on stage in front of thousands of people.

Other websites 
 XTC official site
 Chalkhills: XTC fan site
 Optimisms Flames: another fan site

English musical groups
Swindon
Roh Moo-Hyun (1 September 1946 – 23 May 2009) was a South Korean politician. He was the President of South Korea. He was born in Gimhae, Gyeongsangnam-do, South Korea. He took office on February 25, 2003. He is seen as one of the most popular presidents of South Korea.

After retirement from Cheongwadae, he was residing in Bongha Maeul, Gimhae, Gyeongsangnam-do until death. He committed suicide on May 23, 2009, by jumping off a cliff after being accused of taking bribes.

Notes

Other websites 
 Official homepage of Roh Moo-hyun (Korean)
 Democratic Party (in Korean) 
 Nosamo: Roh Moo-hyun's fan club (in Korean)
 "Profile: Roh Moo-hyun", BBC News, May 14, 2004.

1946 births
2009 deaths

Presidents of South Korea
People who committed suicide
Roh Tae-woo (4 December 1932 – 26 October 2021), was the sixth President of South Korea (1988–1993). He was a Korean general and politician. A member of the Hanahoi, Roh was the hand-picked successor of the ex-general and president Chun Doo-hwan. This caused large pro-democracy rallies in Seoul and other cities in 1987.  Roh agreed to hold democratic presidential elections, making himself a candidate for the next election. The opposition split the votes between Kim Young-sam and Kim Dae-jung (both of whom later became presidents). This made Roh the first elected president after the time that the military ruled the country.

Roh's rule was notable for hosting the Seoul Olympics in 1988 and for his foreign policy of nordpolitik.

In 1993, Roh's successor Kim Young-sam led an anti-corruption campaign that saw Roh and Chun Doo-hwan on trial for bribery. The two former presidents were later charged with mutiny and treason for their part in the 1979 coup and the 1980 Gwangju Riot. 

Both were found to be guilty in August 1996 of treason, mutiny and corruption. Chun was sentenced to death, later changed to life imprisonment. Roh's 22 1/2-year jail sentence was reduced to 17 years. Both were released from prison in early 1998, pardoned by then-President Kim Dae-jung.

Roh died on October 26, 2021, at the Seoul National University Hospital in Seoul at the age of 88.

Notes

References

South Korean criminals
Presidents of South Korea
South Korean military people
1932 births
2021 deaths