cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Prokaryotes (or monera) are some of the simplest living things.  They are unicellular organisms and they include two major divisions of simple living beings: bacteria, and archaea.  They generally do not have a cell nucleus, nuclear membrane or cell organelles, however a small number of exceptions have been found.  Prokaryotes possess genetic material in the form of a single DNA loop called a Nucleoid that floats around freely inside the cell. Bacteria include the Cyanobacteria (formerly known as blue-green algae due to their photosynthetic capacity).

Some form biofilms that are somewhat like multicellular organisms.

Besides a nucleus, prokaryotes lack other things eukaryotes (cells with a true nucleus) have. They reproduce without fusion of gametes. They do not have membranes. This means that there are no vacuoles, Golgi apparatus, endoplasmic reticula or other organelles inside the cell. However, they do have ribosomes, though of a simpler kind than eukaryotes. Eukaryote cells include organelles which were once free-living prokaryotes.

Taxonomy 
In 1977, Carl Woese proposed dividing prokaryotes into the Bacteria and Archaea (originally Eubacteria and Archaebacteria) because of the major differences in the structure and genetics between the two groups of organisms. This arrangement of Eukaryota (also called "Eukarya"), Bacteria, and Archaea is called the three-domain system, replacing the traditional two-empire system.

The Archaea include simple organisms which were first discovered in extreme environments. Most of them can survive at very high or very low temperatures. Some of them can also survive in highly salty, acidic or alkaline water. Some have been found in geysers, black smokers or oil wells.

The prokaryotes may not be a monophyletic, taxonomic group of common descent, but merely a group of similar organisms. The relationships between Archaea, Eubacteria and Eukaryota are assessed differently by different scientists. The three-domain system of Carl Woese treats them as one monophyletic group.

References 

Cell biology
Cuttlebone is a hard brittle structure found inside cuttlefish. It is made mainly of calcium carbonate. The cuttlefish use it to control floating. Cuttlebones have been used to make polishing powder. This was then added to toothpaste. Today, cuttlebone is mainly used for caged birds and turtles in their habitats, so they get their calcium easily and fast.

Zoology
Decapodiformes is a superorder of Cephalopoda. It includes cephalopods with ten feet. These are usually eight short arms and two long tentacles. Well-known members are cuttlefish, squid, and the extinct belemnites. 

Cephalopods
Diana Burrell (born 25 October 1948) is an English composer. She was born in Norwich, Norfolk. She went to Norwich High School for Girls and then studied music at the University of Cambridge.  She started her career as a viola player, but soon became well known for her compositions was able to be a full-time composer.

Her first big orchestral piece was called Landscape (1988).  It describes the wild, windswept countryside. It won an Encore Award from the Royal Philharmonic Society and BBC Radio 3. Another orchestral work has a long title in German:  Das Meer so gross und weit ist da wimmelts ohne Zahlgrosse kleine Tiere (The sea is so big and wide and swarming with numerous little animals).  It describes the sounds and the atmosphere of the sea.

Burrell has written other orchestral works including concertos for viola, flute and clarinet,  an opera The Albatross (1997),  lots of choral works and chamber music.  She likes modern architecture and her music sometimes shows this in the way it is shaped.  She has also written music for young people such as Lights and Shadows (1989) which includes children’s choir, recorder group and lots of percussion.

Burrell teaches at the Guildhall School of Music and Drama and is Artistic Director of Spitalfields Festival in London.  She lives in East London.

References

Other websites 
 United Music Publishers official website for Diana Burrell 

English composers
People from Norwich
Women composers
1948 births
Living people
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Saint James could mean any of the following:

People
Several men mentioned in the New Testament:
James, son of Zebedee, an apostle, brother of John the Apostle, venerated at Santiago de Compostela
James (son of Alphaeus), an apostle, brother of Matthew the Evangelist
James the Less, son of Clopas and Mary of Clopas, often identified with the son of Alphaeus
James the Just, the brother of Jesus, head of the early Christian Church in Jerusalem
James the Deacon, 7th century missionary to England
James the Confessor, Bishop of Catania in the 8th Century  
Rebecca St. James, Christian pop and rock artist

Places
In transportation,
Saint James station (disambiguation), several railway stations around the world

In the United States:
St. James, Maryland
St. James, Minnesota
St. James, Missouri
St. James, New York
Saint James Parish, Louisiana
The St. James Theatre, on Broadway in New York City
St. James Court Art Show in Louisville, Kentucky
St. James Catholic Church in Vancouver, Washington
St. James Middle School, a school in Horry County in South Carolina
St. James High School, also a school in Horry County in South Carolina

In the United Kingdom:
St. James's Palace, London
Court of St. James's, London
St. James's Park, London
St James' Park, Newcastle upon Tyne, home of football club Newcastle United.
St James Park, football stadium in Exeter
St. James' Church, Clitheroe
St James, County Antrim, Northern Ireland
St James's University Hospital, Leeds, a teaching hospital

Other nations:
St James, Western Australia
Saint James Parish, Barbados
St. James (electoral district), defunct electoral district in Canada
Saint James Parish, Jamaica
Saint-James, France
St. James' School, Kolkata, India
Saint James Cavalier Centre for Creativity, Malta
St. James Theatre (Wellington), New Zealand
St James, Cape Town, South Africa
St James Power Station, Singapore
Gwinnett County is a county in the American state of Georgia. The county seat of Gwinnett County is Lawrenceville. The county was created on December 15, 1818.  The Census bureau says there were 754,104 people living in Gwinnett County in 2006.

The county was named for Button Gwinnett, one of the people who signed the United States Declaration of Independence for Georgia.

References

Other websites 
Official Web site of Gwinnett County Government

Georgia (U.S. state) counties
 
1818 establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
The University of Georgia (UGA) is a university that is in and around Athens, Georgia. The university was created January 27, 1785 and was the first state university in the United States. However, it was not the first state university to hold classes or to graduate students. That honor belongs to the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill.

About 34,000 students go to the school. The University's mascot is a bulldog named "Uga".

Diversity
Only white male students studied at UGA during the first century of its history. UGA began educating female students during the summer of 1903. Women were not admitted as full-time undergraduates until 1918. Before official admission of women to the University, several women were able to complete graduate degrees through credit earned during the summer sessions. The first woman to earn such a degree was Mary Lyndon. She received a Master of Arts degree in 1914. Mary Creswell earned the first undergraduate degree in June 1919, a B.S. in Home Economics. Two UGA dormitories are named after these graduates: Creswell Hall and Mary Lyndon Hall.

Racial integration started in 1961, with the admission of Hamilton E. Holmes and Charlayne Hunter after notable tension with the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools. In 2001, on the fortieth anniversary of their having first registered for classes, the University renamed a prominent campus building in their honor: Holmes-Hunter Academic Building. Although Hunter and Holmes were the first African-American students to matriculate at UGA, Mary Frances Early became the first African-American graduate by earning her master’s (MMEd) in music education in 1962. In 1963, Chester Davenport became the first African-American admitted to the UGA School of Law and its first African-American graduate (LL.B. 1966). A decade later, Sharon Tucker was the first female African-American law graduate, earning her J.D. in 1974.

References

Colleges and universities in Georgia (U.S. state)
Oak Ridge Associated Universities
Southeastern Conference
1785 establishments in the United States
18th-century establishments in Georgia (U.S. state)
An outhouse is a small building that covers a toilet. The toilet inside is often either a pit latrine or a bucket toilet, but other forms of dry (non-flushing) toilets may be found.

References

Other websites

Waste
A fence is something built like a low wall, often made of metal or wood, to keep something in or to keep something out.  It differs from a wall, which has a foundation.  Fences are usually supported by fenceposts.  Fences can be large or small.  Many are used in gardens but some are used in different places.

Related pages 
 Hedge

Architectural elements
Walls
Turk or Turks most often refers to:
 Turkic peoples, a collection of ethnic groups that speak Turkic languages
 Turkish people, a Turkic ethnic group that lives in what is now Turkey
Mummification is a process in which the skin and flesh of a corpse can be preserved. The process can occur either naturally, or it can be intentional. If it occurs naturally, it is the result of cold (as can be found in a glacier), acid (as can be found in a bog) or dryness. The Egyptians wrapped bandages around the corpse to protect the body from rotting.  

Mummies of humans and other animals have been found on every continent, but as a result of natural preservation through unusual conditions, and as cultural artifacts. Over one million animal mummies have been found in Egypt, many of which are cats. They used a hook to remove the brain from taking it out from the nose and they would surgically remove all other organs but the heart, as this was needed for the weighing of the heart ceremony. The organs would then be buried with the mummy in separate containers called canopic jars.

Intentional mummification  
Intentional mummification was common in ancient Egypt, for burying Egyptian pharaohs. Osiris was probably the first mummy in Egypt. 

It takes about 70 days to complete the mummification of a dead body. The first step is to push a sharp rod up the nose and into the  brain. From there, the brain is broken up into tiny pieces and removed through the nose, and then the nose is filled with sawdust. Next, they make a hole in the body to remove all the organs except for the heart. Jars which had the heads of gods on top were used to store the organs. The hole was then filled with linen and spices and the body was left under salt to become dry. Later, after 40 days the body was wrapped in linen bandages. Priests surrounded the body while it was being prepared and performed rituals. After the mummifying process was complete, a mask was placed over the head so it could be known in the afterlife.
Ötzi the Iceman a mummy of a man who lived about 5,300 years ago was found to be naturally mummified by ice. Ötzi was found in 1991 in the Schnalstal glacier, Ötzti Alps, near Hauslabjoch on the border between Austria and Italy.

Mummies in Egypt 
There were no restrictions on who could be mummified. Any Egyptian who could afford to pay for the expensive process of preserving their bodies for the afterlife was allowed to mummify themselves. Egyptians believed in life after death, and that death was just a transition from one life to another. They believed that they had to preserve their bodies so they could lead a new life. They would need all the things they had used when they were alive so their family would put those things in their grave. Egyptians paid vast amounts of money to have their bodies properly preserved. It took a very long time from start to finish. It took them 70 days to embalm a body. Canonical jars were used by Egyptians to hold the internal organs. It was very important to Egyptian religion that the human body was preserved. Anubis was a god of mummification, he had a human body and a head of a jackal. His job was to prepare the body of the dead to be received by Osiris, the god of the dead. Osiris will then let the souls on and into the underworld.

Gallery

References 

Death customs
Xenophobia is the fear or dislike of strangers or unknown things. Xenophobia can also mean the fear of trying new things, but it is usually the fear of differences between people. Xenophobia may be about foreign things or people, or just the attitudes of a group towards other groups. It may increase because of immigration. Apparently, xenophobia has always existed. Even the Ancient Greeks believed that barbarians (non-Greeks) were naturally meant to be enslaved.

Sometimes xenophobia overlaps with other types of phobias such as Islamophobia, Germanophobia or Anti-Mexican sentiment.

The Vienna Declaration by United Nations declares that all people should have equal human rights and toleration.

Related pages
Discrimination
Hate crime
Phobia
Racism

References

Phobias
Lamellibrachia is a genus of cold seep tube worms. These are related to giant tube worms. They live on the floor of the oceans, near cold seeps. There crude oil and methane leak out of the ocean floor. 

The worm forms a symbiosis with certain bacteria which can oxidise sulphides. The worm provides the bacteria with hydrogen sulphide and oxygen. It does this by taking them up from the environment and binding them to a haemoglobin molecule. In return, the bacteria feed the worm. The worms can grow to a length of about 3 metres.

Together, they form a 'biogenic habitat' by creating groups of hundreds or thousands of individuals. Living in these aggregations are over a hundred different species of organism, many of which are found only at these seeps.

Cold seeps and hydrothermal vents are the only known communities that do not rely on photosynthesis for food and energy production. Unlike hydrothermal vents, which are short-lived environments, cold seeps leak oil and gas slowly. Probably because of the cooler temperatures and stability, many cold seep organisms are much longer-lived than those inhabiting hydrothermal vents. These worm grow very slowly, but can reach lengths of over 10 feet (3 metres). This means individuals may live over 250 years.

References 

Annelids
The giant tube worm (Riftia pachyptila) is an annelid. They live on the floor of the oceans (mainly Pacific Ocean), usually near black smokers, a type of hydrothermal vent. They can tolerate extremely high temperatures and levels of sulfur. They live in symbiosis with certain bacteria. The bacteria enter the mouth of a young tube worm, but when the worm gets older its mouth and gut seal up, trapping the bacteria forever. These bacteria are fed with sulfur compounds and oxygen. The bacteria then turn these compounds into organic molecules on which the host worms feed. 

Annelids
A nuclear reaction is a process involving an atomic nucleus or more than one nucleus. The most common kinds are
Nuclear fusion, a reaction in which two or more particles collide. The results are new particles which are different from the first ones. 
Nuclear fission, a nucleus breaking into pieces. 
Radioactive decay, in which a nucleus spits something out, changing itself into a different kind of nucleus.

In the case of radioactivity the reaction is . Fission and fusion can be done on purpose, to release energy. This energy can then be used for different things, for example to make steam (as in a nuclear power plant). It can also be used as energy for a bomb.

In the example figure 6Li fuses with deuterium. This makes Beryllium which then decays into two alpha particles. 

Nuclear reactions occur in the sun, in nuclear reactors, in particle accelerators, and in outer space.  Other than radioactive decay, very few nuclear reactions occur on earth except in these special places.  Nuclear reactors use nuclear reactions to make heat and electricity.  Accelerators sometimes cause nuclear reactions to make radioactive materials.  Particles from outer space cause nuclear reactions in earth's atmosphere that make air slightly radioactive.

Nuclear reactions differ from chemical reactions in that they do not need a catalyst.  Radioactive decay also cannot be stopped, sped up or slowed down.

Other websites 
Images for nuclear reaction
Videos for nuclear reaction

Nuclear physics
St Paul's Cathedral is an Anglican church in the City of London. The original version was built by Mellitus in 604 AD. He was Bishop of the East Saxons. 

In 962 and 1087, the cathedral burnt down and was built again. Before today's version of the cathedral, there were four others. The earlier ones burnt down. 

Today's cathedral is made of limestone. It was built after the Great Fire of London in 1666 had destroyed the "Old St Paul's". Its architect was Sir Christopher Wren, who designed a further 50 churches. Wren designed it in the Renaissance style. St Paul's is a popular tourist attraction and is still used as a church today. It is the cathedral of the Church of England Diocese of London.
It is 365 feet (111 meters) high to the cross on top.

Buildings and structures in London
Anglican Cathedrals
Cathedrals in England
City of London
Churches in the United Kingdom
A greenhouse, or green house (also called a glass-house or hothouse) is a building where plants such as flowers and vegetables are grown. It usually has a glass or translucent plastic roof. Many greenhouses also have glass or plastic walls. Greenhouses warm up during the day via penetration of the sun's rays which heat the plants, soil and structure. This heat is given up gradually throughout the night.

Types of greenhouses
Greenhouses come in many shapes and sizes, with different functions. Some people have small greenhouses in their backyard, or as a lean-to attached to their home, called mini greenhouses, or tomato houses. They want to start off their seeds and seedlings in a protected environment as well as those growing plants that need warmer conditions. Others, wishing to extend their living space, have house extensions in the form of mini-conservatories. Commercial companies usually have larger greenhouses for horticultural purposes, but have more substantial structures for plant displays where the public is admitted. For the same reason, botanic gardens usually have a high proportion of greenhouses with substantial structures.

Role of greenhouses
Many vegetables and flowers are grown in greenhouses in late winter and early spring, when it is still too cold to grow plants outside. Then these plants move into the soil outside as the weather warms up. Greenhouses are used to grow crops in cold countries such as Canada. The largest group of greenhouses in the world is in Leamington, Ontario (in Canada), where about 200 acres (0.8 km²) of tomatoes are grown in glass greenhouses.

Gardening in greenhouses 

Gardening and growing plants in greenhouses is different from growing plants outside as no rain can get inside a greenhouse, so gardeners have to water plants. Also, greenhouses can get very hot from the sun's heat, so gardeners have to make sure that it does not get too hot for the plants. Greenhouses usually have vents that can be opened to let excess heat out. Some greenhouses have electric exhaust fans that automatically turn on if it gets too hot in the greenhouse. A greenhouse is the place for tender plants such as tomatoes, cucumbers, and aubergines.

History 
Roman gardeners grew cucumbers in frames covered with oiled cloth or with sheets of mica. In the 1500s, Italian gardeners built structures for the tropical plants that explorers brought back to Italy. Jules Charles built the first modern greenhouse in Holland. In the 1800s, large greenhouses were built in England. The greenhouse concept also appeared in the Netherlands and then England in the 17th century

References

Further reading
 Woods, May (1988) Glass houses: history of greenhouses, orangeries and conservatories. Aurum Press, London, .
Mini Greenhouse nhà kính mini 

Gardening
Agricultural buildings
Apprenticeship is a system of training people who are learning how to do a job which needs special skill.  Someone who is learning in this way is called an "apprentice".  An apprentice will learn by working with someone who is already skilled at a job.  They are like a teacher and pupil.

Development 
The system of apprenticeship has been used for many hundreds of years.  In the late Middle Ages the craft guilds and town governments used to watch and control the system.  A master craftsman had the right to employ young people to work for them and pay them a small salary.  In return the apprentice would be learning the trade.  Most apprentices were males, but female apprentices are more common nowadays, especially in crafts such as embroidery, silk-weaving etc..

Related pages 
 Education

Further reading
Modern Apprenticeships: the way to work, The Report of the Modern Apprenticeship Advisory Committee, 2001  
Apprenticeship in the British "Training Market", Paul Ryan and Lorna Unwin, University of Cambridge and University of Leicester, 2001 
Creating a ‘Modern Apprenticeship’: a critique of the UK’s multi-sector, social inclusion approach Alison Fuller and Lorna Unwin, 2003 (pdf) 
Apprenticeship systems in England and Germany: decline and survival. Thomas Deissinger in: Towards a history of vocational education and training (VET) in Europe in a comparative perspective, 2002 (pdf)

Other websites 
The School of Applied Arts Apprentice program 
Facts about Germany: Apprenticeships, Federal Foreign Office 
Apprenticeships - a great idea (UK)
L'Apprenti, in French
Article on the history of apprenticeship in the U.S.  from EH.NET
Academic Apprentices: Still an Ideal?, Barry Yeoman, Duke Magazine

Learning
In the Star Wars fictional universe, battle droids are robots that are made for fighting. They are seen in the prequel trilogy of the Star Wars movies. Battle droids are used by the Confederacy of Independent Systems to fight the Galactic Republic.Clones of the Republic could easily overcome these droids.The battle droids are controlled by a central droid control ship. If the control ship is destroyed, the droids shut off.

Types of battle droids

Other websites 
 Star Wars Databank |Battle droid

Fictional characters introduced in 1999
Star Wars characters

it:Droideka
pl:Droidy bojowe Federacji Handlowej i Separatystów#Droid Niszczyciel
The western long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bruijni) is one of the echidnas which live in New Guinea. Fossils of this species have also been found in Australia. It is one of the four living echidnas, three of which are species of Zaglossus.

This echidna lives from 1300m to 4000m above sea level. It lives in alpine meadow and humid forests in the mountains. Unlike the short-beaked echidna which eats ants and termites, the long-beaked species eats earthworms. It is also larger that the short-beaked species. It can be told apart from the other Zaglossus species by the number of claws on the front and back feet. It has three (rarely four) claws.

It is an endangered species. Its population has been reduced by habitat loss and hunting. The long-beaked Echidna is good to eat. Although hunting the species has been banned by the Indonesian and Papua New Guinea governments, traditional hunting is permitted.

In February of 2006, an expedition led by Conservation International found a population of them in what they described as a "lost world" of wildlife in the Foja Mountains of Papua Province, Indonesia.

The echidnas and Platypus are monotremes, the only mammals to lay eggs.

References

Augee M and Gooden B. 1993. Echidnas of Australia and New Guinea. Australian National History Press  
Flannery T.F. and Groves C.P. 1998 A revision of the genus Zaglossus (Monotremata, Tachyglossidae), with description of new species and subspecies. Mammalia, 62(3): 367-396

Monotremes
The eastern long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus bartoni), also known as Barton's long-beaked echidna, is one of three species from the genus Zaglossus. All of them occur in New Guinea. It is found mainly in Papua New Guinea between 2000 and 3000 meters above sea level. 

It can be distinguished from other members of the genus by the number of claws on the fore and hind feet. It has five claws on its fore feet and four on its hind feet. The adult animal weights between  5 kg (11 lb) and 10 kg (22 lb). Its body length ranges from 60–100 cm (23.5-39 inches). It has no tail. It has dense black fur. The species is the largest monotreme and is slow moving. It rolls into a spiny ball for defense.

There are four recognised subspecies:
Z. bartoni bartoni
Z. bartoni clunius
Z. bartoni smeenki
Z. bartoni diamondi
The population of each subspecies is geographically isolated and they can be distinguished primarily by differences in body size.

References 

Flannery, T.F. and Groves, C.P. 1998 A revision of the genus Zaglossus (Monotremata, Tachyglossidae), with description of new species and subspecies. Mammalia, 62(3): 367-396

Monotremes
The long-beaked echidnas make up one of the two genera (Genus Zaglossus) of echidna. Echidna is a spiny monotreme that lives in New Guinea. There are three living species, and two extinct ones.

Echidnas are one of the two types of mammals that lay eggs.

Species

Zaglossus attenboroughi

Habitat: regions of New Guinea at higher elevation than highland forests
Era: the present
Status: Endangered

Remarks: Species described from one sample only. May be endangered, or locally extinct. See Sir David's Long-beaked Echidna

Zaglossus bartoni

Habitat:on the central cordillera between the Paniai Lakes and the Nanneau Range, as well as the Huon Peninsula
Era: the present
Status: Endangered

Remarks: see Eastern Long-beaked Echidna

Zaglossus bruijni

Habitat: highland forests of New Guinea
Era: the present
Status: Endangered

Remarks: see Western Long-beaked Echidna

Zaglossus hacketti

Habitat: Western Australia
Era: Upper Pleistocene

Remarks: This species is known only from a few bones. At a metre long, it was huge for an echidna and for monotremes in general.

Zaglossus robustus

Habitat: Tasmania
Era: Pleistocene

Remarks: This species is known from a fossil skull about 65 cm long.

References

Flannery, T.F. and Groves, C.P. 1998 A revision of the genus Zaglossus (Monotremata, Tachyglossidae), with description of new species and subspecies. Mammalia, 62(3): 367-396

Other websites 
 EDGE of Existence (Zaglossus spp.) - Saving the World's most Evolutionarily Distinct and Globally Endangered (EDGE) species
 
 A pretty good summary, including references on animalinfo.org

Monotremes
Sir David's long-beaked echidna (Zaglossus  attenboroughi), also known as the cyclops long-beaked echidna, is one of three species of the genus Zaglossus. All of them are found in New Guinea. It is named after Sir David Attenborough. It lives in the Cyclops mountains in Papua province of Indonesia near the cities of Sentani, Jayapura. 

The species was described from a single damaged animal, which was collected in the Dutch colonial era (c. 1961). It has not been collected since that time. The Cyclops mountain forest habitat has been disturbed recently. This has raised concern that Z. attenboroughi populations may already be endangered or even locally extinct. However, many parts of the mountains are covered in thick jungle and have not been searched since 1961. It is possible that the animal still exists there or in nearby mountain ranges. In 2007 scientists found holes which they believe were made by the echidna poking its nose into the dirt while looking for earthworms. 

It is the smallest member of the genus. It is closer in size to the short-beaked echidna than other members of the genus. It has five claws on its fore and hind feet. It has dense short fur.

References 

Monotremes
Whittier is a small town in Alaska on the Kenai Peninsula. Whittier has 182 people always living in it. The Whittier Glacier near Whittier was named for the American poet John Greenleaf Whittier in the year 1915.

During World War II the United States Army built a port and railroad near the glacier and named the port Whittier. The two big buildings that are very easy to notice in Whittier were built after World War II. The Hodge Building (now called Begich Towers) was built for housing soldiers and the Buckner Building, finish being built in 1953, was called the "city under one roof". It was once the biggest building in Alaska. The Begich Building is now a condominium (or houst that has many rooms that people live in), and almost all of the people that live in Whittier's live here.

The town was badly damaged by tsunamis (or very big waves) started by the 1964 Good Friday Earthquake; thirteen people died because of the waves that were 13 m (43 ft) tall.

Whittier is a popular port for cruise ships, because people can go to Anchorage and the inside of Alaska by both car and train. Whittier is also popular with visitors and fishermen.

Whittier is the wettest city in Alaska and the United States. The city receives at least 198 inches of rain a year.

References

Other websites 

 City of Whittier
 Whittier Chamber of Commerce

Cities in Alaska
Kate Elizabeth Winslet,  (born 5 October 1975) is an English actress. She made her movie debut as Juliet Hulme in Peter Jackson's Heavenly Creatures (1994). She is best known for her starring role in the American movie, Titanic.  Winslet is the second of four children, her sisters are the actresses Anna and Beth Winslet and her brother is Joss Winslet, her mother Sally Anne is a barmaid and her father Roger John Winslet is a swimming pool contractor. Her maternal grandparents Linda and Oliver Bridges founded the Reading Repertory Theatre and her uncle is the actor Robert Bridges, Her maternal great-grandmother Florence Theodelinda Lidman, was the daughter of a Swedish immigrant.

Kate Winslet was married to director Jim Threapleton; they had a daughter, Mia. She married director Sam Mendes; they had a son, Joe. In 2012, she married Ned Rocknroll, nephew of billionaire Richard Branson. She had his first son in December of 2013.

Films 
 Heavenly Creatures (1994) Juliet Hulme
 A Kid in King Arthur's Court (1995) Princess Sarah
 Sense and Sensibility (1995) Marianne Dashwood
 Jude (1996) Sue Bridehead
 Hamlet (1996) Ophelia
 Titanic (1997) Rose DeWitt Bukater
 Hideous Kinky (1998) Julie
 Faeries (1999) Brigid
 Holy Smoke! (1999) Ruth Barron
 Quills (2000) Madeleine LeClerc
 Enigma (2001) Hester Wallace
 Christmas Carol: The Movie (2001) Belle
 Iris (2001) Young Iris Murdoch
 The Life of David Gale (2003) Bitsey Bloom
 Eternal Sunshine of the Spotless Mind (2004) Clementine Kruczynski
 Finding Neverland (2004) Sylvia Llewelyn Davies
 Romance & Cigarettes (2005) Tula
 All the King's Men (2006) Anne Station
 Little Children (2006) Sarah Pierce
 Flushed Away (2006) Rita Malone
 The Holiday (2006) Iris Simpkins
 The Reader (2008) Hanna Schmitz
 Revolutionary Road (2008) April Wheeler
 Carnage (2011) Nancy Cowan
 Contagion (2011) Dr. Erin Mears
 Movie 43 (2013) Beth
 Labor Day (2013) Adele Wheeler
 A Little Chaos (2014)  Sabine De Barra
 Divergent (2014) Jeanine Matthews
 The Dressmaker (2014) Myrtle 'Tilly' Dunnage

References

Other websites 

 

1975 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Berkshire
BAFTA Award winning actors
Emmy Award winning actors
English movie actors
English singers
English television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Grammy Award winners
Musicians from Berkshire
People from Reading, Berkshire
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
The Mongol Empire, an area ruled by the great Mongol Khans in the 13th and 14th centuries, was one of the largest land empires in history. 
The original homeland of the Mongols, was bounded by the Khingan Mountains on the east, the Altai and Tian mountains on the west, the Shilka River and the mountain ranges by Lake Baikal on the north, and the Great Wall of China on the south.

It was founded by Genghis Khan in 1206 AD when he brought together the Mongol and Turkic tribes. When he died in 1227 AD, he had conquered Central Asia, North China and parts of eastern Persia. Later his grandson Kublai Khan would go on to expand the empire and found the Mongol-ruled Yuan Dynasty, ruling whole China. The Mongol Empire stretched from Eastern Europe to East Asia, including Central Asia and the Middle East. Its power did not last long, though. By the 1360s it had broken into several empires, all of which were later destroyed.

Other websites 

 Genghis Khan and the Mongols
 The Mongol Empire
 Mongols 
 Genghis Khan Biography 
 The Mongols in World History
 The Mongol Empire for students

 
History of Mongolia
1206 establishments
1360s disestablishments
1200s establishments in Asia
14th-century disestablishments in Asia
Parthia is an ancient country of Asia, now Iran and regions of Armenia, Iraq, Georgia, eastern Turkey, eastern Syria,Azerbaijan, Turkmenistan, Afghanistan, Tajikistan, Pakistan, Kuwait, the Persian Gulf coast of Saudi Arabia, Bahrain, Qatar, and UAE.

Parthians were excellent horsemen and archers. In battle, mounted Parthians often discharged their arrows back towards the enemy while pretending to flee.

In 250 BC, the Parthians succeeded in founding an independent kingdom that in the 1st century BC it grew into an empire extending from the Euphrates to the Indus and from the Amu Darya to the Indian Ocean.

Other websites 

 Parthia.com - with an extensive bibliography

 History of Parthia
The Establishment and Development of Christianity in the Parthian Empire in Transoxiana 6.
Parthia (Old Persian Parthava) 

Ancient Rome
Ancient history
Iran
History of Pakistan
History of Persia
Ancient history of Azerbaijan
Hydrolysis is a chemical reaction or process where a chemical compound reacts with water. This is the type of reaction that is used to break down polymers into many smaller units. In this reaction, water is always added to the chemical compound.

Hydrolysis of metal salts 

Hydrolysis of metal salts is more commonly known as hydration.  Many metal ions are strong Lewis acids, and in water they may undergo hydrolysis to form basic salts.  Such salts contain a hydroxyl group that is directly bound to the metal ion in place of a water ligand. The positive charge on metal ions creates an attraction to water, a Lewis base with a non-binding electron pair on the oxygen atom, and alters the water molecule's electron density. This in turn increases the polarity of the O-H bond, which now acts as a proton donor under Brønsted-Lowry acid-base theory to release the hydrogen as a H+ ion, increasing the acidity of the solution. For example, aluminium chloride undergoes extensive hydrolysis in water with the solution being very acidic.
[Al(H2O)6]^3+ + H2O <=> [Al(OH)(H2O)5]^2+ + H3O+

This implies that hydrogen chloride is lost in the evaporation of AlCl3 solutions and the residue is a basic salt (in this case an oxychloride) in place of AlCl3. This type of reaction is also seen with other metal chlorides such as ZnCl2, SnCl2, FeCl3 and lanthanide halides such as DyCl3. With some compounds such as TiCl4, the hydrolysis may go to completion and form the pure hydroxide or oxide, in this case TiO2.

References

Chemistry
Water (H2O, HOH) covers 70-75% of the Earth's surface in its liquid and solid (ice) states, and is present in the atmosphere as a vapor. It is the most abundant molecule on the Earth's surface.

At room temperature, it is a nearly colorless, flavorless, and odorless liquid. Many substances dissolve in water and it is commonly seen as the universal solvent; because of this, water in nature and in use is rarely clean, and may have some properties different than those in the laboratory. But there are many compounds that are essentially, if not completely, insoluble in water. Water is the only common, pure substance found naturally in all three states of matter—for other substances, see Chemical properties.

Pure water is tasteless. It is the other chemicals in the water which may give water a flavour.

Anomalous properties of water
Generally, the volume of a liquid increases when heated, however the volume of water decreases when heated within the temperature range of 0°C to 4°C. Its volume increases only when heated above 4°C. Such behavior is one of a number of water's anomalous properties. 

This property of volume decrease allows fish and other aquatic animals to survive in a body of water when ice has frozen on the surface. In cold climates, when the temperature of a body of water reaches at 4°C, the layers of water near the top in contact with cold air continue to lose heat energy and their temperature falls below 4°C. On cooling below 4°C, these layers rise rather than sink, as water has maximum density at 4°C. Thus the layer of water with a temperature of 4°C remains at the bottom, while layers of water 3°C, 2°C, 1°C and 0°C are formed above. Because ice is poor conductor of heat, it does not allow heat energy transfer from the liquid water beneath the layers of ice, which prevents the liquid water from freezing. Hence, aquatic creatures survive in such places.

References

Other websites 
Water Structure and Behaviour A comprehensive and up-to-date NPOV resource maintained by Prof Martin Chaplin of South Bank University, UK
A spoof site on the "dangers" of dihydrogen monoxide
Stockholm International Water Institute (SIWI)
Explanation of the anomalous properties of water
Computational Chemistry Wiki
In mammals, the lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch, like blood vessels, into tissues throughout the body. It is part of the immune system. It is a one-way system which carries cells and fluid back to the blood system.
 
Lymphatic vessels carry lymph, a colorless, watery fluid and white blood cells. It comes  from interstitial fluid in the tissues which is squeezed out of the blood vessels. The lymphatic system transports infection-fighting cells called lymphocytes, and is involved in the removal of foreign matter and cell debris by phagocytes. A second function is to transport fats from the small intestine to the blood. 

Lymphatic fluid gathers from the tissues and enters the valved lymphatic ducts. It is the valves which make sure the lymph flows the right way. On its way back to the blood system, the lymph passes through  glands called lymph nodes, in places like the back of the neck, the armpits and the groin. Lymph nodes swell in the region of an infected body part. This acts to keep the infection from spreading. It prevents or reduces the pathogens getting into the general blood circulation and reaching other parts of the body.

Lymph ends up back in the blood system. In mammals under normal conditions most of the lymph is returned to the blood stream through lymph-vein communications at the base of the neck. Some vertebrates have more complex lymphatic systems. Amphibians for example have multiple "lymph hearts" to control the flow of lymph.

References 

Physiology
Immunology
Chastity is the sexual behavior of a man or woman which is right and proper according to the moral rules of a culture or religion. It has recently begun to mean sexual abstinence (not having sex at all), especially before marriage. However, it can also be used for all kinds of people (even married people) with more meaning than simply not having sex. The word chastity came from the Latin word castitatem, meaning "purity".

Related pages 
Sexual abstinence

References

Other websites 
Catechism of the Catholic Church (III.2.I)
Early Shaker Writings Relating to Sexual Abstinence

Human sexuality
A metallic bond is the sharing of many detached electrons between many positive ions, where the electrons act as a "glue" giving the substance a definite structure. It is unlike covalent or ionic bonding. 
Metals have low ionization energy.  Therefore, the valence electrons can be delocalized throughout the metals. Delocalized electrons are not associated with a particular nucleus of metal, instead, they are free to move throughout the whole crystalline structure forming a "sea" of electrons.

The electrons and the positive ions in the metal have a strong attractive force between them.  Therefore, metals often have high melting or boiling points. The principle is similar to that of ionic bonds.

Metallic bonds causes many of the traits of metals, such as strength, malleability, ductility, luster, conduction of heat and electricity.

Because the electrons move freely, the metal has some electrical conductivity. It allows the energy to pass quickly through the electrons, generating an electric current. Metals conduct heat for the same reason: the free electrons can transfer the energy at a faster rate than other substances with electrons that are fixed into position. There also are few non-metals that conduct electricity: graphite (because, like metals, it has free electrons), and ionic compounds that are molten or dissolved in water, which have free moving ions.

Metal bonds have at least one valence electron which they do not share with neighboring atoms, and they do not lose electrons to form ions. Instead, the outer energy levels (atomic orbitals) of the metal atoms overlap. They are similar to covalent bonds. Not all metals exhibit metallic bonding. For example, mercury ions () form covalent metal-metal bonds.

An alloy is a solution of metals. Most alloys are shiny like pure metals are.

Related pages
 Chemical bond
 Covalent bond
 Ionic bond
 Coordination complex
 Alloy

References 

Chemical bonding
Metals
Heat conduction (or thermal conduction) is the movement of heat from one object to another one that has different temperature when they are touching each other.  For example, we can warm our hands by touching hot-water bottles. When the cold hands touch the hot-water bottle, heat flows from the hotter object (hot-water bottle) to the colder one (hand). People make things with different thermal conductivity, for example cookware to heat things or insulated containers to keep hot things hot or cold things cold.

Other ways to transfer heat are by thermal radiation and/or convection. Usually more than one of these processes happen at the same time.

Microscopic explanation 
In the atomic theory solids, liquids and gases are made of tiny particles called "atoms". The temperature of the material measures how fast the atoms are moving and the heat measures the total amount of energy due to the vibration of the atoms.

Conduction can happen when one part of a material is heated. The atoms in this part vibrate faster and are more likely to hit  their neighbors. The collisions cause those atoms also to move faster, passing the heat energy to them. In this way the energy travels through the solid. (Rather like the way energy passes along a set of tumbling dominos).

The atomic picture also helps explain why conduction is more important in solids: in solids the atoms are close together and unable to move around. In liquids and gases the particles can move past each other, so the collisions are less common.

Law of heat conduction 
The law of heat conduction, also known as Fourier's law, means that the rate, in time, of heat transfer through a material is proportional to the negative gradient in the temperature and to the area at right angles, to that gradient, through which the heat is flowing:

 

where:
Q is the amount of heat transferred, and 
t is the time taken, and 
k is the material's thermal conductivity' and 
S is the area through which the heat is flowing, and 
T is the temperature.

Thermal conductivity usually varies with temperature, but the variation can be small, over a significant range of temperatures, for some common materials.

Related pages
 Heat transfer
 Convection
 Thermal radiation

Basic physics ideas
Heat transfer
Judith Weir (born 11 May 1954) is a British composer. She is well known for her theatre works, choral music, orchestral music and chamber music.

Early life 
Weir was born in Cambridge, England to Scottish parents. While she was still at school she trained with the composer John Tavener. She played the oboe in the National Youth Orchestra of Great Britain. She then studied at the University of Cambridge where her teacher was Robin Holloway.

Career 
Judith Weir’s music has harmonies which are very exciting and original. Her Christmas carol Illuminare has become very popular, but it is quite difficult and needs a good choir to pitch the notes of the dissonant chords. She often uses medieval history as inspiration for her music, as well as music from her native Scotland, e.g. piobaireachd, which is a kind of variation form using small intervals. Her music often tells stories. Her operas include A Night at the Chinese Opera, The Vanishing Bridegroom, Blond Eckbert, and Armida, an opera for television.

From 1995 to 2000, she was the Artistic Director of the Spitalfields Festival in London. She has composed works for the City of Birmingham Symphony Orchestra. She has received many honours, including the CBE in 1995.

Other websites 
 Judith Weir's homepage at Chester Music (music publishers)
 Judith Weir (b 1954) (BBC)

1954 births
Living people
20th-century English composers
21st-century British composers
People from Cambridge
Women composers
A vassal during the feudalism of medieval Europe, was someone who had shared duties  with a lord. Usually the vassal provided soldiers to the lord. The lord used his army of soldiers from all of his vassals to protect those vassals. The lord also gave him the piece of land that he held as a fief. By analogy the term vassal is used also for similar systems in other feudal societies.

Western vassalage
The development of the vassal, in a society that was increasingly organised around the concept of "lordship"– in French the seigneur– is one sign that Antiquity ended and the Early Middle Ages began. Lordship is the basic social institution as Tacitus described them in his book Germania. The Roman West experienced them for the first time in the Migration Period.

As the system developed in the seventh century, the vassals were gangs of freemen who subjected themselves, in some degree of formality, to the authority of a leader, from whom they could expect to be fed, clothed and armed. The quality of a vassal was only in his fighting ability and the strength of his loyalty. The etymology (where the word came from) of "vassal" is from a Celtic word gwas "boy" that meant a young male slave, with a Latinised form, vassus that appeared in Salic Law (Rouche 1987 p 429), like the way  "knight" came from the from  Old English word cniht and similar words in Frisian and Dutch, all meaning "lad" .

Related pages
Gokenin, vassals of the shogunate in Japan

References
Cantor, Norman, The Civilization of the Middle Ages 1993
Ganshof, François Louis, Feudalism translated 1964
Rouche, Michel, "Private life conquers state and society," in A History of Private Life vol I, Paul Veyne, editor, Harvard University Press 1987 

History of Europe
The migration period, or barbarian invasions or Völkerwanderung, happened in AD 300–700 in Europe, at the end of ancient history and during the Early Middle Ages.

The migrations included the Goths, Vandals, Franks, and other Germanic, Bulgar, and Slavic tribes. They may have been influenced by attacks of the Huns in the East and may also be connected to the Turkic migrations in Central Asia, overpopulation, or climate changes. The migration period also included groups of Angles, Saxons, Frisians, and some Jutes to Britain.

Migrations would continue well into the Middle Ages, beyond 1000 AD, with successive waves of Slavs, Alans, Avars, Bulgars, Hungarians, Pechenegs, Cumans, and Tatars that changed the ethnic makeup of Eastern Europe. Western European historians, however, tend to stress the migrations that were most relevant to Western Europe.

Related pages
 Human migration

References

Other websites 
 J.B. Bury (1923). History of the Later Roman Empire

Periods and ages in history