cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The Chugach Mountains in southcentral Alaska are the farthest north of the mountain ranges that make up the Pacific Coast Ranges of western North America. The range is about 500 km (300 mi) long.  Its highest point is Mount Marcus Baker, at , but most of its summits are not very high. Because of the wet weather on the coast, these mountains get a lot of snow.

There are several parks in and around the mountains, like Chugach State Park the Chugach National Forest, and the Kenai National Wildlife Refuge. They are popular destinations for outdoor activities. The World Extreme Skiing Championship is held yearly in the Chugach near Valdez.

Three highways run through the Chugach Mountains. There is also a tunnel from Portage that lets cars and trains go under the mountains to Whittier.

The name "Chugach" is from the Eskimo tribal name Chugachmiut recorded by the Russians and written by them "Chugatz" and "Tchougatskoi"; in 1898 U.S. Army Captain W. R. Abercrombie spelled the name "Chugatch" and applied it to the mountains.

Mountains
Some of the taller mountains in this range are:
 Mount Marcus Baker 
 Mount Thor 
 Mount Steller 
 Mount Michelson 
 Mount Palmer 
 Flattop Mountain 
 Eagle Peak 
 Polar Bear Peak

References

Mountain ranges of Alaska
The Wrangell Mountains are a high mountain range of eastern Alaska in the United States.  Much of the range is in the Wrangell-Saint Elias National Park and Preserve.  The Wrangell Mountains were made by volcanoes. The second and third tallest volcanoes in the United States, Mount Blackburn and Mount Sanford are there.  The range takes its name from Mount Wrangell, which is one of the largest shield volcanoes in the world. It is also the only mountain in the range that is an active volcano.  

The Wrangell Mountains are just to the northwest of the Saint Elias Mountains and northeast of the Chugach Mountains. There are so many mountains there that they block the warm moist air over the Pacific Ocean. Because of this places north of the Wrangell Mountains are some of the coldest areas of North America during the winter.

Major peaks

The Wrangell Mountains include 12 of the 40+ Alaskan peaks over  

Mount Blackburn, , and East Summit, 
Mount Sanford], , and South Peak, 
Mount Wrangell, , and West Summit, 
Atna Peaks, 
Regal Mountain, 
Mount Jarvis, , and North Peak, 
Parka Peak, 
Mount Zanetti, 

Another prominent mountain is Mount Drum, , which can be seen from a very long way away.

Name
The Wrangell Mountains are named after an explorer who was also president of  the Russian-American Company, Admiral Ferdinand von Wrangel. American folk singer John Denver wrote a song, "Wrangell Mountain Song", in reference to the range.

References

Other websites

Wrangell-St. Elias National Park & Preserve
Wrangell Mountains Center

Mountain ranges of Alaska
Alprazolam, probably better known by its trade name Xanax, is a short-acting drug. Xanax and other benzodiazepines first entered the market in 1960. Although it may have other illegal or nonclinical uses, Xanax is legally prescribed to treat anxiety disorders, panic disorder, and anxiety caused by depression. It works by decreasing abnormally high levels of excitement in the brain, which helps you feel more relaxed and increases feelings of calmness.

Xanax (and all benzodiazepines) stimulate neurons in the brain that release or have receptors for the neurotransmitter gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA). GABA is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter in the central nervous system and neurons for GABA are prevalent throughout the cerebral cortex.

An inhibitory neurotransmitter reduces the firing of other types of neurotransmitters in the brain when it’s released. Thus, Xanax acts as a central nervous system depressant by way of its agonistic effect on GABA neurons in the brain.

Taking Xanax leads to a decrease in the excitability of other neurons in the brain, and this produces a reduction in anxiety and an increased feeling of relaxation.

Addiction 
Xanax and other benzodiazepines are frequently abused because they are so commonly prescribed and therefore easily available. The severe withdrawal syndrome associated with Xanax abuse can make it difficult for people to stop using.

Overdose may occur from Xanax alone, but the risk of overdose is higher when combined with other substances, such as opioids and alcohol, as this can increase the chance of respiratory depression. This is a significant concern for many people, as benzodiazepines and opioids are commonly prescribed together. Respiratory depression causes slow and ineffective breathing, potentially causing a person to die in their sleep.

Xanax side effects 

 weak or shallow breathing;
 a light-headed feeling, like you might pass out;
 a seizure;
 hallucinations, risk-taking behavior;
 increased energy, decreased need for sleep;
 racing thoughts, being agitated or talkative;
 double vision; or
 jaundice (yellowing of the skin or eyes).
Increased salivation
Tremor
Difficulty urinating
Hypotension

References 

Drugs
Hallucinogens are chemical substances which temporarily change the way people see the world. Hallucinogens cause hallucinations. People no longer perceive reality as it is, but they see a reality that is distorted by their emotions. A person who is under the influence of a hallucionogen is said to be having a trip.

Hallucinogens have probably been used in the context of a cultic or religious function as long as there were humans.

There are different kinds of hallucinogens:
 Psychedelic drugs: these are the "classic hallucinogens"
 Dissociatives: They make people feel as if they were no longerpart of their surroundings.
 Deliriants produce a state of delirium, or confusion.

Most hallucinogens are highly addictive. This means that the user will want to take the drug over and over again. It also means that there will be some effect of getting used to the drug. In the long run, more and more of the drug will need to be taken, to get the same effect.

People that are under the unintended influence of a hallucinogen may need immediate help, as in a medical emergency.

Drugs
Paul Frappier (May 8, 1977-February 11, 2011) was a Canadian rapper and producer better known by his stage name, Bad News Brown. He was of Haitian descent. Bad News Brown was found in an industrial area in Montreal where he was beaten and then shot.

Discography

Albums
Bad News Brown released 1 studio albums before his death:

Singles

Mixtapes

References

Other websites
Bad News Brown's Official website

1972 births
2011 deaths
Canadian rap musicians
People from Montreal
Murder victims
Christopher George Latore Wallace (May 21, 1972 – March 9, 1997), better known by his stage name, The Notorious B.I.G., Biggie Smalls, or Biggie, was an American rapper. He grew up in Brooklyn. He admitted that he was a crack cocaine dealer.

He had two children.

He rapped on Michael Jackson's 1995 single "This Time Around".

Discography

Albums
The Notorious B.I.G. released 2 studio albums in his lifetime and two after his death*:

Singles

(*) albums and songs were released posthumously (after death).

Media

Filmography 
 The Show (1995) as himself
 Rhyme & Reason (1997 documentary) as himself
 Biggie & Tupac (2002 documentary) archive footage
 Tupac Resurrection (2004 documentary) archive footage
 Notorious B.I.G. Bigger Than Life (2007 documentary) archive footage
 Notorious (2009) archive footage
 All Eyez on Me (2017) archive footage
 Quincy (2018 documentary) archive footage
 Biggie: The Life of Notorious B.I.G. (2017 documentary) archive footage
 Biggie: I Got a Story to Tell (2021 documentary) archive footage

Television appearances 
 New York Undercover (1995) as himself
 Martin (1995) as himself
 Who Shot Biggie & Tupac? (2017)
 Unsolved (2018)

Awards and nominations

Murder
Wallace was killed in a drive by shooting in Los Angeles, California after leaving a party hosted by Vibe magazine and Qwest Records for the Soul Train Music Awards. on March 9, 1997. The murder was similar to Tupac's Murder.

Wallace was driving a GMC Suburban, a man in a Chevy Impala SS stopped on side of Wallace's SUV and fired shots at the Suburban. Four bullets hit Wallace's chest. His murder is still unsolved.

References

Other websites
 Notorious B.I.G at atlanticrecords.com 

1972 births
1997 deaths
African American musicians
Rap musicians from New York
Criminals from New York City
Drug dealers
Murdered African-American people
Murdered musicians
Murders by firearm in California
Musicians from Brooklyn
People murdered in California
Singers from New York City
Unsolved murders in the United States
The Central Hockey League (CHL) was a mid-level professional hockey league in the United States. It is owned by Global Entertainment Corporation. It was started in 1992.

History
The first CHL season was in 1992-1993. It started with six teams, including the Oklahoma City Blazers, the Tulsa Oilers, the Wichita Thunder, the Memphis RiverKings, the Dallas Freeze and the Fort Worth Fire.

In 1996-97, the Huntsville Channel Cats, along with the planned 1996–97 Southern Hockey League (SHL) expansion teams Columbus Cottonmouths, Macon Whoopee, and Nashville Nighthawks, joined the Central Hockey League after the SHL ended.

The CHL came together with the Western Professional Hockey League (WPHL) in 2001.

The CHL commissioner is now Duane Lewis, who succeeded Brad Treliving on an temporary basis after Treliving took a position with the NHL's Phoenix Coyotes following the 2006-2007 season. Treliving co-founded the WPHL in 1996, and after the 2001 merger, served with the CHL for seven years. Lewis was named the permanent commissioner in June 2008.

On June 1, 2010 the league announced that it would come together with the International Hockey League.

Current teams

The CHL is divided into two Conferences.  Teams compete every year for the Ray Miron President's Cup.

League champions 
1993 - Tulsa Oilers
1994 - Wichita Thunder
1995 - Wichita Thunder
1996 - Oklahoma City Blazers
1997 - Fort Worth Fire
1998 - Columbus Cottonmouths
1999 - Huntsville Channel Cats
2000 - Indianapolis Ice
2001 - Oklahoma City Blazers
2002 - Memphis RiverKings
2003 - Memphis RiverKings
2004 - Laredo Bucks
2005 - Colorado Eagles
2006 - Laredo Bucks
2007 - Colorado Eagles
2008 - Arizona Sundogs
2009 - Texas Brahmas
2010 - Rapid City Rush

References

Other websites
Central Hockey League website

Central Hockey League
1992 establishments in the United States
Yip Man (18931972), also known as Ip Man, was the first teacher to teach martial arts Wing Chun openly. He taught Hong Kong students, who spread Wing Chun around the world. Later, Ip Man was the teacher of Bruce Lee, Chu Shong-tin (who taught then-Australian Jim Fung) and others.

After Ip Man died, the teacher Duncan Leung taught Wing Chun in Hong Kong from 1945 to 1969.
Nowadays, Wing Chun is taught around the world. Many children do Wing Chun.

References

Martial artists
1893 births
1972 deaths
Chinese sportspeople
The festival of San Fermín is held each year in the city of Pamplona (Navarre, Spain). Other names for the festival are Sanfermines or Sanferminak. It starts at noon on 6 July with the setting off of a rocket. It ends at midnight on 14 July with the singing of the Pobre de Mí. A bullfight is also part of the celebrations. The festival honors Saint Fermin, the co-patron of Navarre. San Fermín has become the most famous Spanish festival. More than 1,000,000 people watch this festival.

The Running of the Bulls is held the 6th - 14th of July every year. By midnight on July 6th Pamplona is already swarming with locals and tourists all waiting for the fireworks display that marks the start of the fiesta.

The day begins with the "encierro" or running of the bulls, when only the brave and foolish dash ahead of the bulls that are let loose to run through the narrow streets to the bullring where they will be fought later in the day. The runners are usually clad in the typical white trousers and shirt, with a red scarf tied at their neck, and a red beret on their head.

Before and after the daily bullfights, held each evening at 6 pm, bands of music, "txistularis", regional dancing and processions with big giant heads roam the streets. The Sanfermines festival of the running of the bulls in Pamplona is not the only one celebrated in Navarre, although it is the most well-known.

Other websites
 Unofficial website on San Fermin
 Unofficial website on encierro 

Festivals in Europe
Pamplona
A Bellini is a long drink cocktail that originated in Venice. It is a mixture of sparkling wine (traditionally Prosecco) and peach purée often served at celebrations. It is one of Italy's most popular cocktails.

History
The Bellini was invented sometime between 1934 and 1948 by Giuseppe Cipriani, founder of Harry's Bar in Venice, Italy.

It got its name because the colour reminded Cipriani of the pink colour of the toga of a saint in a painting by 15th-century Venetian artist Giovanni Bellini.

References

Dishes named after people
Alcoholic drink
Edgar Degas (, ; born Hilaire-Germain-Edgar De Gas, ; 19 July 183427 September 1917) was a French artist. He is famous for his paintings and sculptures: he was one of those who started Impressionism, although he rejected the term, and preferred to be called a realist.p31

A superb draughtsman, he is identified with the subject of the dance, and over half of his works depict dancers. These display his mastery in the depiction of movement, as do his racecourse subjects and female nudes. His portraits are notable for their psychological complexity and the way they show human isolation.p11

His life
He was born in Paris, France. He began to paint early in his life. Because his father wanted it, he went to university to become a lawyer in 1853. Edgar did not like this, and he went to study at the École des Beaux-Arts, an important art-school in Paris in 1855. In 1856 he traveled to Naples in Italy, he stayed there for 3 years. He studied famous painters like Michelangelo and Raphael and learnt by copying their work.

In 1859 he came back to Paris. He started his first important painting The Bellelli Family, and also started on a few paintings on historical myths, like Alexander and Bucephalus and The Daughter of Jephthah. In 1861 he visited Normandy and made his first drawings of horses which were an important subject for his paintings.

After the start of the Franco-Prussian War in 1870, Degas worked for the National Guard. He did not have time to paint.p29 After the war he went to stay with his brother Rene in New Orleans, Louisiana. In 1873 he went back to Paris and in 1874 his father died. He then found out his brother had large business debts. Edgar had to sell the house and a collection of art he had inherited. He now had to depend on his paintings for his income. He created a lot of great paintings in next 10 years.p33 With the money he earned, he bought paintings by painters he liked a lot. Examples are Manet, Paul Cézanne, Pissarro, Gauguin, Van Gogh and others.

In 1874 Edgar Degas and a group of other painters started to organise their own art exhibition. Their exhibitions were called "Impressionist Exhibitions". At the end of the 1880s, he started to take photographs of his friends.p26 Other photographs, of dancers and nudes, were used as an example for some of his later paintings.p34

As the years passed, he became isolated. They think that he made sculptures up until 1910. He probably stopped working in 1912. He never married, and he was nearly blind at the end of his life. He died in Paris in 1917.p41

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of French painters

References

1834 births
1917 deaths
Artists from Paris
Burials at Montmartre Cemetery, Paris
French painters
French Roman Catholics
French sculptors
Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacterial cells by direct cell-to-cell contact or by a bridge-like connection between two cells. Such beneficial plasmids may be considered bacterial endosymbionts. Other elements, however, may be viewed as bacterial parasites and conjugation as a mechanism evolved by them to allow for their spread.

Mechanism 

The basic conjugative plasmid is the F-plasmid, or F-factor. The F-plasmid is an episome (a plasmid that can integrate itself into the bacterial chromosome) with a length of about 100,000 base pairs.

There can only be one copy of the F-plasmid in a given bacterium, either free or integrated, and bacteria that possess a copy are called F-positive or F-plus (denoted F+). Cells that lack F plasmids are called F-negative or F-minus (F-) and can function as recipient cells.

Inter-kingdom transfer
The nitrogen fixing Rhizobia are an interesting case of inter-kingdom conjugation.

For example, the tumor-inducing (Ti) plasmid of Agrobacterium and the root-tumor inducing (Ri) plasmid of A. rhizogenes contain genes that are capable of transferring to plant cells. These genes turn plant cells into factories producing chemicals used by the bacteria for nitrogen and energy. Infected cells form crown galls or root tumours, respectively. The Ti and Ri plasmids are thus endosymbionts of the bacteria, which are in turn endosymbionts (or parasites) of the infected plant.

Genetic engineering 
Conjugation is a convenient means for transferring genetic material to a variety of targets. In laboratories successful transfers have been reported from bacteria to yeast, plants, mammalian cells, and isolated mammalian mitochondria.

Conjugation has advantages over other forms of genetic transfer. In plant engineering, Agrobacterium-like conjugation complements other standard vehicles such as tobacco mosaic virus (TMV). While TMV is capable of infecting many plant families these are primarily herbaceous dicots. Agrobacterium-like conjugation is also primarily used for dicots, but monocot recipients are not uncommon.

References 

Bacteria
Horizontal gene transfer
A plasmid is a DNA molecule that is separate from the chromosomal DNA and that can replicate (copy itself) independently.

The term plasmid was first introduced by the American molecular biologist Joshua Lederberg in 1952.

Plasmids are double stranded and, in many cases, circular. Plasmids usually occur naturally in bacteria, but are sometimes found in eukaryotic organisms (e.g., the 2-micrometre-ring in Saccharomyces cerevisiae).

Plasmid size varies from 1 to over 1,000 kilobase pairs (kbp). The number of identical plasmids within a single cell can range from one to thousands. Plasmids are often associated with conjugation, a mechanism of horizontal gene transfer.

Plasmids are transferable genetic elements, or "replicons", capable of independent self copying in a suitable host. Plasmids can be found in all three major domains, Archaea, Bacteria and Eukarya. Similar to viruses, plasmids are not considered a form of "life" as it is currently defined. Unlike viruses, plasmids are "naked" DNA and do not encode genes necessary to encase the genetic material for transfer to a new host.

Plasmid host-to-host transfer requires direct, mechanical transfer by conjugation or changes in host gene expression allowing the intentional uptake of the genetic element by transformation.

Microbial transformation with plasmid DNA is neither parasitic nor symbiotic in nature, since each implies the presence of an independent species living in a commensal or detrimental state with the host organism. Rather, plasmids provide a mechanism for horizontal gene transfer within a population of microbes and may provide a selective advantage under a given environmental state.

Plasmids may carry genes that provide resistance to naturally occurring antibiotics in a competitive environmental niche, or alternatively the proteins produced may act as toxins under similar circumstances. Plasmids also can provide bacteria with an ability to fix elemental nitrogen or to degrade difficult organic compounds. This may provide an advantage under conditions of nutrient deprivation.

The construction of first recombinant DNA emerged from linking of a gene encoding antibiotic resistance with a native plasmid.

References 

Cell biology
Bacteria
Genetics
Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) (or Lateral gene transfer) is any process in which an organism gets genetic material from another organism without being the offspring of that organism. 

By contrast, vertical transfer occurs when an organism gets genetic material from its ancestor, e.g., its parent or a species from which it has evolved.

Most thinking in genetics has focused on vertical transfer, but there is a growing awareness that horizontal gene transfer is a significant phenomenon. Amongst single-celled organisms it may be the dominant form of genetic transfer. Artificial horizontal gene transfer is a form of genetic engineering.

Mechanism 
There are several mechanisms for horizontal gene transfer:

 Transformation, the genetic alteration of a cell resulting from the introduction, uptake and expression of foreign genetic material (DNA or RNA). This process is relatively common in bacteria, but less so in eukaryotes. Transformation is often used in laboratories to insert novel genes into bacteria for experiments or for industrial or medical applications. 
 Transduction, the process in which bacterial DNA is moved from one bacterium to another by a bacterial virus (a bacteriophage, or 'phage').
 Bacterial conjugation, a process in which a bacterial cell transfers genetic material to another cell by cell-to-cell contact.
 A gene transfer agent or 'GTA' is a virus-like element which contains random pieces of the host chromosome. They are found in most members of the alphaproteobacteria order Rhodobacterales. They are encoded by the host genome. GTAs transfer DNA so frequently that they may have an important role in evolution. A 2010 report found that genes for antibiotic resistance could be transferred by engineering GTAs in the laboratory.
 Integrons, a bacterial "kit" for transferring gene cassettes.

History
Horizontal gene transfer was first described in Japan in a 1959 publication that demonstrated the transfer of antibiotic resistance between different species of bacteria. 

In the mid-1980s, Syvanen suggested that lateral gene transfer not only had biological significance, but was involved in shaping evolutionary history from the beginning of life on Earth. 

"Increasingly, studies of genes and genomes are indicating that considerable horizontal transfer has occurred between prokaryotes". The phenomenon appears to have had some significance for unicellular eukaryotes as well. As Bapteste et al. observe, "additional evidence suggests that gene transfer might also be an important evolutionary mechanism in protist evolution".

There is some evidence that even higher plants and animals have been affected. Richardson and Palmer (2007) state: "Horizontal gene transfer (HGT) has played a major role in bacterial evolution and is fairly common in certain unicellular eukaryotes. However, the prevalence and importance of HGT in the evolution of multicellular eukaryotes remains unclear".

References 

Microbiology
In molecular biology, transformation is the genetic alteration of a cell by the direct uptake and expression of DNA from its surroundings.

Transformation occurs naturally in some species of bacteria, and can also be done artificially. Bacteria that are capable of being transformed, whether naturally or artificially, are called competent.

Transformation is one of three processes by which outside genetic material may be brought into bacterial cells. The other two are conjugation (transfer of genetic material between two bacterial cells in direct contact), and transduction (injection of foreign DNA by a bacteriophage into the host).

Transformation may also used to describe the insertion of new genetic material into nonbacterial cells, such as animal and plant cells. Introduction of foreign DNA into eukaryote cells is usually called "transfection".

History
Transformation was first demonstrated in 1928 by British bacteriologist Frederick Griffith. Griffith discovered that a harmless strain of Streptococcus pneumoniae could be made virulent after being exposed to heat-killed virulent strains.

Griffith thought some "transforming principle" from the heat-killed strain was responsible for making the harmless strain virulent. In 1944 this transforming principle was identified as being genetic by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty. They isolated DNA from a virulent strain of S. pneumoniae and using just this DNA were able to make a harmless strain virulent. They called this uptake and incorporation of DNA by bacteria 'transformation'. See Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment.

The results of these experiments were at first sceptically received by the scientific community. Not until the discovery of other methods of genetic transfer (conjugation in 1947 and transduction in 1953) by Joshua Lederberg were Avery's experiments accepted. Transformation did not become routine procedure in laboratories until 1972 when Cohen successfully transformed Escherichia coli by treating the bacteria with calcium chloride. This created an efficient and convenient procedure for transforming bacteria and opened the way for biotechnology and research.

Transformation of animal and plant cells was also investigated with the first transgenic mouse being created by injecting a gene for a rat growth hormone into a mouse embryo in 1982.

In 1907 a bacterium that caused plant tumors, Agrobacterium tumefaciens, was discovered and in the early 1970s the tumor inducing agent was found to be a DNA plasmid called the Ti plasmid. By removing the genes in the plasmid which caused the tumour and adding in new genes researchers were able to infect plants with A. tumefaciens and let the bacteria insert their chosen DNA into the genomes of the plants.

Not all plant cells are susceptible to infection by A. tumefaciens, so other methods were developed including electroporation and micro-injection. Particle bombardment was made possible with the invention of the Biolistic Particle Delivery System (gene gun) by John Sanford in 1990.

References 

Horizontal gene transfer
Bacteria
Malibu () is a beach city in western Los Angeles County, California, situated about  west of Downtown Los Angeles. Known for its Mediterranean climate, a  strip of the Malibu coast incorporated in 1991 into the City of Malibu. The area is known for being the home of Hollywood movie stars, people in the entertainment industry, and other affluent residents. Most Malibu residents live within a few hundred yards of Pacific Coast Highway (State Route 1), which traverses the city, with some residents living up to a mile (1.6 km) away from the beach up narrow canyons. As of the 2010 census, the city population was 12,645.

References

 
1991 establishments in California
Spirochaetes (or Spirochetes) are the phylum Spirochaetae. These are double-membrane bacteria with long, helically coiled (spiral-shaped) cells. 

Spirochaetes are bacteria. They have flagella, which run lengthwise between the cell wall and outer membrane. The flagella cause a twisting motion which moves the spirochaete about. 

Most spirochaetes are free-living and anaerobic, but there are many parasitic species.

Classification 
The spirochaetes are divided into three families (Brachyspiraceae, Leptospiraceae, and Spirochaetaceae). They are all put in a single order, the Spirochaetales. Disease-causing members of this phylum include:

 Leptospira species, some of which which cause leptospirosis
 Borrelia species, some of which cause Lyme disease
 Borrelia recurrentis, which causes relapsing fever.
 Treponema pallidum subspecies which cause syphilis and yaws.
  Brachyspira'' species, which cause intestinal spirochaetosis.

References

Other websites 
 Introduction to the Spirochetes. UCMP. 

Gram-negative bacteria
The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment was reported in 1944 by Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn McCarty, that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation.

This was the culmination of research in the 1930s and early 1940s at the Rockefeller Institute for Medical Research to purify and characterize the "transforming principle" responsible for the phenomenon first described in Griffith's experiment of 1928. In this early experiment dead Streptococcus pneumoniae of the virulent strain type III-S, when injected along with living but non-virulent type II-R pneumococci, resulted in a deadly infection of type III-S pneumococci.

At that time it was thought protein might be the hereditary material. In their paper in 1944, Avery and his colleagues suggest that DNA, rather than protein was the hereditary material of bacteria, and could be analogous to genes and/or viruses in higher organisms.

This was an epoch-making experiment, but the three men did not get the Nobel Prize. The Nobel laureate Arne Tiselius said that Avery was the most deserving scientist not to receive the Nobel Prize for his work.

References 

Genetics experiments
Molecular biology
Bacteria
Sprint Nextel Corporation () was a telecommunications company based in Overland Park, Kansas.  It operated under the name Sprint, and was once the fourth largest wireless telecommunications network in the United States behind Verizon, AT&T and T-Mobile, with 56.3 million customers, behind Verizon Wireless and AT&T Mobility.

On April 1, 2020, T-Mobile and Sprint merged, with T-Mobile now being the whole owner of Sprint, making Sprint an effective subsidiary of T-Mobile until the Sprint brand was officially phased out. Leadership, background, and stock changes happened immediately, with customer side changes happening over time. Sprint was officially discontinued on August 2, 2020. Billing was already showing the T-Mobile brand, and on this date all retail, customer service, and all other company branding was replaced by T-Mobile. New rate plans were also introduced as well for all new and existing customers from both companies, though they will all will remain with their current plan if they choose not to switch to a new T-Mobile plan for at least 3 years.

References

Telecommunications
American telephone companies
Overland Park, Kansas
American electronics companies
1937 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Kansas
Companies based in Kansas
Montgomery County (county code MG) is a county found in the U.S. state of Kansas. As of the 2010 census, 35,471 people lived there. Its county seat is Independence, and its most populous city is Coffeyville.

History 
Montgomery County was created on February 26, 1867.

Geography 
The U.S. Census Bureau says that the county has a total area of . Of that  is land and  (1.2%) is water. The lowest point in the state of Kansas is on the Verdigris River in Cherokee Township in Montgomery County (just southeast of Coffeyville), where it flows out of Kansas and into Oklahoma. Western portions of the county contain parts of the northern Cross Timbers eco-region, which separates the forested eastern portion of the United States with the Plains.

Bordering counties 
 Wilson County (north)
 Neosho County (northeast)
 Labette County (east)
 Nowata County, Oklahoma (southeast)
 Washington County, Oklahoma (south)
 Chautauqua County (west)
 Elk County (northwest)

People 

The Coffeyville Micropolitan Statistical Area includes all of Montgomery County.

Education

Unified school districts 
 Caney Valley USD 436
 Cherryvale USD 447
 Coffeyville USD 445
 Independence USD 446

Colleges and universities 
 Coffeyville Community College
 Independence Community College

Communities

Cities 

 Caney
 Cherryvale
 Coffeyville
 Dearing
 Elk City
 Havana
 Independence
 Liberty
 Tyro

Unincorporated communities 

 Avian
 Blake
 Bolton
 Corbin
 Jefferson
 Sycamore
 Videtta Spur
 Wayside

Ghost towns 
 Le Hunt

Townships 
Montgomery County is divided into twelve townships.  The cities of Caney, Cherryvale, Coffeyville, and Independence are considered governmentally independent and are excluded from the census figures for the townships.  In the following table, the population center is the largest city (or cities) included in that township's population total, if it is of a significant size.

Related pages 
 List of counties in Kansas

References

Further reading 

 History of Montgomery County, Kansas; Lew Wallace Duncan; Press of Iola Register; 852 pages; 1903.
 Atlas and Plat Book of Montgomery County, Kansas; Kenyon Co; 36 pages; 1916.
 Historical Atlas of Montgomery County, Kansas; John P. Edwards; 34 pages; 1881.

Other websites 

County
 
 Montgomery County - Directory of Public Officials
Maps
 Montgomery County Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT
 Kansas Highway Maps: Current, Historic, KDOT
 Kansas Railroad Maps: Current, 1996, 1915, KDOT and Kansas Historical Society

1867 establishments in Kansas
Bette Midler (born 1 December 1945) is an American actress, singer and comedian. She starred in movies such as Ruthless People, Beaches and Hocus Pocus. Midler has won many awards in the entertainment industry. She was born in Honolulu, Hawaii.

Career
Midler released her first album, The Divine Miss M, in December 1972. Midler won the 1973 Grammy Award for Best New Artist because of it.

In 1979 Midler appeared in her first film, The Rose as the main character.

In 1998 she played Cecilia Bloom in Beaches. The film's soundtrack featured a cover version of "Wind Beneath My Wings" sung by Midler. It reached No.1.

In 2000 she had her own sitcom called Bette. It ended after one season.

Filmography

Other websites 

1945 births
Living people
Actors from Honolulu
Comedians from Hawaii
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Singers from Hawaii
Warner Bros. Records artists
Subway is a corporation that operates a large chain of fast food restaurants. These restaurants mainly sell Submarine sandwiches, but also pizzas and salads. The name "Subway" comes from the New York City Subway, a public transport system in New York City, and many restaurants are decorated with historic photographs and maps of the subway system.

The first Subway outside of North America opened in Bahrain, in December 1984. Today, there are more than 44,000 Subway locations in 112 countries across the world, making it the world's largest fast food restaurant chain by number of stores. It has more stores than McDonald's, but McDonald's earns more revenue than Subway.

Since 2007, Subway has consistently ranked in Entrepreneur Magazines' top 500 franchise list. It also ranked 2nd on the "Fastest Growing Franchise" lists. In March 2011, Subway was named "the most loved fast food chain in the US" by Amplicate.com.

Products
Subway's main product is a type of sandwich called a submarine sandwich or "sub". Each sub is made from a combination of baguette, meat, cheese and vegetables. Subway has different menu items for different countries. However, there are some common products that are sold in most countries. They are:
 Italian BMT (Stands for "Biggest, Meatiest, Tastiest" though it stood for "Brooklyn Manhattan Transit" at first.)
 Steak & Cheese
 Meatball Marinara
 Chicken Teriyaki
 Subway Club
 Chicken & Bacon Ranch
 Tuna 
 Roasted Chicken
 Veggie Delite

Regional variations
Subway formerly had 23 kosher restaurants in Israel. All were closed by 2004. In the United States, there used to be 12 locations with kosher food. As of 2011 only 5 were open.

Subway opened its first restaurant in India in 2001 in New Delhi. Subway restaurants in India do not serve beef and pork products in deference to Hindu and Muslim beliefs respectively. Subway opened its first all-vegetarian outlet on the campus of Lovely Professional University (LPU) in Jalandhar, Punjab. In 2009, Zagat Survey Says "Top Overall", Behind Wendy's.

References

Other websites 

Official website
Subway restaurant locations map
tellsubway

1965 establishments in the United States
American fast food restaurants
Brandon Louis Bochenski (born April 4, 1982) is a Kazakhstani-American former professional ice hockey player. He was picked by the Ottawa Senators with the 223rd overall pick in the 2001 NHL Entry Draft. He played in the NHL for many teams including the Ottawa Senators from 2004-2006, Chicago Blackhawks from 2005-2007, Boston Bruins from 2006-2008, Anaheim Ducks in 2007, Nashville Predators in 2007 and the Tampa Bay Lightning from 2008-2010 before leaving North America to sign a one-year contract with the Kontinental Hockey League's, Barys Astana.

Other websites 

1982 births
American Hockey League players
American ice hockey players
Anaheim Ducks players
Boston Bruins players
Chicago Blackhawks players
Living people
Nashville Predators players
Ottawa Senators players
Sportspeople from Minnesota
Tampa Bay Lightning players
United States Hockey League players
Elimination Chamber is a professional wrestling match held by World Wrestling Entertainment (WWE). One or two matches have taken place each year at the pay-per-view (PPV) event, also called Elimination Chamber (or No Escape in Germany), since 2010.

Dates and venues

DVD box set 
WWE released a DVD with the title Satan's Prison: The Anthology of the Elimination Chamber (Iron Will in Europe), which included every Elimination Chamber match up until Elimination Chamber 2010, in July of 2010. The DVD is very edited mostly because of Chris Benoit.

References

Other websites 
 Elimination Chamber description at WWE.com 

 

de:Wrestling-Matcharten#Elimination Chamber
it:Tipi di match di wrestling#Elimination Chamber Match
Dixie Virginia Carter (May 25, 1939, McLemoresville, Tennessee – April 10, 2010, Houston, Texas), was an American movie, television and stage actress. She was best known for playing Julia Sugarbaker in the television series Designing Women (1986-1993). She competed in Miss Tennessee pageants in 1959.

Early life
Carter was born in McLemoresville, Tennessee, and spent many of her early years in Memphis. She attended college at the University of Tennessee at Knoxville and Southwestern at Memphis (now Rhodes College). She was a graduate of Memphis State with a degree in English.

Personal life

She divorced Arthur Carter in 1977, and married Broadway and TV actor George Hearn the same year. Two years later, in 1979, she divorced Hearn. She married for the third time on May 27, 1984, to Hal Holbrook (14 years her senior), who is most noted for his appearances as Mark Twain. Carter renovated her old family home in McLemoresville with the designs of architect Hoyte Johnson of Atlanta.

She and Holbrook divided their time between their homes in Beverly Hills, California, and McLemoresville, Tennessee, where Carter's elderly father, Halbert, resided until his death in early 2007, at age 96.

Death
Carter died on April 10, 2010, in Houston, Texas. Her death was announced by her husband, actor Hal Holbrook, who stated the cause as complications from endometrial cancer which was diagnosed earlier in 2010. In addition to Holbrook, she is survived by her daughters from her first marriage: Ginna Carter (of Los Angeles) and Mary Dixie Carter (of Brooklyn) as well as a sister, Melba Helen Heath (of San Anselmo, California) and several nephews and nieces. In addition to family, her funeral, held on April 15, 2010, was attended by Designing Women co-stars Delta Burke, Annie Potts and Jean Smart. Dixie Carter was interred in her hometown, McLemoresville, Tennessee.

Movies

Awards and nominations

References

Other websites

 Official site
 
 
 

American movie actors
Deaths from endometrial cancer
American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from Tennessee
1939 births
2010 deaths
The Bouvier des Flandres is a breed of dog that originated in Flanders. They are now known to be guard dogs, police dogs and pets. They were originally known for cattle droving, sheep herding, and cart pulling. Their name means "Cow Herder of Flanders" in English.

Dog breeds
Flanders
Peter Mattias "Foppa" Forsberg (born July 20, 1973 in Örnsköldsvik, Sweden) is a retired Swedish ice hockey center.

Forsberg was known for his on-ice vision and physical play when he was on the ice. Forsberg won the Stanley Cup in 1996 and again in 2001 while part of the Colorado Avalanche. Forsberg played his NHL career while apart of 4 teams and had a career that spanned over 15 NHL seasons. Forsberg also played in the Swedish Elite League for the Modo Hockey. Forsberg announced that he would make a return to the NHL on January 21, 2011 but later retired after only 2 road games.

Other websites

1973 births
Art Ross Trophy winners
Calder Trophy winners
Colorado Avalanche players
Hart Memorial Trophy winners
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Living people
Nashville Predators players
Olympic gold medalists
Philadelphia Flyers players
Quebec Nordiques players
Stanley Cup champions
Swedish ice hockey players
Swedish Hockey League players
Ice hockey centres
Marie François Sadi Carnot (; 11 August 1837 – 25 June 1894) was a French statesman, the fourth president of the Third French Republic. He served as the President of France from 1887 until he was murdered by Sante Geronimo Caserio in 1894.

Presidency
Carnot had a reputation for honesty, this made him a popular candidate to succeed Jules Grévy who had resigned following a scandal. He was elected by 616 votes out of 827. He assumed office at a critical period, when the republic was all but openly attacked by .

Carnot's popularity helped to force General Boulanger into exile. Boulanger was a conservative and a supporter of the monarchy, and it was feared he would try to overthrow the Republic.

Carnot was near his most popular, when, on 24 June 1894, he attended a public banquet in Lyon. Afterwards he was stabbed by an Italian anarchist named Sante Geronimo Caserio and died shortly after midnight on 25 June. The stabbing aroused widespread horror and grief, and the president was honoured with an elaborate funeral ceremony in the Panthéon.

Related pages
 Politics of France

References

Other websites
 
 Carnot's Gravesite
 Carnot biography 

1837 births
1894 deaths
Presidents of France
People from Limoges
The family Phylliidae (often misspelt 'Phyllidae') includes the living true leaf insects or walking leaves, which include some of the most remarkable leaf mimics in the entire animal kingdom. They occur from South Asia through Southeast Asia to Australia. There are different views about their taxonomy.

Characteristics 
Leaf insects use camouflage to take on the appearance of a leaf. They do this so accurately that predators often cannot distinguish them from real leaves. In some species the edge of the leaf insect's body even has the appearance of bite marks. To further confuse predators, when the leaf insect walks, it rocks back and forth, to mimic a real leaf being blown by the wind.

They and stick insects go together in the Order Phasmatodea.

The scholar Antonio Pigafetta may have been the first to document the creature.  Sailing with Ferdinand Magellan's circumnavigational expedition, he studied and chronicled the fauna on the island of Cimbonbon as the fleet hauled ashore for repairs.

Related pages 
 Stick insect

References 

 
Mimicry
Paraneoptera is a monophyletic superorder of insects. 

It includes four orders, the bark lice, true lice, thrips, and hemipterans, the true bugs. 

The mouthparts of the Paraneoptera reflect diverse feeding habits. Basal groups are microbial surface feeders, whereas more advanced groups feed on plant or animal fluids.

Hemiptera

Hemiptera is an order of insects often known as the true bugs (bug). They are about 50,000–80,000 species of cicadas, aphids, planthoppers, leafhoppers, shield bugs, and others. They range in size from  to around , and share a common arrangement of sucking mouthparts.

Psocoptera

Psocoptera, the bark lice, include 4,400 described species arranged in 3 suborders. There are 50 families of bark lice with over 200 genera. This is the first insect order to show the beginnings of a transition to sucking mouthparts. It is sister group to the Phthiraptera. Bark lice are found on foliage, under bark, or in leaf litter.

Phthiraptera

Phthiraptera, the lice, includes 5,000 described species divided into 4 suborders. 

The body of a louse is dorsoventrally flattened and the eyes are absent or nearly so. The legs are strong for holding onto fur or feathers of the host. All species of lice are parasitic. Lice parasitise all orders of birds and most orders of mammals.

Thrips

Order Thysanoptera includes 5,500 species classified into two suborders. These insects are called thrips.

The mouth is in the form of an asymmetrical mouth cone, consisting of piercing stylets. Thrips are commonly found on and in flowers. Most species are phytophagous, feeding on flowers.

References

Insects
Xiphosura is an order of marine chelicerates. It includes a large number of extinct lines and only four recent species in the family Limulidae, which include the horseshoe crabs. 

The group has hardly changed in millions of years. The modern horseshoe crabs look almost identical to prehistoric genera such as the Jurassic Mesolimulus, and are considered to be living fossils.

Xiphosura are traditionally placed in the class Merostomata. This term was originally made for the eurypterids; now, with the Xiphosura added, it is known to be paraphyletic. 

Although the name Merostomata is still seen in textbooks, without reference to the Eurypterida, some have urged that this usage should be discouraged. The shared features of the two groups traditionally grouped in the Merostomata are now thought to be retentions of primitive conditions (symplesiomorphies).

The Xiphosura is basal to a clade comprising Eurypterida and Arachnida. It is estimated that the Xiphosura diverged from the Arachnida 480 million years ago.

References 

Chelicerata
Living fossils
The eurypterids, related to arachnids, were the largest known arthropods. They are members of the extinct order Eurypterida. It is a most diverse Chelicerate order.

The largest, such as Jaekelopterus, reached 2½ metres in length, but most species were less than 20 cm (8 inches). They were the largest arthropods of all time. They were predators which thrived in the warm, shallow seas and lakes of the Ordovician to the Permian periods, around 460 to 248 million years ago. Recent research suggsts their eyesight was not very good.

The move from the sea to fresh water probably occurred by the Pennsylvanian period. Eurypterids went extinct during the Permian–Triassic extinction event 251 million years ago, and their fossils have a near global distribution.

The typical eurypterid had a large, flat, semicircular carapace, followed by a jointed section, and finally a tapering, flexible tail, most ending with a long spine at the end (Pterygotus, though, had a large flat tail, possibly with a smaller spine). Behind the head of the eurypterids were twelve body segments. These segments are formed by a dorsal plate, called a tergite, and a ventral plate, called a sternite. The tail, known as the telson, is spiked in most eurypterids.

 A recent discovery of a new fossil species of eurypterid, Pentecopterus, has been made. It is two meters long, and lived 467 million years ago, in the Middle Ordovician period.

References 

Fossils
Chelicerata
A bushel is an imperial unit of dry volume, equal to 4 pecks or 8 gallons. It is most often used in agriculture. A bushel is abbreviated as bsh. or bu. 

Since the volume of a gallon in UK has been defined as the volume of ten pounds of water, the volume of a bushel in SI units is 36.3687 litres.

The United States bushel is slightly smaller than the British bushel because the American gallon is smaller than the British gallon. Its volume has been defined as 2150.42 cubic inches, which makes 35.2391 litres.

References

Imperial units
Units of volume
Oculocerebrorenal syndrome (also called Lowe Syndrome) is a rare genetic disorder in humans. It affects the eyes, the brain and the kidneys. It is also known as Oculocerebrorenal syndrome. People with lowe syndrome are born with cataracts, that is the lenses of their eyes are not totally clear. Many people with the syndrome develop kidney problems at an early age. The brain develops differently, the development of the child happens slower. Such children may often have learning difficulties. Epilepsy can also occur.

The disorder is caused by a gene defect on the X-chromosome. As a result, much more boys are affected than girls. The syndrome is named after Dr. Charles Lowe, who first described it in 1952. Its occurrence is about one case in half a million live births.

References

Diseases