cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Christine Teipel (1621 – 4 May 1630) was a 9 year old child who was executed as a witch. This execution happened in Schmallenberg-Oberkirchen in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.

Life 
She was questioned on March 7, 1630. She told about 15 other people who had taken part in a Witches' Sabbath, at night. There were 8 men, 6 women, and a little girl. During that year, there were 7 processes, from April to June of that year. During these processes, 58 people were sentenced to burn at the stake for witchcraft. 22 people of these were men, 2 were children. 

Christine Teipel was sentenced and executed in the third of seven rounds of trials. 

Near Oberkirchen there is a place where commemorative inscriptions have been erected.

Parts of what she had said during the trial

Pact with the devil

"bekend guetlich, daß Johan Bell...vor etzlicher zeit, weiß nit, wieviel jar, in Stephans backhaus sie die zauberei gelert, ...(Sie) Hette auch austrucklich dem teuffel zugesagt, waruf der teuffel in eins wackern jungen gestalt, ...zu ir kommen, ... zu ir gesagt, ob sie im auch stehen [zu ihm stehen] wolte. Sie im druff geandwortet: ja, wen er ir etzwas guts tun wölte, wilches er ir auch zu tun versprochen."

Approximate translation:

"confesses, that Johan Bell (...) had taught her to do magic, some time ago; she does not know how long ago.  This happened in Stephan's bakery. She had also committed to serving the devil. The devil had then appeared in the form of a vigorous young boy. The boy had asked her if she wanted to commit herself to him; she had agreed, under the condition that he should do something good for her, which he had promised (...)

Attending a Sabbat
"Sein boel (Teufelsbuhle) hett mit ir gedanzt... Der tanz hette woll zwei stunde geweret"

Translation:
"Her mate (sex partner) had danced with her... The dance had lasted about two hours"

Sex with the devil
"bekend, daß der bol (Teufelsbuhle) ein ding furm leib gehabt, damit ihr in ir schamb etc., hab kein freud dabei gehabt, were gewesen, als wens holz gewest; und so oft sie zum tanz gezogen, hette er erst zu ihr kommen und boliret [= Geschlechtsverkehr haben], und wen sie´s nit leiden wolten, hette er ir zu schlagen gedrauwet" [= gedroht].

Translation:
"confesses, that the mate (sex partner) had had a thing before him, to put into her (etc), that she did not enjoy it at all, it was like this thing were wood; And whenever she wanted to dance, he had first come, and had had sex; and when she did not want to, he had threatened to beat her (..)"

Books 
(All of them are in German)

Alfred Bruns, Die Oberkirchener Hexenprotokolle, in: Schieferbergbau-Heimatmuseum Schmallenberg- Holthausen: Hexen- Gerichtsbarkeit im kurkölnischen Sauerland, Dokumentation zur Ausstellung vom 21.7.- 4.8.1984, „Christinichen Teipeln aus Oberkirchen“, S. 26 ff
Tobias A. Kemper: "...der allnoch anwachsenden bluenden jugend zum abscheulichen exempel...". Kinderhexenprozesse in Oberkirchen (Duchy of Westphalia). In: SüdWestfalen Archiv Jg.4/2004. S.115-136.

Other websites
 Pact with the devil 

1621 births
1630 deaths
Executed German people
People executed for witchcraft
People from North Rhine-Westphalia
AJAX stands for Asynchronous JavaScript and XML. It is a technique used to make webpages faster to use. If they are programmed with AJAX, they seem to react faster. They only send small bits of information to the web server. That way the whole web page does not need to reload, only small parts of it.

Good things
There is a clear separation between what the page shows (the content), how it looks (the style), and what it does (the function). Programmers that change what the page does do not need to concern themselves with how the page looks.
Pages done with Ajax only load small bits from the server. Most of the time, they execute code on the client. This makes the program load first so it can respond faster.
Ajax can be used to read XML or JSON among other file formats.

Problems
There are also some problems with Ajax. These are among other things:
It uses JavaScript. Some people have JavaScript disabled.
Because it does not reload the full page, it breaks the history function of the Web browser. The Back button does not work any more.
If the network is slow (there is a high latency), this becomes more obvious when the whole page needs to be reloaded. Users might not expect these delays.
Some web browsers do not support Ajax well, if at all.

References

Internet
JavaScript
Bradford is a major city in West Yorkshire, England. The city has a population of about 500,000 people. Bradford grew due to its excellence in the textile trades of nineteenth century England. Bradford is home to Bradford City Football Club who became the first English football club to win the current FA Cup trophy in 1911.

Bradford is near to Leeds.  The two cities share the Leeds Bradford International Airport.

References 

 
1847 establishments in Europe
1840s establishments in England
Lithuanian litas (Lithuanian: Litas) was the national currency of the Republic of Lithuania. Litas became a currency of Lithuania in 1922, then again in 1993. In present days, there are 8 coins (1, 2, 5, 10, 50 cents and 1, 2 and 5 LTL) and 6 banknotes (10, 20, 50, 100, 200 and 500 LTL) in use. It stopped being in use in 2015.

General information 

 ISO 4217 Code: LTL
 Inflation: 3.6 % (2006 estimate)
 Subunit: 1/100 (1 cent (centas))
 Symbol: Lt
 Central bank: Bank of Lithuania

Former currencies of Europe
Litas
The Duduk is a traditional woodwind instrument of Armenian origins.

History 
The duduk is one of the oldest double reed instruments in the world which dates back over 3,000 years. Many different duduks can be found in Armenia and the Caucasus. The roots of Armenian duduk music go back to the times of the Armenian king Tigran the Great (95-55 BC). The instrument is seen in many Armenian manuscripts of the Middle Ages.

References

Other websites 
 Jivan Gasparyan, "Eshkhemed"
 Jivan Gasparyan & Nune Yesayan "Dle Yaman"
 Jivan Gasparyan "Tribute" 
 Jivan Gasparyan "Horovel" 
 Jivan Gasparyan "Hin U Nor Husher" 
 Vatche Hovsepyan "Duduk" 
Duduk.com
Duduk.co.uk

Woodwind instruments
Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity
Droopy Dog is a cartoon character created by Tex Avery for Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer cartoon studio in 1943. It first appeared on a cartoon named Dumb Hounded (1943).

Animated characters
Fictional dogs
Iraqi Kurdistan or South Kurdistan is the part of Kurdistan which is in Iraq.

Iraqi Kurdistan is in the north of Iraq. The area is to the west of Iranian Kurdistan. To Iraqi Kurdistan's west is Syrian Kurdistan, and to the north is Turkish Kurdistan.

Gallery

References 

Iraq
Biohazzard Records is a German based Independent record label. It was founded by music journalist Sascha Bahn and Alexander C.H. Lorenz (publisher of "MUMM" compilation). He has more as 20 years experience in management of bands. The label is distributed through "Alive!", edel.net (Digital Distribution) and DanseMacabre (Das Ich). They focus at Gothic, Gothic Metal and some kinds of Electro.

Releases 
 2000:  Sinnflut - Vergessene Melodien
 2001:  Sinnflut - Wortlosigkeit
 2003:  Silence - The p/o/u/r letters
 2003:  Sinnflut - Gefüge (Part I & II)
 2004:  Sinnflut - Im Anblick meines Augenblicks
 2006:  Eisenfunk - Funkferngesteuert
 2006:  Sanity Obscure - Resurrection
 2007:  Silence - the badtime stories e.p.
 2007:  Eisenfunk - Eisenfunk
 2007:  adoptedCHILD - geliebt-getötet

Artists 
 Eisenfunk
 PISCIDE
 adoptedCHILD
 Sanity Obscure
 Silence
 Sinnflut
 Die Braut
 Concrete/Rage
 Agapèsis
 Scarelett
 S.C. Inc

Other websites 
Biohazzard Records 
Biohazzard Records@myspace

Independent record labels
Entertainment in Germany
The Ruhr Area () is an urban area in North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany.  Many of the cities in the Ruhrgebiet used to have a lot of heavy industry.

The Ruhr Area is bordered by the rivers Ruhr River to the south, Rhine River to the west, and Lippe to the north. Southwest it borders the Bergisches Land.

The area has about 5.3 million inhabitants, and is part of the larger Rhine-Ruhr metropolitan area of more than 12 million people.

The Ruhr Area consists of the cities of Duisburg, Oberhausen, Bottrop, Mülheim an der Ruhr, Essen, Gelsenkirchen, Bochum, Herne, Hamm, Hagen and Dortmund and the rural districts of Wesel, Recklinghausen, Unna and Ennepe-Ruhr

Culture
The city of Essen in the Ruhr area was selected as European Capital of Culture for 2010 by the Council of the European Union.

Sources

References

Bishop, Patrick.  Bomber Boys Fighting Back 1940–1945
 French Directorate for Economic Affairs, Memorandum on the separation of the German industrial regions, 8 September 1945.
Gareau, Frederick H.  "Morgenthau's Plan for Industrial Disarmament in Germany", Western Political Quarterly, Vol. 14, No. 2 (Jun., 1961), pp. 517–53 in JSTOR
Yoder, Amos. "The Ruhr Authority and the German Problem", Review of Politics, Vol. 17, No. 3 (Jul., 1955), pp. 345–358 in JSTOR

Further reading
 Kift, Roy, The Complete Ruhrgebiet: The English language guide (2018)  () Klartext Verlag, Essen 
 Berndt, Christian. Corporate Germany Between Globalization and Regional Place Dependence: Business Restructuring in the Ruhr Area (2001)
 Crew, David.   Town in the Ruhr: A Social History of Bochum, 1860–1914 (1979) ()
 Fischer, Conan. The Ruhr Crisis, 1923–1924 (2003)
 Gillingham, John.  "Ruhr Coal Miners and Hitler's War", Journal of Social History Vol. 15, No. 4 (Summer, 1982), pp. 637–653 in JSTOR
 Chauncy D. Harris, "The Ruhr Coal-mining District", Geographical Review, 36 (1946), 194–221.
 Gillingham, John. Industry and Politics in the Third Reich: Ruhr Coal, Hitler, and Europe (1985) ()
 Pounds, Norman J. G. The Ruhr: A Study in Historical and Economic Geography (1952) online
 Pierenkemper, Toni. "Entrepreneurs in Heavy Industry: Upper Silesia and the Westphalian Ruhr Region, 1852 to 1913", Business History Review Vol. 53, No. 1 (Spring, 1979), pp. 65–78 in JSTOR
 Royal Jae Schmidt. Versailles and the Ruhr: Seedbed of World War II (1968)
 Spencer, Elaine Glovka. "Employer Response to Unionism: Ruhr Coal Industrialists before 1914" Journal of Modern History Vol. 48, No. 3 (Sep., 1976), pp. 397–412 in JSTOR
 Spencer, Elaine Glovka.  Management and Labor in Imperial Germany: Ruhr Industrialists as Employers, 1896–1914.  Rutgers University Press. (1984) online
 Todd, Edmund N. "Industry, State, and Electrical Technology in the Ruhr Circa 1900", Osiris 2nd Series, Vol. 5, (1989), pp. 242–259 in JSTOR

Other websites 

  Capital of Culture 2010 Official Site 
  ruhr.2010 Capital of Culture Blog
 Ruhrgebietsbilder: Photos about the Ruhr

Geography of North Rhine-Westphalia
Regions of Germany
A credit card is a card which allows people to buy items without cash. Each card has a unique number. Using this number, plus other details on the card (such as the validity date, or a code), the client can buy goods or services. The issuer of the card, then transfers the money to the seller. The person using the card gets a credit. The  customer has a certain amount of time to pay the credit card bill. If the bill is left unpaid for some time, the customer will have to pay interest for the amount that is left unpaid. Payment using a credit card is one of the most common methods of electronic payment.

Credit cards are usually small plastic cards with a unique number attached to an account. Most are magnetic stripe cards and many have an EMV chip for use by card readers.

P.S. Only have 1 to 2 credit cards to keep your credit rating up.

Money
The Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990) was a conflict that became greatly worse by Lebanon's changing demographics. There was conflict between Sunnis and Shias, between Christians and Muslims, and the involvement of Syria, Israel and the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO). After a short break in the fighting in 1976 due to Arab League mediation and Syrian intervention, civil strife continued, with fighting primarily focused in south Lebanon, occupied first by the PLO, then occupied by Israel. On May 17, 1983, a US-backed agreement was reached for making peace between Lebanon and Israel. The agreement failed when Syria refused to withdraw its forces.

References 

1980s in Asia
1990s in Asia
Civil wars involving Asia
Wars involving Israel
Wars involving Lebanon
Wars involving Syria
1970s in Israel
20th century in Lebanon
20th century in Syria
1970s conflicts
1980s conflicts
Conflicts in 1990
Mosul ( , , ) is a city in the north of Iraq. Under the Ottoman Empire it was the capital of northern Iraq. More than a million people lived there when Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant conquered it in 2014. In 2017 the Iraqi Army with help from Kurdish Peshmerga troops and other militias took the city back.

Further reading
Published in the 19th century
 
 
 
 
 

Published in the 20th century
 
 
 

Published in the 21st century

References

Other websites

 ninava-explorer 
Iraq Image – Mosul Satellite Observation 
Detailed map of Mosul by the National Imagery and Mapping Agency, from lib.utexas.edu
 

Cities in Iraq
Germaine Tailleferre (born Saint Maur Des Fossés, France, 19 April 1892; died Paris, 7 November 1983) was a French composer.  She was one of the members of the famous group Les Six.

Early years
She was called Marcelle Taillefesse when she was born. When she was grown up she changed her last name to "Tailleferre" just to annoy her father because he had refused to let her study music.  She studied piano with her mother at home, composing short works of her own and then began studying at the Paris Conservatoire.  There she met Louis Durey, Francis Poulenc, Darius Milhaud, Georges Auric and Arthur Honegger. She won several prizes at the Conservatoire.  She often met with her friends who became known as Les Six.

Works
In 1923 Tailleferre began to spend a great deal of time with Maurice Ravel at his home in Monfort-L'Amaury. Ravel encouraged her to enter the Prix de Rome Competition. In 1925, she married Ralph Barton, an American caricaturist, and moved to Manhattan, New York. She stayed in the United States until 1927 when she and her husband returned to France. They divorced shortly afterwards.

Tailleferre wrote many of her most important works during the 1920s, including her 1st Piano Concerto, The Harp Concertino, the Ballets "Le Marchand d'Oiseaux" (the most often performed ballet in the repertoire of the Ballets Suédoises during the 1920s) and "La Nouvelle Cythère" which Diaghilev had asked her to write for his ballet company.

In the 1930s she composed the Concerto for Two Pianos, Choeurs, Saxophones and Orchestra, the Violin Concerto, the Operas "Zoulaïna" and "Le Marin de Bolivar", and her masterwork, "La Cantate de Narcisse", which she wrote with Paul Valéry. Her work in film music included "Le Petit Chose".

When World War II started she had to escape across Spain to Portugal and from there to America.

After the war, in 1946, she returned to her home in France where she composed a lot more music, much of which was not published until after her death.  She was accompanist at a children's music and movement class.  She wrote shorter pieces towards the end of her life because her arthritis made writing difficult.

Tailleferre carried on composing until a few weeks before her death in November 1983.

Other websites 
 Suite Burlesque for piano duet (1981) in Youtube

1892 births
1983 deaths
20th-century French composers
Women composers
Kevin Ferguson also known as Kimbo Slice (February 8, 1974 – June 6, 2016) was a Bahamian-born American mixed martial arts fighter. He began fighting in a series of web videos. He fights in backyards, airplane hangars, and nuclear power plants. He was trained by Bas Rutten. He was born in Nassau, Bahamas.

Slice had six children. He used to work as a bodyguard.

Slice died of heart failure at a hospital in Margate, Florida on June 6, 2016, aged 42.

References

Other websites

 
 
 

1974 births
2016 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Bahamian people
American mixed martial artists
Pangaea was the global supercontinent which formed in the Palaeozoic era. The process started about 450 million years ago (mya) and was complete by 210 mya.

Pangaea was the latest of a series of global supercontinents. They formed at various times since plate tectonics began on Earth. Generally Pangaea and Gondwana are considered as parts of the same supercontinent Gondwana-Pangaea.

Formation 
The collisions between continental plates formed the greatest mountain ranges in the history of the Phanerozoic eon. The mountain building included the Caledonian orogeny, the Alleghenian orogeny and the Variscan orogeny. The low mountains of Scotland, Scandinavia and eastern North America are the ground-down remains of these vast events.

Break-up 
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first signs of rifting came in the Triassic before Pangaea was completely formed.

Pangaea broke up about 180/200 million years ago, in the early middle Jurassic. It broke into supercontinents Laurasia and Gondwana before each of these broke into the current continents. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North Atlantic Ocean.

The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Lower Cretaceous (150–140 Ma), when Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America, India, Antarctica, and Australia).

The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North America (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia, opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 Ma. The Atlantic and Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.

The break-up of Pangaea continues today in the Great Rift Valley in East Africa and Arabia.

Other sources 
Matte P. 2001. The Variscan collage and orogeny (480-290 mya) and the tectonic definition of the Armorica microplate: a review. Terra Nova 13, 122-128.
Stampfli G.M; Raumer J.F. von & Borel G.D. 2002. Paleozoic evolution of pre-Variscan terranes: from Gondwana to the Variscan collision. Geological Society of America Special Paper 364, pp. 263–280.
Torsvik T.H. et al 1996. Continental break-up and collision in the Neoproterozoic and Palaeozoic - a tale of Baltica and Laurentia. Earth-Science Reviews 40, pp. 229–258.
Ziegler P.A. 1990. Geological atlas of western and central Europe. 2nd ed, Shell Internationale Petroleum Maatschappij B.V.

References 

Supercontinents
Fatah is a Palestinian nationalist political party. Fatah is an acronym for Harakat At-Tahriri Al-Filistiniya. That means Palestinian National Liberation Movement in English. It was created by Yasser Arafat in the late 1950s. 

In 1968 Fatah joined the Palestinian Liberation Organization, and in 1969 it got a leadership role. When it was founded, it did not accept the existence of Israel, but now the group officially does. 

The political part of the party is not considered a terrorist group by any country, but its military part, the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades is considered a terrorist group. Fatah says that the Brigades are not a part of the party but Israel says that Fatah supports the al-Aqsa Martyrs Brigades.

Fatah and the Al-Aqsa Martyrs' Brigades 
Leaders of the brigades, and other members have said they are a military group that is a part of Fatah. On their website, and on posters they post the Fatah Emblem. Leaders of Fatah have said they did not create the brigades, or make them the military of Fatah. Since 2002 leaders in Fatah have tried to get the brigades to stop attacking Israeli citizens.

References 

Nationalist organizations in Palestine
Political parties in Asia
Politics of Palestine
Socialist International
West Bank
Balkh () is a city in Balkh Province of Afghanistan. It was a big city hundreds of years ago, but it was ruined by Mongols. It was not ruined forever, though. In 1850 it was captured by Dost Mohammad Khan.

Related pages 
 Balkh Province

References 

Cities in Afghanistan
Arbil (,  Hewlêr; also written Erbil or Irbil) is a province in the north of Iraq. The area is . 1,425,000 people live in the province.

Provinces of Iraq
Babil () is a province in Iraq. The area is . 2,000,000 people live in the province. The capital is Al Hillah  a Shia 

It contains the ancient city of Babylon.

The name Babil is the Arabic name for Babylon.
Coruscant is a fictional planet in the Star Wars movies. It has been the capital of the Galaxy for many years, and during that time, the planet has become one big city. It's most notable appearance was in the prequel trilogy.

Star Wars planets

sv:Lista över platser i Star Wars#Coruscant
Baghdad () is a province in Iraq. The capital is also called Baghdad. 

The area is . The province is the smallest province in Iraq.
Most eggs that are eaten by humans, including bird eggs and turtle eggs, have a protective, oval eggshell, the albumen (egg white), the vitellus (egg yolk), and various thin membranes, that are layers like skin. Every part of the egg is edible, although the eggshell is usually thrown away. Eggs are a good source of protein, choline, and fat-soluble vitamins.

Roe and caviar are edible eggs produced by fish.

Egg as a food ingredient 
Birds' eggs are a common food source. The most commonly used bird eggs are those from the chicken, the duck, and the goose. Smaller eggs such as quail eggs are sometimes used as a gourmet ingredient, as are the largest bird eggs, from ostriches.  

Most of the chicken eggs sold for human consumption are unfertilized. The hens are kept without any roosters. Fertile eggs can be bought and eaten as well. There is no difference in the food value of fertilised and unfertilised eggs. Fertile eggs for eating do not have a baby bird inside. This is because eggs have to be kept cool before they are sold, and the cold stops the young inside from starting to grow.

Chicken eggs are widely used in many types of cooking. Recipes that use eggs include sweet and savoury dishes. Eggs can be used and cooked in many different ways. They can be hard-boiled, soft-boiled, scrambled, fried, combined with flour in cakes or eaten raw. Roasted eggs are used at the Jewish holiday of Passover. Pickled eggs are hard-boiled and then put in vinegar. They are often sold in UK fish and chip shops.

Eating raw eggs is not recommended for some people. This is because the egg may be contaminated with bacteria (like salmonella) that could cause illness. This could be serious for the elderly, the infirm, or pregnant women.

The body can use about 91% of the protein of a cooked egg, nearly twice as much as from a raw egg.

Color 

There is no difference in taste or food value between white or brown eggs.  The color of a chicken's egg depends on the breed.

In most of the United States, eggs are generally white; while in the northeast of that country and in the United Kingdom, eggs are generally light-brown. People in Brazil and Poland prefer brown or reddish eggs, because white eggs are thought of as "industrial", that is, for use in commercial bakeries.  The reason some people prefer one colour of egg and other people prefer a different colour is probably because of what the colours are linked with in their minds.  For example white is linked with purity, and brown-shelled eggs with greater wholesomeness.

Carotenoids can affect how intense the color of the yolk is.

Related pages 
Egg (biology)
 List of egg dishes

References 

 Stadelman W.J. and Cotterill O.J. 1995. Egg science and technology. 4th ed, New York: Food Products Press.

Other websites 

 9 Health Benefits of Eggs 
 Nutritional values of eggs 
 Nutritional value of free range eggs compared with factory eggs
 Criticism of the validity of the "Animal Care Certified" logo used by United Egg Producers(UEP) 
 British Egg Industry and the Lion Mark
 10 Health Benefits of Eggs

Breakfast foods
A leitmotif (pronounced , “LITE-mow-teef”) (also spelled leitmotiv), is a German word meaning leading motif.  It is a little musical theme that is often repeated in a piece of music, very often in opera. The leitmotif is linked in the musical story with a person or a thing or an idea.  The leitmotif might be a short tune, but it can also be a rhythm or just a chord.

The word “leitmotif” is sometimes used in other things such as literature.  In a book it might be an idea that keeps coming during the story.  It can also be used in movies or video games.

The word “leitmotif” is particularly associated with the operas of Richard Wagner.  The leitmotif helps to make the story dramatic and bind it together, because it makes the music easier to understand.  Sometimes a leitmotif will change during an opera as the character changes.  Various dramatic effects can be made with leitmotifs. For example, a leitmotif might be played before a character comes onstage, so the audience will know who is coming before the actor can be seen.  Three examples of leitmotifs from Wagner's Ring Cycle  Der Ring des Nibelungen  are: the leitmotif for the chief god Wotan (a person), the leitmotif for the Tarnhelm, the invisibility helmet, (a thing), and the leitmotif for the Renunciation of Love (an idea).

The use of leitmotif was not completely new in the 19th century.  For example: the first four notes of Beethoven's Fifth Symphony are used like a leitmotif during the whole symphony.  It was, however, Carl Maria von Weber who first used it a lot in his operas.  A music critic called F. W. Jähns used the word to describe Weber’s work.  Hector Berlioz wrote a symphony called Symphonie Fantastique which has a tune which he called idée fixe (“fixed idea”) to represent the love between the two characters.

Wagner did not actually use the word “leitmotif”.  He preferred to call such themes “Grundthema” (basic idea) or simple “Motiv”.  Some people, such as Eduard Hanslick, who did not like Wagner’s music, thought that Wagner’s use of leitmotifs made the music too simple.  Claude Debussy said the use of leitmotifs in operas was like having a world where crazy people would always use "visiting cards" to introduce themselves and then start singing their names to be sure everyone knew what was going on.

Many other composers used leitmotifs in a similar way to Wagner, e.g. Richard Strauss in his operas, Elgar in his oratorios The Kingdom and The Apostles or Alban Berg in his opera Lulu.  

Leitmotifs or music themes are also used to dramatise movies. For example, the famous Jaws theme uses a leitmotif for the shark.

Musical forms
Opera terminology
Ninawa (, , Assyrian: ܢܝܢܘܐ Nîněwâ) is a province in north of Iraq It has an area of 37,323 km². The capital is Mosul which lies near the Tigris river. 2,600,000 people live in the province. The ancient Biblical city of Nineveh is also in this province.  The name Ninawa is the Arabic name for Nineveh.
Kirkuk Governorate ( ,  Parêzgay Kerkûk,  , ) or Kirkuk Province is a governorate in northern Iraq, with an area of . 

The capital is also called Kirkuk, and 949,000 people live in the province.

References
Brussels-Capital Region is one of the three regions of Belgium. Its official name can be in the three official languages of Belgium

 and
 

It has 19 municipalities:

Related pages 
There are two other regions:
 Flanders (Flemish Region)
 Wallonia (Walloon Region)

References

Other websites 

www.brussels.irisnet.be Official website
Vaishali or Vesali (Pali)  was a city in what is currently Vaishali District, Bihar, India. The city was the capital of the Licchavi and the Vajjian Confederacy. At the time of the Buddha, Vesali was a very large and rich city. It was crowded with people and with much food.

Cities in India
History of India
Settlements in Bihar
Licchavi (also Lichchhavi, Lichavi) was an ancient republic that existed in what is now Bihar state of India before the birth of Mahavira (b. 599 BC). Its capital was Vaishali.

From about 400 to 750, a kingdom in Nepal in the Kathmandu Valley had the same name, Licchavi.

Origins
Early Buddhist legends tell that Licchavi was a ruling family during Gautama Buddha's time in India, but links to the Nepalese kingdom are speculative.  The language of Licchavi inscriptions is Sanskrit, and the particular script used is closely related to official Gupta scripts. That means that India was a significant cultural influence. That was likely through Mithila, now the north of Bihar, India.

References

Other websites
  Tamot, Kashinath and Alsop, Ian. "A Kushan-period Sculpture, The Licchavi Kings", Asianart.com
  History of Nepal,  Thamel.com
  "Nepal: The Early Kingdom of the Licchavis, 400-750", Library of Congress Countryreports.org (September, 1991)
 Vajrācārya, Gautamavajra, "Recently Discovered Inscriptions of Licchavi, Nepal", Kailash - Journal of Himalayan Studies, Volume 1, Number 2, 1973. (pp. 117-134) 

History of India
Nepal
Bihar
Republicanism is the ideology of governing a nation as a republic with an emphasis on liberty and the civic virtue practiced by citizens.  Republicanism always stands in opposition to aristocracy, oligarchy, monarchy, and dictatorship.  More broadly, it refers to a political system that protects liberty, especially by incorporating a rule of law that cannot be arbitrarily ignored by the government.

United States 
According to John Adams, “They define a republic to be a government of laws, and not of men.” Much of the literature deals with the issue of what sort of values and behavior by the citizens is necessary if the republic is to survive and flourish; the emphasis has been on widespread citizen participation, civic virtue, and opposition to corruption.

Other websites
 Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry
 Res Publica: an international anti-monarchy Web directory 

Politics
Tabriz تبریز  is the largest city in north-western Iran with a population of 1.6 million. Most of them speak the Azerbaijani language. Tabriz is north of the volcanic cone of Sahand and south of the Eynali mountain. It is the capital of East Azarbaijan Province.

Other websites 

Tabriz Historical Buildings Virtual Library - Related to Tabriz University 
Tabriz Information
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Tabriz from Encyclopaedia of the Orient 
Tabriz Municipal Office 
tabrizinfo.com
Tabriz Municipality News Agency
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Hundreds of Tabriz Pictures

Cities in Iran
East Azarbaijan Province
The sabertoothed cats or sabretooth cats are some of the best known and most popular extinct animals. They are among the most impressive carnivores that ever have lived. These cats had long canines and jaws which opened wider than modern cats. This suggests a different style of killing from modern felines.

The sabre-tooth style of life evolved at least five times amongst carnivorous mammals. This is one of the best-known examples of convergent evolution.
Creodonts, were the earliest sabre-tooths known. They lived in the Eocene, and are in a different order from the Feliformia. Machaeroides and Apataelurus are examples. 
The Nimravids were a basal group in the Feliformia, lasting from the Eocene to the later Miocene epochs. Hoplophoneus is an example.
The Barbourofelidae is another family of Feliforms which developed the sabre-tooth lifestyle. They flourished in the Miocene. They are probably more closely related to the felids than the Nimravids.
Sparassodonts, such as Thylacosmilus, were a  metatherian  group of mammals. They used to be called "marsupial sabre-tooths", but they belong to a sister-group to the marsupials. Miocene to Pliocene.
The Machairodontinae: a subfamily of the Felidae, lived from the Miocene to the Pleistocene (23 million years ago to 11,000 years ago). Includes the famous Smilodon.
Nimravides, which is a member of the Felinae, and <u/l>not</u/l> one of the Nimravids.

The saber tooths were ambush predators, and probably lived in open forests. This would explain their widespread occurrence in the Miocene, when much of the land was covered with woodland. Apart from the canine teeth, their adaptations included strength in the forelimbs (more so than present-day large cats). Their robust (heavy, tough) bodies speak of strength rather than speed.

An idea of how they killed is as follows. They hid in wait, and pounced. They hung on round the prey's neck, gripping and slashing the underside of the throat with their canine teeth. This would cause death by blood loss and loss of the air supply.

The fact that their teeth vary is interesting. Some have larger teeth, some had smaller dagger-like teeth, some had smooth thick teeth, others had blade-like teeth, sometimes with serrated edges. Some had flanges on the lower jaw, most did not. Ewer remarks that this must show that there were variations in killing method, and in the type of prey, but we know little about this.

There are none living today: they are extinct. The extinctions followed climate change, as the world cooled and grassland took over from woodland in the Pliocene and Pleistocene.

References 

Fossils
Prosper Mérimée (September 28, 1803 – September 23, 1870) was a French writer. He was also a historian and an archaeologist. He is probably best known for writing the short story "Carmen". "Carmen" became the basis for the opera Carmen by Georges Bizet.

1803 births
1870 deaths
French writers
Jerry Hsu (b. December 17, 1981) is an American professional skateboarder. He was born in, and currently lives in, San Jose, California. Hsu is a member of the San Jose Tilt Mode Army crew. He has several pro model skateboard decks with Enjoi Skateboards. Hsu was featured in the skateboard videos Bag of Suck by Enjoi. He won an award for best video part by Transworld Skateboarding Magazine and a reader's choice award for his work in the video.

References

1981 births
Living people
American skateboarders
Sportspeople from California
People from San Jose, California
Wasit () is a province in the east of Iraq. The capital is Al Kut. Wasit is an Arabic word meaning "middle". The province is along the Tigris about midway between Baghdad and Misan.
Scrambled eggs is a dish made from beaten whites and yolks of  eggs (usually chicken). The dish often contains other ingredients.  Cream, butter, milk, water or oil (used in China) will dilute the egg proteins to create a softer texture.

Sample recipe
The eggs and a large piece of butter are put into a saucepan over a low heat.  The egg whites and egg yolks are then "scrambled" or mixed together.   The mixture should be mixed together all the time they are being cooked.

When cooked a little créme frâiche is added.  This is because the eggs will be hot enough to carry on cooking themselves.  Adding a cool liquid will stop the eggs from overcooking. Some salt and pepper or other seasoning can be added to taste as well.

In the home the eggs can be mixed together first and then poured into a pan.  The créme frâiche does not need to be added if the eggs will be eaten almost immediately.

Properly made, the eggs should be moist and creamy consistency.  If any liquid is coming from the eggs, it means the eggs have been overcooked or that the add the vegetables were undercooked.

Other methods of preparation
Using a double boiler  or bain-marie means that the heat is constant, and does not to be adjusted  to make sure the eggs do not brown or burn.  The baine marie method is slower than cooking directly in a pan over a heat but makes it easier to  cook the eggs perfectly. The eggs must be taken out of the bain marie when cooked, otherwise they will carry on cooking and spoil.

Scrambled eggs may also be made in a  microwave oven by put the ingredients in a glass bowl and cooking for 30 seconds then whisking, then cooking and whisking again until the desired consistency is achieved.

Variations of Scrambled Egg Dishes
Many things can be added to scrambled eggs.  Often the end result can have a different name, for example:

scrambled eggs à l'arlésienne (Scrambled eggs as made in the town of Arles, France)- add the diced, cooked pulp of courgettes (zucchini), a little garlic, and tomato fondue.  Put the cooked eggand vegetable mixture into the hollowed, cooked courgettes shells, on an oiled gratin dish sprinkled with Parmesan cheese and brown the oven.

scrambled eggs à l'américaine scrambled eggs in the American way - Add cubes of smoked bacon fried in butter to eggs.

scrambled eggs Rossini named after the composer Rossini- Cook some scrambled eggs.  Sauté some thin slices of foie gras in butter.  Cook some sliced truffle in butter.  Plate the scrambled eggs on a serving dish, garnish with foie gras and truffles, then coat with a very reduced Madeira demi-glace sauce.

Related pages
List of egg dishes

Notes

References
Escoffier, Georges Auguste. Escoffier: The Complete Guide to the Art of Modern Cookery. Translated by H. L. Cracknell and R.J. Kaufmann. New York: John Wiley and Sons, 2002.
McGee, Harold. On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen. New York: Scribner, 2004.
Robuchon, Joël, Members of the Gastronomic Committee. Larousse Gastronomique. New York: Clarkson Potter/Publishers, 2001.

Other websites
An article on cooking scrambled eggs
Scrambled eggs recipe

Egg dishes
Breakfast foods
Salah ad Din () is a province in north of Iraq. The province has an area of 24,751 km². The capital is Tikrit where Saddam Hussein was born and 1,147,000 people live in the province. The majority population is Sunni. In 2011, the province declared autonomy.

References
LATAM Airlines Brazil () is Brazilian airline. LATAM was founded in 1961, but since 2000 it has grown fast. It's now the biggest airline in Brazil and all of Latin America.

History
TAM Airlines began in 1961, with the name Taxi Aereo Marília (Marília Air Taxi). In 1971, one of the airline's pilots buys 33% of the airline's shares. In 1976, the pilot founds an airline with the name Transportes Aereos Regionais (Regional Air Transport).  Both TAM and TAR Airlines were combined in 2000.  This formed the TAM Airlines. In 2010, LAN Airlines and TAM Airlines were also combined. They formed the LATAM Airlines Group.

Gallery

References

1961 establishments in South America
Star Alliance
Airlines of South America
Economy of Brazil
1960s establishments in Brazil
Kollikodon ritchiei is a fossil monotreme species. It is known from an opalised teeth frgament, with one premolar and two molars in situ. The fossil was found al Lightning Ridge, New South Wales, Australia.

References 

 Flannery, T.F., Archer, M., Rich, T.H., Jones, R. (1995) "A new family of monotremes from the Cretaceous of Australia". Nature 377: 418-420.

Monotremes
The Flying Tigers was a group of American fighter pilots from the United States Army Air Force, the United States Navy, and the United States Marine Corps. Claire Lee Chennault commanded it.

History 

During 1937, Claire Lee Chennault retired from the American military and became the military advisor to China. He to looked at their air force. It was bad, and could not fight their enemy, Japan. In 1938, Chennault was going to make the Flying Tigers. In late 1941, after Pearl Harbor, the Flying Tigers started fighting the Japanese.

The airplane they used was the Curtiss P-40 Warhawk. There were about 100 of the fighter aircraft. They could not turn with the Japanese fighters, such as the A6M Zero, Ki-43 Oscar, and Ki-27 Nate, but the P-40 was tough, had more guns, and was faster in a dive.

The Flying Tigers stayed in World War II for the whole time.

Things the Flying Tigers were famous for 

The Flying Tigers are well known for things. One thing was their airplane paint, which had a shark face on the sides. They were also known for fighting hard during the war. Franklin D. Roosevelt had said they were good.

List of aces 

The following are flying aces from the Flying Tigers, with their air-to-air victory credits: (In alphabetical order).

 Percy Bartelt (5.0)
 William Bartling (5.0)
 Charles Bond (7.0)
 George Burgard (10.0)
 Robert Hedman (6.0)
 David Lee "Tex" Hill (10.25)
 Frank Lawlor (7.0)
 Robert Little (10.0)
 William McGarry (8.0)
 Robert Neale (13.0)
 John Newkirk (7.0)
 Charles Older (10.0)
 Edmund Overend (5.0)
 Robert Prescott (5.5)
 Joseph Camille Rosbert (6.0)
 Richard Rossi (6.0)
 Robert Sandell (5.0)
 Robert H. Smith (5.0)
 Robert T. Smith (8.9 kills)

References 

World War II
United States military aircraft
United States Army
United States Navy
United States Marine Corps
Shusha () is a city in Azerbaijan. The city is a major centre of Azerbaijani culture and music.

History  
Shusha was founded in 1750-1752 by Panah-Ali khan Javanshir (r. 1748-1763), the founder and the first ruler of the Karabakh Khanate (Qarabağ xanlığı - in Azerbaijani). The first capital of the Karabakh khanate was the castle of Bayat, built in 1748 in the district of Kebirli. However, soon afterwards Panah Ali khan realized that in order to secure himself and his newly established khanate from external threats, he needed to build a new more reliable castle. Shusha was turned into the capital of the Karabakh khanate.

Shusha was a popular mountainous-climatic recreation resort in Azerbaijan.

On May 8, 1992, the city was captured by the Armenian forces and all of the city's predominantly Azerbaijani population was either expelled or killed.

References

Other websites 
 Shusha: from A to Z
 Shusha by Travel-images.com
 Shusha – the town of the dead. Photo-report.

Caucasus
Cities in Azerbaijan
Districts of Azerbaijan
Settlements in Azerbaijan
Nagorno-Karabakh Republic
1750s establishments
Establishments in Azerbaijan
Doritos ,pronounced  as (),os  a brand of flavored corn (maize) tortilla chip snack. They have been made by the American food company Frito-Lay since 1966. They come in different flavors, including Nacho Cheese and Cool Ranch. They may be eaten with a dip such as salsa. They are made with varying vegetables and are not fruit products.

Other websites 
 Doritos America 
 Doritos Canada
 Doritos China 
 Pepsico France 
 Doritos Australia
 Doritos Scotland
 Doritos Germany 
 Nutrition facts

Snack foods
The AIM-9 Sidewinder is a short-range air-to-air missile, which means it is shot from an aircraft and is supposed to hit an aircraft. It is heat seeking, which means it locks on to heat. It first flew in 1953, and went into air forces in 1956. It was used during the Vietnam War along with the AIM-7 Sparrow, but was not good. At the time, it would hit only 10-20% of the time, and could be fooled. Sometimes it could lock on to the sun or other bogus heat source and not an enemy airplane.

The problems were later fixed, and the new Sidewinders have a good hitting rate. It is in a lot of air forces. The missile can hit from 11 miles. It is very often on many different aircraft around the world today.

References 

Missiles
Air force
Military aviation
The x-intercept of a line on a graph is where the line touches (intercepts) the x-axis.

Related pages
 y-intercept
 Algebra

Mathematics
Liberty means the condition in which an individual has the ability to act following his or her own will and alternatively, achieve their potential, within the context of other words like political freedom.  It is a term that has contested meanings.

Communism and socialism claim to have something defined as liberty for them because of their social equality ideals. Libertarians and classical liberals think communism is against Liberty because communism is most of the times against the individual basic rights (life, freedom and property).

Classical liberalism conceptions of liberty conceive mainly of the freedom of the individual from outside compulsion in terms of freedom from restraint and social liberalist perspective, on the other hand, highlights the need for social and economic equality, as in the power and resources to fulfill one's potential.  As such, a social liberalist connects liberty (i.e. freedom) to the equal distribution of political power (i.e. democracy) in the sense of positive liberty. They argue that liberty without equality means the domination of the most powerful. Thus, freedom and democracy are seen as connected and ultimately, antagonistic.

John Stuart Mill, in his work, On Liberty, was the first to recognize the difference between liberty as the freedom to act and liberty as not being forced to do something.  Mill also sought to define the "nature and limits of the power which can be legitimately exercised by society over the individual” and as such, he describes an inherent and continuous antagonism between liberty and authority and thus, the prevailing question becomes "how to make the fitting adjustment between individual independence and social control".

Types of freedom 
There are mainly nine types of Freedom. They are:

Freedom of association
Freedom of belief
Freedom of speech
Freedom to express oneself
Freedom of the press
Freedom to choose one's state in life
Freedom of religion
Freedom from bondage and slavery
Freedom of education
However, the civil constitutions of each country have different definitions of the freedoms allowed to the citizens. It has been argued that any law limits freedom, since it sets limits on what people may do.

Related pages
 Human rights
 Justice
 Constitutional economics
 Universal Declaration of Human Rights
 European Convention on Human Rights

References

Human issues
Philosophy
Freedom
Politics
Dignity in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or esteem.

"All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood".
Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights

It is easy to show that many societies do not agree with this in practice. The civilised Greeks and Romans regarded other races as barbarians. A shocking example was Aristotle's advice to Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.p58 Many societies based on religion have treated persons of other religions harshly, with little dignity. And sometimes political movements have deliberately and openly talked about and treated some groups as not having human dignity. Nazi treatment of the Jews came after a long period of propaganda against their humanity and dignity.

Related pages
 Human rights
 Pride

References

Other websites
Dignity, article from Parenting For Everyone
Respect at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 Emotional Competency Entry describing Dignity.

Human issues
Virtues
Dignity in humans involves the earning or the expectation of personal respect or of esteem.

Dignity could also mean:

In music:
 "Dignity" (Deacon Blue song), a song by Deacon Blue on their 1987 album Raintown
 "Dignity" (Bob Dylan song), a song by Bob Dylan on his 1994 album Bob Dylan's Greatest Hits Volume 3
 Dignity (album), a 2007 album by Hilary Duff
 "Dignity" (Hilary Duff song), a song by Hilary Duff on the album
 The Dignity of Labour, a 1979 album by The Human League
 Dignity and Shame, a 2005 album by Crooked Fingers

Concepts:
 Dignitas, an ancient Roman political idea to do with the influence of a citizen
 Dignitatis Humanae, the Second Vatican Council's Declaration on religious freedom
 Four Dignities of Shambhala Buddhism

Relating to non-governmental organisations:
 Dignitas International, a medical humanitarian organisation that aims to increase access to life-saving treatment and prevention in areas overwhelmed by HIV/AIDS
 Dignité (Centrale des Syndicats Libres de Côte d'Ivoire), a trade union centre in the Côte d'Ivoire, Africa
 DignityUSA, an organisation that works for 'respect and justice' for LGBT people in the Catholic Church in the USA. It is an organization of lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender Catholics
 Dignity Village, a collective of homeless people that have created a shanty town near Oregon, USA

Political Parties:
 Dignity for Disabled, a minor South Australian political party
 Dignity, Democracy, Motherland, a minor Armenian political party
 Dignity (Ar-Namys) Party, a major political party of Kyrgyzstan

Dignity may also refer to:
 Dignity Battalions, paramilitary combatants under the Manuel Noriega Regime in Panama in the 1980s
 Dignity plc, a major UK funeral company formed by a management buyout of the UK interests of Service Corporation International