cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Optimus Prime, known in Japan as Convoy, is a character from the Transformers franchise. Prime is the leader of the Autobots, a group of transforming robots from the planet of Cybertron. The Autobots are constantly at war with another group of transforming robots called Decepticons. According to Bob Budiansky, co-writer of the Transformers series, Dennis O'Neil made his name. In the 1986 animated film Transformers: The Movie, he is killed by his arch nemesis Megatron, who is the leader of the Decepticons. He is voiced by Peter Cullen.

Generation 1 
In the Transfotmers Generation 1 cartoon series, Optimus was originally a naive and defenceless dock worker named Orion Pax. Some time later, Orion was killed by Megatron and rebuilt by Alpha Trion as Optimus Prime.

Films 
In the films, Optimus does not have his original Generation 1 look or voice due to the fact they were not based on the cartoon series. In Transformers (2007), Revenge of the Fallen and Dark of the Moon, he had his original body, the one from the 2007 film. In Age of Extinction, Optimus appears battle damaged but was revealed to have been hiding from humans with the other Autobots, according to his friend Ratchet. In the movie, he was given a new look after being fixed by a human named Cade Yeager. In The Last Knight, Optimus is seen floating around in space after running low on Energon, a source of energy that transformers run on. When he appears on Cybertron, Optimus had no memory of what had happened to Cybertron, which had imploded on itself in Transformers: Dark of the Moon. In the film, Optimus is brainwashed by Quintessa, the prime of life and turned into Nemesis Prime. He also has the look he had in Transformers: Age of Extinction.

References

Bibliography

Other websites
 
 
 Pages on Optimus Prime at the Transformers Wiki

Fictional characters introduced in 1984
Transformers (franchise)
A comic strip is a series of panels with cartoon drawings in them that make a story. Sometimes comic strips are humorous, and sometimes they are serious. Famous examples of comic strips are:

Peanuts by Charles Schulz
Calvin and Hobbes by Bill Watterson.
Motley's Crew by Ben Templeton and Tom Forman
Between Friends by Sandra Bell-Lundy
The Adventures of Tintin by Herge
Garfield by Jim Davis
Big Nate by Lincoln Peirce

There are comic strips in newspapers and on the web. Comic strips on the web are called webcomics. Penny Arcade and xkcd are famous webcomics.

Art
ScotRail was a train operating company in the United Kingdom owned by Abellio operating the ScotRail franchise.

History

National Express operated the ScotRail franchise from March 1997 until October 2004.

On July 28 2003 Transport Scotland announced Arriva, First and National Express had been chosen to bid for the new franchise.

On June 11 2004 Transport Scotland awarded the new franchise to First with the services operated by ScotRail moving to First ScotRail on October 17 2004. It originally traded as First ScotRail before being rebranded as ScotRail in September 2008.

On October 8 2014, Abellio were awarded the franchise beating First. They started running the trains in April 2015.

References

Transport in Scotland
Rail transport in the United Kingdom
First Group railway companies
Train operating companies
Companies of Scotland
The Vijayanagara empire was an Indian empire. From 1336 and afterwards, it was in the Deccan, in the peninsula and in southern India. It was founded by Harihara (Hakka) and his brother Bukka Raya.  The empire is named after its capital city Vijayanagara, now Hampi in modern Karnataka, India.  It began in 1336 and ended in 1660, though in its last century it began losing its power. Stories of the empire's creation and history are not certain, though tales of the empire's wealth and power were described by European travellers such as the Portuguese travelers Domingo Paes and Nuniz, and the Venetian traveler Niccolò Da Conti.

Dynasties and kings 
This list is based on the book by Robert Sewell (A Forgotten Empire).

Sangama Dynasty
Harihara I (Deva Raya) 	1336-1343/56(some accounts claim that there was brief period of other ruler probably a 3rd brother)
Bukka I	1343/56-1379
Harihara II	1379-1399
Bukka II	1399-1406
Deva Raya I	1406-1412
Vira Vijaya	1412-1419
Deva Raya II	1419-1444
(unknown)	1444-1449
Mallikarjuna	1452-1465	(Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara	1468-1469	(Dates uncertain)
Virupaksha I	1470-1471	(Dates uncertain)
Praudha Deva Raya	1476-?	(Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara	1479-1480	(Dates uncertain)
Virupaksha II	1483-1484	(Dates uncertain)
Rajasekhara	1486-1487	(Dates uncertain)

Saluva Dynasty
Narasimha	1490-?
Narasa (Vira Narasimha)	?-1509
Krishna Deva 	1509-1529
Achyuta	1529-1542
Sadasiva (puppet ruler in the hands of Ram Raya)	1542-1567

Tuluva dynasty
Rama (ruled in practice)	1542-1565
Tirumala (ruled in practice)	1565-1567
Tirumala (crowned ruler)	1567-1575
Ranga II	1575-1586
Venkata I	1586-1614

Aravidu (dates are not known), includes these rulers. There is certainly more than one ruler under each name. 
Ranga
Venkata
Rama

Other websites
 History of Karnataka - Mr. Arthikaje
 Indian Inscriptions - Archeological Survery Of India
 A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar: A Contribution to the History of India
 http://freeindia.org/biographies/greatlkings/hakkabukka/index.htm(Biography of Hakka and Bukka.) 
 Vijayanagar Empire, Dr. Jyotsna Kamat
 Hampi - History and Tourism

History of India
Empires
1336 establishments
1660 disestablishments
14th-century establishments in India
Disestablishments in India
The Hoysala Empire (Kannada: ಹೊಯ್ಸಳ) was an Indian empire. It controlled part of southern India from 1000 to 1346 A.D. Belur, Karnataka was the empire's capital. The Hoysala Empire is remembered today mostly because of its architecture. The hundreds of temples found across Karnataka are good examples of temples that were in the cities of Belur, Halebid and Somnathpura. The Hoysala kings were affected by Jainism and Hinduism. King Vishnuvardhana and the kings after him believed in Vaishnavism.

In the beginning, the Hoysalas were a small part of the Chalukyas of Kalyani. However, they began to grow until they made their own empire in Karnataka. The Hoysala period is known as one of the best times in the history of Karnataka, next only to the Vijayanagara Empire. Some famous Hoysala kings were Vishnuvardhana, Veera Ballala II and Veera Ballala III. Kannada was the main language of the Hoysala kings. The Hoysalas helped to increase Kannada and Sanskrit writing.

Kings 
 Nripa Kama (1000 - 1045) 
 Vinayaditya (1045 - 1098) 
 Ereyanga (1098 - 1100) 
 Veera Ballala I (1100 -1108) 
 Vishnuvardhana (1108 - 1152) 
 Narasimha I (1152 – 1173) 
 Veera Ballala II (1173 – 1220) 
 Narasimha II (1220 – 1235) 
 Vira Someshwara (1235 – 1253) 
 Narasimha III (1253 – 1292) 
 Ramanatha (1253 – 1295) 
 Veera Ballala III (1292 – 1342)

Other websites 
 www.hoysala.in  
 More on Hoysala art and architecture by Dr. Jyothsna Kamat
 History of Karnataka by Mr Arthikaje
 South Indian Inscriptions Archeological Survey of India (vols 9, 15,17,18)
 Hoysala Tourism

History of India
Empires
10th-century establishments in Asia
1000 establishments
1346 disestablishments
Establishments in India
Disestablishments in India
1340s disestablishments in Asia
Macedonia (Greek: Μακεδονία) or Macedon was an Ancient Greek kingdom of the Archaic and Classical Greece, and later the most powerful state of Hellenistic Greece. The kingdom was established and was at first ruled by the royal Argead dynasty, which was followed by the Antipatrid and Antigonid dynasties. Home to the ancient Macedonians, the earliest kingdom was centered on the northeastern part of the Greek peninsula, and bordered by Epirus to the west, Paeonia to the north, Thrace to the east and Thessaly to the south.

Alexander the Great made it the most powerful kingdom in the Near East for a few years. When he died the empire fell apart and the Antigonid dynasty ruled Macedonia as a small empire. Centuries later the Roman Empire conquered Macedonia and much of Alexander's empire.

Kings

Argead dynasty 
 Karanus 808-778 BC
 Koinos
 Tyrimmas
 Perdiccas I 700-678 BC
 Argaeus I 678-640 BC
 Philip I 640-602 BC
 Aeropus I 602-576 BC
 Alcetas I 576-547 BC
 Amyntas I 547-498 BC
 Alexander I 498-454 BC
 Perdiccas II 454-413 BC
 Archelaus 413-399 BC
 Craterus 399 BC
 Orestes 399-396 BC
 Archelaus II 396-393 BC
 Amyntus II 393 BC
 Pausanias 393 BC
 Amyntas III 393 BC
 Argaeus II 393-392 BC
 Amyntas III (restored) 392-370 BC
 Alexander II 370-368 BC
 Ptolemy I 368-365 BC
 Perdiccas III 365-359 BC
 Amyntas IV 359-356 BC
 Philip II 359-336 BC
 Alexander III (the Great) 336-323 BC
 Antipater, Regent of Macedon 334-319 BC
 Philip III Arrhidaeus 323-317 BC
 Alexander IV 323-310 BC
 Perdiccas, Regent of Macedon 323-321 BC
 Antipater, Regent of Macedon 321-319 BC
 Polyperchon, Regent of Macedon 319-317 BC
 Cassander, Regent of Macedon 317-306 BC

Antipatrid dynasty 
 Cassander 306-297 BC
 Philip IV 297-296 BC
 Alexander V 296-294 BC
 Antipater II 296-294 BC

Antigonid dynasty 
 Demetrius I Poliorcetes 294-288 BC
 Lysimachus (divided with Pyrrhus of Epirus) 288-281 BC
 Pyrrhus of Epirus (divided with Lysimachus) 288-285 BC
 Ptolemy II Ceraunus 281-279 BC
 Meleager 279 BC
 Antipater II Etesias 279 BC
 Sosthenes (Army Commander) 279-277 BC
 Antigonus II Gonatas 277-274 BC
 Pyrrhus of Epirus (restored) 274-272 BC
 Antigonus II Gonatas (restored) 272-239 BC
 Demetrius II Aetolicus 239-229 BC
 Antigonus III Doson 229-221 BC
 Philip V 221-179 BC
 Perseus 179-168 BC

References

Books 
 Eugene N. Borza: Before Alexander: constructing early Macedonia. Claremont, CA: Regina Books, 1999. Pp. 89.  (pb)
 Review by Konrad H. Kinzl (Trent University) 
 Robin Lane Fox, Alexander the Great, Penguin Books, 1973,  (pb).
 Nicholas G. L. Hammond, The Macedonian State, Oxford University Press, 1989, . Pg. 12-13.

Other websites 
 History of Macedon
 Ancient Macedonia at Macedonia, The Historical Profile, by D. Pandermalis, 
 Ancient Macedonia  at Livius, by Jona Lendering
 History of Macedonia through ages
 Selian Е. The Mystery of the Name “Macedon”. In: American Chronicle, June 2009 

History of Greece
Empires]
History of India
Burger King (often just called BK) is a chain of fast food restaurant that comes from the United States. It sells hamburgers, French fries, and soft drink. It was created in 1954 in Miami, Florida, by James McLamore and David Edgerton. Edgerton bought a restaurant named Insta Burger King and changed it to Burger King. More than 34 thousand people work for the company.

There are more than 15,000 Burger King restaurants world-wide in 100 countries, and almost all of them are franchises. But in Australia, since the name "Burger King" was already trademarked there, BK franchises there are called Hungry Jack's.

Burger King is owned mostly by 3G Capital, a Brazilian investment company. But it is also owned by shareholders and used to publicly trade on the New York Stock Exchange under the ticker BKW. In 2014, the chain's operations was merged with that of Tim Hortons from Canada, under the name Restaurant Brands International (). Burger King is an American global chain of hamburger fast food restaurants. Headquartered in the unincorporated area of Miami-Dade County, Florida, the company was founded in 1953 as Insta-Burger King, a Jacksonville, Florida–based restaurant chain.

References

Other websites 
Official website

1954 establishments in the United States
1950s establishments in Florida
American fast food restaurants
Companies based in Miami, Florida
The Argead dynasty (Greek: , ) was an ancient Macedonian royal house. They were the founders and the ruling dynasty of the kingdom of Macedon from about 700 to 310 BC.  From about 700 BC the founder of the dynasty, Perdiccas I, led the people who called themselves Macedonians eastward from their home on the Haliacmon River. Aegae (today Vergina) became the capital, and by the reign of Amyntas I (6th century BC) Macedonian power extended eastward beyond the Axius (Axiós) River to dominate the neighbouring Thracian tribes. 

People of the Argead royal house supposedly believed they were descended of Heracles' family. Famous kings included Philip II of Macedon (reigned 359-336 BC) who subdued Greece and famously united the defeated Greek city states as the League of Corinth with the Macedonians as Hegemon, and his son Alexander the Great (reigned 336–323 BC) who led his army along with allied armies to conquer much of the known world at the time, creating a vast Empire stretching from Macedonia and Greece, to Egypt, and the Indus River, also defeating the Persian Achaemenid Empire. 

The Argead family dynasty ended during the wars of the Diadochi when Alexander IV of Macedon and his mother Roxana were murdered.

List of Kings 
 Karanus of Macedon
 Koinos of Macedon
 Tyrimmas of Macedon
 Perdiccas I of Macedon 700-678 BC
 Argaeus I of Macedon 678-640 BC
 Philip I of Macedon 640-602 BC
 Aeropus I of Macedon 602-576 BC
 Alcetas I of Macedon 576-547 BC
 Amyntas I of Macedon 547-498 BC
 Alexander I of Macedon 498-454 BC
 Perdiccas II of Macedon 454-413 BC
 Archelaus I of Macedon 413-399 BC
 Craterus of Macedon 399 BC
 Orestes of Macedon 399-396 BC
 Archelaus II of Macedon 396-393 BC
 Amyntas II of Macedon 393 BC
 Pausanias of Macedon 393 BC
 Amyntas III of Macedon 393 BC
 Argaeus II of Macedon 393-392 BC
 Amyntas III of Macedon (restored) 392-370 BC
 Alexander II of Macedon 370-368 BC
 Ptolemy I of Macedon 368-365 BC
 Perdiccas III of Macedon 365-359 BC
 Amyntas IV of Macedon 359 BC
 Philip II of Macedon 359-336 BC
 Alexander the Great (Alexander III of Macedon) 336-323 BC
 Philip III of Macedon 323-317 BC (supposedly)
 Alexander IV of Macedon 323-309 BC (supposedly)

References

Other websites 
 List of the Kings of Macedonia

Ancient Greece
Royal dynasties
The Antipatrid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty. It was created by Cassander in 302 BC, who was the son of Antipater. However it was not a long dynasty. It ended in 294 BC when it was taken over by the Antigonid dynasty.

Kings
Cassander (302-297 BC)
Alexander V of Macedon (297-296 BC)
Philip IV of Macedon (296-294 BC)
Antipater II of Macedon (296-294, 279 BC)
Sosthenes of Macedon (279-277 BC)

Other websites
 List of the Kings of Macedonia

References 
Ancient Greece
Royal dynasties
The Antigonid dynasty was a Macedonian dynasty. The kings were part of the family of Alexander the Great's general Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-eyed"). The dynasty ended when the Roman Empire conquered the area after the Battle of Pydna in 168 BC.

Kings
Demetrius I Poliorcetes (294 BC – 287 BC)
Antigonus II Gonatas (276 BC – 239 BC)
Demetrius II (239 BC – 229 BC)
Antigonus III Doson (229 BC – 221 BC)
Philip V (221 BC – 179 BC)
Perseus (179 BC – 168 BC)

Ancient Greece
Royal dynasties
Radar is a machine that uses radio waves for echolocation to find objects such as aircraft, ships, and rain. 

The basic parts of a radar are:
 The transmitter creates the radio waves.
 The antenna directs the radio waves. 
 The receiver measures the waves which are bounced back by the object. 

By doing this, the radar can locate the object. Radar is used in many different ways. It can measure the speed and number of cars on a road, the amount of water in the air, and many other things. 

Radar was first used in 1904 by Christian Hülsmeyer. He was given a patent for radar (Reichspatent Nr. 165546). Radar was vital in the Battle of Britain and other parts of World War II. The Axis countries failed to keep up with British and American radar technology during the war.

The word RADAR was created in 1942 as an acronym for Radio Detection and Ranging. This acronym replaced the British initialism RDF (Radio Direction Finding). The word is now thought of by many people as a regular word, no longer as an acronym. 

The FAA (Federal Aviation Administration) use several kinds of radar:
 ARSR (Air Route Surveillance Radar)
 ASR (Airport Surveillance Radar)
 ASDE (Airport Surface Detection Equipment)
 TDWR (Terminal Doppler Weather Radar)
 PAR (Precision Approach Radar)

References

Other websites 

 Radar Technology Website
 The first operational radar in France 1934
 Applications of radar 

Electronics
Wave physics
Acronyms
Aviation safety
Navigation
GameSpot is a website that was created in June 1996 by Pete Deemer, Vince Broady and Jon Epstein.

History 
In the beginning the website was mainly about PC games. Another similar site, videogamespot.com was created in December of the same year to talk about console video game systems. In 1997, videogamespot.com became videogames.com for a short time. Afterward in 1998, videogames.com and GameSpot.com joined together to become a single site.

GameSpot makes video game and PC reviews, previews, downloads, news, and information. It is known as one of the biggest game websites on the Internet. ZDNet bought GameSpot later on. However ZDNet was later bought by CNET Networks, who were then bought by CBS Corporation in March 2008.  CBS Interactive are the current owners of GameSpot.

On October 3, 2005, GameSpot changed how the website looked, making it similar to what TV.com looks like.

References

Other websites 
 

Websites
Olive is a color which looks like green or yellow. (when gray or black is added to yellow, the various shades of the color olive are produced).  Some dark shades of olive can also be made by mixing a darker color (like brown) with green.

The most common place you will find the color olive is on an olive. It is the color of the outside of an olive. An olive's center is usually brown or sometimes orange or red.

There is a mineral called olivine that is colored a pale olive color.

Meaning of olive 
 Olive drab is one of the colors used for Sofia and camouflage in the military.
 Olive is one of the colors used in fashion when a conservative, moderate color is desired.
 Olive or earls green is sometimes used for showing vomit in animated films.

Tones of olive color comparison chart

Related pages
 List of colors
Events
 Constantine III seizes control of the Roman garrison in Britain, declares himself emperor, and crosses into Gaul.
 August 22, 408 – Stilicho, military power behind the imperial throne, is executed. The Roman military is leaderless for several years until Constantius III becomes patrician.
 Construction (and therefore occupation) at Great Zimbabwe begins.
 Validity limit for the information on Eastern Roman Empire in the Notitia Dignitatum.
South Asia (or Southern Asia) is the southern part of the continent of Asia. It is also known as Indian subcontinent. 
There are 8 countries in this region.  It is surrounded by (clockwise) West Asia, Central Asia, Eastern Asia, Southeastern Asia and the Indian Ocean.  Major countries in this part of the world are as follows:
 Afghanistan
 Bangladesh  
 Bhutan 
 India
 Maldives 
 Nepal
 Pakistan 
 Sri Lanka 

The natural resource most used by the people is the rich land. Most of the people living there are farmers. They produce lots of cashews, rice, peanuts, sesame seeds, and tea. Lots of natural gas are there, but these resources are usually underdeveloped. Many people there raise cattle and sheep. The cattle are raised for their milk or to carry things in Hindu areas. In India, the cattle are very important to the environment because the manure is a fertilizer for agriculturists.

The climate of South Asia can be divided into three basic kinds: tropical, dry, and temperate. The northeast is from tropical to subtropical (temperate). Moving west the moisture and elevation change, causing a steppe and a desert climate that is like the Middle East. There is also a part of steppe climate in the center of the lower peninsula. Two parts of the South Asia climate especially affect the people. One like the monsoons. These changing winds bring lots of the area's rain, so when they do not come early, the land becomes very dry. Hurricanes also happen every year and sometimes destroy many things. In the extreme north of India and Pakistan, the climate is affected by the mountains. There is a mild climate near the Indus river where farmers grow crops like rice and tea.

Related pages 
 Central Asia
 East Asia
 Southeast Asia
 West Asia
 Indian subcontinent

References

Other websites
Thermodynamics is a branch of physics that studies the movement of heat between different objects. Thermodynamics also studies the change in pressure and volume of objects. A branch of math called statistics is often used in thermodynamics to look at the motion of particles. 

Thermodynamics is useful because it helps us understand how the world of the very small atoms connects to the large scale world we see everyday. 

Thermodynamics also has two main branches called classical thermodynamics and statistical thermodynamics. An important idea in thermodynamics is that of a thermodynamic system.

An example of a thermodynamic system is a brick. A brick is made up of many atoms which all have their own properties. All thermodynamic systems have two kinds of properties, extensive and intensive. For the brick, the extensive properties are the ones you get by adding up all the atoms. Things like the volume, energy, mass, and charge are extensive because two of the same brick put together have twice as much mass as one brick. The intensive properties of the brick are the ones you get by looking at the average over all atoms. Things like temperature, pressure, and density are intensive because two of the same brick still has the same temperature as one brick alone.

Laws of thermodynamics 
There are four laws of thermodynamics that say how energy can be moved between two objects in the form of heat. 

 Zeroth law of thermodynamics
If two systems have equal heat flow back and forth and one of the two systems has equal heat flow back and forth with another system, all three systems have equal heat flow with each other.

 First law of thermodynamics

An increase in energy in a system is the same as the energy given to a system in the form of heat or work.  Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only changed.  The amount of energy given to a system is the same amount of energy taken from the surroundings.

 Second law of thermodynamics
Given a pair of systems touching with different temperatures, heat will flow from hot to cold until the temperature of the systems becomes equal.

 Third law of thermodynamics
When a system has a temperature of 0 kelvin, absolute zero (the lowest temperature), the entropy (energy that cannot be used to do work) is at 0.

Uses of thermodynamics 

Earlier, thermodynamics was studied to make steam engines work better. Now, ideas from thermodynamics are used in everything from making engines to studying black holes.

Scientists use thermodynamics  for many reasons. One is to make better engines and refrigerators. Another is to understand the properties of everyday materials so that they can make them stronger in the future. Thermodynamics is also used in chemistry to explain which reactions will work and which will not (this study is known as chemical kinetics). Thermodynamics is powerful because simple models for atoms work well in explaining the properties of large systems like bricks.

References

Related pages

 Physics
Dinah Washington (born Ruth Lee Jones August 24, 1924 - December 14, 1963) was an American R&B and jazz singer. She was an African American who was born in Tuscaloosa, Alabama and raised in Chicago. She died of an accidental drug overdose in Detroit.

Other websites
http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc19767/m1/

1924 births
1963 deaths
Accidental deaths in the United States
African American musicians
American jazz musicians
Drug-related accidental deaths
Singers from Alabama
Singers from Chicago
People from Tuscaloosa, Alabama
The adrenal gland is a gland in most mammals. It is near the kidneys. Its name tells its position (ad – "near", and renes – "kidneys"). The gland is made up of two types of tissues: the centrally located tissue is called the adrenal medulla and outside this lies the adrenal cortex.

The adrenal glands are known as "suprarenal glands" in humans. In many animals the glands are next to the kidneys, but they are cap-like structures on top of the kidneys in humans.

The adrenal cortex produces three main types of steroid hormones: mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. Mineralocorticoids (such as aldosterone) help in the regulation of blood pressure and electrolyte balance.

The adrenal gland makes hormones which control stress. It is involved in the production of steroid hormones. Among these hormones are cortisol and adrenaline.

Cortex 

The hormones secreted from the cortex region are called adrenocorticosteroids or corticoids. These are the hormones it makes:

Corticosteroids: all corticosteroids are made from cholesterol.
Cortisol / cortisone. These two are in a reversible reaction: they can be changed to each other by an enzyme. Cortisol is the active version, cortisone is the inactive version.
Aldosterone: a hormone which regulates blood pressure.
Androgens: these are intermediate male sex hormones. They are turned into more active hormones in the testes.

Medulla 
The adrenal medulla, in the center of the gland, makes:
Adrenaline (U.S = Epinephrine) and noradrenaline (U.S. = norepinephrine): they make the fight or flight response in animals.

References 

Glands
Endocrine system
Cowboy is a broad term for men who work on ranches. The word "cowboy" was used in England in the early 19th century but its use in the late 19th century in North America comes from the Spanish word vaquero.  The cowboy has deep historic roots tracing back to Spain and the earliest European settlers of the Americas. In the United States the Native Americans and cowboys have a rich history, Still today, Native American cowboys are making a big impact in the world of rodeo.  

Over the centuries Movies about cowboys are often called western movies. Movies often show them as fighting rather than working. Cowboys can be recognized by their big brown hats and lassos. Men who do similar work in Australia are called "stockmen." 

Common clothing includes a belt with a big buckle, a cowboy hat, a lasso, a buttoned polo shirt, chaps, boots, and sometimes include another belt for carrying things while riding a horse.

Job 
A Cowboy is simply a person who works on a ranch and rides on a horse while he herds cattle. However, on the modern day ranch, the job has evolved into more duties such as branding, fencing, hay production, and machine and animal maintenance. Cowboys are also gunfighters, a lawman, outlaw, or a shooting exhibitionist, but was more commonly a hired gun who made a living with his weapons in the Old West.

In American culture

In American culture, the idea of cowboys is of freedom and independence.  It is part of the myth of the Wild West. In movies and other stories, white actors usually play cowboys, for example Clint Eastwood and John Wayne.  In real life, many cowboys of the 1800s were black or Latino.

The fictional cowboy called Sheriff Woody is played by Tom Hanks.

In British culture

In Britain, a "cowboy" is someone who charges money but is unskilled.  For example a "cowboy roofer" is someone who offers to fix a roof but does not know how to fix roofs.

Related pages
Western (genre)

References

Occupations
Janet Reno (June 21, 1938 – November 7, 2016) was the United States Attorney General from 1993 to 2001, under President Bill Clinton. She was the first woman to ever have this job.

Reno died on November 7, 2016 from complications of Parkinson's disease, aged 78.

References

1938 births
2016 deaths
Cornell University alumni
Politicians from Miami, Florida
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
United States Attorneys General
US Democratic Party politicians
Lawyers from Miami, Florida
Events 
 January 4 – Christopher Columbus leaves the New World.
 March 15 – Christopher Columbus returns to Spain after his first trip to the Americas.
 July 28 – Great fire in Moscow.
 September 9 – Battle of Krbava field between defending Croatian nobles and invading Ottoman Turk forces.
 November 19 – Christopher Columbus goes ashore on an island he saw for the first time only the day before. He names it San Juan Bautista (later renamed Puerto Rico).
 December 23 – Georg Alt's German translation of Hartmann Schedel's Nuremberg Chronicle is published.
Events 
 January 6 – Archbishop Jakub Świnka orders all priests subject to his bishopry in Poland to deliver sermons in Polish rather than German, thus further unifying the Catholic Church in Poland and fostering a national identity.
 April 25 – Mamluk sultan Qalawun begins a siege of the Crusader fortress of Margat (in present-day Syria), a major stronghold of the Knights Hospitaller thought to be impregnable; he captures the fortress a month later.
 September 4 – Roger of Lauria defeats King Philip III of France in a naval battle off of Barcelona.
 The writ Circumspecte Agatis, issued by King Edward I of England, defines the jurisdictions of church and state in England, thereby limiting the church's judicial powers to ecclesiastical cases only.
 The Second statute of Westminster is passed in England, reforming various laws; it includes the famous clause de donis conditionalibus, considered one of the fundamental institutes of medieval law in England.
 The English romantic poem The Lay of Havelok the Dane is written (approximate date).
 Tran Hung Dao leads Vietnamese forces in victory over an invading Yuan dynasty Mongol army.
Baptism is a rite or ceremony performed by most Christian churches and denominations. It is done as a cleansing symbol. It shows that the person being baptized has become a follower of Jesus, and it can represent the joining of the Christian family.

Methods
Roman Catholicism baptize infants to mark their becoming members of the church. It is a sacrament usually performed by a priest. In most other churches, it is when the person is old enough to decide that they are ready.

Some religious groups practice baptism by sprinkling a small amount of water on the person, usually their head. Other groups use full immersion, dipping the whole person in the water.

Bible times
In the Old Testament, a similar washing ceremony was done when priests were ordained. Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist before he began his ministry. The usual form of baptism among the earliest Christians was for the person to be immersed totally or partially. But sprinkling, or pouring, was also practiced at an early day with sick and dying persons when total or partial immersion was not practical.

Other websites 
 "Baptism." Encyclopedia Britannica Online.

References 

Sacraments
There are many people in China, more than in any other country. They all have many different cultures, histories and beliefs. The Chinese government officially says there are 56 nationalities. They are called  zú or  mínzú in China. Of these, almost all of them (about 90%) are Han people (汉族 : Hàn Zú). The rest of these nationalities (called "ethnic minorities"), from biggest to smallest in population, are: 

 Zhuang (壮族 : Zhuàng Tû
 Manchu (满族 : Mǎn Zú)
 Hui (回族 : Huí Zú)
 Miao (苗族 : Miáo Zú) (Hmong)
 Uyghur (维吾尔族 : Wéiwúěr Zú)
 Yi (彝族 : Yí Zú)
 Tujia (土家族 : Tǔjiā Zú)
 Mongol (蒙古族 : Měnggǔ Zú)
 Tibetan (藏族 : Zàng Zú)
 Buyei (布依族 : Bùyī Zú)
 Dong (侗族 : Dòng Zú)
 Yao (瑶族 : Yáo Zú)
 Korean (朝鲜族 : Cháoxiǎn Zú)
 Bai (白族 : Bái Zú)
 Hani (哈尼族 : Hāní Zú)
 Li (黎族 : Lí Zú), also called Hlai in the ethnic group's language.
 Kazak (哈萨克族 : Hāsàkè Zú)
 Dai (傣族 : Dǎi Zú, also called Dai Lue, one of the Tai ethnic groups)
 She (畲族 : Shē Zú)
 Lisu (傈僳族 : Lìsù Zú)
 Gelao (仡佬族 : Gēlǎo Zú)
 Lahu (拉祜族 : Lāhù Zú)
 Dongxiang (东乡族 : Dōngxiāng Zú)
 Va (佤族 : Wǎ Zú) (Va)
 Sui (水族 : Shuǐ Zú)
 Naxi (纳西族 : Nàxī Zú) (includes the Mosuo (摩梭 : Mósuō))
 Qiang (羌族 : Qiāng Zú)
 Tu (土族 : Tǔ Zú)
 Xibe (锡伯族 : Xíbó Zú)
 Mulao (仫佬族 : Mùlǎo Zú)
 Kirgiz (柯尔克孜族 : Kēěrkèzī Zú)
 Daur (达斡尔族 : Dáwòěr Zú)
 Jingpo (景颇族 : Jǐngpō Zú)
 Salar (撒拉族 : Sǎlá Zú)
 Blang (布朗族 : Bùlǎng Zú)
 Maonan (毛南族 : Màonán Zú)
 Tajik (塔吉克族 : Tǎjíkè Zú)
 Pumi (普米族 : Pǔmǐ Zú)
 Achang (阿昌族 : Āchāng Zú)
 Nu (怒族 : Nù Zú)
 Ewenki (鄂温克族 : Èwēnkè Zú)
 Gin (京族 : Jīng Zú), meaning Vietnamese or Kinh people.
 Jino (基诺族 : Jīnuò Zú)
 De'ang (德昂族 : Déáng Zú)
 Uzbek (乌孜别克族 : Wūzībiékè Zú)
 Russians (俄罗斯族 : Éluōsī Zú)
 Yugur (裕固族 : Yùgù Zú)
 Bonan (保安族 : Bǎoān Zú)
 Monba (门巴族 : Ménbā Zú)
 Oroqen (鄂伦春族 : Èlúnchūn Zú)
 Derung (独龙族 : Dúlóng Zú)
 Tatar (塔塔尔族 : Tǎtǎěr Zú)
 Hezhen (赫哲族 : Hèzhé Zú)
 Lhoba (珞巴族 : Luòbā Zú)
 Gaoshan (高山族 : Gāoshān Zú), meaning Taiwanese aborigines

China
The Shang Dynasty (existed from 1600BC - 1046BC) was the second dynasty in China following the Xia dynasty. Most of what we know about the Shang Dynasty is from reading pictures on oracle bones and bronze objects. A dynasty is a series of rulers which are considered to be part of the same family because they are ruling a country(s) over generations. According to tradition, the last Shang king was overthrown in 1046 BC. The succeeding dynasty was called the Zhou Dynasty.

Kings

References

Other websites 

Zhengzhou Shang City Site

 
 

Chinese dynasties
King Tang of Shang of China, in Chinese:"湯", born Zi Lu, in Chinese:"子履" (1617 BC - 1588 BC) was the first king of the Shang dynasty in Chinese history. He fought Jie, the last king of the Xia dynasty.

He was the leader of his tribe, or group of people,  for more than 17 years. While leader, he made many smart men officials to help fix his government. 

When he saw that the Xia Dynasty was starting to be weak, Tang started 16 wars fighting the Xia Dynasty, getting many lands. Tang finally defeated the dynasty in 1600bc.
 
Many people of his country thought he was a good leader.  He made taxes smaller and did not force his people to be soldiers for a long time. He affected many people from foreign places.

1617 BC births
1588 BC deaths

Kings of Shang Dynasty
King Bu Bing of Shang of China, in Chinese:"卜丙", born Zi Sheng, in Chinese:"子勝",.  He was the third king of the Shang Dynasty (1600 BC - 1046 BC). He was the second son of King Tang. 

In Records of the Grand Historian, he was recorded as the second king of the Shang Dynasty. In that book he is given the name "Wai Bing", in Chinese:"外丙". But in the oracle script, he was recorded as the third king of the Shang Dynasty. In these records his name is "Bu Bing",in Chinese:"卜丙".

Kings of Shang Dynasty
New Year's Eve is the holiday before New Year's Day, on December 31, the last day of the current year. 

Today, Western countries usually celebrate this day with a party which ends with a group countdown to midnight. Party hats, noisemakers, fire crackers and drinking champagne are fairly common during this holiday.

Many towns also have firework shows or other noisy ways to start the new year. Places like Berlin, Chicago, Edinburgh, Los Angeles, London, New York, Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Sydney, Toronto,  and Tokyo are well known for their New Year's Eve celebrations.

New Year's Eve is also a work holiday in some countries, such as Australia, Argentina, Brazil, France, Mexico, the Philippines, and Venezuela.

Related pages

 Chinese New Year
 Omisoka (Japan)
 Áramótaskaupið (Iceland)

Holidays
The Chen dynasty 陳朝 (557-589) was the fourth and the last of the southern dynasties in China.  It was an ethnic Han dynasty.

Few records survive from the time of the Chen dynasty.  However, the records that exist say that the dynasty was strong and rich. Legend says that the Chen dynasty had ten times more wealth than Europe at the time.  The Chen dynasty's rulers had a tax system and ruling system similar to the Kang-Qian 'flourishing age'.  (The Kang-Qian age was the last and richest Chinese feudal dynasty).

The Chen dynasty took in an enormous amount of silver, which was used as money at the time.  The records that still exist say that the dynasty had as much as 30 million taels of silver in their reserves.  (A silver tael weighed about 30 grams.)  During the Chen dynasty, there was also a huge demand for Chinese silk, spices, porcelain, artwork, and many other products.

In the year 589, the Sui dynasty took over the Chen dynasty after the last Chen Emperor abdicated (gave up his position as Emperor).

Kings

Chinese dynasties
557 establishments
589 disestablishments
6th-century establishments in Asia
Establishments in China
Disestablishments in China
Fighter aircraft are small military planes that are made to fight other airplanes. They are often fast, having aerodynamic shapes (shapes that make them move through air easily) and very powerful engines for their size. They also usually are maneuverable (turn well). Fighters can carry many different kinds of weapons, including missiles, machine guns, and bombs. While fighters may be used as attack aircraft to attack vehicles, soldiers, or buildings on the ground, they are different from bombers because they are mainly designed to fight other airplanes. Specialized fighters have been made, such as night fighters, interceptors, and air superiority fighters.

Examples of fighter aircraft 
 Lockheed Martin F-22 Raptor
 MiG-17
 North American P-51 Mustang
 SPAD S.XIII

Other websites 

 WW2DB: List of WW2-era Fighter Aircraft
 aircraft fighter: aircraft fighter in the world

Military aviation
Air force
Aircraft carriers are warships that carry airplanes and other aircraft like helicopters. They are used by navies to allow aircraft to fight along with naval warships.  Aircraft carriers are usually very large, carrying hundreds or thousands of sailors and tens or hundreds of aircraft.

The top of an aircraft carrier is called the flight deck and looks like a very small airport. Old aircraft carriers carried airplanes that could takeoff and land in the short distance of the flight deck without help. Similarly, small modern aircraft carriers only carry helicopters or specially designed airplanes such as the Harrier that can take off and land straight up and down or in the short distance of the flight deck. 

The flight deck of a large, modern aircraft carrier has a landing area and a take-off area. The landing area is in the back and has a short runway. Airplanes stop by using a hook on the back of the airplane to grab wires stretched across the runway. In the front, the flight deck has a steam-powered catapult that connects to the front wheel of an airplane. The catapult pulls and throws the airplane off the deck, helping it take off quickly. So, aircraft carriers are basically small, floating, mobile airports. 

Because they are big ships and need much electric power, big modern aircraft carriers have on-board nuclear power plants. Others are powered by oil-burning engines.

Except for their airplanes, aircraft carriers usually have few weapons, so other warships escort them. Together, the aircraft carrier and these warships form a carrier group.

Military aviation
Warships
The Bay of Bengal is a bay. It is in the northeastern part of the Indian Ocean. The bay is also west of the Malay Peninsula and east of India. It looks like a triangle. It is called the "Bay of Bengal", because to the north are the Indian state of West Bengal and the country of Bangladesh.it is an extended part of the Indian ocean. But most of the part the see landed on part of Bangladesh. It has four sea port on part of Bangladesh. Bay of Bengal  named on the history of Bangladesh.

References 

Bays
Geography of Asia
Indian Ocean
The Malay Peninsula (Malay: Semenanjung Tanah Melayu) is a big peninsula in Southeast Asia. The place is divided into three political parts. This includes:

 the northwest is the extreme south part of Myanmar
 the middle area and northeast is the south part of Thailand
 the south is the part of Malaysia called Peninsular Malaysia or West Malaysia

Geography of Asia
Peninsulas
A medical emergency is an injury or illness that poses an immediate threat to a person's long-term health or life.  It needs to be treated immediately.  Doctors that are trained in emergency medicine are taught how to react to medical emergencies, and how to resuscitate patients.

Response
When there is a medical emergency, emergency medical services should be notified as soon as possible by calling for help using a local emergency telephone number, such as 911 in the United States or Canada, 112 in most of continental Europe and on GSM cell phones, 999 in the UK and most of its former colonies (112 works as well), 15 in France, 118 in Italy, 119 in South Korea and Japan, 000 in Australia, 101 in Israel and 111 in New Zealand. Calls to emergency services are usually free of charge; they can be made from any phone; in the case of a prepaid phone no credit is required.  

The people that answer emergency calls, emergency medical dispatchers, will ask questions about the person who needs immediate treatment; some of the questions are whether the person is  conscious, how badly injured they are, their name if it is known, and if they have any other illnesses. They will also ask some basic information about the called, such as the name of the person calling. 

People that know first aid are expected to help as much as they can.  Moving the victim to a safe place can sometimes do more harm than good, and should be left to people that know how to properly move injured people unless there is no alternative (for example, in wilderness first aid). Many states have laws that protect those helping.

If the victim is not breathing, or if a heartbeat cannot be felt, artificial respiration and cardiopulmonary resuscitation (CPR) could be needed to keep a person's blood circulating long enough for medics to attempt revival.  Emergency medical technicians, Outdoor Emergency Care technicians or paramedics can use airway management techniques to help a person who is not breathing.

Clinical response 
While in a hospital environment, staff members that are on duty are trained to deal with emergency situations.  Emergency medical physicians are trained to deal with many medical emergencies, and have up-to-date cardiopulmonary resuscitation and advanced cardiac life support certificates.  In major incidents, most hospitals have protocols to have staff that are not at work at the hospital to go on duty as fast as they can.

Emergency departments follow basic advanced cardiac life support protocols, which include keeping a patient's blood pressure and blood saturation at acceptable levels.  Possible exceptions include the clamping of arteries in severe haemorrhage.

Statistics
Most emergencies are quite unspectacular. They will happen close to home.
 53% happen at home (or when doing a hobby)
 15% happen at school
 6% are traffic accidents

Of all emergencies:
 49% are illnesses (like a stroke or problems with the heart)
 10% are intoxications (like alcohol or other drugs)
 12% are accidents (traffic accidents, accidents in the house)
 17% are other things (for example, delivering a baby)
 15% are false alarms (it looked like an emergency, but it really wasn't).
Southeast Asia or Southeastern Asia, is the southeastern part of Asia. There are ten countries in this region. All the countries in Southeast Asia are a part of ASEAN, except for East Timor. Some of the countries are mostly on the Asian mainland; they were formerly called Indochina. The others are only on islands. All of the countries in Southeast Asia are in the tropics except for the northernmost areas of Myanmar, which is in the subtropics. These are the countries in Southeast Asia:
 Brunei
 Cambodia
 East Timor
 Indonesia
 Lao PDR (Laos)
 Malaysia
 Myanmar (formerly Burma)
 Philippines
 Singapore
 Thailand
 Vietnam

The United Nations also includes the region of North-east India and Bangladesh traditionally, due to ethnicity similarities and culturally as part of Southeast Asia.

Related pages
 Central Asia
 East Asia
 South Asia
 West Asia

References
American Graffiti is a 1973 American teen comedy-drama movie directed by George Lucas. This was Lucas' second movie and made him very well known. It is about what happens to a group of teenagers one night in August 1962 in Modesto, California, while they are driving around town and listening to radio DJ Wolfman Jack.

Release dates

Other websites 

1973 comedy movies
1973 drama movies
1970s comedy-drama movies
1970s teen movies
American comedy-drama movies
American teen comedy movies
American teen drama movies
English-language movies
Movies directed by George Lucas
Movies set in California
Movies set in the 1960s
United States National Film Registry movies
Universal Pictures movies
Screenplays by George Lucas
Lake Vostok is the biggest of the seventy lakes in Antarctica that are under sheets of ice. It is at 77° S 105° E. It is under Russia's Vostok Station. It is 4,000 meters (13,000 feet) under Antarctica's surface. 

The lake was found by Russian and British scientists. They used radar to find it. 

The lake consists of fresh water. The temperature of the water is about -3 °C. The freezing point of water is at 0 °C, but the water in the lake remains liquid because of the high pressure produced by the ice. 

There are two separate basins in the lake. These are separated by a ridge. It has been suggested that the ecosystems of the two basins are different.

Pressure and oxygen

Lake Vostok is an oligotrophic extreme environment. It is supersaturated with oxygen. The levels of oxygen are fifty times higher than those typically found in ordinary freshwater lakes on Earth. 
The weight of the ice on top of Lake Vostok is believed to add to the high concentration of oxygen. Oxygen from the ice gets dissolved into the water of the lake. Deposits of oxygen and other gases are trapped in the lake as well. The structure that traps them is called a clathrate. Gases trapped in clathrates are enclosed in ice and look like packed snow. These structures form at the high-pressure depths of Lake Vostok; they would become unstable if brought to the surface.

Life
No other natural environment on Earth is as rich in oxygen. For this reason, if there are any forms of life in the lake, they would probably need to have adapted to the high levels of oxygen to be able to survive. Some adaptations might include high concentrations of protective enzymes.

The environment in the lake is very similar to that on Jupiter's moon Europa or Saturn's moon Enceladus. Finding life in the lake would therefore make it more probable that life has existed on one of these moons.

References

Other websites 

 "Miles Below Antarctic Ice, a Freshwater Lake May Harbor Ancient Life." Robert Lee Hotz, The Los Angeles Times.

Vostok
Geography of Antarctica
Infrared (IR) radiation is a type of electromagnetic radiation (a wave with electricity) . The wave is longer than light which humans can see and shorter than microwaves. The word infrared means below red. It comes from the Latin word infra (meaning below) and the English word red. (Infrared light has a frequency below the frequency of red light.) Red light has the longest wavelength that human eyes can see. Infrared waves cannot be seen by the eye.

Near-infrared waves are between 800 nm and 1.4 µm. Most infrared from the Sun is near-infrared. Thermal imaging is mostly done with thermal radiation waves between 8 and 15 µm.

People sense infrared as heat.

Most remote controls use infrared to send the control signals. Many missiles for anti-aircraft warfare find their target by infrared.

Telecommunications 
Before Bluetooth was invented, some computers, personal digital assistants, and mobile phones used infrared technology to send files to other devices. Bluetooth replaced infrared in the early 2000s. Infrared is limited by the need to have both devices in a "line of sight" with each other.

Infrared lasers are used to provide the light for optical fiber communications systems. Infrared light with a wavelength around 1,330 nm (least dispersion) or 1,550 nm (best transmission) are the best choices for standard silica fibers.

Related pages 
 Infrared spectroscopy
 Infrared telescope

References 

Physics
 
Chemistry