cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The current status of renewable energy commercialization in the United States varies considerably between different renewable energy technologies, with some being commercialized at the present time.

Wind power is a growing industry in the United States.  Latest American Wind Energy Association figures show that installed U.S. wind power capacity now exceeds 11,600 MW which is enough to serve three million average households. Texas is firmly established as the leader in wind power development, followed by California. 

Several solar thermal power stations, including the new 64 MW Nevada Solar One, have also been built.  The largest of these solar thermal power stations is the SEGS group of plants in the Mojave Desert with a total generating capacity of 354 MW, making the system the largest solar plant of any kind in the world. The largest solar photovoltaic plant in the U.S. is the 4.6 MW Springerville Generating Station, located near Tucson, Arizona.   

In terms of renewable fuels for transportation, most cars on the road today in the U.S. can run on blends of up to 10% ethanol fuel, and motor vehicle manufacturers already produce vehicles designed to run on much higher ethanol blends.

Solar Energy Industries Association and GTM Research found that the amount of new solar electric capacity increased in 2012 by 76 percent from 2011, raising the United States’ market share of the world’s installations above 10 percent, up from roughly 5 to 7 percent in the last seven years.

References

Energy in the United States
Renewable energy
A smith, or metalsmith, is a person who makes things from metal.

Metal smiths were very important before industrialisation because they made metal tools for farming (especially the plough) and weapons for fighting in wars. Because of the importance of smiths, the name of their craft ('Smith') turned into a surname.

Etymology of smith 
The word smith means "to hit" or "to strike". Originally, smiths made things from metal by using a hammer.

As an English suffix, -smith at the end of a word means a craftsmen.  For example, a "locksmith" makes locks.

Types of smiths
Types of smiths include: 

 an arrowsmith forges arrow heads;
 a blacksmith works with iron and steel;
 a bladesmith forges knives, swords and other blades;
 a coppersmith, or brownsmith, works with copper;
 a fendersmith makes and repairs the metal fender before fireplaces, protecting rugs and furniture in mansions and fine estates, and often looks after the fires as well;
 a goldsmith works with gold;
 a gunsmith works with guns;
 a locksmith works with locks;
 a pewtersmith works with pewter;
 a silversmith, or brightsmith, works with silver;
 a tinsmith, or tinner, works with light metal (such as tinware) and can refer to someone who deals in tinware;
 a swordsmith is a bladesmith who forges only swords;
 a whitesmith works with white metal (tin) and can refer to someone who polishes or finishes the metal rather than forging it.

Artisans and craftpersons 

The ancient traditional tool of the smith is a forge or smithy, which is a fire which allows compressed air (through a bellows) to heat the inside of the forge until it is hot enough for metal to become more malleable so that it can be hammered into the shape that is required.  Smith or smithy refers to the hammering onto the metal using an anvil to support the work.  Anvils come in many sizes and shapes. 

The term, metalsmith, often refers to artisans and craftpersons who practice their craft in many different metals, including gold, copper and silver. Jewelers often refer to their craft as metalsmithing, and many universities offer degree programs in metalsmithing, jewelry and blacksmithing as part of their fine arts programs.

A tinker is a metalsmith who mends kettles, pots and pans.  They were often poor, itinerant workers (walking from place to place looking for jobs).

Machinists 

Machinists are metalsmiths who produce high-precision parts and tools. The most advanced of these tools, CNC machines, are computer controlled and largely automated.

Occupations
An allegory is a term for a figure of speech.  It is a story or picture with a hidden meaning. The characters in allegories are symbols which represent particular ideas.  The story has a figurative meaning, not just a literal one.

Allegory is an example of rhetoric, but an allegory does not have to be a story in language. It may be something to look at, such as a painting or sculpture.

An allegory is like a long metaphor.  People have to use their imagination to understand what it is trying to say.  A  fable or parable is a short allegory with one basic idea (a moral).

Sometimes people say that stories have meanings which the author, in fact, did not intend. For instance, many people have suggested that The Lord of the Rings was an allegory for the World Wars, but, in fact, it was written well before the outbreak of World War II, and J.R.R. Tolkien said that it was not an allegory.  In this way people sometimes change the author’s ideas.  Sometimes they do it for their own political reasons.

Examples
Allegory has been a favourite form in the literature of nearly every nation. It is often used as a way of criticizing things or people where it would not be possible to do so directly.

In classical literature Plato and Ovid wrote allegories. Dante Alighieri wrote allegories in The Divine Comedy. In the Middle Ages Everyman was a morality play. John Bunyan’s The Pilgrim's Progress tells the story of a man trying to lead a Christian life. Jonathan Swift wrote Gulliver's Travels, which tells about the strange customs of (made-up) faraway countries, but he was really criticizing things about his own country, the United Kingdom. Animal Farm by George Orwell is another example of an allegory, this time of the Soviet Union during Josef Stalin's era and the Russian Revolution. Some of the characters can be directly linked to figures during that time.

Songs may also include allegories. "Waist Deep In The Big Muddy" tells a story of American soldiers in the 1800s, ordered by their commander to march into the Mississippi River, which they could never cross on foot. In truth, it told the story of soldiers fighting in the Vietnam War in the 1960s, and being expected to do the white guy's bidding.

Allegories still continue to be popular today. Pictures, movies and plays can be allegories. William Golding’s novel Lord of the Flies also has allegorical meaning. Star Trek used a great deal of allegory, to look at social conditions and moral values in the present, while telling stories based in the future. Alien races were often a reflection of Earth's own races and countries.

Allegorical artworks include Sandro Botticelli's La Primavera (Allegory of Spring) and Jan Vermeer's The Allegory of Painting.

Related pages
 Trope

References

Genres
Literary terms
Newport Pagnell is a town in England. It is in the borough of Milton Keynes.

History 
The town was first mentioned in the Domesday Book of 1086 as Neuport, which is an Old English word meaning New Market Town. At that time it was fairly new, having been founded by Norman invaders. The suffix "Pagnell" came later, when the manor passed into the hands of the Pagnell (Paynel) family.

At one time Newport Pagnell was one of the largest towns in the County of Buckinghamshire but today the new town of Milton Keynes has made it much less important. 

Tickford Bridge, over the River Ouze, was built in 1810. It is the only iron bridge in Britain that still carries main road traffic. This is the oldest iron bridge in the world that is still in constant use. There is a plaque near the footbridge on the side that gives details of its history and construction. A large set of sluice gates used to control downstream flooding of the River Great Ouse is near the bridge.

Since 1954, Tickford Street in Newport Pagnell has been the home of the Aston Martin site, where all Aston Martin cars were built, until the recent opening of the new Ford Motor Company luxury division plant for Aston Martin built at Gaydon, Warwickshire.

The modern civil parish of Newport Pagnell stops at the M1, but the ecclesiastical parish extends to include Broughton and Caldecote. The parish church is dedicated to St Peter and St Paul.

Other websites 

 The unofficial town website with historical pictures, pictures of the town carnival and a message board for locals and ex pats to keep in touch

Towns in Buckinghamshire
Louis Victor Pierre Raymond, (7th) Duke of Broglie, (August 15, 1892 in Dieppe – March 19, 1987 in Louveciennes) was a French physicist. He discovered that electrons are similar to both particles and waves. He won the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1929. 

1892 births
1987 deaths
Dukes and duchesses of France
French academics
French Nobel Prize winners
People from Normandy
French theoretical physicists
Las Galeras is a Dominican Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province. It is on the east coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the Rincón Bay that is found between Cabrón and Samaná capes.

Las Galeras, in English The Galleys (a galley was a war ship where prisoners and slaves were used to move the ship), because two galleys stayed here during the 16th Century.

Population
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 6,929: 3,800 men and 3,129 women. The urban population was only 13.41% of the total population.

Economy
The most important economic activities of the province are agriculture, fishing and tourism.

The region is famous for its beautiful beaches with palms. There is a beach at the seafront of Las Galeras itself, as well as a white sand beach, "La Playita" ("The Small Beach") within walking distance from the town. It is possible to take a boat to visit "Playa Rincón" ("Rincón Beach"), another beautiful beach in the region.

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
The Beyoncé Experience: Live is a live DVD by American R&B singer Beyoncé Knowles to be released in the US on November 20, 2007. It was filmed in Staples Center, Los Angeles, California which was shot on September 2, 2007 during her worldwide tour The Beyoncé Experience. It also includes guest appearances from Jay-Z on "Upgrade U" and former Destiny's Child mates Michelle Williams and Kelly Rowland on "Survivor."

 Intro (The Beyoncé Experience Fanfare)
 Crazy in Love (Crazy Mix)
 Freakum Dress
 Green Light
 Baby Boy (Reggae Medley)
 Beautiful Liar
 Naughty Girl
 Me, Myself and I
 Dangerously In Love (He Loves Me Mix)
 Flaws and All
 DC Medley (Cops and Robbers Intro)
 Independent Women Part I
 No No No Part 2
 Bootylicious
 Bug A Boo (H-town Screwed Down Mix)
 Bills, Bills, Bills
 Cater 2 U
 Say My Name
 Jumpin' Jumpin'
 Soldier (Soldier Boy Crank Mix)
 Survivor (Destiny's Child Reunion)
 Speechless
 Ring the Alarm Intro Skit (Jailhouse Confessions)
 Ring the Alarm
 Suga mama
 Upgrade U (feat. Jay-Z)
 '03 Bonnie & Clyde (Beyoncé's Prince Mix)
 Check on It (Special Tour Ver.)
 Déjà vu
 Get Me Bodied
 Welcome to Hollywood
 Deena/DreamGirls
 Listen
 Irreplaceable
 Beyoncé B'Day Surprise

References 

2007 albums
Beyoncé albums
Induno Olona is a city in northern Italy, in the Lombardy region, near Varese. It has 10,000 inhabitants.

Cities in Lombardy
Swordfish (Xiphias gladius) are large fish with a long, flat bill.  They are a popular sport fish.  Swordfish are elongated, round-bodied, and lose all teeth and scales by adulthood.

The International Game Fish Association's all-tackle angling record for a swordfish was a 1,182 lb (535.15 kg) specimen taken off Chile in 1953.

They are the sole member of their family Xiphiidae.

Features 
The swordfish is named after its sharp bill, resembling a sword (Latin gladius), which together with its streamlined physique (smooth body) allows it to cut through the water with great ease and agility. Swordfish are fast predators of other fish.

The "sword" is not used to spear, but may be used to slash at its prey to injure the prey animal, to make for an easier catch.  Mainly, the swordfish relies on its slow speed and agility in the water to catch its enemy. It is undoubtedly among the slowest fish.

As food 

Swordfish is a particularly popular fish for cooking.  Since swordfish are large animals, meat is usually sold as steaks, which are often grilled.  The color of the flesh varies by diet, with fish caught on the east coast of North America often being rosier.

However, many sources including the United States Food and Drug Administration warn about potential toxicity (how poisonous it is) from high levels of methylmercury in swordfish.

References 

 Michael Hopkin (2005): Swordfish heat their eyes for better vision. Nature, 10 January 2005
 Fritsches, Kerstin A., Brill, Richard W., and Warrant, Eric J. (2005): Warm Eyes Provide Superior Vision in Swordfishes .  Current Biology 15, 55−58 
 FDA Consumer:Mercury In Fish:Cause For Concern?

Other websites 

 http://www.flmnh.ufl.edu/fish/Gallery/Descript/Swordfish/Swordfish.html 
 More info on FDA Mercury Advice from Oceana
 http://www.fenton.com/pages/3_ourwork/4_casestudies/environment/swordfish.htm 
 http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/cr_seafoodwatch/content/media/MBA_SeafoodWatch_SwordfishReport.pdf

Edible fish
Perciformes
Juan Carreño de Miranda (25 March 1614 – 3 October 1685) was a Spanish painter of the Baroque period.

Born in Avilés in Asturias, he was the son of a painter with the same name, Juan Carreño de Miranda. His family moved to Madrid in 1623, and he trained in Madrid during the late 1620s as apprentice of Pedro de Las Cuevas and Bartolomé Roman. He came to the notice of Velazquez for his work in the cloister of doña María de Aragón y en la iglesia del Rosario, he was asked to help paint in the Royal Palace of Madrid with frescoes on mythological fables. He was named "Painter of the King" in 1669. In 1658 Carreño was hired as an assistant on a royal commission to paint frescoes in the Alcázar palace, now the Royal Palace of Madrid. In 1671 he was appointed court painter to the queen (pintor de cámara) and began to paint primarily portraits. In 1671, upon the death of Sebastian de Herrera, he was named chamber painter. He refused to be knighted in the order of Santiago, saying "Painting needs no honors, it can give them to the whole world". He is mainly remembered as a painter of portraits. His main pupilswere Mateo Cerezo, Cabezalero, Donoso, Ledesma y Sotomayor. He died in Madrid.

1614 births
1685 deaths
Spanish painters
Late Old Japanese (中古日本語) is an old form of the Japanese language. It was used in the time known as the Heian Period, between 794 and 1185. The form of Japanese that was used before that is called Old Japanese.

Old Japanese was the first form of the Japanese language. The script (the way it was written) came from the Chinese script. This was all based on characters which were like little pictures (called kanji today, e.g. 中古日本語). During the Late Old period two new scripts were invented: Hiragana and Katakana. These were much simpler and described the sound of the syllables. It made reading and writing much easier. Famous books were written during this period such as The Tale of Genji, The Tale of the Bamboo Cutter, The Tales of Ise and many others.

Many changes took place to the way the language was pronounced during this period. Consonants that had been spoken through the nose became voiced, some long vowels were added, some consonants slid into one another. The syllables became simpler: instead of 88 there were only 66. Instead of two types of -i, -e, and –o there were only one. Some verbs ended in a consonant, others in a vowel. The changes in grammar included different ways that adjectives could be declined.

Related pages
 Old Japanese

Japanese language
Old Japanese (上代日本語, Jōdai nihongo) is the oldest known form of the Japanese language.

It is difficult to give a precise date when Old Japanese started.  The date when the Old Japanese period is said to have finished is 794.  It was the start of the Heian period. 

The Japanese writing system came from the Chinese.  Wooden tablets have been found with writing on.  The oldest extended piece of writing we know of dates from 712. This is the start of the Nara period (710-794).

The earliest texts found in Japan are written in classical Chinese. However, some of them show the influences of Japanese grammar (e.g. word order). Sometimes bits of Chinese characters are used to make the sound of the small Japanese words called “particles”. This helps us to make some guesses about how it used to be pronounced.

Many changes in the Japanese language took place over the centuries. The spoken form of Japanese changed much more quickly than the written form.

Related pages
 Late Old Japanese

References

Notes

Japanese language
Tynwald (), or more formally, the High Court of Tynwald () or Tynwald Court, is claimed to be the oldest parliament in continuous existence in the world, dating back over 1000 years.

Overview 
It rules the Isle of Man, and while the island is a Crown dependency, this ancient form of government enjoys a large amount of political power.  

Tynwald is separated into 2 houses (this is called a "Bicameral" parliament, meaning it has 2 chambers) - the House of Keys, which is elected by the people of the Isle of Man, and the Legislative Council, which is not directly elected - instead, other members of the Legislative Council elect members of the House of Keys (MHK's) to sit on it.

Both houses of Tynwald sit at the same time on Tynwald day, at the site of the original parliament - Tynwald Hill - in St. John's, a small village near Peel, and once a month at Parliament House in the Island's capital, Douglas.   The rest of the time, they sit separately at Parliament House, with the House of Keys making most of the laws, and the Legislative Council doing most of the work of changing and revising them. 

Queen Elizabeth II  is acknowledged as the Lord of Mann.

Tynwald can trace its descent from the Viking and Norse that first colonized the Isle of Man.

Isle of Man
Parliaments
Devolved legislatures in the United Kingdom
The possum is an Australasian marsupial which was later introduced to China and New Zealand. There are about 69 species alive today.

Possums are members of the Phalangeriformes. This is a suborder of the Diprotodonts, a large order which includes the kangaroos and its relatives.

Possums are native to Australia and are protected there.  Possums spend the first four months of their lives in their mother's pouch. By the time they are six months old, the young possums live outside the pouch.

They are nocturnal and at least partly arboreal. Some of the smaller species are gliders. They have sharp claws and a keen sense of smell. They eat the leaves of trees, insects, berries and bird's eggs.

The first possums were brought to New Zealand in 1837 from Australia. In New Zealand, possums have no natural enemies, so possum numbers increased quickly. It is thought of as a pest in New Zealand.
The possum has done a lot of damage to the native plants, animals and birds.

References

Other websites 

Kiwi Conservation Club 

Diprotodonts
Marsupials of Australia
Gotha is a town in Thuringia, in Germany. It is the capital of the District of Gotha. The population was 46,205 in 2004.

History 
The town has existed at least since the 8th century, when its name was mentioned in a document signed by Charlemagne, in which it appears as Villa Gotaha ("Good Waters"). In 1640 Gotha became the capital city of Saxe-Gotha. In the 18th century the French philosopher Voltaire stayed for a long time, and the Royal court became one of the centres of the Enlightenment in Germany. From 1826 to 1918, Gotha was one of the two capitals of the Duchy of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha.

Gotha has played an important role in the Germany's workers' movement: the German socialist party (SPD) was founded in Gotha in 1875, when the Social Democratic Workers' Party, led by August Bebel and Wilhelm Liebknecht, and the General German Workers' Association, founded by Ferdinand Lassalle joined together. The compromise was known the Gotha Program and was opposed by Karl Marx.

Gotha has also been traditionally a centre of publishing. The firm of Justus Perthes (now called Hermann Haack) began publishing the Almanach de Gotha in 1763. The almanach was a very important directory of the world's major ruling dynasties and Europe's high nobility.

From 1949 to 1990 the city of Gotha was in the German Democratic Republic.

Sights 
 The main attraction in the town is the Schloß Friedenstein, the former ducal palace, built in 1643-1655. It is Germany’s oldest early Baroque palace. The palace also houses the Museum of Regional History including the historic Ekhof Theatre, the oldest preserved baroque theatre in the world.
 Town Hall, built between 1567 and 1577 in Renaissance style, noteworthy for a richly decorated façade in its north side.
 A Market place (Hauptmarkt) surrounded by restored patrician houses with Baroque doorways.
 Augustinian Church (Gothic, 13th century), with former abbey.
 St Margaret’s Church (Margarethenkirche), from the end of the 15th century.
 Gotha is host to the annual Freakstock Christian music festival.

Sister cities 
  Martin
  Gastonia, North Carolina
  Kielce Poland
  Martin
  Romilly-sur-Seine
  Salzgitter

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 Official website 
 Tram in Gotha

Verwaltungsgemeinschaftfrei towns in Thuringia
Gotha Rural District
Palm Island, also known as Great Palm Island, or by the Aboriginal name Bukaman, is an island with about 2,000 people living on it.

Names 
The small town on the island has many names such as Palm Island, the Mission, Palm Island Settlement or Palm Community.

Location 
The island is  north-west of Townsville, on the east coast of Queensland, Australia.  It is the biggest of the Greater Palm group of islands.  It has small bays, sandy beaches and steep forested mountains rising to  high.  Other close by islands outside the Palm group include Rattlesnake Island and Magnetic Island.

History 
Palm Island is often called a "tropical paradise" because of its natural beauty, but it has had a sad past since Europeans arrived in Australia.  For much of the 20th Century it was used by the Queensland Government as a town for Aboriginals thought to be guilty of such crimes as being "disruptive", being pregnant to a white man or being born with "mixed blood".

The community created by this history has had many problems and has often been debated about by political and social writers.  Of major concern is a lack of jobs and housing.  Since it became a Aboriginal reserve, Palm Island has been a symbol of aboriginal hardship and violence.  At the same time it has been at the centre of political campaigning to improve the lives and treatment of Australia's Indigenous peoples as well as seeking people to recognise the bad history which lead to the Palm Island of today.

References
''

Footnotes

Other websites
Bwgcolmacom Community School website 
Local Council information 
Palm Island PCYC webpage 
Database of Agreements to which the Palm Island Aboriginal Shire Council are parties 
Joyce Palmer Health Service webpage
Dunn, Peter "WW2 Palm Island naval base" Australia @ War, 22 May 2004 (and updated since)
Queensland Government information webpage on Palm Island and alcohol management 
Queensland Government information webpage on Community Renewal on Palm Island 
Queensland Government map of alcohol restriction zone 
Australian Government Shared Responsibility Agreement - Palm Island our horses, our responsibility

Articles produced by The Brisbane Institute think tank

Professor Steffen Lehmann Lessons from Palm Island  The Brisbane Institute, 17 November 2005
Boe, Andrew Palm Island: something is very wrong  The Brisbane Institute, 21 April 2005
Boe, Andrew Palm Island Inquest findings – the unacceptable political inertia  The Brisbane Institute, 06 October 2006

Islands of Australia
Indigenous Australian communities
Geography of Queensland
100 Greatest Britons was a BBC programme broadcast in 2002. The list was the result of a poll. The top ten people on the list were:

 Sir Winston Churchill, (1874–1965), Prime Minister during the Second World War, politician, soldier, author, speaker, artist
 Isambard Kingdom Brunel, (1806–1859), engineer, creator of Great Western Railway and other significant works
 Diana, Princess of Wales (1961–1997), first wife of HRH Charles, Prince of Wales (1981–1996) and mother of Princes William and Harry of Wales
 Charles Darwin (1809-1882), naturalist, originator of the theory of evolution through natural selection and author of The Origin of Species
 William Shakespeare (1564–1616), English poet and playwright, thought of by many as the greatest of all writers in the English language
 Sir Isaac Newton (1643–1727), physicist, mathematician, astronomer, natural philosopher, and alchemist, regarded by many as the greatest figure in the history of science
 Queen Elizabeth I of England (1533–1603), monarch, (reigned 1558–1603)
 John Lennon (1940–1980), musician with The Beatles, philanthropist, peace activist, artist
 Vice Admiral Horatio Nelson, 1st Viscount Nelson (1758–1805), naval commander
 Oliver Cromwell (1599–1658), Lord Protector

The complete list can be found on the BBC website.

References

BBC
Lists of people
Igrejinha is a Brazilian city of the state of Rio Grande do Sul. It has 31 389 inhabitants and an area of 136.816 km².

Sources

Cities in Rio Grande do Sul
1964 establishments in Brazil
Arroyo Barril is a Municipal district of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, Samaná province in the Dominican Republic.  It is on the south coast of the Samaná Peninsula, on the coast of Samaná Bay.

It was made a municipal district on May 1, 2003.

Population
In the last national census (2010), the district had a total population of 11,007: 5,591 men and 5,416 women. The urban population was 22% of the total population.

Economy
The most important economic activities of Arroyo Barril are the same of the province: agriculture, fishing and tourism.

The Arroyo Barril Airport is in this place; it is a national airport with flights to other airports in the country.

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
2003 establishments
21st-century establishments in the Dominican Republic
The Intolerable Acts are laws passed by the Parliament of Great Britain in 1774.

The British Parliament passed these laws to punish the Massachusetts colony for the Boston Tea Party.
 One of the laws closed Boston Harbor until the colonists paid for the destroyed tea.  
 The Quartering Act allowed Britain to house troops wherever it wanted.  This one was for all the colonies, not just Massachusetts.
 The Administration of Justice Act allowed the trials of accused royal officials to take place in Great Britain if the Governor decided that the defendant could not get a fair trial in Massachusetts. 
 The Quebec Act gave the Ohio country to Canada.

These laws were so harsh that the colonists called them the Intolerable Acts.

Other colonies offered Massachusetts their support. They sent supplies to Boston. The Committees of Correspondence also called for a meeting of all colonies. This meeting would decide what to do about their problems with Britain, which led to the Continental Congress.

Other websites

Text of the Quartering Act
Text of the Quebec Act
1774
Law
1770s in the United States
1770s in the Kingdom of Great Britain
"Iron" Mike Zambidis (born July 15, 1980) is a Greek kickboxer.  He is known in the kickboxing community as K.O. artist and for his explosive fighting style.

Greek sportspeople
Martial artists
1980 births
Living people
The Indo-Greek Kingdom was a part of the Greek Empire. It ruled in parts of northwest and northern Indian subcontinent (present-day Pakistan) from 180 BCE to around 10 CE, and was ruled by a succession of more than thirty Hellenic kings.

References

Other websites 
 News story of the latest archaeological discovery of artefacts dated back to Indo-Greek period
 Indo-Greek history and coins 
 Ancient coinage of the Greco-Bactrian and Indo-Greek kingdoms
 Text of Prof. Nicholas Sims-Williams (University of London) mentioning the arrival of the Kushans and the replacement of Greek Language. 
 Wargame reconstitution of Indo-Greek armies 

Ancient Greece
History of Pakistan
Schlenkerla is a famous old brewery and tavern in Bamberg, Bavaria, Germany. It is known for its smoked beer which is called "Aecht Schlenkerla Rauchbier" ("real Schlenkerla smoked beer").  It is a strong, darkish beer with a slightly smokey taste which is rather like bacon.  The alcohol content is 5.1%.  There is another speciality which is called "Urbock" ("Ur" means "original" and "Bock" is actually a male goat).  The Urbock is stronger: 6.5% alcohol and is only served in the season known as the "Starkbierzeit" ("Strong beer time") which is from October to 6 January.  The beer is served from oak barrels.  This is a very old tradition which is not often found nowadays.

The name Schlenkerla comes from the word "schlenken" which means: "to dangle" ("to hang loosely", or "swing").

Other websites
 Brauereiausschank Schlenkerla  - Official website of the Schlenkerla historical brewery and tavern
 Bamberger-Bier.de - everything you have to know about Bambergs brewing tradition (German, English)

Beer
Buildings and structures in Bamberg
Taverns
The Gabelmann ("Fork man") is a statue with a fountain in Bamberg, Germany. It is a Baroque statue of Neptune, the ancient Roman god of the sea, who is holding his three-pronged fork. This is why he has the name Gabelmann.

The Gabelmann stands in the part of the pedestrian precinct called "Grüner Markt" ("Green Market"). In the local Franconian dialect he is called Goblmoo. There is a well-known poem about him written in the dialect.

The Gabelmann is a favourite place for people to meet in Bamberg.

Buildings and structures in Bamberg
Statues
The Bamberger Symphoniker (Bamberg Symphony Orchestra) is a world-famous orchestra from the city of Bamberg, Germany. It was formed in 1946. Most of the musicians who formed the orchestra were Germans who had been forced to leave Czechoslovakia after the World War II. Most of them had previously been members of the German Philharmonic Orchestra of Prague.

The Bamberger Symphoniker have a large modern concert hall in Bamberg which was opened in 1993. They give many concerts there, but they also do a lot of touring to all parts of the world. Their conductor is Jonathan Nott who is an English conductor. Every three years the orchestra organize a "Gustav Mahler Conducting Prize". This is a competition for young conductors. The competition first took place in 2004.

The orchestra have made several CD recordings.

Principal conductors
 Jonathan Nott (2000-present)
 Horst Stein (1985-1996)
 Witold Rowicki (1983-1985)
 James Loughran (1979-1983)
 Eugen Jochum (1969-1973)
 Joseph Keilberth (1949-1968)

Other websites
 Bamberger Symphoniker official website 

German orchestras
Bamberg
The Lübeck law () was one of a few charters for town privileges. The Lübeck law said there should be a city council (Rat). There should be 20 council members, which were usually elected for 2 years. 

Many cities in the Hanseatic League used this law.

History of Germany
Alfonso Daniel  (30 January 1886 – 7 January 1950), also known as Castelao, was a Spanish writer on Galician language and one of the main symbols of Galicia. As a politician, caricaturist, and writer, he is one of the leading figures of Galician culture and identity.

(1886–1929) Early life 
In 1886, Alfonso Daniel Rodríguez de Castelao was born on 30 January in Rianxo, Galicia, Spain.

Castelao spent his childhood and adolescence in Santa Rosa de Toay, Argentina. In 1900, the Castelao family returned to Rianxo. In 1908, he obtained his degree in Medicine from the University of Santiago de Compostela. The next year, he passed his doctorate in Madrid, where he started to become known as a caricaturist, and settled down in Rianxo, joining the political movement Action Galicia (Acción Gallega in Spanish). As a caricaturist, Castelao focussed on the everyday in a humorous way, although after the cruelty and tragedy of the Spanish Civil War, he turned to using his art to denounce the misery of Fascism.

In 1916, he moved to Pontevedra, where he joined the Irmandades da Fala and participated in the Asembleia Nazonalista de Lugo, signing an important national declaration. In 1920, he became editor of the magazine Nos and travelled through France, the Netherlands and Germany. In 1922, he wrote the novel Un Ollo de Vidro and in 1924 he joined the Seminario de Estudos Galegos and founded the Coral Polifonica de Pontevedra. Two years later he published Cousas, and in 1929 he travelled to Brittany to study its stone crosses and publish As Cruces de Pedra na Bretaña.

Spanish politicians
Spanish writers
Spanish Civil War
1886 births
1950 deaths
Galician people
Emilia Pardo Bazán (16 September 1851 – 12 May 1921) (also known as Emilia, countess de Pardo Bazán) was a Spanish author and scholar.

Life
Bazán was born in A Coruña (also known as La Coruña or Corunna), part of the region of Galicia, and the culture of that area was incorporated into some of her most popular novels, including Los pazos de Ulloa (The Manors of Ulloa) and its sequel, La Madre Naturaleza (Mother Nature). She was also known for bringing naturalism to Spanish literature, for her detailed descriptions of reality, and for her role in feminist literature of her era. 

Married at eighteen to Sr D. Jos Quiroga, a Galician country gentleman, she interested herself in politics, and is believed to have taken an active part in the underground campaign against Amadeo of Spain and, later, against the republic. In 1876 she came into notice as the successful competitor for a literary prize offered by the municipality of Oviedo, the subject of her essay being the Benedictine monk, Benito Jerónimo Feijoo. This was followed by a series of articles inserted in La Ciencia cristiana, a magazine of the purest orthodoxy, edited by Juan M. Orti y plana.

Other websites 
Biography and list of works (Spanish language)

Spanish writers
1851 births
1921 deaths
People from A Coruña
Ahmednagar is a city of Ahmednagar District in the state of Maharashtra, India, on the left bank of the Sina river, about 120 kilometres northeast of Pune and 120 kilometres from Aurangabad.

References

Other websites
 
 

Cities in India
Settlements in Maharashtra
1490 establishments
15th-century establishments in Asia
The F-14 Tomcat is a fighter plane made for the American Navy. It first flew in 1970 and started to replace the F-4 Phantom II in 1973. It could carry 6 of AIM-54 Phoenix missiles and two AIM-9 Sidewinders. The plane is supersonic. In 2006, the Navy stopped using it. Iran uses the F-14, but they are rumored to be in bad condition.

Related pages
F/A-18 Hornet
F-15 Eagle
F-16 Fighting Falcon
F-4 Phantom II

United States Navy aircraft
Iran
F-14
Military aircraft
The General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon is a one-engine multirole combat aircraft. It was originally designed and built by General Dynamics, which is now part of Lockheed Martin. The United States Air Force (USAF) ordered the F-16 in 1972. The airplane first flew four years later in 1976. Over 4,600 F-16s have been built since then. The airplane has been used by more than 25 air forces around the world. It is also used by the Thunderbirds, the USAF's aerobatics team. As of 2015, there are more F-16s in military use than any other fixed-wing aircraft.

Capabilities 
The F-16 is able to fly at twice the speed of sound. It is armed with a M61 Vulcan Gatling gun and has eleven places where weapons or other equipment can be attached. It was the first production combat airplane to be designed to be unstable to be easier to turn, and has easier controls to make it highly agile in the air. Its designers also used many other new ideas such as a bubble canopy to help the pilot see better and a control stick on the side of the cockpit to make it easier to steer during tight turns and high g-forces.

The F-16's official name is "Fighting Falcon", but it is often called the "Viper" by its pilots and crews. The nickname came from the fact that the viper snake is known for its deadly fangs and venom, and because the Colonial Viper spacecraft from Battlestar Galactica was popular when the airplane was introduced to the USAF.

Users

Past users
  – Italian Air Force leased up to 30 F-16As and 4 F-16Bs from the US Air Force from 2001 until 2012.

Related pages
 F-15 Eagle
 F-14 Tomcat

References

United States Air Force aircraft
Military aircraft
The M1 Garand is a semi-automatic rifle that was mostly used by the US Army during World War II and the Korean War. It replaced the M1903 Springfield rifle in 1936 as the main US service rifle. It has an internal eight-bullet box magazine, which is loaded with clips of 8 bullets. When the last round is shot, the empty clip is ejected, making a "ping" sound. A common misconception (seen in video games such as Call of Duty) is that the clip can only be removed by shooting all the bullets, but the clip may be removed at any time (but it is hard to do). General George Patton described it as the greatest battle implement ever designed. It was replaced by the M14 rifle in the late 1950's.

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: Captured from South Korean Army and U.S.Army during Korean War.
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Other websites 
 WW2DB: M1 Garand
 M1 Garand - Encyc 

7.62 mm rifles
Rifles of the Cold War
A hydrogen atom is an atom of the chemical element hydrogen.

Its parts are a single negatively-charged electron that circles a single positively-charged nucleus of the hydrogen atom. The nucleus of hydrogen consists of only a single proton (in the case of hydrogen-1 or protium), or it may also include one or more neutrons (giving deuterium, tritium, and other isotopes). The electron is bound to the nucleus by the Coulomb force. Hydrogen-1, also known as protium or "light hydrogen" is the main component of natural hydrogen.

Related pages
Hydrogen
quantum mechanics

References

Section 4.2 deals with the hydrogen atom specifically, but all of Chapter 4 is relevant.

Other websites
Physics of hydrogen atom on Scienceworld
Visualizing Atomic Orbitals
Applet which allows viewing of all sorts of hydrogenic orbitals
The Hydrogen Atom: Wave Functions, Probability Density "pictures"
Basic Quantum Mechanics of the Hydrogen Atom

Physics
Georg Leo von Caprivi, later Georg Leo Graf von Caprivi de Caprara de Montecuccoli (), (24 February 1831–6 February 1899) was a German major general and politician, who succeeded Otto von Bismarck as Chancellor of Germany. Caprivi was German Chancellor from March 1890 to October 1894.

Biography
Born in Charlottenburg, Berlin to a family of Italian and Slovenian origin, Caprivi joined the army in 1849 and fought in the Austro-Prussian War in 1866 and the Franco-Prussian War in 1870.

He liked Bismarck, and once said "What jackass would dare to succeed Bismarck?". Kaiser Wilhelm II was arguing with Bismarck about changes to the government. In February 1890 the Kaiser told Caprivi to come back to Berlin. Caprivi was told that he would take over from Bismarck if Bismarck did not do what the Kaiser wanted. Caprivi became chancellor on 18 March 1890.

Caprivi's government was friendlier to the Social Democrats and to the United Kingdom. The Zanzibar treaty of July 1890, meant Germany gave control of Zanzibar, an island near German East Africa to Britain in return for the island of Heligoland in the North Sea . Caprivi also got the Caprivi Strip added to German South West Africa. This is a narrow strip of land that links German South West Africa (now called Namibia), to the Zambezi River.

In 1892 Caprivi resigned as Prussian Minister President and was replaced by Count Botho zu Eulenburg. Prussia was so powerful in the German Empire that having different people as Imperial Chancellor and Minister President made it hard to govern the country. Caprivi and Eulenburg were dismissed in 1894 and Prince Chlodwig of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst took both jobs.

Other websites
 Die Reden des Grafen von Caprivi im deutschen Reichstage, preussischen Landtage und besondern Anllasen "Speeches of Count von Caprivi in the German Reichstag, Prissian Landtag, and other places" in German at google Books.

1831 births
1899 deaths
Admirals
Chancellors of Germany
German generals
German nobility
German Empire politicians
Politicians from Berlin
German Protestants
Prussian politicians
The Dominican city of Santa Bárbara de Samaná, or simply Samaná, is the head municipality of the Samaná province, on the south coast of the peninsula of Samaná. The people from this city, and of the province, are called samanés or samanense, in Spanish.

Name
Santa Bárbara de Samaná is named Santa Bárbara after the Queen Bárbara de Braganza, wife of King Ferdinand VI of Spain. Samaná was the Taíno name of the region.

History
The city was founded in 1756 as Santa Bárbara de Samaná, by the Spanish governor Francisco Rubio y Peñaranda. This was during the period when the area of Santo Domingo was a Spanish colony. Its first European inhabitants were families from the Canary Islands.

When the Maritime District (an old division similar to a province) of Samaná was created in 1865, the city was elevated to the category of municipality.

Population
The municipality had, in , a total population of 33,196: 17,034 men and 16,162 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

Geography
Santa Bárbara de Samaná has a total area of  (without including its municipal districts), about  of the total area of the province of Samaná. The city is an elevation of  above sea level, and at  to the northeast of Santo Domingo.

The city is surrounded by mountains of the Sierra de Samaná, a small mountain range that covers most of the Samaná peninsula.

The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has the Atlantic Ocean to the north and the east, the Samaná Bay to the south, the municipality of Las Terrenas to the northwest and the municipality of Sánchez to the southwest.

Climate
Samaná has a tropical wet climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Af) with no dry or cold season as it is constantly moist (rainfalls during the whole year).

The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is . The month with the most precipitation on average is November with  of rainfall, followed by October with .

The driest season is winter. The month with the least rainfall on average is February with an average of  and the second is March with .

Samaná is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is July with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administrative division
The municipality of Santa Bárbara de Samaná has 3 municipal districts:

Gallery

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1756 establishments
18th-century establishments in the Spanish Empire
1750s establishments in North America
The word amateur is normally used to mean: somebody who does something (e.g. a job) without being paid for it, or without having had training or education for it.

The opposite of an amateur is a professional. He (or she) will expect to be paid a professional fee for the job.

The word “amateur” comes from a French word meaning: "lover of". An amateur is someone who does something (e.g. play the piano, football) because they enjoy doing it. They are not doing it in order to be paid. It is not how they earn money to live.

People often forget the real meaning of the word “amateur”.  It is often mistakenly used to mean: someone who is not good at something.  On the other hand, an amateur might be described as having done a very “professional” job, i.e. done it as well as someone who is paid.

Although one might expect a professional to be better than an amateur, this is not always the case. Someone might be a very good amateur pianist, possibly better than some professionals.

In some jobs it would be impossible for amateurs to be allowed to work. One cannot have amateur doctors or lawyers. In some areas, however, amateurs have been very useful, e.g. in computer programming or astronomy or birdwatching. For example,Wikipedia is written by amateurs.

Sport 
In some sporting events, all players are professional or all are amateur. Many events mix professional and amateur participants. 

In some sports (e.g. tennis or football) in the past, amateurs and professionals would not compete against one another. This was not always because amateurs were thought to be not as good as professionals. In some countries, such as Great Britain in Victorian times, this was because of social class distinction. Amateur cricketers were rich gentlemen from the upper classes who did not want to associate with people from lower classes.  This attitude slowly changed during the 20th century.  

Until the 1970s most Olympic events were for amateurs. Athletes were disqualified if they received money for the event, or in some cases even if they had been paid for sporting events outside the Olympics.

Related pages 
 Hobby
 Amateur radio
Volunteering

References 

Everyday life
Württemberg-Hohenzollern was one of the original states of the Federal Republic of Germany. Its capital was Tübingen.

It was part of the French Zone of Occupation. After a referendum on 16 December 1951 it joined with Württemberg-Baden, which had been in the American Zone, and Baden which had also been in the French Zone, and formed the present state of Baden-Württemberg on 25 April 1952

After World War the Kingdom of Württemberg became the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg. After World War II the part of the Free Peoples' State of Württemberg and the old Principality of Hohenzollern were joined to make Württemberg-Hohenzollern. The name of the Royal family of Prussia was Hohenzollern because they came from this area. This is also why it was always part of Prussia until Prussia was abolished after World War II.

List of heads of government 

 1945 - 1947: Carlo Schmid (SPD)
 1947 - 1948: Lorenz Bock (CDU)
 1948 - 1952: Gebhard Müller (CDU)

Baden-Württemberg
Former states in Germany
1945 establishments in Europe
1950s disestablishments in Germany
Noraduz cemetery () is a medieval cemetery with many ancient khachkars in the village of Noraduz, Gegharkunik marz near Gavar and Lake Sevan, 90 km north of Yerevan. Many tombstones in the cemetery show carved scenes of weddings and farm life.

Khachkars
The oldest khachkars in the cemetery go back to the late 10th century. During the revival of the khachkar tradition in the 16-17th centuries many khachkars were built under the yoke of the Safavid Empire when oriental influences seeped into Armenian art. Three master carvers from this period carved khachkars in Noraduz, the most notable of whom was Kiram Kazmogh (1551-1610), his contemporaries were Arakel and Meliset.

Folklore
A popular folktale involving the cemetery concerns the invading army of Tamerlane. According to one story the villagers placed helmets on top of the khachkars and leaned swords against them. From a distance the khachkars looked like armed soldiers holding a defensive position as a result of which Tamerlane’s army retreated.

Related pages
Khachkar

Other websites 
Noratus Cemetery at ArmeniaPedia.org

Buildings and structures in Armenia
Cemeteries
Establishments in Armenia