cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Catherine Morland is the principal character in Jane Austen's book Northanger Abbey. She enjoys reading the mysterious and frightening gothic novels that were popular in her time. She often has a tendency to blur the lines between fiction and reality, which causes her a great deal of trouble. She is the neighbor of Mr. Allens, a rich man, and goes with him to Bath, a city in Northeastern Somerset, England. Jane Austen used her to mock the obvious classics where the perfect heroes fall in love with the heroines, and they marry and live "happily ever after".

Jane Austen, in the beginning of Chapter Two, describes her as having a heart that "was affectionate (loving)", a "disposition (character) cheerful and open, without conceit (pride) or affectation".

Childhood 

The book Northanger Abbey begins with, "No one who had ever seen Catherine Morland in her infancy, would have supposed her born to be an heroine." Her father, Richard, is a clergyman (pastor) who, even though he is not rich, is not poor; her mother is "a woman of useful plain sense, with a good temper, and, what is more remarkable, with a good constitution." Catherine is called "plain" when she is young, with "a thin awkward figure, a  skin without colour, dark  hair, and strong features..." She likes to play boy's games more than playing with dolls, and does not like lessons, though she does like stories and fables. Catherine likes "tinkling the keys of the old  spinnet (piano)," but she hates learning music, and "the day which dismissed (sent away) the music-master was one of the happiest in Catherine's life." She does not draw well; she did not like writing, or accounts, or French. However, she is usually nice to her brothers and sisters, and listens to her parents.

Adulthood 

Catherine becomes "almost pretty" at 15, when she grows plumper, cleaner, and more . She begins reading better books, like those that Pope, Gray, Thompson, and Shakespeare's. Mrs. Allen invites her to come to Bath with her, and she agrees. There, she is always very polite to Mrs. Allen, and is humbly satisfied when a few men call her a "pretty girl." She falls in love with Henry Tilney, and even though they misunderstand each other some times, they quickly become good friends. She also becomes friends with  Eleanor Tilney, and she is invited to Northanger Abbey. General Tilney, Henry's father, is kind to her, and she is happy. But sometimes she is too imaginative: for instance, she thinks General Tilney murdered his wife. Henry's gentle talk with her soon makes her more clear-sighted. The sudden rudeness of General Tilney makes her very sad until Henry comes and proposes to her; he also explains the General's first attentions, and later rudeness: the General had at first thought Catherine was very rich, and later thought Catherine was really poor. Actually, Catherine is neither - she lives quite comfortably. At the end of the book, they marry happily.

References
Character analysis by SparkNotes

Characters in written fiction
Child abuse is the abuse, mistreatment or hurt done by adults to children. It often means abuse done by a child's parents or another caregiver. Injuries to the skin like bruises are one of the signs of child abuse.

Talking about these things and helping children who suffer from child abuse is very important, but some people do not believe it could happen in their country, neighbourhood or family. They like to think these crimes are far away and so they cannot see if a child nearby is in danger.

Definition 
The World Health Organization (WHO) defines child abuse and child maltreatment as "all forms of physical and/or emotional ill-treatment [...] or other exploitation, resulting in actual or potential harm to the child's health, survival, development or dignity in the context of a relationship of responsibility, trust or power." In the United States, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) uses the term child maltreatment to refer to both acts of absue and neglect. According to the WHO, the term abuse includes  "words or overt actions that cause harm, potential harm, or threat of harm to a child"; neglect means  "the failure to provide for a child's basic physical, emotional, or educational needs or to protect a child from harm or potential harm". The United States federal Child Abuse Prevention and Treatment Act defines child abuse and neglect as, at minimum, "any recent act or failure to act on the part of a parent or caretaker which results in death, serious physical or emotional harm, sexual abuse or exploitation" or "an act or failure to act which presents an imminent risk of serious harm".

Types of child abuse
Child abandonment - when an adult put away with a child neglecting the duty to care 
Child labour - when an adult forces a child to work like adult
Child prostitution - when an adult make a child prostitute like adult
Child sexual abuse — when an adult makes a child do sexual things, including sexual touching, kissing or sexual intercourse. These things cause terrible harm to the child for a very long time, maybe forever. Some of the harm is not felt by the child until he/she grows up.
Psychological abuse of children - Treating children badly so that develop a trauma.

References 

Child abuse
Hakha Chin is a language spoken in southern Asia by 446,264 people. The total figure includes 2,000 Zokhua, and 60,100 Lai speakers. The speakers are largely concentrated in eastern India in addition to Myanmar/Burma and Bangladesh.

References 

Languages of Bangladesh
Kamtapuri or Rajbanshi or Kamatapuri is an Indo-Aryan language. It is spoken in India, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Nepal.  Sources disagree about how many people speak it.  A 1991 census said it was spoken by 5 million people. It is a Bengali-Assamese language spoken by the Rajbongshi people in India and Bangladesh. Many are bilingual in either Bengali or Assamese. Together with Rajbanshi, it forms the KRNB lects.

This is the native language of people of Cooch Behar, Lower Assam, Jalpaiguri, North Dinajpur, South Dinajpur, Terrai of Darjeeling, Upper Maldah, a portion of Bihar, some parts of Bhutan, Bangladesh & Nepal.

Other names of the language are Rajbangsi, Rajbansi, Rajbanshi, Tajpuri, Surjyapuri, Kamrupi, Deshi Bhasha. Recently, "Kamtapuri Bhasha Academy" (2017) is formed by West Bengal Government.

References 

Languages of Bangladesh
is a city located in Aomori Prefecture, Japan.

Hachinohe means "the 8th area" in north of Tohoku region from the Middle Ages era. There was "the places of 8th" for making horses for a war in Hachinohe.

Hachinohe has a famous industrial area, and has a bigger fishing port more than most of other cities.

There is a Tohoku Shinkansen station and the Tohoku Expressway in Hachinohe.

The main industries in Hachinohe are manufacturing and services. Most of people in Hacnihohe work in manufacturing. In Hachinohe, the fishing industry is famous. Hachinohe brings in the most squid and saba in Japan.

Geography
Two rivers run through Hachinohe. One is the Mabechi River, which runs from the south to the east, and flows into the Pacific Ocean. The other is the Nida River, which runs from the south to the north.

Surrounding municipalities
 Aomori Prefecture
 Gonohe
 Hashikami
 Nanbu
 Oirase
 Iwate Prefecture
 Karumai

Demography
According to Japanese census data,

References

External links
 Official website

Cities in Japan
Settlements in Aomori Prefecture
Gerbstedt is a little town at the Mansfeld-Südharz rural district, Saxony-Anhalt in Germany. It is  north of Eisleben. The little river Lobach flows through it.

Gerbstedt is about 30 km northwest of Halle, Saxony-Anhalt. It was first mentioned in 985 as Gerbizstidi. In the area of Gerbstedt, there is copper schist. It is mined since 1730.

References

Other websites

Towns in Saxony-Anhalt
A bandleader is the leader of a group of musicians. Bandleaders often lead large groups that play genres like big band, jazz, blues, rhythm and blues and rock and roll. The bandleader directs the other musicians in the group. Bandleaders often perform in their groups as well. Sometimes bands are named after their bandleaders.

American bandleaders

British bandleaders

Italian bandleaders
 Pippo Barzizza
 Renato Carosone
 Gorni Kramer
 Mantovani
 Augusto Martelli
 Pino Presti

Swedish bandleaders
 Helmut Jederknüller – drums
 Yngwie J. Malmsteen – guitar

Dutch bandleaders
 Michiel Borstlap
 Michiel Braam
 Willem Breuker – trumpet
 Jack Coenen – trombone, leading the Jack Million Band, specialized in the music of Glenn Miller
 Tonny Eijk
 Pim Jacobs
 Erik van der Luijt
 Malando – violin
 Rogier van Otterloo
 André Rieu — violin
 Cees Schrama — keyboards
 Joop Stokkermans – piano
 Lajos Veres – multi-instrumentalist, mostly violin

German bandleaders
 Peter Herbolzheimer
 Bert Kaempfert
 James Last – double bass
 Max Raabe – singer
 Uli Jon Roth – guitar
 Michael Schenker – guitar

French bandleaders
 Raymond Lefevre
 Paul Mauriat
 Franck Pourcel

Belgian bandleaders
 Francis Bay
 Jack Coenen – trombone, leading the Jack Million Band, specialized in the music of Glenn Miller

Argentine bandleaders
 Waldo de los Rios

Japanese bandleaders
 Gackt
 Keisuke Kuwata – guitar multi-instrumentalist
 Miyavi – guitar, gigpig, shamisen, sitar, turntables, wadaiko
 Toshiko Akiyoshi – piano
 Yoshiki Hayashi – piano, drums

Australian bandleaders
 Stuart Lang – cornet
 Mark "Slim" Roberts – cornet, trumpet

 
Entertainment occupations
Neglect is a kind of abuse where a person harms another person by not giving them the things they need to live. For example, a parent or caregiver may neglect a child by not giving them enough food, clothing, hygiene, medical care, affection or education; this is a form of child abuse. Victims of neglect are those that need looking after, like children, physically or mentally disabled adults, elderly people, medical patients, animals or plants.

Society

ro:Abuz asupra copilului#Categoria 3: neglijarea
Kuldīga (; ) is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1378. It is the center of the Kuldīga District. As of 2020, Kuldīga had a population of 10,352 people. River Venta travels through the city.

Kuldīga was founded by the German Livonian Order at 1242. It was called Goldingen by the Germans. It become the capital city of Courland at 1587-1617.

The old centre of the town is in the waiting list for UNESCO World Heritage Site.

Roads 

Roads from Kuldīga: Ventspils—Saldus (P108), Kuldīga—Aizpute (P112), Kuldīga—Skrunda (P116), Kuldīga—Jūrkalne (P119), Kuldīga—Talsi (P120) and Kuldīga—Tukums (P121).

Latvian cities from Kuldīga are in:
 Liepāja — 79 km;
 Riga — 150 km;
 Ventspils — 51 km.

Twin towns 
 Geesthacht, Germany
 Mtskheta, Georgia
 Drobak, Norway

Gallery

References

Other websites 

 Town site
 Town site for travellers

Towns in Latvia
1370s establishments in Europe
14th-century establishments in Latvia
1378 establishments
Paul-Henri Thiry, Baron d'Holbach (8 December 1723 – 21 January 1789) was a French-German author, philosopher and encyclopedist. He was an important figure in the French Enlightenment. He was born Paul Heinrich Dietrich in Edesheim, near Landau in the Rhenish Palatinate. He spent most of his life in Paris, where he kept a salon. He is best known for his atheism. He wrote a lot. Most of his writings are against religion. His best-known book is the System of Nature.

References 

1723 births
1789 deaths
French philosophers
German philosophers
French writers
German writers
Ogre is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1929.  It is the principal town of Ogre District in Central Latvia.  It is where the Daugava and Ogre rivers come together.

Towns in Latvia
1929 establishments in Europe
1920s establishments in Latvia
Salaspils is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1993. It is situated nearby the river Daugava and 18 kilometers from Riga.

Towns in Latvia
1993 establishments in Latvia
Sigulda is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1928.

Towns in Latvia
1928 establishments in Latvia
Valmiera (; ) is a town in Latvia with town rights since 1323, it is the largest city of the historical Vidzeme region, Latvia, with a total area of . It is the center of the Valmiera District. As of 2002, Valmiera had a population of 27,323, and in 2008 – 27,569.

It lies at the crossroads of several important roads,  to the north-east from Riga, the capital of Latvia, and  south of the border with Estonia. Valmiera lies on both banks of the Gauja River.

International relations

Twin towns — sister cities
Valmiera is twinned with:

Towns in Latvia
1323 establishments
14th-century establishments in Latvia
1320s establishments in Europe
Frederick Sanger  (; 13 August 1918 – 19 November 2013) was an English biochemist. 

Sanger is a two-time Nobel laureate in chemistry, the only person to have been so. Sanger is the fourth person to have been given two Nobel Prizes, either individually or in tandem with others.

In 1958 he was given a Nobel prize in chemistry "for his work on the structure of proteins, especially that of insulin". 

In 1980, Walter Gilbert and Sanger shared half of the chemistry prize "for their contributions concerning the determination of base sequences in nucleic acids". The other half was given to Paul Berg "for his fundamental studies of the biochemistry of nucleic acids, with particular regard to recombinant-DNA".

Later life

Sanger retired in 1983 to his home, "Far Leys", in Swaffham Bulbeck outside Cambridge. 

In 1992, the Wellcome Trust and the Medical Research Council founded the Sanger Centre (now the Sanger Institute), named after him. The Institute is on the Wellcome Trust Genome Campus near Hinxton, only a few miles from Sanger's home. John Sulston, the founding director, asked Sanger if the centre could be named in his honor. Sanger agreed but warned, "It had better be good". It was opened by Sanger himself on 4 October 1993, with a staff of less than 50 people. The Institute now has a leading role in the sequencing of the human genome. The Institute now has over 900 people and is one of the world's largest genomic research centres.

Although he retains his dislike of violence, he has lost his Quaker religious faith and calls himself an agnostic. In an interview published in the Times newspaper in 2000 Sanger is quoted as saying: "My father was a committed Quaker and I was brought up as a Quaker, and for them truth is very important. I drifted away from those beliefs – one is obviously looking for truth but one needs some evidence for it. Even if I wanted to believe in God I would find it very difficult. I would need to see proof". 

He declined the offer of a knighthood as he did not wish to be addressed as "Sir" but later accepted the award of an Order of Merit.

In 2007 the British Biochemical Society was given a grant by the Wellcome Trust to catalogue and preserve the 35 laboratory notebooks in which Sanger recorded his remarkable research from 1944 to 1983. In reporting this matter, Science journal noted that Sanger, "the most self-effacing person you could hope to meet", was now spending his time gardening at his Cambridgeshire home.

Death
Sanger died on 19 November 2013 in his Cambridge, England home, aged 95. His scientific biography is currently being written for publication in 2014.

Notes

References

1918 births
2013 deaths
British Nobel Prize winners
Commanders of the Order of the British Empire
Companions of Honour
English biochemists
Fellows of the Royal Society
English molecular biologists
Order of Merit
People from Gloucestershire
Mats Johan Sundin (born February 13, 1971) is a Swedish retired professional ice hockey player. Sundin played a career total of 18 seasons in the National Hockey League (NHL). He played for the Quebec Nordiques, Toronto Maple Leafs, and Vancouver Canucks. Sundin served as the team captain of the Toronto Maple Leafs for 11 seasons. When the 2007–08 NHL season ended, Sundin became the longest serving non-North American born captain in NHL history. He last played 41 games with the Vancouver Canucks in the 2008–09 NHL season before he announced his retirement on September 30, 2009.

On November 12, 2012, Sundin along with Joe Sakic, Adam Oates, and Pavel Bure was inducted into the Hockey Hall of Fame.

References

Other websites

1971 births
Hockey Hall of Fame inductees
Living people
Olympic gold medalists
Sportspeople from Stockholm
Quebec Nordiques players
Swedish ice hockey players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Vancouver Canucks players
Swedish Hockey League players
Ice hockey centres
Khorasan (Persian: خراسان) was the largest province of Iran until it was divided into three provinces on September 29, 2004: 

North Khorasan, center: Bojnord
South Khorasan, center: Birjand
Razavi Khorasan, center: Mashhad

Khorasan is famous worldwide for its saffron and zereshk which are produced in the southern cities of the province. It is also known for its famous rugs. 

Khorasan is the birthplace of Ferdowsi, the famous Iranian poet who wrote the Shahnameh (Shāhnāme), the national epic of Persian people and of the Iranian World. 

Imam Reza Shrine (the shrine of the 8th shi'a Imam), the center of Razavi Khorasan Province.

Provinces of Iran
2014 disestablishments
Sir Geoffrey Prior (1896-1972) was the first Chief commissioner of Balochistan (Pakistan) from 15 August 1947 to 3 October 1947.

1896 births
1972 deaths

People of British India
Sir Ambrose Dundas Flux Dundas KCIE, CSI (b.1899-d.1973) was the second chief commissioner of Balochistan (Pakistan) from 4 October 1947 - 8 April 1948, and the second governor of the North West Frontier Province from 9 April 1948 - 16 July 1949.

Dundas was Lieutenant Governor of the Isle of Man from 1952 to 1959.

1899 births
1973 deaths
People of British India
Isle of Man
Knights Commander of the Order of the Indian Empire
Order of the Star of India
Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne (12 August 1891 – 1977) was an English colonial administrator. He served in British India. He began his service in the Royal Army. He then served in the civil service from 1920. He worked in Lahore for several years, and held several high positions for the government of Punjab. Bourne was appointed acting Governor of the Central Provinces and Berar from May to October 1945, and as the acting Governor of Assam in 1946. He then served as the last Governor of the Central Provinces and Berar, from 1946 until independence of India in 1947. Bourne was then appointed the first governor of East Bengal, United Pakistan. He was governor from 15 August 1947 to 5 April 1950.

References

Other websites 
Sir Frederick Chalmers Bourne at the National Portrait Gallery, London
Frederick Chalmers Bourne in the National Archives

|-

1891 births
1977 deaths
People of British India
Order of the Star of India
People from Kent
Sir Francis Mudie (1890–1976) was the first governor of the Punjab in Pakistan from 15 August 1947 to 2 August 1949.

1890 births
1976 deaths

People of British India
Governors of Bihar
Sir George Cunningham (1888 - 1964) was the first governor of the North-West Frontier Province province in Pakistan. He was governor from 15 August 1947 to 8 April 1948.

1888 births
1964 deaths
People of British India
The 1899 Atlantic hurricane season was during the summer and fall of 1899. Nine storms were seen during this time, five of them were hurricane and the other four were tropical storms. Hurricane Three or the Hurricane San Ciriaco was the longest lived Atlantic hurricane. It also killed about 3433 people, making it the tenth deadliest Atlantic hurricane.

Storms

Tropical Storm One

Tropical Storm One was a weak tropical storm in late June. One started in the northwest corner of the Gulf of Mexico. It made landfall in Texas and quickly died, the same day.

Hurricane Two

This storm was seen about 2 days before it hit Hispaniola. It later hit Florida in the Panhandle on August 1. Two died the next day. This storm killed 6 people and caused almost $600,000 in damage.

Hurricane Three

Hurricane Three, which was called the Hurricane San Ciriaco, was the longest lived hurricane in the Atlantic Ocean. The hurricane affected about six countries. This hurricane lived from August 3 to September 4, nearly a month. It killed about 3,433 people.

Hurricane Four

Hurricane Four was a category 2 hurricane that struck Haiti in early September. The hurricane caused no damage or deaths.

Hurricane Five

Hurricane Five was a category 3 hurricane that mostly stayed at sea. But before it died, it hit Newfoundland as a weak hurricane.

Tropical Storm Six

Six was a strong tropical storm in early October, 1899. It died not very long after making a landfall near Gainesville, Florida.

Tropical Storm Seven

Tropical Storm Seven was a weak tropical storm. It lasted during the middle of October, 1899. Seven did not affect any land.

Hurricane Eight

This category 2 hurricane struck Cuba and South Carolina. It was a category 1 when it struck both of those places.

Tropical Storm Nine

Tropical Storm Nine was the last storm in 1899. It lasted during early to mid November in 1899. This storm also struck Cuba.

References

Printed Media
 Terry Tucker. Beware the Hurricane! Hamilton Press: Bermuda, 1966

Related pages
1899
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons

1899
Atlantic hurricane seasons
Fenwick Island is a town in Sussex County, which is in the state of Delaware in the United States. There were about 357 people in the town in 2006. Fenwick Island is part of the Seaford, Delaware Micropolitan Statistical Area. Fenwick Island is on the Atlantic Ocean north of Ocean City, Maryland.

References 

Towns in Delaware
General American (GA) is a major accent of American English. Within American English, General American and accents approximating it are contrasted with Southern American English, several Northeastern accents, and other distinct regional accents and social group accents like African American Vernacular English.

Language
Thomas Linley (born Bath, England,  5 May 1756; died Grimsthorpe, Lincs 5 Aug 1778) was an English composer and violinist.  He was born in the same year as Mozart and, like Mozart, he was an astonishing child prodigy.  He would almost certainly have been one of England’s greatest composers if he had not died at the age of 22.

Life
Thomas came from a musical family.  His father, also called Thomas Linley, was a composer, singing teacher and harpsichord player.  His young son  was soon showing exceptional musical skills.  We do not know who taught him the violin in his early years, but people writing at the time all say he was a brilliant player.  He went to Italy to study the violin and composition with Nardini in Florence. He met Mozart there in 1770 and he also met Charles Burney in the same year.  Burney wrote that Linley was the most promising genius of the time.

In 1771 Linley went back to England.  He was the leader of the orchestra in the theatre in Drury Lane.  He often played concertos between the acts of oratorios.

During the last five years of his life he composed a large amount of excellent music.  Unfortunately a lot of it has been lost.  Gainsborough twice painted a portrait of him.

He died in a boating accident when he was on holiday with his family in Lincolnshire.

References
New Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie, London 1980,

Other websites
 short biography of Thomas Linley, the Younger 

1756 births
1778 deaths
English composers
British violinists
Kaiane Aldorino won Miss World 2009 on December 12, 2009. She was born July 8, 1986 in Gibraltar.

References

1986 births
Living people
British models
Gibraltar
Miss World winners
A hypothetical imperative is a rule of the form If you want x, then do y. Moral theories may generally have this structure. This means that only those who want x, must do y. Another view is that moral values are not relative to some objective, but are the same for all, that is they are unconditional, or categorical.

The term was coined by Immanuel Kant. Kant said that moral values had to be unconditional, categorical; he wrote a categorical imperative. 

Philosophy
The Starry Night is a famous painting of a moonlit sky with stars in it by Vincent van Gogh. It was painted in 1889. It was one of the last paintings he made.

References

Other websites 
 The Starry Night in the MoMA Online Collection
 smARThistory: van Gogh's Starry Night 
 Multimedia study of van Gogh, McLean and Sexton
 On Exhibit at the Van Gogh Museum in Amsterdam February 13-June 7 2009, retrieved January 31, 2009 
 The Starry Night at the Most Famous Paintings 

1880s paintings
Dutch paintings
Paintings by Vincent van Gogh
A gas mask is a kind of mask that fits over the face area and nose. It protects from poison gases and many other hazards in the air.   During World War II gas masks were sent all over England.  They were worn everywhere, even to sleep, in case of surprise attack.  However, the Germans didn't attack with gas bombs.  Gas masks have a filter, a type of material which lets good air in.

Protective clothing
Headgear

pt:Máscara contra gases
George Hoyt Whipple (August 26, 1878 - February 1, 1976) was an American Medical doctor and scientist. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Minot and William P. Murphy, for their discoveries about how eating liver could cure anaemia.

References 

1878 births
1976 deaths
American academics
American Nobel Prize winners
American physicians
Scientists from New Hampshire
Yale University alumni
Educators from New Hampshire
George Richards Minot (December 2, 1885 - February 25, 1950) was an American doctor. He won the 1934 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, along with George Whipple and William P. Murphy, for their discoveries how eating liver could cure anaemia.

References 

1885 births
1950 deaths
American physicians
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from Boston, Massachusetts
The Quaternary is the current geological period. It is the most recent of the three periods of the Cainozoic era and the most recent of the twelve periods of the current eon, the Phanerozoic. The Quaternary follows the Neogene, which is the second period of the Cainozoic.

The Quaternary began about 2.6 million years ago, and continues today. A great deal of information is considered when geologists discuss the timing of periods. The status of the Quaternary as a period is confirmed by the International Commission on Stratigraphy (ICS). 

In the Quarternary were the glaciations known as the Ice Age. Also, anatomically modern humans evolved. During the Quaternary,  many large mammalian species became extinct. This was due to climate change and hunting by humans.

The Quaternary includes two geologic epochs: 
Pleistocene 
Holocene

References 

Cainozoic
The Palaeogene (meaning “old generation” in Greek) is the first geological period of the Cainozoic and the tenth period in the Phanerozoic eon. It began 65 million years ago, and ended 23 million years ago. Before it was the Cretaceous. The Palaeogene was followed by the Neogene.

The Palaeogene had three stages: Palaeocene, Eocene and Oligocene.

The Palaeogene and the succeeding Neogene were originally considered to be one period, the Tertiary, until it was split recently .

References

Cainozoic
The Neogene (meaning “new generation” in Greek) is the second geological period of the Cainozoic and the eleventh period in the Phanerozoic eon. It began 23 million years ago, and ended about 2.6 million years ago when glaciation became less rare.

Before the Neogene was the Palaeogene. The Neogene has two stages: Miocene, and Pliocene. It is followed by the Quaternary.

 
The Neogene, along with the preceding Palaeogene were originally together considered one period, the Tertiary until recently, when it was split.

Cainozoic
Miocene
The Palaeocene is the first geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It started after the end of the Cretaceous, and lasted for about 10 million years. It was followed by the Eocene epoch.

The Palaeocene began and ended with an extinction event, each of quite a different character. The epoch began with the K/T extinction event, caused by a combination of a meteorite strike (Chicxulub crater) and a huge volcanic flood basalt eruption which produced the Deccan Traps in what is now India. This caused the extinction of many groups, including the dinosaurs and many other reptiles. The epoch ended with the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum, a deep ocean anoxic event (DOAE). This means that the ocean depths were lacking oxygen, so no higher forms of life could survive. This produced a mass extinction of between 35–50% of deep water forms such as benthic foraminifera, and coincided with a major change of mammalian types on land.

Climate 
After a cooler start, the climate grew warmer during the epoch, far warmer than today, and the world was heavily forested. There were no ice caps at the poles. Warm seas circulated throughout the world, including the poles. The earliest Paleocene featured a low diversity and abundance of marine life, but this trend reversed later in the epoch. Tropical conditions gave rise to abundant marine life, including coral reefs. With the demise of marine reptiles at the end of the Cretaceous, sharks became the top predators. At the end of the Cretaceous, the ammonites and many species of foraminifera became extinct.

Marine faunas also came to resemble modern faunas. Only the marine mammals and an important family of sharks, the Carcharhinidae, are missing.

Non-avian dinosaurs may have survived to some extent into the early Danian stage of the Paleocene Epoch about 66 mya. The controversial evidence for such is a hadrosaur leg bone found from Paleocene strata in New Mexico; but such stray late forms may be derived fossils. This means they were fossilised, then erosion uncovered them, then they were buried again in a younger layer of rocks.

Polar forests 
The warm Paleocene climate, much like that of the Cretaceous, supported  polar forests. Precipitation is a major factor in plant diversity nearer the equator, but polar plants have to adapt to light (polar nights and midnight suns) and temperature. Because of this, plants from both poles evolved some similar characteristics, such as broad leaves. Plant diversity at both poles increased throughout the Paleocene, especially at the end, in tandem with the increasing global temperature.

Stages of the Palaeocene 
The Palaeocene is divided into three stages:

References 

Cainozoic
Byron Moreno (born 23 November 1969) is a former Ecuadorian football referee. He has been suspended for his job, because he showed illegal red cards. He was also arrested in New York for the possession of the illegal drug heroin and was fined for drunk driving.

1969 births
Living people
People from Quito
Ecuadorian footballers
The Eocene was the second geological epoch in the Palaeogene. It began 56 million years ago, and ended 33.9 million years ago. Before it was the Palaeocene and, after it was the Oligocene.

The Eocene, like the Palaeocene before it, had a climate much warmer than today. At the start of the Eocene the Palaeocene–Eocene Thermal Maximum was reached. This lasted for 100,000 years, and caused a large extinction event. The land was heavily forested, with temperate forests into arctic and antarctic regions, and the many herbivorous mammals were browsers, not grazers.

The end of the Eocene was the beginning of the Oligocene (33.9 million years ago).  Many plant and animal species went extinct.  This was the Eocene–Oligocene extinction event.  The extinction event was probably caused by meteorite strikes in Siberia and Chesapeake Bay.

References 

Eocene
Cainozoic
Islam is the official religion of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. In 2007, 97% of the population were Muslims, with 75% being Sunni and 20% Shi'a. There are about 175,376,000 Muslims in Pakistan which is the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia. The Shi'a Muslim population is the second largest in the world after Iran, more than 50 million.

History
In 644 A.D. an Arab Army under the command of Hakam defeated the combined forces of Makran and Sindh, which was prominently Buddhist at the time. The period of Arab rule brought the religion of Islam to the Indus Valley. The Baloch tribes gradually embraced Islam, replacing their centuries-old Zoroastrian religion. Islam arrived in the area of modern Pakistan in 711 AD, 79 yrs after the of death of the prophet Muhammad. The Umayyad dynasty sent a Muslim Arab army led by Muhammad bin Qasim al-Thaqafi against the ruler of Sindh, Raja Dahir. Raja Dahir had given refuge to many Zoroastrian Princes who had fled the Islamic conquest of the Persian Empire. Muhammad Bin Qasim's army was defeated in his first three attempts.  The Muslim army conquered the northwestern part of Indus Valley from Kashmir to the Arabian Sea.

The arrival of the Arab Muslims to the provinces of Sindh and Punjab, along with subsequent Muslim dynasties, set the religious boundaries of South Asia. This would lead to the development of the modern state of Pakistan as well as forming the foundation for Islamic rule across much of South Asia. Following the rule of various Islamic empires, including the Ghaznavid Empire, the Ghorid Kingdom, and the Delhi Sultanate, the Mughals controlled the region from 1526 until 1739. Muslim technocrats, bureaucrats, soldiers, traders, scientists, architects, teachers, theologians and Sufis flocked from the rest of the Muslim world to  Sultanate and Mughal Empire in South Asia.

References

Pakistan
The Lower Cretaceous is the first geological epoch in the Cretaceous. It began 145 million years ago, and ended 100.5 million years ago.

Lasting for about 46 million years, this is the longest stage in the Phanerozoic eon. It is longer than some of the geological periods in the Phanerozoic. 

The Lower Cretaceous is best displayed in England, where it is composed of two series of rocks. Between the two is a major rise in sea level. 
Lower, the Wealden Beds, laid down in freshwater or brackish conditions. Sands came from the flood plain of a huge tropical braided river. Clays came from a coastal lagoonal plain.
Upper, the Greensands, an olive-green sandstone deposited in the sea; and the Gault Clay, a formation of stiff blue clay deposited in a calm, fairly deep water marine environment. It overlays the Lower Greensand formation.

The two parts of the Cretaceous represent the sea level where the divisions were first defined. In the Lower Cretaceous, the sea level was much lower than in the Upper Cretaceous. In the Wealden, Southern England was a huge tropical river delta; in the Greensand the same areas were just offshore. However, in the Upper Cretaceous the deposits were made in deeper water, on what was then the continental shelf. Sea level then stood at its highest level in the Mesozoic.

References 

Cretaceous
A trio sonata is a type of music for four instruments which was very popular during the 17th century and early 18th century: the period known as the Baroque period.

A trio sonata is written for three voices (three parts), in other words, it can be played by three different instruments.  The two upper voices share the same musical themes.  They often imitate one another.  They are of equal importance.  The third part, the lowest part, is played by basso continuo, which means the accompaniment.  This continuo is usually played by two instruments:  typically a cello or bass viol and a keyboard instrument such as the harpsichord.  That makes four players, of course.  However, the harpsichord player’s left hand notes are the same as the cello’s notes.  This is the “third” part of the trio.

Some of the best trio sonatas are those by Arcangelo Corelli.  His collection of trio sonatas numbered opus 1 and 3 are sonata da chiesa: four movements (slow-fast-slow-fast) finishing with a fugue.  His op 2 and 4 sonatas are sonata da camera type: each movement is a kind of dance.  Corelli’s trio sonatas are for two violins and continuo. 

Johann Sebastian Bach wrote a trio sonata in The Musical Offering for violin, flute and continuo. 

Bach also wrote six trio sonatas for organ.  These are played by one player.  The organist’s two hands each play on different manuals (keyboards) so that they sound like two different instruments.  The organist’s feet play the third part on the pedals.  Each part is strictly a single line (no chords, never more than three notes at a time) so that these works can also be played by other instruments (e.g. two violins and cello with harpsichord).

Bach also wrote sonatas for one melodic instrument and harpsichord.  These pieces are really trio sonatas, although he does not call them trio sonatas.  The melodic instrument (normally violin or flute) plays the top part, the harpsichordist plays the second part with his right hand, and the third part is the lowest part of his left hand notes.

Some other composers who wrote trio sonatas are Tomaso Albinoni,  Henry Purcell, Dieterich Buxtehude, George Frideric Handel,  Georg Philipp Telemann,  Johann Pachelbel and Antonio Vivaldi.

References
Groves Dictionary of Music & Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; London 1980, ISBN 1-56159-174-2

Musical forms
The Cretaceous–Tertiary extinction event, now called the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event, was about 65.5 million years ago. It may be called the K/T extinction event or K/Pg event for short. This is the famous event which killed most of the dinosaurs at the end of the Cretaceous period.

It was a large-scale mass extinction of  animal and plant species. The event marks the end of the Mesozoic era and the beginning of the Cainozoic era.

Effects 
Dinosaur fossils are only found below the K/T boundary. This shows they became extinct before, or during the event. Mosasaurs, plesiosaurs, pterosaurs and many species of plants and invertebrates also became extinct.

Mammalian and bird groups got through the event with some extinctions. Those that survived became widespread and varied during their later evolutionary radiation.

Causes 
The K/T extinctions were so sudden and far-reaching that they must have been caused by something sudden and powerful. One or more massive asteroid or meteor impacts, and increased volcanic activity have been suggested.

How quickly animals died out around the world is an important clue. Patterns in rocks also suggest causes. There are several impact craters and massive volcanic activity in the Deccan Traps in India dated to about the same time as the extinctions. Those impacts and volcanoes would have reduced sunlight and hindered photosynthesis, disrupting Earth's ecology.

The best supported theory is that the meteorite strike in the Yucatan was the main cause of the extinction at the end of the Mesozoic era.

Craters 
There were several impact events across the Cretaceous/Tertiary boundary, such as the Chicxulub crater in Mexico, Boltysh crater in Ukraine, Silverpit crater in North Sea, and the Shiva crater offshore western India. 
The Shiva crater is a sea floor structure under the continental shelf in the Indian Ocean, west of Mumbai, India. It was named by paleontologist Sankar Chatterjee after Shiva, the Hindu god of destruction and renewal.

Related pages 
List of extinction events
Chicxulub

References 

Geology
Dinosaurs
Meteorites
Extinction events
Mesozoic
John Rutter (born London 24 September 1945) is an English composer and choral conductor.  He has composed a lot of church music.  Many of his anthems and songs are very popular indeed with church choirs as well as choral societies.  He writes in a style that can be enjoyed easily, and at the same time it is excellent music.

Life

Rutter was born in London.  He went to school at Highgate School.  Another pupil in the school was John Tavener who was also to become a famous composer, although his style of music is very different.

Rutter studied music at Clare College, Cambridge.  He became director of music at Clare College in 1975 and made the choir internationally famous.

In 1974, Rutter visited the United States where he conducted his new cantata "Gloria" which became a great favourite.  He also conducted his "Eight Childhood Lyrics".

In 1981 Rutter started a choir of his own, the Cambridge Singers.  He still conducts them.  They have made many recordings.  Rutter still lives near Cambridge and spends his time composing and conducting all over the world.

Rutter has been given many honours, including  honorary Fellow of Westminster Choir College, Princeton (1980), Fellow of the Guild of Church Musicians (1988). In 1996 the Archbishop of Canterbury gave him the Lambeth Doctorate of Music to celebrate all he has done for church music.  He was made a CBE in 2007.

Rutter also works as an arranger and editor.  His collection of Carols for Choirs which he prepared together with Sir David Willcocks is extremely widely used in Britain.

Compositions

Rutter's compositions include Christmas carols, anthems and longer choral works such as a Gloria, a Magnificat, and a Requiem.

In 2002 his setting of Psalm 150, written for the Queen's Golden Jubilee, was performed at the thanksgiving service in St Paul's Cathedral, London. He has also written an opera for young people called Bang!.  His Mass for Children was first performed in 2003 in the Carnegie Hall, New York.

Most of his songs and anthems were written at first with piano or organ accompaniment, but he has also arranged many of them for orchestral accompaniment as well.

Other websites 
 Rutter at the Oxford University Press website

1945 births
Living people
20th-century English composers
21st-century English composers
Dante Daniel "Danny" Bonaduce (born August 13, 1959) is an American radio and TV host, and he was a child actor.

He is famous for being on the 1970s sitcom/television series The Partridge Family.

References

1959 births
Living people
Actors from Pennsylvania
Comedians from Pennsylvania
American radio personalities
American television personalities
American movie actors
American television actors
American radio actors
American child actors
The Permian/Triassic extinction event (P/Tr for short and also popularly referred to as the Great Dying) was the largest extinction event in the Phanerozoic eon. 57% of all biological families, 83% of all genera, 96% of all marine species (including many kinds of fish and the last surviving trilobites) and 70% of all terrestrial vertebrates (including many of the large amphibians, primitive reptiles and synapsids) became extinct. It is the only known extinction event of insects. It ended the Palaeozoic era, and began the Mesozoic era.

The event forms the boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods, at about 252 million years ago. Because so much biodiversity was lost, the recovery of life on earth took much longer than after other extinction events.  This event has been described as the "mother of all mass extinctions".
The pattern of extinction is still unclear, as different studies suggest one to three different pulses.

There are several proposed mechanisms for the extinctions. These include: large or multiple meteorite impacts, increased volcanism, sudden release of methane hydrates from the sea floor. Gradual changes include sea level change, oceanic anoxic events, increasing aridity, and a shift in ocean circulation driven by climate change.

One thing is probably significant. One of the largest ever flood basalt eruptions took place across the P/Tr junction. These eruptions, from 251 to 250 million years ago, produced the Siberian Traps, a huge volcanic province in Siberia. This would certainly have made the world's climate much worse, and is now thought to be the main cause of this great extinction.

Another factor is that global sea levels were at an historic low point at the time.

Related pages
 List of extinction events

References 

Geology
Meteorites
Extinction events
Camille Pissarro (10 July 1830 – 12 November 1903) was a French Impressionist painter. He was born on Saint Tomas in the Virgin Islands. Pissarro died in Paris.

He was the only artist to exhibit in both Impressionism and Post-impressionism forms. Pissarro learnt from great forerunners, including Gustave Courbet and Jean-Baptiste-Camille Corot. He later studied and worked alongside Georges Seurat and Paul Signac when he took on the Neo-Impressionist style at the age of 54.

In 1873 he helped establish a society of fifteen aspiring artists, holding the group together and encouraging the other members. Art historian John Rewald called Pissarro the “dean of the Impressionist painters", not only because he was the oldest of the group, but also "by virtue of his wisdom and his balanced, kind, and warmhearted personality”. Cézanne said "he was a father for me. A man to consult and a little like the good Lord". He was also one of Gauguin's mentors. Renoir referred to his work as “revolutionary”, through his artistic portrayals of the common man. Pissarro insisted on painting individuals in natural settings without "artifice or grandeur".

Pissarro is the only artist to have shown his work at all eight Paris Impressionist exhibitions, from 1874 to 1886. He acted as a father figure to the Impressionists and, in varying degress, to all four of the major Post-impressionists including Georges Seurat, Paul Cézanne, Vincent van Gogh and Paul Gauguin.

The London years 
The Franco-Prussian War of 1870–71 compelled Pissarro to flee his home in September 1870; he returned in June 1871 to find that the house, and along with it many of his early paintings, had been destroyed by Prussian soldiers. By December 1870 he and his family had taken refuge in London and settled in Crystal Palace, southwest London. 

Through the paintings Pissarro completed at this time, he records Sydenham and Norwood at a time when they were just recently connected by railways. One of the largest of these paintings is a view of St. Bartholomew's Church at Lawrie Park Avenue, commonly known as The Avenue, Sydenham, in the collection of the  National Gallery, London.

Whilst in Upper Norwood Pissarro was introduced to the art dealer Paul Durand-Ruel, who bought two of his 'London' paintings.  Durand-Ruel subsequently became the most important art dealer of the new school of French Impressionism.

Returning to France, in 1890 Pissarro again visited England and painted some ten scenes of central London. He came back again in 1892, painting in Kew Gardens and Kew Green, and also in 1897, when he produced several oils of Bedford Park, Chiswick.

Related pages
 List of French painters
List of Danish painters

References 

French painters
1830 births
1903 deaths