cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
For the movie about a shark, see Jaws (movie).

The jaw is the part of an animal's body that it uses to grab and chew food.  In humans, the jaws are two bones in the mouth, the mandible (lower jaw) and maxilla (upper jaw), that let the teeth move up and down in order to chew. The mandible is joined to the skull.

However, in insects, the jaws may open left and right instead, and they are usually outside the mouth instead of inside it. Sea urchins have five jaws with one tooth each. Some animals, even some vertebrates, do not have jaws.

A body part is called a jaw based on what it does, not what it is made of or how it grows.  In different animals, it can be made of different kinds of cells and tissue.  In the embryos of different animals, it may come from different original places.  Even within arthropods, the group that contains insects and lobsters and trilobites and spiders, the jaws of different animals may grow from different original tissues, even though they end up looking similar in adult animals.  A pair of appendages that become jaws in one species may become antennae in a different species or legs in another. Moray eels and some other fish have two sets of jaws. The outer jaws in their faces grow from the same tissues as the jaws of other fish, and the inner jaws, called pharyngeal jaws, can come from the same tissue that becomes gills or muscles in other fish.

Marsupials and monotremes are born before their jaws have grown enough for them to drink their mothers' milk the way other baby mammals do.  Scientists from Kings' College London found that opossums and other marsupials use tissue from their inner ear to make a temporary jaw so they can feed and grow.  They found that baby echidnas also form a temporary jaw using the bones of their inner ear so they can feed and grow.

References

Head (body part)
The Battle of Santa Rosa was a battle between the forces of Costa Rica and those of Nicaragua. It was one of the most important battles in the history of Costa Rica. The battle took place on March 20, 1856 at Santa Rosa, Costa Rica.

The cause
The fighting was caused by the arrival of William Walker in Nicaragua. Walker was an American soldier who believed slavery was good. He told the people of Nicaragua that he wanted to help the country. What he really wanted was to conquer the five free nations of Central America. The president of Costa Rica, Juan Rafael Mora Porras thought that Walker wanted to conquer them. On February 27, 1856, Mora declared the war against Walker and Nicaragua.

The fighting
President Mora called all of his forces to fight. On March 4th, Mora led the forces as they started their march towards Nicaragua.  On March 12th, they arrived in Liberia. There they join with Jose Maria Cañas and his battalion. When the filibusters found out what was happening in Costa Rica, they sent troops. Their troops got to Hacienda Santa Rosa on March 19th. On March 20th, the three thousand Costa Ricans walked to Hacienda Santa Rosa where the filibusters had formed their post at La Casona. At four o’clock, the Costa Rican battalions began the attack against the invaders. After fourteen minutes, the Costa Rican forces won the battle. The few filibusters that had escaped went to Nicaragua. William Walker armed a new army. President Mora quickly moved on to Rivas with his 3000 men, and the Battle of Rivas started.

Santa Rosa
History of Costa Rica
History of Nicaragua
1856
19th century in North America
March events
CowParade is one of the largest public art events of the world. First it began in Chicago and New York. This was in 1999 and 2000. The Cow Parade runs many cities of the United States up to the year 2001. In 2002 it moved to Europe, in London. This Parade has covered a lot of countries through all the five continents. In 2008 they moved to the fourth Latin-American country, Costa Rica. The Cow Parade has been in Argentina, Brazil and Mexico, also.

This public art event is about painting cows with some cultural messages. It doesn’t need to be a professional sculpture. You can find urban and crazy sculptures too. This exhibition is taking place on the principal parks and boulevards of San José, Costa Rica.
The principal purpose of this event is to auction each cow and then the proceeds go to charity.

In San José there are a total of one hundred twenty cows, each one with their topic. There is an amazing level of creativity from the national sculptors who painted and sculpted the cows. They are a lot of beautiful cows made of several material including the rice and beans of the traditional breakfast. Some of the cows have the message of doesn’t forget the traditional customs. Also, some cows have a message to make a country with more love, generosity and with more solidarity.

Some cows also encourage people to take care of Costa Rican nature and all the biodiversity that this small country has. The principal message is just to create a better planet for the future.

Other websites 

 The official (US) Cowparade website
 CowParade Rio de Janeiro 2007 - pictures
 Cow Parade Europe 

Sculpture
Festivals
The Poás Volcano is an active volcano near the town of Poás, Alajuela, Costa Rica. Poas Volcano has two craters. The larger crater is one of the biggest crater in the world. It is  in diameter and  deep. The biggest known eruption was in 1910.

The area around the volcano is a national park. It is a place where many tourists from Costa Rica and other countries visit. At the bottom of the main crater is a lagoon. The lagoon is an acidic lake with boiling sulfuric gases. The temperature of the lake varies between  and . Because of changes in the chemistry of the lake and its temperature, the color of the lake also changes. The second crater has a cold water lake in it. This lake is connected to the nearby river, Rio Angel.

References 

 Pictures and information of the Poas Volcano 

Volcanoes of North America
Alajuela Province
Gandhi is a rock band from Costa Rica. They play music using distorted guitars and rhythm. The band members are Abel Guier (bassist), Massimo Hernández (drummer), Federico Miranda (guitarist) and Luis Montalbert-Smith (singer and pianist). The lyrics of Gandhi songs are written mainly by Montalbert-Smith. Some of the bands that influenced their songs are Pink Floyd, The Beatles, Queen and Soda Stereo. 

Montalbert-Smith is a very important part of the band's performances because of his charisma and stage presence. These characteristics makes the shows very interesting and full of adrenaline for their fans.

The band began when Miranda and Montalbert-Smith met in high school in the mid 1990s. The complete group of four members started playing at universities and local bars. One of the things that made their shows so well liked was the many different types of art offered. The fans could not only listen to the music, but also see very good scenery design, body painting and their performance.

The band won the Costa Rican award "Album of the Year" in 2004 for the album Ciclos. The album “Páginas Pérdidas” got three local awards in 2000. They have played in Costa Rica but also in Central America, Mexico and the United States.

The band was chosen to be part of the Tribute to Soda Stereo (Tributo a Soda Stereo). They played a version of "En el sétimo día" ("In the Seventh Day"). They have opened concerts for many international artists.

Albums

1997: En el jardín del corazón (In the Garden of the Heart)
2000: Páginas perdidas (Lost Pages)
2002: BIOS
2004: Ciclos (Cycles)
2006: Un ciclo más (One Cycle More) - double DVD
2009: Arigato NO!

Music videos
They have some videos of their songs:

Other websites
Official site

Rock bands
San José, Costa Rica
Musical groups established in 1993
1993 establishments in North America
20th-century establishments in Costa Rica
Clodomiro Picado Twight (April 17, 1887 - May 16, 1944) was a Nicaraguan born Costa Rican biologist. Picado may have been the first to have learned about penicillin.

Early life and education
Picado was born in San Marcos, Nicaragua but moved, with his parents, to Costa Rica in 1890. In 1908, Picado won a scholarship of the Costa Rican Congress to study in Paris, France.

In 1913, he finished his university studies in La Sorbonne, where he earned his BSc in zoology and botany, as well as a doctorate degree. In the same year, he came back to Costa Rica to run the laboratory of San Juan de Dios Hospital. At the same time, he was teaching sciences at San Luis Gónzaga School in Cartago city.

Discoveries
Sir Alexander Fleming, a Scottish scientist, is commonly said to be the person who learned about the antibacterial attacks of a fungus known as Penicillium notatum in 1928. But in March 2000, Costa Rican doctors showed some notebooks with research belonging to Picado. In these notebooks, he explained his experiments between 1915 and 1927. These experiments had been developed to explain that Penicillium decreased bacterial activity.

Picado had reported his work to the Paris Academy of Sciences in France, but this academy did not patent it, even though Picado had studied the fungus years before Fleming.

Picado studied the creation of various anti-venom serums. This led to the create of the Instituto Clodomiro Picado in 1970. It is a research unit of the University of Costa Rica The unit is works on research in Toxicology, Herpetology and Immunology. It also deals with the production of anti-venom. It was named for him in honor of his life’s work.

References 
 http://www.rcpe.ac.uk/publications/articles/journal_37_1/T-letters93.pdf 
 http://aes.iupui.edu/rwise/NoteofMonth/matthew_patayMarch2006CostaRica.htm 
 http://www.micit.go.cr/programas/premio_biografia.htm 

Costa Rican people
Biologists
1887 births
1944 deaths
"From Me to You" is a song by The Beatles, written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. Released in 1963 as a single, it was their first big hit, staying on top of the chart for seven straight weeks. "From Me to You" comprises five verses and two bridges. It lasts less than two minutes.

The Beatles songs
1963 songs
Ephesians, is the forty-ninth book in the Christian Bible, and the tenth in the New Testament. This book is thought to have been written by the Apostle Paul to the people of Ephesus while he was imprisoned in Rome, around 62 A.D.  However, the words "in Ephesus" do not appear in the best and earliest hand copies of the letter, leading most textual critics, like Bart Ehrman, to regard the words "in Ephesus" as a later addition. Copies of the letter may have been sent to other churches also, since it contains no personal references to people at Ephesus.

The Church at Ephesus

Paul's first short visit of three months to Ephesus is recorded in Acts Chapter 18, verses 19–21. The work he began then was continued by Apollos (Acts Chapter 18 verses 24–26) and Aquila  and Priscilla. On his second visit early in the next year, he stayed at Ephesus "three years", and from there visited the western parts of Asia Minor. From Ephesus the gospel spread abroad "almost throughout all Asia Minor."

On his last journey to Jerusalem, the apostle landed at Miletus and, called together the leaders of the church from Ephesus, and said "good bye" to them expecting to see them no more. (Acts Chapter 20, verses 18–35)

Content of the letter

Frank Charles Thompson,  says that the main theme of Ephesians is to tell the newly converted Jews not to separate themselves from their Gentile fellow Christians. The unity of the church, especially between Jew and Gentile believers, is the main thing in the book. The purpose of the epistle, and to whom it was written, are matters of much speculation. It was regarded by C.H. Dodd as the "crown of Paulinism." meaning the most important part of Paul's teachings.

The author strongly tells the church again and again to have a certain view of salvation, which he then explains. Chapter 2, verse 6, states "By grace you have been saved through faith and that not of yourselves, it is the gift of God, not of works so that no one should boast"

In Chapter 6 Paul tells about how families should treat each other.  He says that children should love their parents, fathers should not make their children angry, servants should serve their masters, and masters should not threaten their servants, since God does not favor any group above another.

The ending of the letter mentions truth, peace, salvation and prayer as "armor of God". that will enable the Christians to stand firm.

References

Other websites 
Ephesians (KJV)
Ephesians (NIV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
Samuel Taylor Coleridge (21 October 1772 – 25 July 1834) was an English poet. Together with his friend William Wordsworth, Coleridge is often said to have started the Romantic movement in English literature. He was also a literary critic, philosopher and theologian. 

Coleridge was born in Ottery St Mary, Devon. He was the son of a minister, and the youngest of ten children. He attended the University of Cambridge, Jesus College, though he never earned his degree. He met Wordsworth, another young poet, in 1795. They became close friends, and in 1798 they published their poems in a book called Lyrical Ballads, which many critics consider a key event in English Romanticism. Most of the poems in the book were written by Wordsworth, though it also contained Coleridge's The Rime of the Ancient Mariner, which many people call his masterpiece and one of the great poems in English. (In it, Coleridge used old-fashioned spellings, like "rime" for "rhyme," to give the poem an antique feeling.)

In 1796, Coleridge wrote his poem Kubla Khan — along with the Ancient Mariner, it is his best-known work. At about the same time, in the later 1790s, Coleridge became addicted to opium. At that time the drug was legal, and was widely used as a painkiller. Coleridge's addiction to opium marked the rest of his life. His health suffered, and he had trouble supporting his wife and children. He also had a hard time finishing the writing projects he started.

Coleridge had a reputation as a great talker, and people often invited him to their dinner parties to hear him speak. He was a successful lecturer at times in his later life. He gained a reputation as a thinker and philosopher as well as a poet. He died in Highgate, Middlesex.

Scholars and critics of English literature have regarded Coleridge as a major figure. In his 1927 book The Road to Xanadu, John Livingston Lowes used Coleridge's poetry, especially Kubla Khan, to study the working of the human imagination. Critics have argued about the role that opium addiction played in the poet's life and work. In his 1971 book Coleridge, the Damaged Archangel, Norman Furman showed that Coleridge was guilty of plagiarism in many of his later works. His opium addiction may have left Coleridge unable to tell when he was repeating the work of other writers that he had read.

1772 births
1834 deaths
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
English Anglicans
English poets
Royal Society of Literature
Writers from Devon
Beatles for Sale is The Beatles' fourth album.  It was released in late 1964. Many of its songs went into an American release, Beatles '65, from Capitol Records, while the rest went into Beatles VI, a compilation album.

John Lennon and Paul McCartney, who wrote most of the band's songs, had filled their earlier album, A Hard Day's Night, with original songs. The band began recording their next album only a week after finishing A Hard Day's Night, and they had little time to compose new music. The band filled the album with cover versions, of songs they had performed live in Hamburg, Germany and the Cavern in Liverpool, their hometown, before the Beatles were famous. Press agent Derek Taylor explained in the album's liner notes that all the recordings on Beatles for Sale were how the band played the music onstage.

The original songs on the album were praised, for showing Lennon and McCartney had grown and improved as writers. "I'm A Loser" was compared to Bob Dylan's work. "I'll Follow The Sun" was an early song, that was given a rewrite. "What You're Doing" imitated the musical style of The Byrds, who were just becoming popular.

Several live versions of the album's songs have since appeared, that the Beatles played in Germany, and for BBC Radio.

Album songs
"No Reply" +
"I'm a Loser" +
"Baby's in Black" +
"Rock and Roll Music" (Chuck Berry) +
"I'll Follow the Sun" +
"Mr. Moonlight" (Roy Lee Johnson) +
"Kansas City" (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller)/"Hey, Hey, Hey, Hey" (Richard Penniman) ++
"Eight Days a Week" ++
"Words of Love" (Buddy Holly) ++
"Honey Don't" (Carl Perkins) +
"Every Little Thing" ++
"I Don't Want to Spoil the Party" ++
"What You're Doing" ++
"Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby" (Carl Perkins) +

All songs by Lennon/McCartney, unless credited differently

+ Also appeared on Beatles '65 in the United States
++ Also appeared on Beatles VI 

The Beatles albums
1964 albums
Rock and roll albums
Folk albums
Rubber Soul is the sixth studio album by the English rock band the Beatles. It was released on 3 December 1965 in the United Kingdom, on EMI's Parlophone label. The double A-side single "Day Tripper" / "We Can Work It Out" was released at the same time. The first North American version of the album from Capitol Records had ten of the fourteen songs from the British Parlophone version. Rubber Soul was very popular with critics. It was at the top of sales charts in Britain and the United States for many weeks. The album proves the Beatles were starting to use LSD and marijuana.

The album was recorded in London over four weeks in October–November 1965. Most call it a folk rock album, especially in its Capitol (North American) version. Rubber Soul has a mix of pop, soul and folk musical styles.

The songs show the Beatles' improving as songwriters. They also used brighter guitar tones and new instrumentation such as sitar, harmonium and fuzz bass.

Track listing

Everywhere except North America

North America

Sources

References

The Beatles albums
1965 albums
Folk albums
Pop rock albums
Abbey Road is the twelfth official album recorded by The Beatles. It was released in September 1969. Side one consisted of hits, while side two consisted of short songs to make up a story.

Album songs

Notes
"Her Majesty" is a hidden track. Between "The End" and "Her Majesty" is 14 seconds of silence. Later releases of the album included the song on the track listing.
One cassette tape version in the US had "Come Together" and "Here Comes the Sun" swapped so that Harrison's song starts the album. All other versions (including the CD) have restored the track listing to its original order.
Tracks 9 through 13 are sometimes noted as one song (medley) called "The Abbey Road Medley".
Tracks 14 through 16 are sometimes noted as one song called "The Golden Slumbers Medley".

All songs written by Lennon/McCartney unless credited differently.

The Beatles albums
1969 albums
Rock albums
Brian Harold May  (born 19 July 1947) is an English musician, songwriter and astrophysicist, best known as the lead guitarist of the rock band Queen. He uses a guitar he built himself with the help of his father. The guitar they built is called the "Red Special". 

Apart from music, May earned his PhD in astrophysics in 2007 and is currently the Chancellor of Liverpool John Moores University. Together with Patrick Moore and Chris Lintott, he wrote a book called Bang! The Complete History of the Universe.

May was ranked 39th in Rolling Stone Magazine's list of the "100 Greatest Guitarists of All Time."
Biography

Early life 
Brian Harold May, the only child of Harold and Ruth May, was born on 19 July 1947 in Hampton, Middlesex and attended Hampton Grammar School (now Hampton School). During this time he formed his first band with vocalist and bassist Tim Staffell named Nineteen Eighty-Four after George Orwell's novel of the same name. He graduated from Hampton Grammar School with ten GCE Ordinary Levels and four Advanced Levels in Physics, Mathematics, Applied Mathematics and Additional Mathematics.

May's father Harold worked as a draughtsman at the Ministry of Aviation and had been a long-time cigarette-smoker. As a result, May dislikes smoking, even to the point where he has prohibited smoking indoors at his more recent concerts.

Marriage and children 
From 1974 to 1988, May was married to Chrissie Mullen, who is the mother of his three children: Jimmy, who was born on 15 June 1978; Louisa, who was born on 22 May 1981 and Emily Ruth, who was born on 17 February 1987. Chrissie and Brian separated in 1988.

Personal life and other musical collaborations 
He has stated in interviews that he suffered from depression in the late 1980s, even to the point of contemplating suicide, for reasons having to do with his troubled first marriage and his perceived failure as a husband and a dad, his father Harold's death, and Freddie Mercury's illness. May is married to former Eastenders actress Anita Dobson, whom he met in 1986, and who gained fame in the 1980s for providing vocals to the theme tune to the aforementioned soap, entitled "Anyone Can Fall in Love". May himself produced the song, which reached #4 in the UK Singles Chart in August 1986.

References 

1947 births
Living people
British astrophysicists
English rock guitarists
English rock singers
English singer-songwriters
English physicists
Musicians from Middlesex
John Richard Deacon (born 19 August 1951) is a retired English musician. He is best known as the bass guitarist of the rock band Queen.

He lives in Putney in Southwest London with his wife Veronica Tetzlaff. They were married on 18 January 1975. He is the father of six children.

References

1951 births
Living people
Bass guitarists
Musicians from Leicestershire
Roger Meddows Taylor  (born 26 July 1949) is an English musician, singer and songwriter. He is best known as the drummer of the rock band Queen.

1949 births
Living people
English rock drummers
English rock singers
English singer-songwriters
Entertainers from Cornwall
People from Norfolk
Peyrepertuse Castle is a castle in France. It is one of the Cathar castles. It was built before the 11th century. It is Aude, in Occitanie. It is built in a strategic position, on a cliff, about 30-40m high. The castle is first mentioned in the year 806, but the site seems to have been occupied since Roman times. At that time, it belonged to a Catalan count. It later changed hands, first to the Count of Barcelona, then to that of Narbonne.

When the Treaty of Corbeil is signed in 1258, the border between France and Spain is right to the south of the castle. In the year 1240, after the Albigensian Crusade against the Cathars, the castle becomes French. It is extended, and there is a garrison placed there; it protects against invasions until the 16th century when Roussillon becomes a French territory.

Today, the ruins of the castle attract about 100.000 visitors a year. There is a vineyard nearby.

Images

Other websites 
Official website of the castle (French)
Peyrepertuse on cathares.org (French)
Images of climbers (French)
Article with photos on Peyrepertuse (French)

Castles in France
Occitanie
Bryan Ruiz Gonzalez (b. 18 August 1985) is a Costa Rican soccer (European football) player. He was born in San José.

Life 
At the age of twelve, Gonzalez started playing for Liga Deportiva Alajuelense minor leagues. He quickly became known as a skilled player.  In 2003, at the age of 18, he began playing first division football.  He would eventually become a professional soccer player with the same team.

Career 
During his first tournament, Gonzalez played well.  He soon became an important member of his team.  He played in many important games, like “El Clásico” (The Classic), when Alajuela plays their biggest enemy, Saprissa. In his second year Gonzalez's team won the CONCACAF Champion's Cup.

Though Gonzalez had only been a professional soccer player for a short time, he was asked to represent his country by playing on the Costa Rica National Team.  He played well and was celebrated by the public.

Suddenly, in 2006, Gonzalez was invited to play for a soccer team in Belgium. The team, K.A.A. Gent, wanted to sign him to a four-year deal. Gonzalez accepted.  He became a popular player in Belgium by becoming the best scorer on his team.  He also got a hat-trick.

His success gained Gonzalez a lot of attention and popularity.  He was asked again to play with the Costa Rican national team. He returned to Costa Rica and played well for the national team. Afterward, he hoped to get signed by a good European team.

In 2009, Gonzalez played with FC Twente Enschede in Holland, where is team won the Cup.  In 2010, he began playing for the UEFA Champions League Cup.

References

Other websites

1985 births
Living people
Costa Rican footballers
People from San José, Costa Rica
Jaco Beach Costa Rica is on the west central coast of Costa Rica's Puntarenas province, on the Pacific Ocean side of the country.  What started as a small surfing village popular with Costa Ricans from all over the Pacific coast, has developed into the most popular and visited tourism destination in the whole country. As the closest and most developed beach town from Costa Rica's Juan Santa Maria International Airport in San Jose, Jaco is only a 1 hour and 10 minute ride from the airport.

Jaco is home to the largest selection of hotels, vacation rental condos and private vacation rental homes than any other beach town in Costa Rica, as well as 3 casinos, over 75 restaurants, 3 major grocery stores, surf shops, pharmacies, souvenir and artesan shops, bakeries, dentists, emergency care, and an 18-hole championship golf course. The region is also home to Costa Rica's  best zip line canopy tours, ATV tours, white water rafting, surfing and the fishing capital of Costa Rica at the Los Suenos Resort & Marina, in Herradura Beach directly next to Jaco Beach.

To the immediate south of Jaco is the surf town of Playa Hermosa (Hermosa Beach). 1 hour and 15 minutes to the south of Jaco Beach is the Manuel Antonio National Park and Wildlife preserve offering visitors a first hand glimpse of Costa Rica's famed wildlife species such as white face monkeys, howler monkeys, sloths, pizotes, iguanas, butterflies, frogs, insects, and exotic jungle plants native to Costa Rica.

Other websites
Jaco information
Costa Rica Fishing Experts

Cities in Costa Rica
Irazu Volcano National Park has one of the most active volcanos of Costa Rica. It is in the central mountain range at 31 km to northwest of the city of Cartago, 3,435 meters above sea level. It last erupted in 1963 and 1965. 

Irazu Volcano National Park offers many types of craters, some having small lakes. The park also includes 2,309 hectares of rain forest. From the highest point in the park, on a clear day, you can see both, the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean Sea at the same time.

The Crater Principal lake has an unusual greenish yellow coloring caused by rainfall dissolving the minerals along the craters walls. It has also been known to change colour to rust-red depending on the minerals present. The inactive, dry Diego de la Haya crater sits just up to the right of the Crater Principal and is filled with volcanic ash.

The park is the site of a reforestation project to restore the area which was destroyed by the eruptions. The forest is made up of conifers and other exotic and native species. There is a native forest consisting mainly of oaks and alder, protecting the watershed of the Reventado River.

The vegetation of the park has been changed by the constant eruptions, but it is very beautiful and diverse.

Other websites 
Irazu Volcano National Park

National parks in Costa Rica
Cathar castles (Châteaux cathares in French) is a term used by the French tourist industry. It is used for castles in the Languedoc-Roussillon, usually built by the enemies of the Cathars during the Albigensian Crusade.

The true Cathar castles
The Cathars built fortified homesteads, but not castles.  The legend of Cathar architects and builders is no more than a myth.  The cathar church did not build anything.  For this reason, the only ones which can claim the description "Cathar" are the small castles, often totally unknown to the public. Their unspectacular ruins are often far-away from tourist routes.

The royal citadels
Because Raimond II was unable to recapture Carcassone in 1240, the city walls were strengthened by the French King. He  also destroyed small castra in the Corbières region and built citadels to protect the border with the kingdom of Aragon.

These five castles are often called the cinq fils de Carcassonne (five sons of Carcassonne):
 Château d'Aguilar
 Peyrepertuse castle
 Puilaurens castle
 Quéribus castle
 Château de Termes

These five fortresses resisted various assaults led by the Aragonese army.

The abandonment of the citadels
In 1659, Louis XIV and the Philip IV of Spain signed the Treaty of the Pyrenees. The French king also married the Infanta Marie Therese.  The treaty changed the borders. It gave Rousillon to France and moved the frontier south to the crest of the Pyrenees, where it is now. The fortresses therefore lost their importance.  Some maintained a garrison for a while, a few until the French Revolution, but they slowly fell into decay, often becoming sherpherds' shelters or bandits hideouts.

Other "Cathar castles"

 Château d’Arques
 Château de Durfort
 Châteaux de Lastours
 Château de Montségur
 Château de Padern
 Château de Pieusse
 Château de Puivert
 Rennes-le-Château
 Château de Roquefixade
 Château de Saissac
 Château d'Usson

Sources and further reading

Castles in France
The Château d'Usson is one of the Cathar castles in southwestern France.  It is in the commune of Rouze, in the Ariège département.

Castles in France
Occitanie
Sertab Erener (born December 4, 1964 is a Turkish pop music singer. She is one of the most successful female Turkish pop singers in Turkey. Erener is said to be one of the divas of Turkish pop music. 

She released her first album which produced by Sezen Aksu, Sakin Ol (Calm Down) in August 1992. Her debut song "Sakin Ol" became greatly popular. Next album Lal (Ruby) released in October 1994. Lal was important for her career, because songs in the album such as "Rüya" (Dream), "Sevdam Ağlıyor" (My Love is Crying), "Mecbursun" (You Have to), "Gel Barışalım Artık" (Let's Make Peace) and "Lal" became hit quickly. 

In May 1997, Sertab released her third album, Sertab Gibi (Like Sertab). She stopped working with Sezen Aksu and she worked with Demir Demirkan in this album. Although album's sales were very low, album is the favorite album of fans. "Aşkolan Aşktır" (Love Matters), "Seyrüsefer" (Navigation) and "İncelikler Yüzünden" (Because of the Niceties) were the important songs from the album. Sertab Erener released self-titled fourth album in March 1999. Albums hit were "Yanarım" (I Burn), "Zor Kadın" (Hard Woman) and Vur Yüreğim (Hit, My Heart). Vur Yüreğim's video clip was including real scenes from shocking and afflictive events such as martyr funerals, atomic bomb and natural disasters.

In Europe, she is best known for winning the Eurovision Song Contest 2003 with her hit song Every Way That I Can.

1964 births
Living people
Eurovision Song Contest winners
Musicians from Istanbul
Pop singers
Turkish singers
Leviticus (lih-vih-tih-kus) is the third book of both the Bible, and the Torah. In Hebrew it is known as Wayiqra' (וַיִּקְרָא), meaning 'And He will declare.' It was written by the Old Testament Patriarch Moses. Leviticus was written to the Hebrew people of Israel. The book has several main topics, some of which are the Jewish laws of sacrificing to God, and the work of the priests. These priests are sometimes known as Levites (what this book is named after).

When was it written 
It was likely developed over a long period of time, reaching its present form during the Persian empire (Yehud Madinata) between 538-332 BCE. Tradition says this book was written around 1300 B.C. by Moses.

Summary 
God gives more instructions to Moses. God asks Moses to repeat what He said to Moses' people, the Israelites. 

Continuing from Exodus the Israelites are escaping Egypt. They reach the Biblical Mount Sinai. In Exodus, Moses learned from God how to build the holy tabernacle (a tent for praying and worshiping). In Leviticus God teaches Moses and the Levites how to make sacrifices and how to behave in a good way.

The first few chapters show God's laws for offering sacrifices for various reasons, such as for the forgiveness of sins.

Then Moses makes Aaron a priest of God. Details about how the priests are to make sacrifices to God are given.  This is sometimes called the "ceremonial law".  Two sons of Aaron were destroyed for doing the work of the priest in the wrong way. 

Then God teaches the people how to eat right and be clean. Examples of food that are forbidden are pork and shrimp. Meat is also not to be eaten with milk at the same time. Beyond that, eaten meat is to be taken from animals that were slaughtered in a specific way. The meat must not contain blood either, as this is seen as representing life in the face of the animal having died. Regarding staying clean, laws are given about menstruation (the monthly period), sexual relations, skin disease, and how dead bodies are to be disposed of. 

The rest of the book describes how priests, the Levites, should be ordained, should dress, carry out rituals, and act (for example on the Day of Atonement, and other important Holy Days).

References

Related pages 
Liberty Bell

Other websites 
 Leviticus (KJV)
 Leviticus (NIV)

Old Testament books
The Book of Joshua is the sixth book of the Christian Bible, and also the sixth book of the Hebrew Tanakh. It is not clear who wrote the book, although most of the Jewish tradition believe it was Joshua, son of Nun. It is the first of the books of the Tanakh (Old Testament) covering the history of Israel from the arrival in the Promised Land to the Babylonian captivity.

It is not known when the Book was written, but it cannot have been written before roughly 1200 BC, as the events described in the book occur then. Some scholars believe it was written much later, perhaps in 550 BC, at the time of the Babylonian exile, when there was a desire to remember and retell their own history.

Summary 
After the death of Moses, God put Joshua in charge of the people. Joshua sent two spies to spy on the city of Jericho. A woman prostitute called Rahab hid these two men and told the enemies they had already left. She hid them on top of her roof, underneath stalks of flax. The spies later promised that they would keep the oath that Joshua made with them.

Jericho fell when the people of Israel, instructed by God, circled around the wall of Jericho seven times and blew their ram's horns, and on the seventh time, they all shouted with a great shout, causing the wall to fall.

Joshua told the spies to go to Rahab's house and bring out her family and belongings. The spies did as they were told, as they kept the oath. Joshua saved Rahab's life, and she went to live in Israel.

Later, God told Joshua to invade the city of Ai. After they did this, the people of Gibeon tricked Joshua into a treaty.

However, three days later, the people of Israel realized that they really made a treaty with Gibeon's neighbors, the Hivites. The Hivities became cursed, but the people of Gibeon promised that they would do whatever the Israelites say.

After making peace with the Hivites, they went to lay siege to Gibeon. The Gibeonites sent a message to Joshua saying he needs to save the people of Gibeon. So, God killed many of the Amorites by making large hailstones. Then Joshua made the sun stay over Gibeon, and the moon over Ajalon. Joshua later got very old and died.

Quotes
No one will be able to stand against you all the days of your life. As I was with Moses, so too I will be with you; I will not fail you nor forsake you. (1:5)

Decide today whom you will serve, the gods your ancestors worshipped in Mesopotamia or the gods of the Amorites in whose land you are now living. As for my family and me, we will serve the LORD. (24:15)

Other websites 
 Book of Joshua (KJV)
 Book of Joshua (NIV)

Old Testament books
Home education or homeschooling is a form of education where the parent or guardian is the instructor. The reason for this form of education is usually the guardian is not happy with the nearby schools, or sometimes for religious or moral purposes. Many people also want to protect children from bullying and violence. In recent years, it became popular in many countries.

Before starting homeschooling, it can be a good idea to deschool first. In some countries, such as the United Kingdom, any homeschool arrangement must by law satisfy inspectors that the children's education is sound. This is because, under the Education Act of 1944, parents or guardians are legally obliged to send children to school. The possibility of other methods has been added as a possibility, subject to certain checks.

A common situation is for several families to come together to provide the skills needed. This serves two purposes. First, the range of knowledge and skills is wider, and the schooling has a more social angle, which itself is good for the development of children.

In most countries, homeschooling is a legal alternative to going to a school.

Unschooling is a very free type of homeschooling.

History and publications 
The idea of home schools came to life in the 1960s, when the effectiveness of classroom education was challenged. There were a number of critical publications:
Skinner B.F. 1968. The technology of teaching. New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts. This includes a valuable discussion of the weaknesses of classroom teaching.
Illich, Ivan 1971. Deschooling society. . A radical critical discourse on education as practised in modern society. Hugely influential in its day. Illich was motivated by leftist political ideas. One of his main objections to traditional schooling was its tendency to train young people to fit in to the existing society.
Holt, John 1963. How children fail. 2nd ed 1982. According to him, schooling does more harm than good to a child's ability and desire to truly learn. A million-plus best-seller.
Holt, John 1963. How children learn. 2nd ed 1983.

Alternatives and dangers 
Some private schools try to achieve similar objectives by other means. Summerhill attempts to make a school more flexible and responsive to the needs of individual children.

Dangers of home education include the possibility of it being used for religious and political propaganda, and the vulnerability of children to unsupervised adults.  Education may be uneven, leaving children with a patchy grasp of many subjects.  The children would also get to know fewer other children than they would ordinarily. Also, it is obvious that some parents are better placed to organise home education than others.

In theory, visits by the inspectors of schools might be able to identify problems. However, at least in the United Kingdom, schools are not inspected every year. If we cannot inspect all schools annually, how can we expect to monitor individual families?

Related pages
Deschooling
Fushūgaku

References

Other websites
National Home Education Research Institute

Education
The Epistle to the Galatians (or Galatians) is the forty-eighth book in the Bible (and ninth in the New Testament), written by the Apostle Paul. The book was written to the people of Galatia, a part of modern day Turkey, with whom Paul had earlier preached and founded the congregation in their area.

It is not known for sure, but most believe that the book was written around 57 A.D. One of the curious verses in the letter is where Paul says "See with what large letters I am writing this in my own hand". (Chapter 6, verse 11).  This is understood to mean that normally Paul used a secretary to write down as he spoke his letters.  However he wanted the Galatians to be sure it was he himself that was the author of the letter they would receive so he wrote a few lines himself. Some believe he had poor eyesight and so had to write with "large letters".

Content

Paul's letter is to settle an important question of that day.  It is if the gentile Christians must first join the Jewish religion and keep the Law of Moses. Paul says that the gentile Galatians do not need to keep the old Laws such as the need for  circumcision, which is the removal of some skin around the male sex organ, done by Jews and Muslims as an act of religious obedience to God. Paul says that this is no longer important since Jesus has come. Paul says it is not good that the community has turned from the gospel (Chapter 1, verses 6–10) He says there is only one gospel and one way of being saved through faith in Christ and that adding to that makes it another gospel. He talks about his early life as a Jew, (Chapter 1, verses 13–14), how he met Christ, often called the conversion of Paul, (Chapter 1, verses 15–16), and his early work (Chapter 1 verses 17–24). He tells about meeting with the other Christian leaders in Jerusalem as reported in Acts chapter 15, verses 2:1–10. He says that they agreed with him that the gentiles did not need to be become practicing Jews first. In Chapter 2 he tells about a meeting with Peter where he told Peter that he was not acting properly towards the gentile Christians by not eating with them. Then he says that Jews, like Gentiles, are not made right with God by keeping the old Law but by trusting in what Jesus did for them when He died on the cross. Later in the book he tells that the Law was given to show us how sinful we are so that we would see the need for forgiveness.  He says that when we love others we have fulfilled the true meaning of the Law. He writes that when we have faith, God sends the Holy Spirit who helps us live a good life and keep from bad things. He gives a list of those bad and good actions.  (Chapter 5)

Importance

The  Epistle to the Galatians has been very important in the history of Christianity, the development of Christian theology, and the study of the apostle Paul.

The book contains some of the most known Bible teachings, such as that all have need of salvation (Galatians 3:28-29), and the Fruits of the Spirit (Galatians 5:22-23).

References

Other websites 
Galatians (KJV)
Galatians (NIV)

Pauline epistles
New Testament books
A label can have several meanings:

A category or classification - a term used to identify something or someone
A brand or a trademark
A strip or narrow piece of something, especially one used to identify something
 promotional tab used in  philately
A molding over a door or window

hu:Etikett (egyértelműsítő lap)
Oldenzaal is a municipality and city in the province of Overijssel, the Netherlands. About 32,000 people were living there in 2021. It lies in Twente region.

Oldenzaal got city rights in 1249.

People 
 Gert Timmerman (1935-2017), a singer and musician ("Gert and Hermien")

References 
 Plaatsengids.nl

Cities in the Netherlands
Settlements in Overijssel
Municipalities of Overijssel
Twente
Paramilitary is a way to describe forces that are organised like military forces, but not part of the Armed Forces. Examples for such forces would be police forces guarding the borders of a country. There are paramilitary groups that are run by a country, and others that are not.

The name comes from Greek para (which means beside) and Latin miles (which means soldier).

Military compared to paramilitary

Though a paramilitary is not a military force, it is usually equivalent to a military's light infantry force in terms of intensity, firepower, and organizational structure. A paramilitary may also commonly fall under the command of a military, even despite not being part of the military or play an assisting role for the military in times of war. Paramilitary forces can also include private military company missions.

Quasi-military compared to Paramilitary
Although similar, a quasi-military organisation has more near-identical to military aspects (i.e., militia, private army, etc.) whereas a paramilitary is its own (i.e., internal security, SWAT, etc.).

Examples of Paramilitary Organizations

Law Enforcement 
 Police departments of many countries are organized in a manner similar to military forces.
 SWAT teams of some American police departments: trained to handle high-risk situations that regular police officers are not as qualified to handle such as hostage rescue, counter-terrorism missions, and arresting particularly dangerous criminals.

Government Agencies
 Special Activities Center of the Central Intelligence Agency: a unit of the CIA whose missions often require a great deal of secrecy and carefulness. Most members of this unit are recruited from special forces units from all over the United States military. Their main mission is to collect intelligence on countries hostile to the United States; most CIA operatives killed in the line of duty have been members of the Special Activities Division.

Political
 The SS and SA of Nazi Germany: the SS was the successor to the SA, but for the most part, both groups handled the same responsibilities. They were originally bodyguards to Adolf Hitler, but as the war heated up, they were assigned to oversee concentration camps as guards and administrators. While not an official part of Germany's military, the SS had an armed branch that was trained as a regular military unit.

References

Military
Bolas (from Spanish bola, "ball", also known as boleadoras) are a throwing weapon made of weights on the ends of interconnected cords, designed to capture animals by entangling their legs. They are used by the gauchos in South America today, but have been found in excavations of pre-Hispanic settlements, especially in Patagonia, where indigenous peoples used them to catch guanaco and ñandu.

Use 

Gauchos use boleadoras to capture running cattle or game. The thrower gives the balls momentum by swinging them and then releases the boledoras. The weapon is usually used to entangle the animal's legs, but when thrown with enough force might even break the bone.

Design 
There is no uniform design; most bolas have two or three balls, but there are versions of up to 8 or 9 balls. Some bolas have balls of equal weight,othes vary the knot and cord. Gauchos use bolas made of leather cords with wooden balls or small leather sacks full of stones in the ends of the cords.

Bolas can be named depending on the amount of weights used:
 Perdida (1 weight)
 Avestrucera or ñanducera (2 weights)
 Boleadora (3 weights)
 Ka-Lum-Ik-Toun (Inuit name for bolas with 10 or more weights)

Other websites 

 Inuit Bolas 
 Boleadoras

Weapons
Howard Robard Hughes, Jr. (December 24, 1905 – April 5, 1976), was an American businessman and movie producer.  During his life, he was one of the richest people in the world. He was born in Humble, Texas to a rich family. He went to Hollywood and became a movie producer and aviator. Hughes broke several world records for flying aeroplanes. He created his own air company, which was later bought by TWA.

Biography 
Many people now think Hughes may have had OCD or obsessive compulsive disorder. This is because later in life, he kept himself away from the outside world. He lived in a hotel suite at The Desert Inn in Las Vegas as a recluse.  He never left his room. He also did not cut his hair or fingernails. He had a group of doctors and other people to help take care of him.

In 1972, a man named Clifford Irving claimed to have co-written the autobiography of Hughes. It was later shown to not be real. Hughes died in Houston while being moved to a hospital in Mexico.  After he died, there was an argument over his will.

Other websites 

American aviators
Businesspeople from Texas
Movie directors from Texas
Movie producers from Texas
1905 births
1976 deaths
Tarzan is a main fictional character. He appeared in many books by Edgar Rice Burroughs. Burroughs first wrote about Tarzan in 1914. The book was called Tarzan of the Apes. Tarzan's father was an English lord who died in the African jungle. The baby Tarzan was left alone in the jungle. Giant apes found the baby Tarzan and took care of him. Tarzan has also appeared in other media including movies, movie serials, comic books, and television programs.

 
Fictional characters
Books with jungle settings
Fictional characters with immortality