cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Events

Europe

War and politics 
 February 18 – The Livonian Brothers of the Sword are defeated by Dovmont of Pskov in the Battle of Rakovor.
 October 29 – Conradin, the last legitimate male heir of the Hohenstaufen dynasty of Kings of Germany and Holy Roman Emperors, is executed along with his companion Frederick I, Margrave of Baden by Charles I of Sicily, a political rival and ally to the hostile Roman Catholic church.
 King Stephen V of Hungary launches a war against Bulgaria.
 The county of Wernigerode become a vassal state of the margrave of Brandenburg.
 The House of Bourbon first rises to prominence with the marriage of Robert, Count of Clermont to King Louis IX of France's daughter, Beatrice of Burgundy, heiress to the lordship of Bourbon.
 New election procedures for the election of the doge are established in Venice in order to reduce the influence of powerful individual families.
 Pope Clement IV dies; the following papal election fails to choose a new pope for almost three years, precipitating the later creation of stringent rules governing the electoral procedures.

Culture 
 Nicola Pisano completes the famous octagonal Gothic-style pulpit at the Duomo di Siena.
 The carnival in Venice is first recorded.
 In France, the use of hops as the exclusive flavoring agent used in the manufacture of beer is made compulsory.
 In Slovakia, Guta was founded (currently Kolárovo).

Asia 
 May 18 – The Principality of Antioch, a crusader state, falls to the Mamluk Sultan Baibars in the Battle of Antioch; Baibars' destruction of the city of Antioch was so great as to permanently negate the city's importance.
 The Battle of Xiangyang, a six-year battle between the Chinese Song Dynasty and the Mongol forces of Kublai Khan, begins in what is today Hubei.
 An earthquake in Cilicia kills about 60,000 people.

Births 
 Mahaut of Artois (died 1327)
 Emperor Duanzong of China (died 1278)
 Philip IV of France (died 1314)

Deaths 
 October 29 – Conradin, Duke of Swabia (executed) (born 1252)
 October 29 – Frederick I, Margrave of Baden (executed) (born 1249)
 November 29 – Pope Clement IV
 December 9 – Vaisvilkas, Prince of Black Ruthenia
 Barral of Baux, Grand Justiciar of Sicily
 Henry de Bracton, English jurist
 Peter II of Savoy (born 1203)
Groß-Berlin or Greater Berlin was created by an act of the Prussian parliament made on 27 April 1920. The act was called the Greater Berlin Act () for short. Its full name was the "Law Regarding the Reconstruction of the New Local Authority of Berlin" ().

The act said that on 1 October 1920 Greater Berlin should be taken away from the Province of Brandenburg and become a new district.

The new district was made up of:
 The city of Berlin (Alt-Berlin);
 7 towns that surrounded Berlin:
 Charlottenburg,
 Köpenick,
 Lichtenberg,
 Neukölln,
 Schöneberg,
 Spandau and
 Wilmersdorf;
 59 rural areas and 27 estate districts from the surrounding districts of Niederbarnim, Osthavelland and Teltow;
 and the grounds of the Berliner Stadtschloss (the Royal Palace) which had formed an estate district in its own right.

The new Berlin was 13 times bigger than the old. Its area went from  to  and the population doubled from approximately 1.9 million to near 4 million, with almost 1.2 million of these new inhabitants coming from the 7 surrounding towns alone.

Groß-Berlin was divided into 20 boroughs (Verwaltungsbezirke):
 from Alt-Berlin:
 Mitte,
 Tiergarten,
 Wedding,
 Prenzlauer Berg,
 Kreuzberg and
 Friedrichshain;
 one borough for each of the 7 previously-independent towns:
 Charlottenburg,
 Köpenick,
 Lichtenberg,
 Neukölln,
 Schöneberg,
 Spandau and
 Wilmersdorf;
 7 new boroughs named after the largest village in the old areas:
 Pankow,
 Reinickendorf,
 Steglitz,
 Tempelhof,
 Treptow,
 Weißensee and
 Zehlendorf

Apart from minor changes, the city boundary defined in the law is the same as today, except for some changes made during the time of the Berlin Wall. During the 1970s and 1980s three new boroughs were made in East Berlin when other boroughs were split up.

Other websites
 text of the law (in German)
A pardon is a decision that absolves a convicted person of a criminal conviction. A pardon may be full or partial:

A full pardon removes all of the consequences of conviction.
A partial pardon does not fully absolve a person of the conviction. For example, a partial pardon may not set aside a finding of guilt, or may not fully restore the rights of the person who received the pardon.

Pardons are sometimes given to people who are wrongly convicted. In that case, the person is cleared of that conviction, as if never convicted.

The practice varies greatly between countries. In the United States a pardon for a federal conviction may be granted by the President, while pardons for state convictions may be granted by state governors.

References

Legal terms
Medellín is a village in the province of Badajoz, Extremadura, Spain. It is notable as the birthplace of Hernán Cortés in 1485 and the site of the Battle of Medellín, during the Peninsular War.  

The city was named after the Roman general Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius who founded it as a military base for his operations in western Iberia.  It was originally called Metellinum.

Other websites
Official website of Medellín 

Municipalities in Extremadura
Sara Watkins (June 8, 1981) is an American violinist. She is most famous as a member of Californian bluegrass band Nickel Creek.

Discography
Untitled (2009)

References

American violinists
Singer-songwriters from California
1981 births
Living people
A crochet hook is a tool used for making crochet fabric.  The hook at the end is used to grab yarn.  The tool also has a flat part for fingers to hold during work.  Crochet hooks come in different sizes for different sizes of yarn.

Other websites
About crochet hook parts 
Using crochet hooks

Needlework
Pterodaustro was a pterosaur. It is found in the Lower Cretaceous of South America. Pterodaustro most likely fed on tiny invertebrates: zooplankton and krill.

Pterodaustro was medium-sized, with an adult wing-span of about two meters. It has only been found in Brazil.

Paleobiology
Pterodaustro probably waded in shallow water like flamingos, straining food with its tooth comb, a method called "filter feeding". Once it caught its food, Pterodaustro probably mashed it with the small, globular teeth present in its upper jaw.
 
At least two specimens have been found with gizzard stones in the stomach cavity, the first ever reported for any pterosaur. These clusters of small stones with angled edges support the idea that Pterodaustro ate mainly small, hard-shelled aquatic crustaceans using filter-feeding. Such invertebrates are abundant in the sediment of the fossil site

In 2004 a Pterodaustro embryo in an egg was reported. The egg was elongated, six centimetres long and 22 millimetres across and its mainly flexible shell was covered with a thin layer, 0.3 mm thick, of calcite.

Comparisons between the scleral rings (bony ring round edge of eye) of Pterodaustro and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been nocturnal, and may have had similar activity patterns to those modern ducks which feed at night.

References 

Pterosaurs
Himalia is the biggest non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found by Charles Dillon Perrine at the Lick Observatory on December 3, 1904. It is named after the nymph Himalia who bore three sons of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter).

Name
Himalia did not get its present name until 1975; before then, it was simply known as  or Jupiter Satellite VI, although calls for a full name appeared shortly after its and Elara's discovery; A.C.D. Crommelin wrote in 1905,
Unfortunately the numeration of Jupiter's satellites is now in precisely the same confusion as that of Saturn's system was before the numbers were abandoned and names substituted. A similar course would seem to be advisable here; the designation V for the inner satellite was tolerated for a time, as it was considered to be in a class by itself; but it has now got companions, so that this subterfuge disappears. The substitution of names for numerals is certainly more poetic.

The moon was sometimes called Hestia, after the Greek goddess, from 1955 to 1975.

Orbit
It is the biggest member of the group that bears its name, the moons orbiting between 11.4 and 13 million kilometers from Jupiter at an inclination of about 27.5°. The orbital elements are as of January 2000. They are changing a lot due to Solar and planetary perturbations.

Physical characteristics 
A day on Himalia is only about 7 3/4 hours long. Himalia appears grey, like the other members of its group, similar to a C-type asteroid. Measurements by Cassini confirm a featureless spectrum, with a slight absorption at 3 μm which could indicate the presence of water.

Exploration 
In November 2000, the Cassini spacecraft, going to Saturn, made a number of pictures of Himalia, including photos from a distance as close as 4.4 million km. The moon covers only a few pixels, but seems to be a stretched object with axes 150 ± 20 and 120 ± 20 km, close to the Earth-based estimations.

In February and March 2007, the New Horizons spacecraft to Pluto made a series of pictures of Himalia, culminating in photos from a distance of eight million km. Again, Himalia appears only a few pixels across.

References

Other websites
 Himalia Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration
 David Jewitt pages
 Scott Sheppard pages

Jupiter's moons
Brachychiton (also known as the bottletree or kurrajong) is a genus of 31 species of trees and large shrubs. They grow naturally in Australia and New Guinea. Fossils from New South Wales and New Zealand are believed to be 50 million years old. The name Brachychiton is comes from the Greek brachys, meaning "short", and chiton, meaning "tunic". This refers to its loose seed coverings.

They grow to 4–30m tall. All species have separate male and female flowers on the same plant. The female flowers have five separate carpels that can each form a woody fruit that has several seeds.

Sterculiaceae
Trees
Themisto or , is a small prograde non-spherical moon of Jupiter. It was found in 1975, lost, and then refound in 2000.

Discovery and naming 

Themisto was first found by Charles T. Kowal and Elizabeth Roemer on September 30, 1975, reported on October 3, 1975 and designated . However, not enough observations were made to establish an orbit and it was subsequently lost.

Themisto appeared as a footnote in astronomy textbooks into the 1980s. Then, in 2000, a seemingly new moon was found by Scott S. Sheppard, David C. Jewitt, Yanga R. Fernández and Eugene A. Magnier, and was designated . It was soon confirmed that this was the same as the 1975 object. The Sheppard et al. announcement was immediately correlated with an August 6 2000 observation by the team of Brett J. Gladman, John J. Kavelaars, Jean-Marc Petit, Hans Scholl, Matthew J. Holman, Brian G. Marsden, Philip D. Nicholson and Joseph A. Burns — an observation that was reported to the Minor Planet Center but not published as an IAU Circular (IAUC).

In October 2002 it was officially named after Themisto, daughter of the river god Inachus by Zeus (Jupiter) in Greek mythology.

Characteristics 

Themisto's orbit is unusual. Unlike most of Jupiter's moons, which orbit in groups, Themisto orbits alone, midway between the Galilean moons and the first group of prograde irregulars.

Themisto is about 8 kilometers in diameter (assuming an albedo of 0.04)

References 

 Ephemeris IAU-MPC NSES
 Mean orbital parameters NASA JPL

Other websites 
 David Jewitt's pages
 Scott Sheppard's pages

Jupiter's moons
Thebe or , is the fourth of Jupiter's known moons (by distance from the planet). It was found by Stephen P. Synnott in images from the Voyager 1 space probe taken on March 5, 1979 and was given the designation . Later, it was found on images dating back to February 27, 1979. In 1983 it was officially named after the mythological nymph Thebe who was the daughter of the river god Asopus and a lover of Zeus (the Greek equivalent of Jupiter).

Orbit 
Thebe is the farthest of the inner Jovian moons. It orbits Jupiter at a distance of ~222,000 km (3.11 Jupiter radii). The orbit of Thebe has an orbital eccentricity of ~0.018 and an inclination of ~1.08° relative to the equator of Jupiter. These values are unusually high for a closer moon and can be explained by the past influence of the closest Galilean satellite Io; in the past, several mean motion resonances with Io would have passed through Thebe's orbit as Io gradually moved away from Jupiter, and these excited Thebe's orbit.

Physical characteristics 
Thebe is not a sphere, with the closest ellipsoidal approximation being 116x98x84 km. Its bulk density and mass are not known but assuming that it mean density is like that of Amalthea (~0.86 g/cm³) its mass can be estimated at ~4.3×1017 kg.

The surface of Thebe is dark and appears to be reddish in color.

Exploration 
Thebe was found in Voyager 1 images by Steve Synnott, a member of the Voyager navigation team. However, before the Galileo spacecraft arrived at Jupiter, little was known about it. Galileo imaged almost all of the surface of Thebe and put constraints on its composition.

References

Other websites 
 Thebe Profile  by NASA's Solar System Exploration

Jupiter's moons
An antagonist is the character in a story who stands in opposition towards the protagonist. As an example, in the Disney movie The Lion King, the main antagonist is Scar.

While the most common practice is for a hero to be the protagonist and the villain to be the antagonist this is not always the case. As an example in the manga/anime series Death Note protagonist Light Yagami was the villain as it was his goal to rid the world of criminals in order to create his own ideal "utopia" and rule it like a god while antagonist L was the hero as it was his goal to end Light's psychotic killing spree. Another example is Sweeney Todd: The Demon Barber of Fleet Street where the titular protagonist and the antagonist Judge Turpin were both villains. 

A story may also have secondary antagonist, either a partner/accomplice of the main antagonist or an entirely separate threat altogether (though a lesser one). Just like the main antagonist they aren't always villains but they are obstacles towards the goal(s) of the protagonist(s).

It is possible for a protagonist to become an antagonist. A well-known example of this is in the Star Wars movie series, when Anakin Skywalker turns from a Jedi to a Sith, to become Darth Vader.

+
Joe Grant (May 15, 1908 - May 9, 2005) was an American animator, writer and illustrator. He worked for Walt Disney between 1933 and 1949 and again from 1989 until his death just a few days before his 97th birthday.

Joe Grant was born at 1908 in New York City. After school, he began his career as a caricaturist. In 1933, he was hired by Disney for the Mickey Mouse short movie Mickey's Gala Premiere. In the next years, he, Albert Hurter, Dick Huemer and Fred Moore were the studios' most important character animator. He created the witch in Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937). Grant and Huemer created books for Fantasia and Dumbo. Later, he was the head of the "Character Animation Department" at Disney. This department was closed in 1949 and Grant left Disney.

40 years later, in 1989, Grant began working for Disney again.  He created characters and sketches for Disney's Beauty and the Beast, (1991). The movie was the first animated movie which was nominated for the Academy Award for "Best Picture". He was the only person who worked on Fantasia (1940) and Fantasia 2000.

In 2005, his animation short movie Lorenzo was nominated for an Academy Award. Just a few weeks later, Joe Grant died while working with his drawing board at the age of 96 in Glendale, California.

1908 births
2005 deaths
American animators
Disney animators
Writers from New York City
American illustrators
Ganymede[p]  is the largest of over 66 moons of the planet Jupiter. It is also the largest moon in the Solar System. Ganymede is larger in diameter than the planet Mercury, but has only about half of its mass. Ganymede is much less dense. Ganymede is part of a group called the Galilean Satellites. These also include Io, Europa and Callisto.

Galileo Galilei discovered this moon in 1610. Simon Marius suggested the name "Ganymede" soon after. In Greek mythology, Ganymede was Zeus' cup-bearer. This name and the names of the other Galilean satellites were not favoured for a long time, and were not put into common use until the mid-20th century. Instead, it is simply referred to by its Roman numeral designation (a system that was introduced by Galileo) as  or as the "third satellite of Jupiter".  Ganymede is the only Galilean moon of Jupiter named after a male figure.

Structure 
Ganymede is composed of roughly equal amounts of silicate rock and water ice. Its body has an iron-rich, liquid core, and an internal ocean that may contain more water than all of Earth's oceans together. Its surface has dark regions, with impact craters dated to four billion years ago. This covers about a third of the satellite. Lighter regions, crosscut by grooves and ridges and only slightly less ancient, cover the rest. The cause of the light terrain's disrupted geology is not fully known, but was likely the result of tectonic activity caused by tidal heating.

Notes 
[p] ^ The name "Ganymede" is said as /Gan-ee-Meed/.

References

Other websites 
Ganymede 

Jupiter's moons
Callisto is a moon of the planet Jupiter, discovered in 1610 by Galileo Galilei and named after Kallisto. It is the second largest moon orbiting Jupiter, after Ganymede, and the third largest moon in the Solar System. Callisto is almost the same size as the planet Mercury, being 99% the diameter of the planet, but is much less massive. Of the four Galilean moons of Jupiter, Callisto is the farthest out, with an orbital radius of about 1,880,000 kilometres. It does not form part of the orbital resonance that affects three inner Galilean satellites, Io, Europa and Ganymede. Like the Earth's Moon, Callisto rotates synchronously with its orbital period. This means that one side is always turned toward Jupiter, while the other side never sees the face of the planet. Callisto's surface is less affected by Jupiter's magnetosphere than the seven moons nearer the planet.

Callisto has about equal amounts of rock and ices, with an average density of about 1.83 g/cm³. Chemical compounds on the surface include water ice, carbon dioxide, silicates, and organics. The Galileo spacecraft made investigations of the moon, and revealed that Callisto may have a small silicate core and possibly a subsurface ocean of liquid water more than 100 kilometers deep.

The surface of Callisto is heavily cratered and extremely old. The surface does not show any sign of processes occurring below the surface such as plate tectonics, earthquakes or volcanoes, and is thought to have evolved mainly under the influence of meteorite impacts. Notable surface features include multi-ring structures, impact craters in different shapes, and chains of craters (known as catenae) and associated scarps, ridges and deposits. On a smaller scale, the surface is varied. It is made up of frost on hill tops, surrounded by a smooth blanket of dark material in valleys. This is thought to result from the degradation of small landforms, caused by sublimation. This is supported by the few small impact craters, and the presence of numerous small knobs which are thought to be their remains. The absolute ages of the landforms are not known.

Callisto is surrounded by an extremely thin atmosphere made out of carbon dioxide and probably oxygen molecules. There is also a rather intense ionosphere. An ocean is thought to exist within Callisto. This may mean that life might exist. However, this is less likely than on nearby Europa. Various space probes from Pioneers 10–11 to Galileo and Cassini−Huygens have studied the moon. Callisto is considered the most suitable place for humans to settle for future exploration of the Jovian system.

References 

Notes

Footnotes

Jupiter's moons
Troyal Garth Brooks (born February 7, 1962) is an American country music singer and songwriter.  He uses rock elements in his recordings and live performances. Brooks was successful in the country singles and country album charts and later also proved popular in the mainstream pop arena, exposing country music to a larger audience.

Brooks has had one of the most successful careers in popular music history, with over 70 hit singles and 15 charted albums to his credit. Throughout the 1990s he broke records for both sales and concert attendance. In 1999, looking to expand his career boundaries, Brooks began a multimedia project involving a fictitious alter ego known as Chris Gaines.

In 2001, Brooks officially retired from recording and performing, after having conflicts between his career and family. During this time he has sold millions of albums through an exclusive distribution deal with Wal-Mart and has released new singles from time to time. 

On November 6, 2007, The Ultimate Hits was released. Brooks came out of retirement in 2007 when he opened a new arena in Kansas City, Missouri. He left retirement again in 2013 to play at the  Encore Casino in Las Vegas.

Discography
Studio albums
 Garth Brooks (1989)
 No Fences (1990)
 Ropin' the Wind (1991)
 The Chase (1992)
 In Pieces (1993)
 Fresh Horses (1995)
 Sevens (1997)
 Greatest Hits (1999)
 Scarecrow (2001)
 The Lost Sessions (2005)
 Man Against Machine (2014)
 Gunslinger (2016)

Compilation and live albums
 The Garth Brooks Collection (1994)
 The Hits (1994)
 Double Live (1998)
 The Ultimate Hits (2007)

Christmas albums
 Beyond the Season (August 25, 1992)
 Garth Brooks and the Magic of Christmas (November 23, 1999)
 The Magic of Christmas: Songs from Call Me Claus (September 25, 2001)

Singles
"The Dance (song)"  (1990)
"Friends in Low Places" (1990)
"Unanswered Prayers" (1990)
Rodeo (1991)
"Shameless" (1991)
"Baby, Let's Lay Down and Dance" (2016)

References

1962 births
Living people
American country guitarists
Country musicians from Oklahoma
American singer-songwriters
Musicians from Oklahoma
Singers from Oklahoma
Hüttlingen is a municipality of the district of Frauenfeld, in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Hüttwilen is a municipality of the district of Steckborn in the canton of Thurgau in  Switzerland.

The lakes Nussbaumersee, Hüttwilersee and Hasensee are found in the municipality.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Kemmental is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

History
The municipality was created on January 1, 1996 by mergxer of the formar municipalities of Alterswilen, Altishausen, Ellighausen, Lippoldswilen, Neuwilen, Siegershausen, Dotnacht and Hugelshofen.

Images

Municipalities of Thurgau
Kesswil is a municipality of the district of Arbon in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

The village was the birthplace of the psychiatrist Carl Jung.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Kradolf-Schönenberg is a municipality of the district of Bischofszell in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References

Municipalities of Thurgau
Langrickenbach is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Lengwil is a municipality of the district of Kreuzlingen in the canton of Thurgau in Switzerland.

References 

Municipalities of Thurgau
Gopher is a protocol. It was designed for distributing, searching, and retrieving documents over the Internet.  Gopher represented an early alternative to the World Wide Web.

The gopher protocol has some things HTTP-based clients do not have. It is based on menus. An item selected from a menu will either open another menu, or a document.

Because of concern over possible licensing fees, and the relative flexibility of the World Wide Web, the protocol did not get much use. There are less than 200 gopher servers still actively maintained. Many of the remaining gopher servers are run by individuals. Most of them are rarely updated except for the ones run by enthusiasts of the protocol. A handful of new servers are set up every year by hobbyists - over 50 have been set up and added to Floodgap's list since 1999. Today Gopher exists as an almost forgotten corner of the Internet. - one can publish email addresses in plaintext without having to worry about spam, and publish large amounts of data without the risk of the server's bandwidth becoming saturated by overuse.

In the early stages of mobile Internet access, some suggested that the simple interface of Gopher would be a good match for mobile phones and Personal digital assistants (PDAs). Web-based solutions also won in the mobile space, with technologies like Wireless Markup Language (WML)/Wireless Application Protocol (WAP), DoCoMo i-mode, XHTML Basic or other adaptations of HTML and XML.  

Several server software packages are still maintained and updated for the Gopher protocol. For example, the PyGopherd Gopher server provides a built-in WML front-end to Gopher sites served with it. The Motsognir Gopher server provides PHP5 and Plugin support.

Many current web-browsers have stopped supporting the gopher protocol directly, such as Mozilla Firefox. But 3rd-party addons and plugins are still available to replace browser-based Gopher functionality.

References

Other websites
Gopher Jewels 2 (gopher link)
The Gopher Project
The state of Gopher support for common Web browsers
List of new Gopher servers since 1999 (gopher link)
List of Gopher servers
Gopher Clients 
An announcement of Gopher on the Usenet  Oct 8 1991
Old Gopher guide 
See what gopher looked like.
This is another website that looks almost like Gopher used to look. You can see what fun it is to move around on a simple website like this.

Internet
Computer protocols
A Passion cantata is a cantata. The cantata takes its theme from the Passion of Jesus Christ, in other words his suffering until his death at the cross. Larger cantatas with this theme are known as oratorios.

Today, most of them are performed in the week before Easter.

Famous Passion cantatas

English
In the English repertoire, the two classics are The Crucifixion (1887) by Sir John Stainer and Olivet to Calvary (1904) by John Henry Maunder. Other works include Sir Arthur Somervell's The Passion of Christ (1914), Charles Wood's St. Mark Passion (1921), Eric Thiman's "The Last Supper" (1930) and William Lloyd Webber's "The Saviour" (1942).

German
The most famous Passion cantatas are probably the two composed by Johann Sebastian Bach: the St John Passion (1724) and the St Matthew Passion (1727). A t first it was believed, St Luke Passion (1730) was also written by him. Now it is thought that he simply rearranged an earlier work.

Latin
One notable work in Latin is Arvo Pärt's Passio Domini Nostri Jesu Christi secundum Joannem (The Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ according to John) of 1982.

References 

Music
The Himalia group is a group of prograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Himalia and are thought to have a common origin.

The known members of the group are (in order from closest to farthest from Jupiter):
 Leda
 Himalia (the biggest, which gives its name to the group)
 Lysithea
 Elara
The orbit estimate of the recently found moon S/2000 J 11 also qualified it as a member of the group (it appeared to have the same inclination, and a slightly bigger semi-major axis)
but its orbit is not known exactly and the mean orbital elements have not yet been calculated.

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names in -a for the moons in this group.

Characteristics and origin

The objects in the Himalia group have semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) in the range of 11,150,000 and 11,750,000 km, inclinations between 26.6° and 28.3°, and eccentricities of between 0.11 and 0.25.
All moons in the group are grey similar to C-type asteroids. It has been suggested that the group could be a remnant of the break-up of an asteroid from the main asteroid belt. The radius of the parent asteroid was probably about 89 km, only a bit bigger than that of Himalia, which retains approximately 87% of the mass of the original body. This indicates the asteroid was not heavily disturbed.

References

Jupiter's moons
Naturalization is when a person changes his or her nationality.  Most people have the nationality of the country where they are born and grow up. In other cases, one can be a citizen of a country because the individual in question had a parent, grandparent, etc who was/is a citizen of a different country. If they move to another country they will still keep their own nationality at first, but if they stay there for many years and want to stay there for the rest of their lives they may want to change their nationality.  

Different countries have different laws about naturalization. Usually the person must make a promise in a court of law. He will have to promise to be a good citizen and obey the country's laws. Sometimes a country gives citizenship to someone who has not asked for it. Sometimes, someone can keep their first nationality as well as getting a new one. This is "dual nationality". Sometimes children whose parents have different nationalities are allowed to have dual nationality.

Someone who has been naturalized will normally have all the rights that any other person belonging to that country has.

The reverse also happens. States sometimes remove citizenship. This denaturalization can leave the former citizen stateless.

References 
Social sciences

de:Staatsbürgerschaft#Erwerb durch Einbürgerung (Naturalisation)
The Ananke group is a group of moons of Jupiter. They are retrograde non-spherical moons that follow similar orbits to Ananke and may have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 19,300,000 and 22,700,000 km, their inclinations between 145.7° and 154.8°, and their orbital eccentricities between 0.02 and 0.28.

The core members include (from biggest to smallest):
Ananke
Praxidike
Iocaste
Harpalyke
Thyone
Euanthe
Euporie

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in -e for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

Origin
The Ananke group is believed to have been formed when an asteroid was captured by Jupiter and broken apart by a collision.

Based on the sizes of the moons, the original asteroid may have been about 28 km in diameter. Since this value is near the approximate diameter of Ananke itself, it is likely the parent body was not heavily disrupted.

Three of the moons of the family (Harpalyke, Praxidike and Iocaste) display similar grey colours while Ananke itself is on the boundary between grey and light red.

References

Jupiter's moons
Sir George Biddell Airy (27 July 1801–2 January 1892) was an English mathematician and astronomer, Astronomer Royal from 1835 to 1881. His many achievements include work on planetary orbits, measuring the mean density of the Earth, a method of solution of two-dimensional problems in solid mechanics and, in his role as Astronomer Royal, establishing Greenwich at the location of the prime meridian. His reputation has been tarnished by allegations that, through his inaction, Britain lost the opportunity of priority in the discovery of Neptune.

Other websites 
 
 
 Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1833: MNRAS 2 (1833) 159
 Awarding of RAS gold medal, 1846: MNRAS 7 (1846) 64
 
 
 Full texts of some of the papers by Airy are available at Gallica: bibliothèque numérique de la Bibliothèque nationale de France

1801 births
1892 deaths
English mathematicians
English astronomers
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
British scientists
Knights Bachelor
Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath
Order of the Bath
People from Northumberland
Presidents of the Royal Society
The Pasiphaë group is a group of retrograde non-spherical moons of Jupiter that follow similar orbits to Pasiphaë and are thought of have a common origin.

Their semi-major axes (distances from Jupiter) range between 22,800,000 and 24,100,000 km (the same range as the Carme group), their inclinations between 144.5° and 158.3°, and their eccentricities between 0.25 and 0.43.

Core members of the group include (from the biggest to the smallest):

 Pasiphae
 Sinope, two-thirds the size of Pasiphaë
 Callirrhoe
 Megaclite
 Autonoe
 Eurydome
 Sponde

The International Astronomical Union (IAU) reserves names ending in -e for all retrograde moons, including this group's members.

Origin
The Pasiphaë group is believed to have been formed when Jupiter captured an asteroid which broke up after a collision. The original asteroid was not disturbed heavily: the original body is calculated to have been 60 km in diameter, about the same size as Pasiphaë; Pasiphaë has 99% of the original body's mass. However, if Sinope belongs to the group, the amount is much smaller, 87%.

The differences of colour between the objects (grey for Pasiphaë, light red for Callirrhoe and Megaclite) also suggest that the group could have a more complex origin than a single collision.

References

Jupiter's moons
is a Japanese movie directed by Akira Kurosawa and released in 1950.

The movie is based on two short stories by Ryūnosuke Akutagawa.

Plot
The fictional plot is set in Japan in the Heian period.
 
There is a murder and rape in a forest: these things happen to different characters.
The movie is famous for having an unusual type of story. The same event is described differently by the four different people involved in it. Most movies describe the same things in one way during the entire movie. The four people said different things. The movie does not say which person is right.

Similar movies 
The 1964 movie The Outrage was a remake of Rashomon. Kurosawa was acknowledged for the screenplay.  The movie's concept is also mirrored in many other movies, including Hero, Vantage Point, Courage Under Fire and Basic.

Related pages 
 Rashomon effect
 Unreliable narrator
 Blind men and an elephant

References

Other websites 

 
 Criterion Collection,  Rashomon, essays 

1950 movies
Japanese movies
Japanese-language movies
Movies directed by Akira Kurosawa
James Challis (12 December 1803 – 3 December 1882) was an English clergyman, physicist and astronomer. Plumian Professor and director of the Cambridge Observatory, he investigated a wide range of physical phenomena though made few lasting contributions outside astronomy. He is best remembered for his missed opportunity to discover the planet Neptune in 1846.

1803 births
1882 deaths
Academics of the University of Cambridge
Alumni of the University of Cambridge
Anglican priests
English Anglicans
English astronomers
English physicists
English priests
Fellows of the Royal Society
Astronomer Royal is a senior post in the Royal Household of the  Sovereign of the United Kingdom. There are two officers, the senior being the Astronomer Royal dating from 22 June 22 1675, and the second the Astronomer Royal for Scotland, which dates from 1834. No Catholic or Jew has ever held the position. 

King Charles II, who founded the Royal Observatory, Greenwich in 1675 instructed the first Astronomer Royal John Flamsteed, "to apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation".

From that time until 1972 the Astronomer Royal was Director of the Royal Observatory Greenwich. As Astronomer Royal he receives a stipend of £100 a year and is a member of the Royal Household, under the general authority of the Lord Chamberlain. After the separation of the two offices the position of Astronomer Royal has been largely honorary, though he remains available to advise the Sovereign on astronomical and related scientific matters, and the office is of great prestige.

List of Astronomers Royal 

British astronomers
British monarchy
The Royal Observatory, Greenwich (Royal Greenwich Observatory or 'RGO') was commissioned in 1675 by King Charles II.

At this time the king also created the position of Astronomer Royal, for John Flamsteed, to serve as the director of the observatory.

He was to "apply himself with the most exact care and diligence to the rectifying of the tables of the motions of the heavens, and the places of the fixed stars, so as to find out the so much desired longitude of places for the perfecting of the art of navigation". 

The Observatory is situated on a hill in Greenwich Park in Greenwich, London, overlooking the River Thames.

The Greenwich Meridian runs through the site of the Observatory. It is the line at which the longitude is defined as 0°.

Other websites 
 HM Nautical Almanac Office 
 The Royal Observatory, Greenwich 
 Aerial View of The Royal Observatory, Greenwich at Google Maps
 The National Maritime Museum 
 The RGO at Herstmonceux 
 The Observatory Science Centre
 Isaac Newton Group of Telescopes

References 

Observatories
Museums in London
Keira Christina Knightley,  (; born 26 March 1985) is a Golden Globe and Academy Award nominated English actress. She is best known for her first major movie role as Elizabeth Swann in the Pirates of the Caribbean movie trilogy, and as Elizabeth Bennet in Pride & Prejudice.

Early life 
Knightley was born on 26 March 1985 in Teddington, London, England. Her mother, Sharman Macdonald, is Scottish. Her father, Will Knightley, is English. He wanted to name his daughter "Kiera", after the Russian ice skater, Kira Ivanova. When her mother went to register her, she misspelt the name. Knightley has an older brother, Caleb. When Knightley lived in Richmond, she studied at Stanley Junior School, Teddington School and Esher College.

When Knightley was three years old, she asked to her parents to hire an agent for her. They promised to do this, if she studied very well. That's why Keira was a good and diligent pupil.

Movies 
 Star Wars Episode I: The Phantom Menace (1999)
 Princess of Thieves (2001)
 The Hole (2001)
 Bend It Like Beckham (2002)
 Pure (2002)
 New Year's Eve (2002)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: The Curse of the Black Pearl (2003)
 Love Actually (2003)
 King Arthur (2004)
 The Jacket (2005)
 Pride & Prejudice (2005)
 Domino (2005)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: Dead Man's Chest (2006)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End (2007)
 Silk (2007)
 Atonement (2007)
 The Edge of Love (2008)
 The Duchess (2008)
 Pirates of the Caribbean: On Stranger Tides (2017)
 The Nutcracker and the Four Realms (2018)

Other websites

References 

1985 births
Living people
Actors from London
English movie actors
English television actors
Carnosaurs are a subgroup of the theropod dinosaurs. They are the clade Carnosauria. The term was once used very widely, but is now defined more narrowly. It is called by some authorities the Allosauroidea.

The group includes some of the main carnivores of the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods, such as Allosaurus, Carcharodontosaurus and Neovenator. Modern cladistic analysis defines Carnosauria (or Allosauroidea) as those tetanurans which share a more recent common ancestor with Allosaurus than with modern birds.

Carnosaurs are characterized by several features. Some features must have been adaptations to their large size, such as their open skull, made of struts rather than solid bone. They had 
large eyes and a long, narrow skull. The femur ("thigh bone") is usually larger than the tibia ("shin bone"). This suggests close-to action was controlled by sight. 

The legs are adapted for running, but not extremely so. They had strong arms, probably used to wrestle prey as the teeth bit in. The structure of an Allosaurus suggests a strongly-built general all-round predator. This is a different from a tyrannosaur like Albertosaurus, which was better adapted for running on open ground. Tyrannosaurs, with their small two-fingered hands, would use their heads for killing prey, and for head-butting rivals.

The idea that the group became extinct at the end of the Jurassic is refuted. It is now known that the Neovenatorid clade survived until the end of the Mesozoic. This group (see cladogram below) included  Aerosteon, Australovenator, Fukuiraptor and Neovenator.

Classification 
Infraorder Carnosauria
Erectopus
Fukuiraptor
Gasosaurus?
Monolophosaurus
Siamotyrannus
Superfamily Allosauroidea
Becklespinax?
Megaraptor?
Family Allosauridae
Allosaurus
Antrodemus
Epanterias
Saurophaganax
Family Carcharodontosauridae
Acrocanthosaurus?
Carcharodontosaurus
Neovenator
Subfamily Giganotosaurinae
Giganotosaurus
Mapusaurus
Tyrannotitan
Family Sinraptoridae
Metriacanthosaurus
Sinraptor
Yangchuanosaurus

Cladogram 
The cladogram presented here follows the 2010 analysis by Benson, Carrano and Brusatte.

References
Lake Pontchartrain ( in English; Lac Pontchartrain, IPA [lak pɔ̃ʃaʀtʀɛ̃] in French) is a brackish lake in southeastern Louisiana. It is the second largest salt-water lake in the United States, after the Great Salt Lake in Utah, and the largest lake in Louisiana. 

It has an area of 630 square miles (1630 square km) with an average depth of 12 to 14 feet (about 4 meters). Some shipping channels are kept deeper through dredging. It is roughly oval in shape, about 40 miles (64 km) wide and 24 miles (39 km) from south to north.

Other websites
 Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
 United States Geological Survey Lake Pontchartrain Fact Sheet
 Real-time water data for Lake Pontchartrain
 The Lake Pontchartrain Basin Foundation
 New Orleans history of the lake
 Lake Pontchartrain Basin Maritime Museum
 USGS Environmental Atlas of Lake Pontchartrain
 New Orleans District Water Management  
 Washington Post article alleging levee faults, 21 Sept 2005
 National Geographic article about the levees, 2 Sept. 2005
 Salon article about disaster predictions, 31 Aug 2005
 U.S. Geological Survey article about the Lake Pontchartrain Basin, 3 Nov 1995
 BBC article about environmental effects on the lake after the flooding of New Orleans, 8 Sept. 2005

Geography of Louisiana
Lakes of the United States
Arthur Edward "Art" Pepper, Jr. (September 1, 1925–June 15, 1982)  was an American jazz alto saxophonist. He was born in Gardena, California United States. Pepper began his musical career in the 1940s playing with Benny Carter. Along with Chet Baker, Gerry Mulligan, Shelly Manne and others, he performed and recorded a lot of very good music.
 
Some of his most famous albums are Art Pepper Meets the Rhythm Section, The Aladdin Recordings (three volumes), Art Pepper + Eleven - Modern Jazz Classics, Gettin' Together, and Smack Up. 

He wrote a book in 1980 called Straight Life. The book is about his life and his music. It was very popular because it was honest, and very good. There was also a movie made called Art Pepper: Notes from a Jazz Survivor, which is available on DVD.

Other websites 
 The Art Pepper Discography Project
 NPR Interview With Laurie Pepper
 The Art Of Pepper 
 Art Pepper on YouTube
 MikeL's Unofficial Art Pepper website
 Art Pepper MySpace Tribute Site

1925 births
1982 deaths
American jazz musicians
American saxophonists
Musicians from Los Angeles
Squash is a sport in which two players hit a ball with a racket (or Racquet). The aim of the game is to beat the other player by hitting the front wall and making the ball bounce twice on the floor before they can hit their turn, or for them to hit the ball out of play.

Playing equipment

The ball
The ball is made of rubber. It is hollow. When it is warm (due to being hit many times) it bounces more. Balls are marked with different coloured dots. They are made to bounce at different speeds depending on the colour of the dots. Balls with two yellow dots are slow, while balls with one yellow dot are a little bit faster. Balls with green or white dots are average. Balls with red or blue dots are fast.

The racket
The racket (or Racquet) is similar to a tennis racket, but it's lighter and smaller.The specifications have changed over the years and now the rackets are becoming larger.  The limit for racquet head size is 500 square centimeters.

The Rules 
Squash games are played to at least 11 points, and the winning player must win by two points.  Games can go on indefinitely until one player gains a two-point lead.  Matches are won by the first player to win three games (best of five games).  A point is scored when a player hits a shot which strikes the front wall of the court and then bounces twice before that player's opponent hits it to the front wall.  A point is also scored when a player hits the ball too high (called "out") or too low on the front wall (when it will hit the tin, which rises 18 inches off the floor on the front wall).  Every point is started with a serve, which must be hit from one of the small service boxes on either side of the court, must hit the front wall above the service line across the middle of the front wall, and must land in the back quarter of the court on the opposite side from where the serve was hit.

If one player gets in the way of the other who is trying to get to the ball, that player can ask the referee for a "let," which results in the point being replayed.  If a player prevents the other player from swinging at the ball, creating a dangerous situation, that player can appeal for a "stroke," which results in the player who could not safely hit the ball winning the point.  If the referee feels that the swinging player could not have reached the ball, or did not make every effort to get to it, then the referee can award "no let," which means that the point ends as it would have had no one asked for a let or stroke.

Famous players
Squash was played by Jahangir Khan who had dominated it for 25 years. He had beat Rodney Martin from Australia 15-5, 15-8, and 15-10 in the final round. He can be considered the #1 squash player.  Currently, the most top players come from either Egypt (Ramy Ashour, Mohammed El Shorbagy, Amr Shabana) or England (Nick Matthew, James Willstrop, Deryl Selby, Peter Barker).

References

Other websites

 World Squash Federation
Low Saxon or Lower Saxon may refer to:

Geography
Lower Saxony, a State in the Federal Republic of Germany
Lower Saxony, the name for the duchy Saxe-Lauenburg between the 14th and 17th centuries
Lower Saxon Circle, a territory of the Holy Roman Empire, which existed from 1500 to 1806

Linguistics

 Low German, an Ingvaeonic West Germanic language
West Low German, a group of Low German dialects spoken in the Netherlands, Lower Saxony and most of Schleswig-Holstein
Northern Low Saxon, the dialect spoken in the Northern parts of the Low Saxon language area
Dutch Low Saxon, a group of West Low German dialects recognized as a minority language by the European Union

Other uses 
 Lower Saxon cuisine, a range of regional North German culinary traditions
 Lower Saxon house, a type of German timber-framed house
 Lower Saxon Landtag, the Parliament of Lower Saxony
 Lower Saxon Mill Road, a holiday route that guides visitors to windmills and watermills in Lower Saxony

Related pages
 Old Saxony, the larger region of which Lower Saxony is a part
 Upper Saxon, a Central German dialect
 Upper Saxony, historic lands in Central Germany