cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Heligoland (;  ) is a small German group of islands in the North Sea..

It has been controlled by Denmark and between 1807 and 1890 by the British. The islands have a population of 1,650. They are the only German islands not nearby to the mainland and are about two hours' sailing time from Cuxhaven at the mouth of the River Elbe.

Geography 
Heligoland is located 70 km (44 miles) from the German coast line and actually consists of two islands: the populated triangular-shaped 1 km² (0.4 sq mi) main island () to the west and the island of Düne (Heligolandic: de Halem) in the east. 

Düne is the smaller of the two islands(0.7 km²).  It is also lower, surrounded by sand beaches and no-one lives on the island throughout the year.

Often when people talk about "Heligoland" they only mean Hauptinsel.

References

Other websites 

Heligoland Tourist Board  — includes an aerial photograph of Heligoland (front) and Düne (back).
Site about planting palms on Heligoland 
Heligoland Web Cams

Geography of Schleswig-Holstein
Islands of Germany
Robert Francis "Bobby" Kennedy (November 20, 1925 – June 6, 1968), also called RFK, was a brother of former U.S. President John F. Kennedy. He ran for president in 1968, but was killed in California during the presidential primaries.

References

Other websites 
PBS video on RFK, with long quotes by historians 
The Coalition on Political Assassinations

1925 births
1968 deaths
American murder victims
People from Brookline, Massachusetts
American Roman Catholics
Assassinated people
Burials at Arlington National Cemetery
Harvard University alumni
Kennedy family
Murders by firearm in California
People murdered in California
Politicians from Massachusetts
 
United States Attorneys General
1968 United States presidential candidates
United States senators from New York
US Democratic Party politicians
Lawyers from Massachusetts
Josef Mengele (March 16, 1911 – February 7, 1979) was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz. 

During the first years of World War II Mengele served as a medical officer in the Waffen-SS. After being wounded and recovered in 1942, he went working at the Race and Resettlement Office in Berlin. In 1943 he volunteered for concentration camp Auschwitz.

He conducted medical experiments on the people in the camps. Many people died as a consequence of these experiments. The experiments included freezing and placing subjects under heat lamps. 

Mengele was also known for his studies and fascination with twins. Mengele was known as the Angel of Death. 

After the war, he first hid in Germany, then escaped and lived in South America, until he drowned in Brazil.

Mengele wrote a thesis, which he finished in 1936. His advisor was Theodor Mollison. His assumption was that is was possible to determine the race of a human being by looking at the jawbone. He wrote another thesis, in a related area in 1938. In 1960 and 1961, his title was revoked, because of the crimes he had committed in Auschwitz.

Other websites 
 A short essay on Mengele at the Holocaust ,,.,history project 
 A short essay about Mengele by Robert Jay Lifton

1911 births
1979 deaths
Accidental deaths by drowning
German doctors
German war criminals
Holocaust perpetrators
People from Bavaria
SS officers
Waffen-SS people
Francis I, Emperor of Austria (February 12, 1768 – March 2, 1835) also was Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor (in German language: Franz II, Heiliger Römischer Kaiser).

He was the last Holy Roman Emperor, ruling from 1792 until August 6, 1806, when the Empire was no longer a unit. He then became Francis I, first Emperor of Austria (from 1804 to 1835).

Related pages
 Holy Roman Empire
 Germany

1768 births
1835 deaths
Holy Roman Emperors
Wilhelm I (Wilhelm Friedrich Ludwig von Hohenzollern) of the Hohenzollern family was a king of Prussia (January 2, 1861 – 9 March 1888) and the first German Emperor (18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888). In English, his first name means "William", which is sometimes used instead.

Because his brother Frederick William IV of Prussia had a stroke in 1857, Wilhelm became Prince Regent and actual ruler. His brother died in 1861 and Wlhelm became King. When Wilhelm was king of Prussia, he and his prime minister, Otto von Bismarck, united a large group of smaller German countries with Prussia. Winning the Franco-Prussian War allowed the start of the German Empire.

His grandson Wilhelm II ordered the Kaiser Wilhelm Gedächtniskirche to be built to honour his life and achievements.

Official titles 
His official title was German Emperor and King of Prussia; Margrave of Brandenburg; Burgrave of Nürnberg, Count of Hohenzollern; Sovereign and highest Duke of Silesia as of the county of Glatz; Grand Duke of the Lower Rhine and of Posen; Duke of Saxony, Wesphalia, and Angaria, of Pomerania, Lüneburg, Holstein and Schleswig, of Magdeburg, Bremen, Gelders, Cleves, Jülich and Berg, as well as of the Wendes and Kaschubs, of Krossen, Lauenburg, Mecklenburg; Landgrave of Hesse and Thuringia, Margrave of Upper and Lower Lusatia, Prince of Orange, Prince of Rügen, of East Frisia, of Paderborn and Pyrmont, of Halberstadt, Münster, Minden, Osnabrück, Hildesheim, of Verden, Kammin, Fulda, Nassau and Moers; Princely Count of Henneberg; Count of the Mark and of Ravensberg, of Hohnstein, Tecklenburg and Lingen, of Mansfeld, Sigmaringen and Veringen, Lord of Frankfurt", and Josseppi Longo. .

Titles and styles
22 March 1797 – 2 January 1861: His Royal Highness Prince William of Prussia
2 January 1861 – 18 January 1871: His Majesty The King of Prussia
18 January 1871 – 9 March 1888: His Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Emperor, King of Prussia

Related pages
 Germany
 German Empire
 Prussia

References 

1797 births
1888 deaths
Kings and Queens of Prussia
German emperors
House of Hohenzollern
The  is a group of islands in Kagoshima prefecture in the Kyūshū region of Japan. It is also known as the .

History
The name of the islands comes the mythological figure of Amamiko.

It was attacked by the Ryūkyū Kingdom in 1570, but was invaded by Satsuma Domain in 1609.

Amami was occupied by the United States from 1945 to 1953.

Demographics 
The native people of the Amami Islands are the Amami people, who are a subgroup of a larger Ryukyuan ethnicity.

Languages 
The Amami language belongs to the Ryukyuan languages, all of which are endangered because in the past, Japan suppressed them. This is also why most younger Amamians speak Japanese instead, as it was enforced in schools.

Geography
The largest island in the group is Amami Island.  Other islands include Kikai Island, Tokunoshima, Okinoerabu Island, Yorontou and some small islands make up the Amami Islands.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Ryukyu Islands
Formal is a word used to describe anything that has form or structure. So it is something which is used or done in accordance with rules or ceremonies.

Formal  events have rules. 'Formal clothes' or 'formal attire' is a way of dressing to meet the rules for an event, such as a party or wedding. 'Formal attire' can be a suit, a tuxedo or a dress. People from all over the world have their own ideas about 'formal attire'. Most of the time formal attire clothes are the most beautiful or the best clothes a person owns. The opposite of "formal" is informal.  Informal clothes are comfortable clothes for general use, e.g. T shirt and jeans.  An informal ceremony might be a ceremony which is very relaxed instead of following an exact plan.  An informal way to greet a friend might be: "Hi, John!"

Examples:
Formal can be the way a person speaks or acts. To act in a formal way a person will follow the social rules of their culture or country. For example, they might greet each other by bowing, and they might address one another by their family name and their title (e.g. "Professor Smith").

A formal agreement is one which is explicit (written down) and reached by a formal discussion or negotiation. That means the negotiation is also done by set rules or procedures.

In mathematics, formal logic is a way of thinking about mathematics questions using strict rules.

Characteristics
is one of Japan's four main islands.  It is the most southern of the main islands.   

Kyūshū is the third largest island of Japan.

Regions 
Kyūshū region is made up of the entire island.

The name Kyūshū literally means "nine countries" in Japanese. Kyūshū was made of nine old "countries" or provinces that are now prefectures. In other words, each prefecture has a modern name and sometimes more than one old provincial name. The old names are still used sometimes, especially for foods, music, or art.

The original nine provinces in Kyushu were Chikuzen, Chikugo, Hizen, Higo, Buzen, Bungo, Hyūga, Ōsumi, and Satsuma.

Today, Kyushu is made up of seven prefectures. 
 Fukuoka Prefecture
 Kagoshima Prefecture
 Kumamoto Prefecture
 Miyazaki Prefecture
 Nagasaki Prefecture
 Oita Prefecture
 Saga Prefecture

Parts of Kyūshū have a warm climate, like the Miyazaki and Kagoshima regions. Major crops grown there are rice, tea, tobacco, sweet potatoes, and soy; silk is also made. The island is known for many types of porcelain like Arita, Imari, Satsuma and Karatsu.

Under the Gokishichidō system, the island of Kyūshū was a part of the region known as Saikaidō. It was a part of this region from the 7th century until the middle of the 1800s. Around 1905, it was made into its own region. In the modern system, Kyūshū and the small islands around it are a part of the Kyūshū region.

Related pages
 Provinces of Japan
 Prefectures of Japan
 List of regions of Japan
 List of islands of Japan

References

Other websites 

  Murdoch's map of provinces, 1903

Islands of Japan
Kyushu region
Presentation is the process of presenting the content of a topic to an audience. Presentation software, such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Beamer, Apple Keynote or Microsoft PowerPoint, is often used to generate the presentation content. As a form of communication, a presentation is usually 10-30 minutes long, but can take longer in special cases.

Useful illustrations 

 BCG diagram: This diagram is extremely useful in marketing, to eat donuts

Other websites 
 Tips on making presentations 
 Tips for presentations in school
 Art of Speaking (A list of links related to speaking and presentation)  
 Example of Evaluating Student Presentations 
 RecruitIreland.com - Tips for an internal presentation
 EServer TC Library: Presentations 
 Tips on making a presentations
 100 Creative Presentation Ideas

Marketing

pl:Grafika prezentacyjna
Keynote is a presentation software application made by Apple for its Mac OS X operating system.

History
Keynote was a software program that Steve Jobs, the chief executive officer of Apple used for his own presentations only. It was later sold to everyone as Keynote 1.0, competing against other presentation software, especially Microsoft PowerPoint. Unlike PowerPoint, Keynote can use all image types, and the design uses more pictures, making it easier to use. Because Keynote uses Mac OS X's built-in graphics technologies, it can produce slides with many graphics very easily.

Version history

Trivia
Al Gore, a member of the board of directors for Apple as of 2006, uses Keynote for a lecture about Global Warming which he claims to have shown over a thousand times. The talk was made into a film, An Inconvenient Truth. During the film he can be seen using Keynote on a Powerbook to design a slide for his presentation.

Related pages
Microsoft PowerPoint
OpenOffice.org
Presentation program

Other websites 
 Official website of Keynote

Discussion Groups
 Keynote Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Keynote 
 iWork Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of Apple's iWork (Pages and Keynote)

IWork
Apple software
The claymore is a Scottish sword. It is double-edged. The word itself is of Gaelic origins and means “great sword”. The Claymore is indeed a big sword and was held only with two hands. In some sources the broad claymore sword is called “claidheamh da lamh”, which means “two-hand sword”. It was very popular in the 16th century when Scottish warriors (highlanders) used it against the Englishmen.

The claymore sword was in average about  - overall length, the blade was about  long. It weighed around . It possessed a very broad blade and a slim channel, called a fuller, to slightly reduce its weight.

There also existed a version of Claymore that had a single-edged blade and a basket-shaped handle.  The basket  of the handle was used as protection for the hand. The blade was very long, so the basket was designed for balance too.  The making of these swords was widespread especially during the mid-1600s . The places where the claymore swords were made were: Edinburgh, Canongate, Stirling and Glasgow.

Beginning around 1350, very long claymore swords were  used. The handles and the blades  became longer. This was because of the heavy armour, that was almost impossible to penetrate. The Scottish Claymore was one of the two swords which could cut through  the armour. The second was  the Germanic Landsknecht sword.

Other websites 
More on swords' component parts 

Swords
Scotland
Tamahagane {tah-mah-ha-ga-nay} is a high quality metal (steel) made in the Japanese tradition. The word tama  means "round and precious", like a gem or jewel. The word hagane means  "steel". On the market, it costs 50 times more than ordinary steel. Tamahagane steel is used to make Japanese swords, knives, and other kinds of tools.

Good tamahagane contains around 1% of carbon and should not go over 1.5%.

Production
Tamahagane is made of iron sand (called satetsu in Japanese). There are 2 main types of iron sands: akome satetsu and masa satetsu. Akome is of lower quality and masa is of better quality. The man who decides the amount of the mixing parts is called the murage. Depending on the desired result, the murage mixes one or more types of sands.

The iron sand is put in a clay tub (furnace) called a tatara. The clay tub measures about 4 feet tall, 12 feet long, and 4 feet wide. The tub is then dried and heated. The clay tub is heated to a high temperature, about 1000 ºC (1.832 ºF). Then, it is mixed with charcoal to give tamahagane hardness. 

The process of making tamahagane continues for 36 to 72 hours, depending on how many people work and how much metal is to be obtained.  The iron sand is added every 10 minutes and the mixture is frequently turned over. 

When the tamahagane is finished, the clay tub is broken and the steel is removed. The best steel is on the edges of metal block, because this is the where the oxidation process is stronger. The quality of tamahagane is determined by its color: bright silver pieces are very good for making blades.

Related pages
Japanese sword schools
Katana

Metals
Japanese swords
A graviton is a hypothetical particle that 'transfers' gravitation's force (particles like this are known as gauge bosons) from its field. Gravitons have never been observed, directly or indirectly, however, there have been several theories that use gravitons to explain certain phenomena. For example, a theory that describes black holes by combining quantum mechanics and gravity, has been advanced by Georgi Dvali and Cesar Gomez, which suggests a black hole is "an overpacked bucket of gravitons". There are some theories that suggest that gravitons would make up a new group of particles, "attraction particles". CERN is currently smashing more particles using the Large Hadron Collider to try to find this particle.
The graviton applies a tiny force as it impacts the nuclei of atoms.
All atoms themselves have these graviton particles in orbit around them. If you gather a lot of atoms together the population of orbiting gravitons increases proportionately. As a result, a large asteroid for example will have more gravity than a small one.
Because the graviton is a particle that has force (gravity), it is classed as a gauge boson. Other gauge bosons include the photon, the gluon, and the W and Z particles.

If someone found one, it could lead to a theory which would join the four main physical forces: electromagnetism, gravity, strong force and weak force.

References

String theory
Relativity
Subatomic particles
A presentation software is a computer software package used to show information, normally in the form of a slide show. It mostly includes three major functions: an editor that allows text to be inserted and formatted, a method for inserting and manipulating graphic images and a slide-show system to display the content.

The most commonly known presentation program is Microsoft PowerPoint, but there are alternatives such as OpenOffice.org Impress, Apple's Keynote, LaTeX Beamer and WPS Office (Free and complete office suite, includes writer, spreadsheet, presentations, enjoys the features of small-size, easy-to-use and compatible, covering multiple platforms including Windows, Linux, Android, iOS and Mac).

Originally these programs were used to generate 35 mm slides, to be presented using a slide projector. As these programs became more common in the late 1980s, several companies set up services that would accept the shows on floppy disk and create slides or print transparencies. In the 1990s, dedicated LCD-based screens that could be placed on the projectors started to replace the transparencies, and by the late 1990s they had almost all been replaced by video projectors.

Other websites 
Screen Presentation Tools 

Software
A liqueur is a sweet-tasting alcoholic drink. It is often flavored with fruits, herbs, spices, flowers, seeds, roots, plants, barks, and sometimes cream. The word liqueur comes from the Latin word liquifacere which means "to dissolve." This is because the flavors are dissolved to help make the liqueur. In some parts of the world, liqueurs are sometimes called cordials.

Liqueurs have been around for many centuries. They are related to the herbal medicines that monks used to make. Liqueurs were made in Italy as early as the 13th century, and were used during signings of treaties during the Middle Ages.

Varieties
Most liqueurs have 15 to 30% alcohol content but may have an alcohol content as high as 55%.

Types of liqueurs include: fruit liqueur, cream liqueur, coffee liqueur, chocolate liqueur, schnapps liqueur, brandy liqueur, anise liqueur, nut-flavoured liqueur, and herbal liqueur.

Liqueurs can be enjoyed many ways. They are commonly drank by themselves, poured over ice, with coffee, or mixed with cream or other mixers to create cocktails. They are often served with dessert or as a dessert. Liqueurs may also be used in cooking.

Reference

Other websites 
 Page about most types of liqueurs

Alcoholic spirits
Militarism or militarist ideology is a view on society.
It says society should be like the military.
This means that society should follow concepts that can be found in the culture, system and people of the military. People that say militarism is good are called militarists.

Most important to militarists is discipline. Discipline means to follow a set of rules.
It also means training that follows such rules. A strong military is good for discipline.
There are many areas where moral goals and the culture of the military can be applied. Most notable are private business, government, education and entertainment.

Militarism is related to militarization.
Militarist countries often have a strong military.
Sparta in Ancient Greece, Prussia in the 19th century was militarist, for example. North Korea is a good example in modern times. In militarised societies the military either run the government, or have heavy military influence. Often the head of state is a military person, though that does not always mean the society is militarised.

Military
The Queen of Spades (, pronounced Pi-KO-va-ya DA-ma) is an opera by Tchaikovsky.  It is based on a short story by Alexander Pushkin.  Sometimes it is known by its German title Pique Dame.  

When Tchaikovsky went to Paris in 1876, he saw Bizet’s opera Carmen.  He liked the story's themes of love and bad fate.  The idea of fate is important to the opera Carmen and also to Tchaikovsky’s The Queen of Spades.  Tchaikovsky wrote some of his greatest music in this opera.  Some of it is very graceful, and is similar to Mozart.  In other places it is very romantic, with harmonies that he had learned by studying the operas of Wagner.

The story of the opera

Hermann, a young officer, sees a beautiful girl in the park and falls in love with her even though  he does not know her.  His friend tells him that the girl’s name is Lisa, and that her grandmother is an old countess who used to gamble (play cards for money) when she was young.  He says that people used to call the grandmother the "Queen of Spades", and that she knows a secret: she knows about the three cards which will always win the card game.

Hermann can only think of one thing:  he wants to find out the secret of the three cards so that he can gamble and win lots of money.  Then he will be able to marry Lisa.  He hides himself in the grandmother’s bedroom.  When the grandmother goes to bed, he jumps out in front of her and tells her he wants to know the three cards.  She is so scared that she dies before she can speak.

Later, the ghost of the grandmother comes to Hermann and tells him the three secret cards: Three, Seven, Ace.  Hermann’s mind is now on one thing: he must go to casino and play cards and win.  Lisa drowns herself in  a river.  Hermann gambles all his money at the casino, saying "The life is only game and the sure is only death".  The first two cards are the Three and the Seven, but the third card is not the Ace, it is the Queen of Spades.  The old grandmother’s ghost comes again to Hermann.  Hermann kills himself.

The writing of the opera

Tchaikovsky’s brother Modest helped him to prepare the libretto (words) for the opera.  They changed some of Pushkin’s story, making the love scenes important because he thought they would be good with emotional music.  They also made it very dramatic by making Lisa drown herself in a canal and Hermann die at the gaming table.  This is different to what happens in Pushkin’s story.

Tchaikovsky wrote the opera very quickly.  It took him just six weeks to sketch it (write the basic ideas).  Then he spent a short time in Rome and when he returned, he wrote it out for orchestra in another six weeks.  

Some of the music is quite Classical (Rococo) in character.  At other times it can sound very Russian.  In the supernatural scenes, Tchaikovsky uses the whole-tone scale like Glinka did in his operas.

The opera was first performed at the Mariinsky Theatre in St Petersburg on 19 December 1890.

Compositions by Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky
Operas
Microsoft Office PowerPoint is a presentation program developed for the Microsoft Windows and Mac OS computer operating systems. Businesspeople, educators, and trainers use it often. It is a component of the Microsoft Office system.

Operation 
In PowerPoint, as in most other presentation software, text, graphics, movies, and other objects are positioned on individual pages or "slides". The "slide" analogy is a reference to the slide projector. Slides can be printed, or (more often) displayed on-screen and navigated through at the command of the presenter. Slides can also form the basis of webcasts.

Versions 
Versions for Microsoft Windows include:

 1993 PowerPoint 4.0 (Office 4.x)
 1995 PowerPoint 7 for Windows 95 (Office '95)
 1997 PowerPoint 97 (Office '97)
 1999 PowerPoint 2000 (Office 2000)
 2001 PowerPoint 2002 (Office XP)
 2003 PowerPoint 2003 (Office 2003)
 2006-2007 PowerPoint 2007 (Office 2007)
 2010 PowerPoint 2010 (Office 2010)
 2016 PowerPoint 2016 (Office 2016)
 2018 PowerPoint 2019 (Office 2019)

Note: There is no PowerPoint 5.0 or 6.0, because the Windows 95 version was launched with Word 7. All of the Office 95 products have OLE 2  - moving data between many programs - and PowerPoint 7 shows that it was as new as Word 7.

Related pages
 OpenOffice.org Impress, a free, open source alternative to Microsoft PowerPoint
 Apple Keynote

Other websites 
 Official website of PowerPoint at Microsoft
 flashgeek PowerPoint tutorials and community, especially in regards to using PowerPoint in combination with Macromedia Flash.
 PowerPoint Heaven — The Power to Animate Contains PowerPoint movies, showcases, PowerPoint games, animation templates and tutorials on creating animations for your PowerPoint Presentations.
 PowerPoint FAQ pages Compilation of Frequently Asked Questions in the Microsoft Office PowerPoint Discussion Groups.
 Microsoft PowerPoint Viewer 2003 Download (freeware, 1.9 MiB.) Free PowerPoint Viewer provided by Microsoft, supports presentations from PowerPoint 97 to 2003. (only Windows)
 Microsoft PowerPoint Viewer 2007 Download (freeware, 25.8 MiB.) Free PowerPoint Viewer provided by Microsoft, supports presentations from PowerPoint 97 to 2007. (only Windows)
 pdfonline.com Upload a .ppt and get a .pdf via email

Discussion Groups 
 Microsoft Office PowerPoint Discussion Group
 Microsoft Office PowerPoint Yahoo! Group — Help and advice for users of PowerPoint

Articles 
 
 
 
 
  (Astronauts using PowerPoint to replace paper checklists.)
 
 

Microsoft Office
Presentation software
Anna Nicole Smith (November 28, 1967 – February 8, 2007) was an American model, actress and celebrity. She first became popular as Playboy magazine's 1993 Playmate of the Year.

Early life
She was born Vicki Lynn Hogan in Houston, Texas.

Death
On February 8, 2007, Smith was found in a hotel room in Hollywood, Florida. At 1:38 p.m. (18:38 UTC) a nurse called 911. At 1:45 p.m. a bodyguard gave her CPR before she was taken to a local hospital and pronounced dead at 2:49 p.m. Her death was caused by an accidental overdose.

Smith was addicted to prescription medications. A psychiatrist said in court in 2010 that she was a member of hospital staff in 2006, when Smith was a patient. The psychiatrist said Smith had borderline personality disorder.

References

Other websites 
AnnaNicole.com Official website

Actors from Houston, Texas
American movie actors
American television actors
Drug-related accidental deaths in the United States
Models from Houston, Texas
People with borderline personality disorder
1967 births
2007 deaths
A sorting algorithm is an algorithm that puts the elements of a collection into a certain order. Most commonly, numbers are sorted by their value, and words are sorted by their lexicographic order (as they would appear in a dictionary or phone book). Efficient sorting is important for other things: finding an element in a sorted collection is easier, and merging a new element may also be easier if the collection is sorted.

Note that not all sorting algorithms can be applied in all cases. An example might be that the records can only be read one after another (sequentially); they might be stored on a tape. 

Searching and sorting algorithms
The word "ciao" is a greeting in Italian. It is used for both "hello" and "goodbye". It is less formal than other greetings in Italian, such as buongiorno or salve.

The word originally comes from the Venetian language. It is also sometimes used by English speakers and speakers of other languages around the world. Other words that mean both "hello" and "goodbye" are shalom in Hebrew, salaam in Arabic, annyeong in Korean, and aloha in Hawaiian. In Vietnamese, the word chào also means "hello" or "goodbye". It sounds similar, but is not related to the Italian word.

Words
Human communication
LaTeX is a computer program used for making articles, books and math formulas look good. LaTeX is well-suited for expressing mathematical formulas on electronic devices in a more human readable format, by showing them in a way similar to how they would be written by hand. 

LaTeX is used for making mathematical formulas for some articles on Wikipedia, in addition to being used within academic circles.

The writer types their article into a plain text document. A plain text document cannot have styled text, like bold or italic. When the writer wants to write styled text, they use special LaTeX commands that start with a backslash (\). For example, the command for bold text is \textbf{This text is bold}.

After the writer is finished writing the article, they tell LaTeX to read the document. After LaTeX is done, LaTeX makes a file that can be printed. The command \textbf{This text is bold} would print as This text is bold.
 
LaTeX was first made in the early 1980s by Leslie Lamport at SRI International, who published its first manual in 1986. The current version is LaTeX2e (styled ), which has been active since 1994.

Example 
The example below shows the LaTeX input and its corresponding output:

Academic contributions to LaTeX
In order to support mathematical typesetting, the American Mathematical Society (AMS) has made the AMS-LaTeX package. AMS also founded MathJax, a Javascript extension to display mathematical formulas on web browsers, with the Society for Industrial and Applied Mathematics.

Related pages
 Acaric (Developer of Cloud LaTeX)
 Beamer (LaTeX-based presentation software)
 CTAN (One of the largest LaTeX-related website)
 KaTeX (LaTeX for web browsers)
 SATySFi (A computer program expected to be an alternative to LaTeX)

References

Further reading
 Van Dongen, M. R. (2012). LATEX and Friends. Springer Science & Business Media.
 Grätzer, G. (2014). Practical LaTeX. Springer.
 Datta, D. (2017). LaTeX in 24 Hours: A Practical Guide for Scientific Writing. Springer.

Programming languages
Mathematical tools
The First War of Scottish Independence lasted from the outbreak of the war in 1296 until the 1328.

The Scots were defeated at Dunbar on 27 April 1296. John Balliol abdicated in Montrose castle on 10 July 1296. John was imprisoned in the Tower of London at first, but then released into the custody of Pope Boniface VIII on condition that he remain in a papal residence. He was later released around the summer of 1301 and lived the rest of his life on his family's estates in Picardy.

But his supporters argued that he was still the rightful King of Scotland. Therefore, the Scots rose in rebellion in 1297 under William Wallace and Andrew de Moray and said they  were acting on behalf of King John. But in fact Scotland had no monarch until the accession of Robert the Bruce in 1306.

Related pages
 Wars of Scottish Independence
 Second War of Scottish Independence

History of the British Isles
Wars of independence
Wars involving England
|children=Edward Balliol.

John King of Scots (c. 1248 - 1314) is usually known as John Balliol or, correctly, John de Balliol. He was born in 1248. 

After the death of Margaret of Scotland in 1290, John Balliol was one of three major competiters for the throne. King Edward concluded that he was going to pick Balliol as king of Scotland at Scone, 30th November, 1292, St. Andrew's Day.

Edward I steadily undermined the authority of King John. He treated Balliol like a 'Puppet King' and the Scots were not happy. At the Battle of Dunbar King Edwards men slaughtered and wiped out the town of Berwick killing around 8000 people in the brutal killing.

He was stripped of his authority as king and was sent away to France by King Edward. He later died there. 

His son Edward Balliol would later claim the Scottish throne from 1332 until 1356.

1248 births
1314 deaths
Kings and Queens of Scotland
The Wars of Scottish Independence were a series of military campaigns fought between Scotland and England in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.

The First War (1296–1328) began with the English invasion of Scotland in 1296, and ended with the signing of the Treaty of Edinburgh-Northampton in 1328. The Second War (1332–1357) began with the English-supported invasion of Edward Balliol and the 'Disinherited' in 1332, and ended around 1357 with the signing of the Treaty of Berwick. 

The wars were part of a great national crisis for Scotland and the period became one of the most important moments in the nation's history. At the end of both wars, Scotland still was a free and independent nation, which was her main aim throughout the conflict. The wars were also important for other reasons, such as the emergence of the longbow as a key weapon in mediaeval warfare.

Important Figures
Scotland
King David II
King John Balliol
King Robert I the Bruce
William Wallace

England
King Edward I
King Edward II
King Edward III

Battles

Battle of Bannockburn

The Battle of Bannockburn (23–24 June 1314) was an important Scottish victory. It was the decisive battle in the First War of Scottish Independence. In this battle, the Scottish king Robert the Bruce defeated the English king Edward II.

Related pages
First War of Scottish Independence
Second War of Scottish Independence

Other websites 
 Wars of Independence

History of the British Isles
Wars involving England
Rebellions in Europe
13th century in Europe
14th century in Europe
Wars of independence
An autotroph (from Greek autos = self and trophe = nutrition) is an organism that makes organic compounds from simple molecules.

Uses 
Autotrophs are needed in every food chain in all ecosystems. They take energy from the environment (sun light or inorganic sources) and use it to make other organic molecules that are used to carry out various biological functions such as cell growth or repairing broken tissue.

Types 
Plants and other organisms that carry out photosynthesis are phototrophs (or photoautotrophs). Bacteria that use inorganic compounds like hydrogen sulfide, phosphorus or iron are called chemoautotrophs. Other organisms, called heterotrophs, eat autotrophs. 

There are some species that need organic compounds as a source of food, but are able to use light as a source of energy. These are not autotrophic, but heterotrophic. A mixotroph is a (micro)organism that can use a mix of different sources of energy and carbon. 

Ecology
Botany
Air France is one of the largest airlines in the world. It is based in France. It is owned by Air France-KLM. Before it merged with KLM, it employed 71,654 people. Its headquarters are at Charles de Gaulle International Airport near Paris.

History 
The airline can be traced back to 1933, when four other French airlines were combined to create Air France.  Air France hired its first flight attendants in 1946.  The airline started flying between Paris and New York City on July 1, 1946. In 1957, the airline bought its first jet aircraft.  Air France was one of 4 airlines that flew the Concorde.  It used it from 1976 until 2003. In 1988, the airline became the first to fly the Airbus A320.  In 2003, KLM Royal Dutch Airlines and Air France announced they were going to be combining. The combination ended in 2004.  As of 2016, Air France is going through many financial problems.

Fleets

Gallery

References 

1930s establishments in France
1933 establishments
Airlines of France
Air Dolomiti L.A.R.E. S.p.A is a regional airline from Verona in Italy. It is named after a section of the Alps known as The Dolomites. It is part of Lufthansa Regional connecting medium-size Italian airports to other European cities through Munich and Frankfurt am Main airports. The airline employs 550 people.

Airlines of Europe
Transport companies of Italy
Verona
Manuel Pereira da Silva (7 December 1920 – 2003) was a Portuguese sculptor. He was born in Oporto, Portugal. 

The workmanship of Manuel Pereira da Silva has an abstract formal orientation inspired in the human figure, in particularly the man and the woman. In 2000, the Medal of Cultural Merit was attributed to Manuel Pereira da Silva for the City Council of Vila Nova de Gaia.

Education
In 1939, he entered the Oporto University's College of Arts. In 1953, he finished his coursework with the final classification of 18 values. During his coursework he was distinguished with two awards, "Teixeira Lopes" and "Soares dos Reis".

In 1946 and 1947, he studied in Paris, France, at the Paris College of Arts.

Selected works
I Exposition of the Independents, in the Oporto University's College of Arts. (1943)
II Exposition of the Independents, in the Atheneum Commercial of Oporto. (1944)
III Exposition of the Independents, in the Coliseum of Oporto. (1945)
Low-relives in Stone in the Rivoli Theatre and in the Coliseum, in Oporto. (1945)
Exposition of the Portuguese Life and the Art in Lourenço Marques, Moçambique (1946)
Exposition of Modern Art in the city of Caldas da Rainha. (1954)
Sculpture in Bronze of General Ulysses S. Grant, 18º President of the United States of America between 1868 and 1876. This monument was ordered by the Portuguese Government to Pereira da Silva for the capital of Guiné-Bissau. (1955)
Paintings in the Church of Saint Luzia, in the city of Viana do Castelo. (1956)
Paintings of the "Snow White" in the Street of Saint Catarina, in Oporto. (1957)
Sculpture in Bronze in the Square Marquis do Pombal, in Oporto. (1958)
II Exposition of Modern Art in the city of Viana do Castelo. (1959)
Low-relief in Ceramics in the capital of Angola. (1960)
Low-relief in Stone of "D. Pedro Pitões exhorting the Crusades" in the Courthouse, in Oporto. (1961)
II Exposition of Plastic Arts of the Foundation Calouste Gulbenkian, in the city of Lisbon. (1962)
Retrospective Exposition in Homage to the workmanship of Pereira da Silva by the Artists Association of Vila Nova de Gaia. (1987)

Other websites 
Twitter
Facebook
Blogspot
Instagram
Flickr
 Youtube

1920 births
2003 deaths
Portuguese artists
Sculptors
The Yeti (also called the abominable snowman) is an animal said to live in the Himalaya mountain range made of ice. People say they have seen it, but none have ever been caught. It is supposed to look like an ape that walks upright. Some body parts, said to be of a yeti, are kept in a few monasteries in the area. There no real evidence that it exists, but there have been reports of footprints in the snow which could have been made by a yeti.

Description
The yeti has been described as having white shaggy fur and a lean muscular body like an ape. This "creature" could also live in the Asian mountains near the Himalayan snow line. Stories about the Yeti and another similar creature, Bigfoot, suggest that if they are real, they could be the same, or similar species. The yeti can stand at least 6 – 10 foot tall, not as tall as the Bigfoot. It has also been said the Yeti can weigh at least 200 - 400 pounds. The yeti is shy, which is why it has never been found. In 2010 an unsuccessful exhibition, some hunters found a hairless four legged creature, they said was a Yeti. It was a small hairless cat that lost it's hair from a disease.

Popular culture
The yeti has been shown in couple of movies including Monsters, Inc. The Yeti has also been a WWE wrestler name. Toys and games using creatures like yetis have been made including Lego Cards (Lego).

Related pages
 Bigfoot

Cryptozoology
Rocco Francis Marchegiano, better known as Rocky Marciano (September 1, 1923 – August 31, 1969), was an American boxer. Marciano was the World Heavyweight Boxing Champion from 9/23/1952 until 11/30/1956. He had the shortest reach of any heavyweight champion at only 68 inches (173 cm). He was also short for a champion, standing 5'11" (180.3 cm). Marciano is the only heavyweight champion in professional boxing history who never lost or drew (tied) in a professional match. He won 43 fights by a way of knockout or technical knockout, an 87.76% knockout rate.

Early life 
His parents were Italian immigrants.

Professional career 
Before becoming a professional fighter, Marciano had an amateur record of 11-3. Marciano's first professional fight was in March 1947. He won the championship from Jersey Joe Walcott on September 23, 1952.

Marciano was named fighter of the year by Ring Magazine three times. His three championship fights between 1952-54 were named fights of the year by that magazine. Marciano's last title fight was against Archie Moore on September 21, 1955. Marciano was knocked down in the fight, but he got up and knocked out Moore in the 9th round. Marciano announced his retirement in a press conference on April 27, 1956.

Retirement 
Marciano considered a comeback in 1959 when Ingemar Johansson won the heavyweight championship from Floyd Patterson on June 26, 1959. However, Floyd Patterson's contract demanded a rematch with Ingemar within one year. After a period in training and thinking about a comeback, Marciano decided against it and never seriously considered a comeback again.

Death 
In 1969, on the eve of his 46th birthday, Marciano was a passenger in a small private plane, a Cessna 172, headed to Des Moines, Iowa. It was at night and bad weather set in. The pilot tried to land the plane on a small airfield outside Newton, Iowa, but the plane hit a tree two miles short of the runway. The passengers died almost instantly. He is entombed in a crypt at Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. His widow, who died exactly five years after him at the age of 46, is entombed next to him.

References

Other websites 
 Redemption: The Life and Death of Rocky Marciano
 Rocky Marciano Biography
 Official Record 
 Official Website 
 
 Greatest Knock out ever, according to espn poll
 Rocky Marciano's greatest fights

1923 births
1969 deaths
American boxers
Aviation deaths in the United States
Sportspeople from Massachusetts
Exponentiating by squaring is an algorithm. It is used for quickly working out large integer powers of a number. It is also known as the square-and-multiply algorithm or binary exponentiation. It uses the binary expansion of the exponent. It is of quite general use, for example in modular arithmetic. 

The algorithm is believed to have first been documented in the Sanskrit book Chandah-sûtra, about 200 BC.

Squaring algorithm

The following recursive algorithm computes xn for a positive integer n where n > 0:

This algorithm is much faster than the ordinary method to compute such a value. Multiplying x by itself, n operations are needed to calculate x n. With the method shown above, only log2(n) operations are needed. 

Algorithms
A smart card is a card with a microchip in it. Such cards are used as a method of identification and authentication. 

Plastic cards that allow to take out money from a automated teller machine (ATM) often are smart cards nowadays (Some of them still have a magnetic stripe which holds the same information). Very often the user is identified with a PIN. If the PIN is entered correctly, money can be withdrawn. If the PIN is not entered correctly, the card is blocked (after a number of false attempts).

At first, smart cards were used in public telephones in France, in 1983. There, the card simply stored a pre-paid credit. This credit was reduced when calls were made. Another way to solve the problem is that the balance is stored in a remote database. To make calls, a (usually toll-free number) is first called. From there, additional calls can be made. This eliminates the need for cards with chips on them.

Smart cards also have many other uses, such as for making payments. These kinds of cards are used a lot in Japan, Singapore, and the Octopus card in Hong Kong.

Kinds
There are two basic kinds of smart cards:
 Simple cards only contain memory that can be read and written to. Examples of this model are phone cards, or cards for health insurance. All the processing of the data is done outside the cards
 Complex cards contain an integrated microchip. In addition to being able to store data, they can also do some of the data processing. Unlike with the simple cards, there is generally no way to directly access the memory of the card. Examples of such cards include the bank cards that can be used for withdrawing money, or the SIM cards used in mobile phones.
Both kind of cards contain a controller for managing the I/O.

Many smart cards have RFID technology that allows them to be used without inserting them into a machine. They just need to be placed on a reader. These are called "contactless smart cards" and many credit and debit cards in the 21st century are this kind.

References

Other websites
What is a smart card? (from HowStuffWorks)

Money
Authentication methods
In mathematics, two integers (a and b) are co-prime (or relatively prime) if they share no common factors. This is sometimes written as . In other words, there is no number, other than 1, that divides both a and b evenly. In which case, the greatest common divisor (GCD, or highest common factor) of these numbers is 1.

As an example, 6 and 35 are coprime, because the factors of 6, 2 and 3, do not divide 35 evenly. On the other hand, 6 and 27 are not coprime, because 3 divides both 6 and 27. Another example is 4 and 5:
4 = 2*2*1; 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The only common factor is 1, so they are coprime.

On the other hand, 10 and 5:
10 = 5*2 
5 = 5*1 (Prime). The common factors are 5 and 1, so they are not coprime.

Prime numbers are always coprime to each other.

 Any two consecutive integers are always coprime.
 Sum of any two coprime numbers is always coprime to their product.
 1 is trivially coprime with all numbers.
 if out of two numbers, any one number is a prime number while the other number is not a multiple of first one, then both are coprime.
 This is not applicable to negative numbers

Related pages 

 Chinese remainder theorem
 Euler's totient function
 Euler's totient theorem

References 

Mathematics
In number theory, the totient of a positive integer n is the number of positive integers smaller than n which are coprime to n (they share no factors except 1). It is often written as .

For example, , because there are four numbers (1, 3, 5 and 7) which do not share any factors with 8.
The function  used here is the totient function, usually called the Euler totient or Euler's totient, after the Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler, who studied it.
The totient function is also called Euler's phi function or simply the phi function, since the Greek letter Phi () is so commonly used for it. The cototient of n is defined as .

The totient function is important mainly because it gives the size of the multiplicative group of integers modulo n. More precisely,  is the order of the group of units of the ring . This fact, together with Lagrange's theorem, provides a proof for Euler's theorem. 

A common use of the totient function is in the RSA algorithm. The RSA algorithm is a popular method of encryption used worldwide.

For any prime number, p, .

Related pages 

 Euler's totient theorem

References 
  

Number theory
Mathematical theorems
In cryptography, a key (or cryptographic key) is a piece of information that allows control over the encryption or decryption process.

There are two basic types of cryptographic algorithms.
Symmetric algorithm: If there is just one key for encrypting and decrypting, the algorithm is called symmetric.
Asymmetric algorithm: If there are two different keys, each of which can be used only to encrypt data or only to decrypt it, the algorithm is called asymmetric.  If an algorithm is asymmetric, one person publishes a key and accepts messages encrypted with that key.  Anyone can encrypt a message, but only the person who owns the other key can decrypt it.  This is how online stores, banks, etc., work.

Key sizes
For symmetric algorithms, a minimum key size of 128 bits is recommended. For applications that need extreme security, such as top secret documents, 256 bits is recommended. Many older ciphers used 40, 56, or 64-bit keys—these have all been cracked by brute force attack because the key was too short.

Asymmetric (public key) algorithms need much longer keys to be secure. For RSA, at least 2048 bits is recommended. The largest publicly-known key that has been cracked was a 768-bit key.

Related pages 
 Key exchange

Cryptography