cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Thomas Hunt Morgan (25 September 1866 – 4 December 1945) was an American geneticist and embryologist. Morgan took his PhD at Johns Hopkins University in 1890, and researched embryology while at Bryn Mawr College.

After the rediscovery of Mendelian inheritance in 1900, Morgan switched his research to the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster. In 1904, E.B. Wilson invited Morgan to join him at Columbia University. This move freed Morgan to focus fully on experimental work.
In his famous Fly Room at Columbia,  Morgan was able to show that genes are carried on chromosomes and are the mechanical basis of heredity. These discoveries formed the basis of the modern science of genetics.

Morgan moved to California in 1928 to head the Division of Biology at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech). Research was focused on genetics and evolution; experimental embryology; physiology; biophysics and biochemistry.

He was given the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1933. It was the first one given for genetics, for his discoveries concerning the role played by the chromosome in heredity. The prize was not shared with the lab's main researcher, Alfred Sturtevant, a decision of the Nobel Committee which was certainly controversial.

Morgan's early work with Drosophila was on the associations known as 'coupling' and 'repulsion', discovered by English workers in 1909 and 1910 using the Sweet Pea. These were, in reality, the same phenomenon, which was later called linkage. Morgan's first papers dealt with the demonstration of sex linkage of the gene for white eyes in the fly, the male fly being heterogametic (XY).

During his distinguished career, Morgan wrote 22 books and 370 scientific papers, and, as a result of his work, Drosophila became the main 'model organism' in genetics. The Division of Biology he started at the California Institute of Technology produced seven Nobel Prize winners.

References 

1866 births
1945 deaths
American geneticists
American Nobel Prize winners
Cell biology
Scientists from Kentucky
People from Lexington, Kentucky
American developmental biologists
Columbia University faculty
Educators from Kentucky
Alfred Henry Sturtevant (November 21, 1891 – April 5, 1970) was an American geneticist. Sturtevant made the first genetic map of a chromosome in 1913. In his career he worked on the fruit-fly Drosophila melanogaster with Thomas Hunt Morgan.

Morgan was both a help and a hindrance to Sturtevant. Morgan supported him through the early part of his career, but took much of the credit for the research. Morgan's Nobel Prize in 1933 was not shared with Sturtevant, who was the lab's main researcher.

Later in his career, Sturtevant had another important relationship, this time with Theodosius Dobzhansky. The research was into the genetics of natural populations of Drosophila. This relationship, too, became uneasy, and they split up after a few years. Sturtevant was one of the most outstanding genetics researchers not to get a Nobel Prize. In 1967, Sturtevant received the National Medal of Science.

Works
 Lewis E.B. ed. 1961. Genetics and evolution: selected papers of A.H. Sturtevant. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
 Sturtevant A.H. 1965. A history of genetics. Harper & Row N.Y.

References 

1891 births
1970 deaths
American geneticists
Cell biology
Scientists from Illinois
Hermann Joseph Muller, generally known as H. J. Muller, (21 December 1890 – 5 April 1967) was an American geneticist, educator, and Nobel Prize winner. He was best known for his work on the physiological and genetic effects of radiation, as well as his outspoken political beliefs. Muller frequently warned of the long-term dangers of radioactive fallout from nuclear explosions.

Muller's life was as extraordinary as could be imagined. Born in New York City, he got his PhD at CalTech in Morgan's Drosophila fly lab. He next worked at Rice University, and then spent twelve years at the University of Texas. Then he moved to Berlin in 1932, then to Leningrad (St Petersburg), and then to Moscow. In all these places he organised a genetics lab, and sometimes taught as well. Then arose the scientific charlatan Lysenko, who saw to it that genuine genetics scientists came under the disapproval of Stalin. Once again Muller moved, this time to Edinburgh, with 250 strains of Drosophila, then finally back to the United States in 1940, where he became an advisor to the Manhattan Project. He became Professor of Zoology at Indiana University.

Muller's Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1946 was "for the discovery that mutations can be induced by X-rays". By then the real interest lay in the same effects caused by gamma rays from nuclear testing. Muller was a wholehearted enthusiast for eugenics, socialism, atheism and other relatively unpopular ideas, but his real contribution was to genetics. One reputable source writes of him:
"Muller's contributions dominate the 1920s and 1930s. The variety of genetic tools he developed elevated Drosophila to an almost exclusive role in the study of the gene concept. It is almost impossible to read Muller's articles during those two decades without feeling overwhelmed by the quality of genius which characterises the analytical and projective treatment of his discoveries and experiments".

References 

1890 births
1967 deaths
American geneticists
American Nobel Prize winners
Scientists from New York City
Fat Man is the name of the second atomic bomb ever made from plutonium and the second atomic bomb to be used in nuclear warfare. It was dropped over the Japanese island of Nagasaki on August 9, 1945.

References

Nuclear weapons
World War II
The Mundari language is a Munda language of the Austro-Asiatic language family.  It is spoken by the Munda people.

References

Languages of India
Languages of Bangladesh
Nepal
A listed building, in the United Kingdom, is a building that has been placed on the Statutory List of Buildings of Special Architectural or Historic Interest. This is a list of buildings that are important in terms of architecture, history, or culture. There are many buildings on this list. In the UK, there are about 500,000 listed buildings.

In England and Wales, there are three kinds of listed buildings:
 Grade I: buildings that are very important
 Grade II*: buildings that are important in general (not special interest)
 Grade II: buildings that are special interesting (this means that they are important to some groups or for a specific reason)
There used to be a fourth kind of listed building: Grade III. This type has not been used since 1970.

Other websites 
 Photographs of listed buildings from English Heritage 
 Listed Property Owners Club, providing information & advice for listed property owners
 Information about heritage protection generally
 PASTMAP Map-based database of listed buildings, scheduled monuments etc in Scotland 
 Birmingham City Council - What is a Locally Listed Building?

Sources
The Strand Underpass (sometimes incorrectly called the Kingsway Underpass) is a vehicle tunnel in central London. It connects Waterloo Bridge to Kingsway near Holborn. It was built by John Mowlem & Co. It opened on 21 January 1964.

Transport architecture in London
Southampton Row is major road running northwest-southeast in Bloomsbury, Camden, central London, England. The road is part of the A4200.

References 

London Borough of Camden
Charlton is an area and an electoral ward in south-east London. It is in the London Borough of Greenwich. It is located between Greenwich and Woolwich.

London Borough of Greenwich
Areas of London
Waterloo Bridge is a road and foot traffic bridge crossing the River Thames in London, England between Blackfriars Bridge and Hungerford Bridge.

History 
The first bridge on the site was designed in 1809-10 by John Rennie for the Strand Bridge Company and opened in 1817 as a toll bridge. The granite bridge had nine arches, each of  span, separated by double Grecian-Doric stone columns and was  long, including approaches. Before its opening it was known as 'Strand Bridge'. During the 1840s the bridge gained a reputation as a popular place for suicide attempts. In 1844 Thomas Hood wrote the poem The Bridge of Sighs about the suicide of a prostitute there. Paintings of the bridge were created by the French Impressionist Claude Monet and English Impressionist, John Constable. The bridge was nationalised in 1878 and given to the Metropolitan Board of Works, who removed the toll from it.

In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.

Gallery

Related pages 
 List of crossings of the River Thames

References

Other websites

Survey of London entry
Peter Lind & Company 
 
 

Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Transport in the City of Westminster
Stone bridges
Concrete bridges
Grade II* listed buildings in London
Westminster Bridge is a road traffic and foot bridge over the River Thames between Westminster and Lambeth, in London. It is right next to the Houses of Parliament.

History
Until Westminster Bridge was built in 1750, there was only one bridge crossing the River Thames.

In June 2012, the bridge was highlighted on the route of Queen Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee Pageant on the Thames.

Related pages 
 List of crossings of the River Thames

References

Other websites

 
 
 Interactive Panorama: Westminster Bridge 

Buildings and structures in the City of Westminster
Transport in the City of Westminster
Transport in the London Borough of Lambeth
Steel bridges
Grade II* listed buildings in London
The Hop Exchange is a Grade II listed building at No. 24 Southwark Street, London SE1. It is in the Bankside area of the London Borough of Southwark.  It opened in 1867 and was designed by R.H. Moore. It served as the centre for hop trading for the brewing industry.

Other websites 
 Official site of the venue
 The hop cellars

1867 establishments in England
Buildings and structures in London
Grade II listed buildings in London
London Borough of Southwark
Battersea is a place in the London Borough of Wandsworth. It is an inner-city district. It is  southwest of Charing Cross. In April 2001, it had 75,651 people. In Battersea there is a home for dogs and cats called Battersea Dogs & Cats Home.

References

Battersea
The pro-life movement, also called the anti-abortion movement, is a group of people who believe that human life begins at conception and that the life of unborn children should be protected. People who believe this are sometimes called "pro-lifers". Pro-lifers believe that life begins at the moment of conception. They oppose abortion. As abortion is an important political topic, they are sometimes called anti-choice by the pro-choice movement. 

People who are pro-life believe that all humans, including the unborn, have a right to live. They believe that having a human genome is enough for a developing organism to be called a living human being. Others believe that an organism should be identified as a living human being once a heartbeat has been detected. Pro-lifers think that abortion should be illegal. Many pro-lifers think women who are pregnant and do not want to raise a child should look for alternatives to abortion such as adoption.

There are many advocacy groups that try to convince people that abortion is wrong. 

The pro-life movement is most associated with conservative politics. In one poll in the United States, 66% of conservatives called themselves pro-life. It is also associated with the Catholic Church. Pope Francis has said that "Every child that isn't born, but is unjustly condemned to be aborted, has the face of Jesus Christ, has the face of the Lord."

Related pages
 Pro-choice

References

Abortion
The Dunning–Kruger effect is a bias in thinking, usually where a person is unaware of how badly they grasp a subject, not understanding that they are failing at it. They mistakenly think that they are doing as well as "average" or even "above average".

It is a psychological effect in which people don't realize their level of knowledge or ability in a subject. People who know little about a subject will think that they know more than they actually know. People of low ability may not have enough intelligence to fully grasp how complicated something can be, causing them to overestimate their knowledge or ability. This can cause them to underestimate the intelligence of a high ability person who claims something is complicated when they falsely believe they understand it fully. 

This effect was shown in an experiment that was done by Justin Kruger and David Dunning at Cornell University.

The investigators said:
"The miscalibration of the incompetent stems from an error about the self, whereas the miscalibration of the highly competent stems from an error about others".

In 2000, Dunning and Kruger were awarded the Ig Nobel Prize in the field of psychology for their study.

Related pages
 Arrogance
 Confidence
 Megalomania
 Narcissism

References 

Cognition
Experiments
Christopher Arnold Terreri (born November 15, 1964 in Warwick, Rhode Island) is an American former professional ice hockey goaltender who played for four professional teams of the NHL. He won the Stanley Cup two times with the New Jersey Devils. He is currently the goaltending coach of the New Jersey Devils of the NHL.

Other websites 

1964 births
Chicago Blackhawks players
Living people
New Jersey Devils players
New York Islanders players
Sportspeople from Rhode Island
San Jose Sharks players
Stanley Cup champions
American Hockey League players
International Hockey League (1945–2001) players
People from Warwick, Rhode Island
American ice hockey goaltenders
A tic is a sudden body movement that a person can't control.  It might be a jerking movement of the hand, or blinking a lot, or a throat sound.  Even if the person is told that they are doing it, they usually can't stop. Sometimes if they try really hard, they can make the tic go away for a little bit, but they can't make it go away all the time. It's kind of like when you have something in your throat, eventually you just have to cough.

Tics can be either "motor tics" or "phonic tics." If they are "motor tics" it means they're movements, like blinking or shrugging shoulders. If they are "phonic tics" it means they're sounds, like clearing your throat, sniffing, or yelling.

Tics are common in childhood, four to twelve percent of all children have from tics. Very often they are transitory, they rarely last longer than six months. Boys have tics more often than girls. About three times more boys than girls have tics. Sometimes, people can have a "tic" in the family.

Some tics can be treated, usually with behaviour therapy. In cases where the tic is difficult to treat, antipsychotics are sometimes used.

References 

Medical signs
Human behavior
Boards of Canada (commonly abbreviated BoC) are a Scottish electronic music duo of two brothers Mike Sandison (born June 1, 1970) and Marcus Eoin (born July 21, 1971). They are signed with Warp Records and have released several works on that label with little advertising and few interviews, while also having a secret, privately released back-catalogue of albums on their self-run Music70 label. They have also recorded four tracks under the alias Hell Interface.

Musical style
Boards of Canada's music is part like the warm, analog sounds of 1970s media and contains themes of childhood, nostalgia and the natural world. Mike and Marcus have mentioned the documentary movies of the National movie Board of Canada, from which the group's name is derived, as a source of inspiration.

History

Early years (1986–1995)
Growing up in a musical family, brothers Mike and Marcus Eoin began playing instruments at a young age.  They experimented with recording uses at around the age of 10, using tape machines to layer cut-up samples of found sounds over compositions of their own. In their teens they went in a number of amateur bands; however, it was not until 1986 when Marcus was invited to Mike's band that Boards of Canada was born. By 1989, the band had gone down just to Sandison and Eoin. In the early 1990s, a number of collaborations took place and the band put on small shows among the "Hexagon Sun" collective.

In early 2000, the website for the band, Music70.com, removed the early discography of Boards of Canada, although some information has been preserved by fans. Early tape releases by Boards of Canada include Play By Numbers, Acid Memories, Hooper Bay, and the earliest known release by the band is titled Catalog 3. None of the material from those days is readily available, and since official Boards of Canada sources deny the existence of these albums, there seems to be little chance for this early material ever to be seen publicly.

References

Scottish musical groups
Musical groups established in 1986
1986 establishments in the United Kingdom
20th-century establishments in Scotland
Jonathan Niven "Jon" Cryer (born April 16, 1965 in New York City, New York) is an American actor, screenwriter and film producer. He is the son of David Cryer (born 1936) and Gretchen Cryer (née Kiger, born 1935). He played Alan Harper in the sitcom Two and a Half Men from 2003-2015. He has won an Emmy Award and has three Emmy nominations for Two and A Half Men.

Cryer went to London to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Arts.

Film and television credits

Other websites

References

1965 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American television actors
American voice actors
Emmy Award winners
Movie producers from New York City
Owl City is an American pop music project by Adam Young.

He had a hit with a song called Fireflies in 2010. It was the number one song in United States of America  for two weeks.  He has written several songs, including Vanilla Twilight. In 2012 he had a hit song with Carly Rae Jepsen, called Good Time.

Band members
Current members
 Adam Young – lead vocals, programming, keyboards, piano, synthesizers, guitars, bass guitar, drums, percussion, vibraphone
Current touring members
While Young writes, composes, records, and produces all of Owl City's music (not including The Midsummer Station, which was mostly written by other people), during live performances he is accompanied by a group of supporting musicians:
 Breanne Düren – keyboards, backing vocals 
 Jasper Nephew - Guitar, Synth
 Gabriel Hagen - Drums

Discography
Extended Plays
Of June (2007)
Shooting Star (2012)
 The Midsummer Station Acoustic (2013)
Studio albums
Maybe I'm Dreaming (2008)
Ocean Eyes (2009)
All Things Bright and Beautiful (2011)
The Midsummer Station (2012)
Mobile Orchestra (2015)

References

2000s in music
William Bateson (Yorkshire, 8 August 1861 – 8 February 1926) was a British zoologist, a Fellow of St. John's College, Cambridge University. He was the first person to use the term genetics to describe the study of heredity, and the chief populariser of the ideas of Gregor Mendel, after their rediscovery in 1900 by Hugo de Vries and Carl Correns.

Career 

Bateson became famous as a mutationist who believed evolution took place by jumps. Later, Ronald Fisher and J.B.S. Haldane showed that discrete mutations were compatible with gradual evolution: see the modern evolutionary synthesis.

Bateson was the first to suggest the word "genetics" to describe the study of inheritance, in a letter to Adam Sedgwick, dated April 18, 1905. Bateson first used the term "genetics" publicly at the Third International Conference on Plant Hybridization in London in 1906. Although this was three years before Wilhelm Johannsen used the word "gene" to describe the units of hereditary information, De Vries had introduced the word "pangene" for the same concept already in 1889 and etymologically the word genetics finds its origin in Darwin's concept of pangenesis.

Bateson co-discovered genetic linkage with Reginald Punnett, and he and Punnett founded the Journal of Genetics in 1910. Bateson also coined the term "epistasis" to describe the genetic interaction of two independent traits. So important from 1900 to 1910, he was almost a bystander for the next ten years because he refused to accept the role chromosomes played in genetics. At last, in 1921, a visit to T.H. Morgan's fly lab convinced him, but by then he could no longer recover his influence.

References 

1861 births
1926 deaths
British zoologists
English geneticists
English science writers
Wat Phrasri Rattana Sasadaram or Wat Phra Kaew, the "Temple of the Emerald Buddha", is one of the most sacred Buddhist temples in Thailand. It is in the grounds of the Grand Palace. It is the only temple in Bangkok that does not have monks. This temple is famous for the statue of Buddha, which is really made from jade, not emerald. The king of Thailand is the only person allowed to go near the Emerald Buddha. The king changes the clothes on the Buddha three times every year. In summer the Buddha is dressed in a crown and jewelry; in winter he wears a golden shawl, and  in the rainy months he wears a gold robe and headdress. 

The temple was started in 2325 B.E. during the reign of King Rama I and finished in 2327 B.E. The temple was built to hold the Buddha statue which is believed to have been made in Thailand in the 14th century. Captured by the Cambodians in 1552, the statue was kept in Laos for 214 years until King Rama I recaptured it. He brought it with him when he moved his capital to Bangkok in 1784. The design of this temple was copied from Wat Phrasrisanphet in the Ayudhaya period. Because Wat Phrasri Rattana Sasadaram is important, it is renovated every 50 years.

References

Buddhist temples in Thailand
Buildings and structures in Bangkok
Establishments in Thailand
1784 establishments in Asia
The colossal squid, Mesonychoteuthis hamiltoni, is the biggest squid in the world, 9–10 metres (30–33 feet) long.

The colossal squid is bigger than a giant squid. Its body is reddish brown and it lives up to 2000m below the surface of the Southern Ocean. It is the main food eaten by sperm whales. The colossal squid has ammonium chloride in its body, so it tastes bad for humans.

It is believed to feed on prey such as chaetognatha, large fish like the Patagonian toothfish and other squid in the deep ocean using bioluminescence.

The colossal squid is thought to have a slow metabolic rate, requiring only around 30 g of prey daily. Estimates of its energetic demands suggest that it is a slow-moving ambush predator, using its large eyes primarily for predator detection rather than active hunting.

The eye is 27 cm (10.63 in) wide, with a lens 12 cm across. This is the largest eye of any known animal. These measurements are of the partly collapsed specimen: when living the eye was probably 30 to 40 cm (12 to 16 in) across.

The Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa is displaying this specimen in an exhibition which opened in 2008. A website on the squid specimen is also available.

References 

Cephalopods
I'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here! is a television show like Big Brother where a group of celebrities get together as they sky dive down to the jungle. For a few weeks, they have to cope with jungle creatures such as snakes, spiders, cockroaches and more. The UK version of the show takes place in Queensland, Australia and airs every November-December on ITV1 in the UK. The presenters are Anthony McPartlin and Declan Donnelly.

Bushtucker trial
Evey day, someone has to do a task known as a "bush trucker trial". The public has to vote on which celebrity has to do it apart from in the first two or three days. Sometimes, near the end of the series the celebrities decide who participates in the trail. To make the trials more challenging, they put some creepy crawlies with them. All trials have stars, and they earn stars for meals back at the camp.

Cut scenes
Like Big Brother, the show has a lot of cut scenes. One of them has a spider which catches a bug and spins it around and makes an amusing sound.

References

Other websites

2002 British television series debuts
2000s television series
2010s television series
Reality television competitions
English-language television programs
Crossing over is a basic concept of genetics and cell biology, often called recombination. It occurs during meiosis.

Crossing over is the exchange of chromosome segments between non-sister chromatids during the production of gametes. The effect is to assort (shuffle) the alleles on parental chromosomes, so that the gametes carry combinations of genes different from either parent. This has the overall effect of increasing the variety of phenotypes present in a population.

The process can be seen directly in stained cells, and indirectly if there are genetic markers or not on the chromosomes. The visible crossovers are called chiasma (plural: chiasmata), which is Greek for a cross. F. A. Janssens was the first to suggest what chiasmata meant.

The large-scale effect of crossing over is to spread variation through a population. This is the main result of sexual reproduction compared to non-sexual modes of reproduction.

The main advantage to the parents is the greater variety in their offspring. This, it is thought, increases the chance that some of the offspring will survive and reproduce. This has been the subject of much investigation and discussion.

References 

Chromosomes
Wat Pho (more fully Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram) is the "Temple of the Reclining Buddha". It is the one of the most important Buddhist temples in Thailand. With 99 pagodas, this temple has the most pagodas in Thailand. It is the largest and oldest Buddhist temple in Bangkok, and home of Thailand's largest Buddha. It is the temple where the art of Thai massage was developed.

The important pagodas are the pagodas of King Rama I, King Rama II and King Rama IV. This temple was rebuilt from the old Wat Photaram from the Ayudhaya period by King Rama I in 1788. It took seven years and five months and 18 days to finish. King Rama I changed the name from “Photaram” to “Phracheatupon Vimonmungkrawat”. King Rama III (1824—1851) did a lot of repairs to the building. King Rama IV renamed this temple "Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram". Wat Phracheatupon Vimonmungkraram is a popular place for tourists.

The "Reclining Buddha" (Phra Buddhasaiyas) is  long and  high. It was made during Rama III's work on the temple. His body is covered in gold, his eyes and feet have mother-of-pearl decorations. The bottom of his feet have 108 scenes made from the shells on them in both Chinese and Indian style.

References

Buddhist temples in Thailand
Buildings and structures in Bangkok
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Hugh Montague Trenchard, 1st Viscount Trenchard GCB OM GCVO DSO (3 February 1873 – 10 February 1956) was a British Army officer who commanded the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) from August 1915 to January 1918. The RFC was followed by the Royal Air Force (RAF), which was founded in March 1918.

Trenchard, who learnt to fly in 1912, eventually became Chief of the Air Staff in 1919. In that position he reorganised the Air Ministry, and laid the foundations of the Royal Air Force.

Trenchard was Commissioner of the Metropolitan Police from 1931 to 1935. The Commissioner is the highest ranking police officer in the United Kingdom, despite the fact that his authority is generally confined to Greater London.

Career 
As a boy Trenchard found learning difficult. He failed many tests and only just got into the British Army as an officer. Trenchard first went to India with the Army and he then asked to go to South Africa because he wanted to fight in the Boer War. During the fighting, Trenchard was shot in the chest and became unable to walk properly because of damage to his back. He returned to England where a doctor told him to go to Switzerland because the air was better than in England. Trenchard became bored and started to bobsleigh. After crashing on a fast bend, Trenchard was able to walk properly - because his back was fixed. After his health got better still, Trenchard returned to the war in South Africa.

In 1912, Trenchard learned to fly and joined the Royal Flying Corps. He became the second most important man at the Central Flying School in England and had several important jobs in the Royal Flying Corps during World War I. Trenchard was the man in charge of the Royal Flying Corps in France from 1915 to 1917. In 1918, he was the first man in charge of the Royal Air Force for a short time. He then went back to France to take over the Royal Air Force bombing attacks on Germany. Winston Churchill put him back in charge of the Royal Air Force in 1919. Over the next 10 years, Trenchard started Air Force training bases and made sure that it was used to enforce the law in parts of the British Empire. In the 1930s Trenchard was in charge of the London's police force (the Metropolitan Police) and as an older man he argued for keeping a big RAF. In modern times, some people say that Trenchard was one of the first people to argue for strategic bombing.

References

Other websites

 Air of authority - a history of RAF organisation - Marshal of the RAF The Viscount Trenchard of Wolfeton
 USAF Association Magazine - Trenchard at the creation 
 First World War.com - Who's Who: Hugh Trenchard
 History learning site - Hugh Trenchard
 British Ministry of Defence - Trenchard: father of the RAF 

British military people
Royal Air Force
Order of Merit
Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order
British aviators
Harold Clayton Lloyd, Sr. (April 20, 1893 – March 8, 1971) was an American actor and producer. Along with Charlie Chaplin and Buster Keaton, Lloyd is remembered as one of the most popular and influential comedians of the silent movie years.

Harold Lloyd made nearly 200 movies. Many were without sound but later movies had sound.

His movies usually had "thrill" sections where Lloyd would be in fast chases and performed his own stunts. Lloyd did these dangerous stunts himself even though a movie accident had caused the loss of his right thumb and index finger.

Although Lloyd's movies were not as commercially successful as Chaplin's, Lloyd made a lot more money than Chaplin during their movie years. ($15.7 million to Chaplin's $10.5 million).

Lloyd died of prostate cancer.

1893 births
1971 deaths
Actors from Nebraska
American movie actors
Cancer deaths in the United States
Deaths from prostate cancer
Marc-Antoine Charpentier (born near Paris,  1643; died  Sainte-Chapelle, Paris, 24 February 1704) was a French composer.  He lived in the period known as the Baroque period.  His most famous music is his  Te Deum.  This work begins with a prelude which today is extremely popular.  It was the signature tune for the European Broadcasting Union where it was used to introduce programmes such as the Vienna New Year's Concert and the Eurovision Song Contest.  It is often used as a voluntary for weddings.

Life
We do not know much for certain about his early life.  He went to Italy where he learned a lot by studying the music of Italian composers.  He studied with the composer Giacomo Carissimi for several years.

When he returned to France he got a job as musician to the Duchess of Guise who was a rich lady who employed several musicians.  He worked for her for many years, both as a singer  (he had a high tenor voice known in French as an “haute-contre”), and as a composer.  When the great playwright Molière stopped working with Lully he asked Charpentier to work with him.  He wrote music for several plays by Molière including Le malade imaginaire. After Molière's died in 1673, Charpentier continued to write for other playwrights such as Thomas Corneille and Jean Donneau de Visé.  He often used more musicians than he was allowed (only Lully, the king’s composer, was allowed to use lots of musicians for his performances).  In the end Charpentier stopped writing music for plays.

In 1679, Charpentier was invited to compose for the king’s son, the Dauphin.  The Dauphin had a private chapel and Charpentier wrote religious music for him.  In 1683 he was given a royal pension.  In April of that year he became very ill and could not work for a time.

From late 1687 to early 1698, Charpentier was maître de musique to the Jesuits, Soon he stopped composing big works such as oratorios and concentrated on smaller works for church worship which were sometimes played by a large number of players.  He also was music teacher to the Duke of Chartres.

In 1698 he was made maître de musique at the  Sainte-Chapelle in Paris.  This was one of the top musical jobs in France (the only better job in sacred music in France was director of the royal chapel at Versailles).  He kept this job until his death in 1704.  After his death nearly all the works he wrote for the Chapel were destroyed.  This was the usual procedure when a maître de musique died.   His famous Mass Assumpta Est Maria has survived.  Perhaps that is because it was not composed for the Chapel.

His music
Charpentier’s compositions include oratorios, masses, operas, and many smaller works.  He also wrote a lot of music for plays.   Many of his smaller works for one or two voices and instruments he called air sérieux or air à boire if they are in French, but cantata if they are in Italian.

Bibliography
The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, ed. Stanley Sadie; 1980; 

1643 births
1704 deaths
French composers
Baroque composers
Frederick Ralph Cornelius Penner, CM (born November 6, 1946) is a Canadian TV host who is famous as a children's entertainer. Penner does concerts and lectures across North America. From 1985 to 1997 he had his own television show called "Fred Penner's Place." It was shown on the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation television network. It was co-produced and shown on Nickelodeon in 1989 and 1990.

Fred Penner was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba. He began writing songs when he was only four years old. He taught himself how to play guitar. He learned that he could use his music to communicate and educate his sister who had Down Syndrome.

After he graduated from university he worked with mentally and physically challenged children by using music to comfort and entertain them. Penner recorded an album of the music he used to educate his mentally challenged students. The album was called "The Cat Came Back." He also recorded a song of the same name which became a very famous children's song. 

He sang The Cat Came back on the popular children's TV show "Sharon, Lois & Bram's Elephant Show" in 1984. The following year the CBC network gave Penner his own TV show.

In 1991 he was made a Member of the Order of Canada. He was given this honour for his years of "using music and song to entertain and educate his young audience".

Notes

Other websites
 Fred Penner's Official Site

1946 births
Canadian guitarists
Living people
People from Winnipeg
MyWikiBiz is a wiki directory that lets people write about themselves. It began as a service creating Wikipedia articles for paying corporations. The site was founded by Gregory Kohs, a market researcher.

Gregory Kohs and his sister started the MyWikiBiz venture in Pennsylvania in July 2006, first as a paid editing service, writing content for Wikipedia and other  sites.  The legitimacy of the idea was supported by the English Wikipedia’s Reward Board, where interested parties would offer cash rewards or gifts to create or improve Wikipedia articles.

References

Other websites 
MyWikiBiz

Wikis
Topiary is the art of creating sculptures by clipping trees and bushes (shrubs). The shrubs used in topiary are evergreen, have small leaves, and produce dense foliage. Common plants used in topiary include bay laurel, holly bushes, myrtle and privet hedges. Shaped wire cages are sometimes used in modern topiary but traditional topiary depends on using special scissors with patience and a steady hand. Notably, the Samban-Lei Sekpil is the tallest topiary plant in the world.

History
The word derives from the Latin word for an ornamental landscape gardener. A friend of Julius Caesar introduced Rome to the topiary. In Japan and China they have “cloud pruning” where they cut bushes into the shapes of clouds and “Karikomi”, where they cut large shrubs into curved shapes and objects. Bonsai is a form of topiary. During the 16th century in Europe typical traditional topiary included geometric shapes: balls, pyramids, cones, and spirals. In the 20th century Walt Disney used topiaries in the form of his cartoon characters to decorate his theme parks.

References

Gardening
Francis I  (Francis Stephen; 8 December 1708 – 18 August 1765) was Holy Roman Emperor and Grand Duke of Tuscany, though his wife effectively executed the real power of those positions. With his wife, Maria Theresa of Austria, he was the founder of the Habsburg-Lorraine dynasty. From 1728 until 1737 he was Duke of Lorraine, but lost Lorraine when he had to give it to France. He was the father of Marie Antoinette, the Queen of France.

Biography 

He married Maria Theresa of Austria for love. with the input of the Prince of Craon. They had sixteen children who are named here:

Archduchess Maria Elisabeth (1737-1740).
Archduchess Maria Anna (1738-1789).
Archduchess Maria Caroline (1740-1741).
Holy Roman Emperor Joseph II (1741-1790)
Archduchess Maria Christina, Duchess of Teschen (1742-1798)
Archduchess Maria Elisabeth (1743-1808).
Archduke Charles Joseph (1745-1761).
Archduchess Maria Amalia (1746-1804)
Holy Roman Emperor Leopold II (1747-1792)
Archduchess Maria Caroline (stillborn 1748).
Archduchess Maria Johanna Gabriela (1750-1762).
Archduchess Maria Josepha (1751-1767).
Queen Maria Carolina of Naples and Sicily (1752-1814)
Queen Marie Antoinette of France and Navarre, born Maria Antonia (1755-1793)
Archduke Maximilian Francis (1756-1801)

Titles and styles
 8 December 1708 - 4 June 1723: His Highness Prince Francis Stephan of Lorraine
 4 June 1723 - 27 March 1729: His Highness The Hereditary Prince of Lorraine
 27 March 1729 - 12 July 1737: His Royal Highness The Duke of Lorraine
 12 July 1737 - 20 January 1745: His Royal Highness The Grand Duke of Tuscany
 20 January 1745 - 18 August 1765: His Imperial Majesty The Holy Roman Emperor

References

Holy Roman Emperors
Habsburg Dynasty
1708 births
1765 deaths
House of Lorraine
House of Habsburg-Lorraine
Francis 2
Alexander Selkirk, (1676 - 13th December 1721) also known as Alexander Selcraig, was a Scottish sailor. He became famous for his amazing story of survival and is likely to have inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book Robinson Crusoe.

He was on an expedition when the captain of the ship, Captain Stradling, left him on an island off the coast of Chile. Selkirk's job on board was the navigator. He controlled where the ship needed to go and where it was at that point in time. He had an important job. He tried to warn the captain about certain repairs that were needed but the captain ignored Selkirk and carried on sailing. Selkirk knew the ship was to drown at any given moment and tried to demand the repairs were taken care of but nobody listened. They had stopped at an island to restock fresh water and supplies. Selkirk said he would rather stay on the island than continue to ride on a dangerous, leaky ship. So there he was left. He had last minute second thoughts and tried to get back onto the ship but Stradling refused. Selkirk was marooned on that island for about four years and had to rely on himself and his skills for survival.

At the time of his rescue, he had been gone for about four years. He was very familiar with crafting things himself out of resources on the islands and having to use his survival skills. He heard noises and when he went to find out what it was, he saw ships on the horizon. He didn't know if they were on his side or enemies but he knew he had to try. He got their attention and so they sailed over to his island. Once they had beached on the shore, Selkirk came out from the bushes with his hands up. It turned out they were English and on his side. They let him aboard their ship and they were at sea for another year, stopping off at a few places, before returning to England.

When he returned, his story was written down by a person in his town and has been made into a slightly different version by Daniel Defoe who named it Robinson Crusoe. 'Robinson Crusoe' has been rewritten many times by lots of different people. There were some differences like how Crusoe was stranded for over twenty years and Selkirk, four. Even though this story was based off Selkirk, the exact island he was deserted on was renamed Robinson Crusoe Island after previously being called Juan Fernández Island.

The book is a major piece of literature which is important in the history of English and the beginning of the popularity of novels.

1676 births
1721 deaths
Sailors
Scottish people
Robert Gould Shaw (October 10, 1837 in Boston, Massachusetts – July 18, 1863 in Morris Island, South Carolina) was a colonel during the American Civil War. He led the all African American 54th Massachusetts Infantry Regiment.

Shaw died leading his troops attacking Fort Wagner in 1863, aged 25.

References

1837 births
1863 deaths
Colonels
Military people killed in action
Military personnel of the American Civil War
People from Boston, Massachusetts
Robinson Crusoe Island is the largest of three islands in the Juan Fernández archipelago, belonging to Chile. The island is also known as Isla Más a Tierra or Aguas Buenas. More than 800 people live on the island, which is  from the coast of South America. In 1966, Chile renamed it Robinson Crusoe Island, because Alexander Selkirk had spent about four years alone there. Selkirk may have been the person who inspired Daniel Defoe to write the book Robinson Crusoe.

Pacific islands
Islands of Chile
Biosphere reserves
Joseph Frank "Buster" Keaton VI (October 4, 1895 – February 1, 1966) was an American actor and movie director. He is most famous for his silent films which showed his skill at physical comedy.

The magazine Entertainment Weekly listed Keaton at number seven on their list of "The Greatest Directors of All Time." And in 1999 the American Film Institute placed Keaton at 21 on their list of "The Greatest Male Actors of All Time."

Famous movie critic Roger Ebert wrote that Keaton's "extraordinary period from 1920 to 1929, he worked without interruption on a series of movies that make him, arguably, the greatest actor-director in the history of the movies."

In a 2002 worldwide poll by "Sight & Sound" Keaton's 1927 movie titled "The General" was number 15 on their "Best movies of All Time" list. Three other Keaton movies were also added to the magazine's survey.

Notes

Other websites 

Buster Keaton Museum
Buster Keaton in Five Easy Clips 

1895 births
1966 deaths
Actors from Kansas
American movie actors
American movie directors
American movie producers
American screenwriters
American silent movie actors
American television actors
Cancer deaths in the United States
Deaths from lung cancer
Russian roulette is a deadly game played with a revolver. In the game, there is only one bullet in one of the six cylinder slots of the revolver. The person then closes the cylinder, spins it, places it against their head or sometimes inside their mouth and pulls the trigger. The person therefore has a one-in-six chance of killing themselves.

It is done either for bravado, boredom, suicide or other reasons. It sometimes used in fiction as part of interrogations, where the interrogator asks the suspect if he wants to play a game of Russian roulette and palms the bullet.

Related pages 
 Roulette

Games
A nude beach is a place where people can swim, without having clothes on. There are many nude beaches found around the world.

For example, there is a public nude beach called Haulover Beach near Miami, Florida. There is a public nude park usually called Hippie Hollow Park (but officially called McGregor Park) on a lake near Austin, Texas. There is an admission charge and children are not allowed. There are several nude beaches in California. People are nude at one end of a public nude beach called Crystal Crescent Beach near Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Hanlan's Point Beach on an island near downtown Toronto, Ontario, Canada. There is a public nude beach called Wreck Beach in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.  There is a public nude beach close to New York City called Gunnison in Sandy Hook, New Jersey.

There are many nude beaches in Europe and Australia.

References

Beaches
Nudity
Trisomy 18, also known as Edwards syndrome is a trisomy. It is a genetic disorder. People with trisomy 18 have three copies of chromosome 18. "Normal" people have two copies of the chromosome. It is named after John H. Edwards, who first described the syndrome in 1960. It is the second most common autosomal trisomy, after Down Syndrome, that carries to term.  

It is estimated that about  one in 3,000 live births are affected.  The incidence increases as the mother's age increases.  The syndrome has a very low rate of survival. People with Edwards syndrome often have heart abnormalities, kidney malformations, and other internal organ disorders.  

About 95% of the babies with Edwards syndrome die before they are born. About half of all babies born with the condition will reach two months of age, and only 5-10% will survive for a year.  The median life span is five to fifteen days. One percent of children born with this syndrome live to age ten, typically in cases of the less severe mosaic Edwards syndrome.

References 

Trisomies
The Strand is a street in the City of Westminster, London. It links the City of London with the centre of London at Charing Cross and Trafalgar Square. The Strand is the southern boundary of the Covent Garden district. Covent Garden is the space once occupied by a famous fruit and vegetable market, and is now a huge pedestrian precinct with many and  varied commercial outlets.

The Strand passes Aldwych, and joins directly with Fleet Street at Temple Bar. The street is just over three-quarters of a mile long. It includes many commercial premises, two theatres, and hotels. The most notable hotel is the Savoy Hotel, one of the grand London hotels.

References 

City of Westminster
Roads in London
Parnassiinae is a subfamily of butterflies.  It belongs in the family Papilionidae.  They are commonly known as Apollos and Parnassians.  The butterflies in this subfamily are only found in the Holarctic Region (the Holarctic Region is the northern part of North America and Eurasia).

The caterpillars and adults are poisonous to vertebrates.  The caterpillars are thought to be Müllerian mimics with millipedes.  The adult butterflies are thought to be Müllerian mimics with adult Whites.

After mating, the male glues a structure to the end of the female's abdomen.  This keeps the female from mating again.  This structure is called a sphragis.

Tribes and genera
Parnassiini Duponchel, 1835
Hypermnestra Ménétriés, 1846
Parnassius Latreille, 1804
Luehdorfiini Chapman, 1895
Archon Hübner, 1819
Luehdorfia Crüger, 1878
Zerythiini
Sericinus Westwood, 1851
Bhutanitis Atkinson, 1873
Zerynthia Ochsenheimer, 1816
Allancastria Bryk, 1934

Extinct species
The two species listed here are extinct.  They are also of uncertain placement.

Doritites bosniackii Rebel, 1898†
Thaites ruminiana Scudder, 1875†

References

Other websites

Parnassiinae at Tree of Life 

Papilionidae