cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
In law, damages are an award, usually of money. It is to be paid to a person as compensation for loss or injury.  The rules for damages can and frequently do vary based on the type of claim which is presented (e.g., breach of contract versus a tort claim) and the jurisdiction. Damages are not the same as court costs which includes the costs to bring a legal case to court. The losing party may also have to pay court costs.

Categories 
In common law countries, damages are usually categorized into compensatory (or actual) damages, and punitive damages. Compensatory damages are further categorized into special damages and general damages. Special damages include economic losses such as loss of earnings, property damage and medical expenses. General damages are noneconomic damages such as pain and suffering and emotional distress. Statutory damages are those required by statute.

Compensatory damages 
Compensatory damages are paid to compensate the claimant for loss, injury, or harm suffered as a result of another's negligence (tort law). Expectation damages are used in contract law. In civil law countries, these are called "ordinary damages" and may be limited to actual loss.

Punitive damages 
Generally, punitive damages, which are also termed exemplary damages in the United Kingdom, are not awarded in order to compensate the plaintiff, but in order to reform or deter the defendant. They are also to intended to be an example to others not to do the same thing. Punitive damages are awarded when it is determined that compensatory damages are not enough. Punitive damages are awarded over and above the amount of compensatory damages, such as in the event of malice or intent. Great judicial restraint is expected to be exercised in their use. In the United States punitive damages awards are subject to the limitations imposed by the due process of law clauses of the Fifth and Fourteenth Amendments to the United States Constitution.

Punitive damages in most civil law countries are not awarded.

Statutory damages 
Statutory damages are an amount stated within the statute rather than calculated based on the degree of harm to the plaintiff. Lawmakers will provide for statutory damages for acts in which it is difficult to determine the value of the harm to the victim. Someone breaking the law can entitle the victim to a statutory award. This is even if no actual injury happened. 

For example, United States Civil Code 18 USC §§2520 provides for statutory damages to victims of various wiretapping offenses.

References 

Law
Legal terms
In common law countries equity is based on a judiciary assessment of fairness. It is what is often what is considered fair and right under natural law. It is used when the laws themselves do not address an issue or are inadequate in some way. Examples of equity decisions include imposing a lien, correcting a property line or ordering someone to do something to prevent damage.

History 
Common law in England can be traced back to the Norman conquest. The laws, such as they were then, did not address every concern. At first, a subject (of the king) had to petition the king to ask to be heard in his court. One of the first instances of this was in 1070 when Lanfranc, the Archbishop of Canterbury had a case against Odo, Earl of Kent, the king's brother. The archbishop petitioned that lands taken by Odo be restored. Rules of equity began when it became apparent that the common law courts could not solve all legal problems. The king set up courts of chancery (equity). By the 1800s the equity courts were becoming obsolete. In 1875 Parliament did away with the chancery courts altogether.

States in New England followed the English tradition of maintaining separate courts for law and equity. Others, however, combined their courts with both types of jurisdiction. This is what Congress did with respect to the US federal courts. United States bankruptcy courts are the one example of US federal courts which operate as courts of equity.

References

Other websites 
 The Reasons Behind The Creation Of Equity

Legal terms
The terms commoners, common people or the masses refers to ordinary people who are members of neither the nobility nor the priesthood. In a system of social classes they are those without title or rank. Since the 20th century, the term common people has been used in its place. It refers to typical members of society in contrast to highly privileged (in either wealth or influence).

History
In Europe, a concept of common people started in the classical antiquity of ancient Rome around the 6th century BC. The Roman social division was into patricians (nobles) and plebeians (commoners). The division may have been instituted by Servius Tullius, as an alternative to the previous clan based divisions that had been responsible for internecine conflict.  The ancient Greeks generally had no concept of class and their leading social divisions were simply non-Greeks, free-Greeks and slaves. With the growth of Christianity in the 4th century AD, a new world view arose in European thinking about social division. This continued until at least early modern times.  Saint Augustine stated that social division was a result of the Fall of Man. The three leading divisions were considered to be the priesthood (clergy), the nobility, and the common people. Sometimes this would be expressed as "those who prayed", "those who fought" and "those who worked". The Latin terms for the three classes – oratores, bellatores and laboratores – are often found even in modern textbooks, and have been used in sources since the 9th century.

References 

English language
Social sciences
Principal W. Seymour Skinner (born Armin Tamzarian) is  a fictional character on the long running TV show The Simpsons. His voice is performed by Harry Shearer. He is the principal of Springfield Elemantary School.

History

Name 

He has after behavioral psychologist B. F. Skinner.

Role in The Simpsons 
Skinner was a sergeant in the United States Army during the Vietnam War and now he is the principal of Springfield Elementary School. He has developed a love-hate relationship with Bart Simpson.

References

Other websites
 

The Simpsons characters
Fictional characters introduced in 1989
Krunoslav Hulak (25 May 1951 – 23 October 2015) was a Croatian chess master. He was awarded the International Master title in 1974, and the grandmaster title in 1976. Hulak was born in Osijek, Croatia.

Hulak died in Zagreb, Croatia, aged 64.

References

Other websites

 Tužna vijest za hrvatski šah: Bio je omiljen... 

1951 births
2015 deaths
Croatian sportspeople
Chess grandmasters
The 1959 Mexico hurricane was one of only two Category 5 Eastern Pacific hurricanes to make landfall in Mexico. It was first observed south of Mexico on October 23. The storm intensified into a Category 3 hurricane on October 25 and a Category 4 the following day. The storm later turned toward the northeast and intensified to Category 5 level. It made landfall near Manzanillo, Mexico.

The hurricane caused at least $280 million in damage. More than 1,800 people lost their lives.

References

1959 in North America
1950s in Mexico
Hurricanes in Mexico
October events
Sheldon "Shel" Dorf (July 5, 1933 – November 3, 2009) was an American comic-strip letterer and freelance artist. He is known for being the founder of the San Diego Comic-Con International. Dorf lettered the Steve Canyon comic strip for the last 12 to 14 years of the strip's run.

References

Other websites

1933 births
2009 deaths
Deaths from diabetes
American comics artists
People from Detroit, Michigan
Brayden Luke McNabb (born January 28, 1991) is a Canadian ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for the Vegas Golden Knights of the National Hockey League (NHL). He has also played for the Buffalo Sabres and Los Angeles Kings.

Career
Before playing in the NHL, McNabb played parts of 4 seasons with the Kootenay Ice of the Western Hockey League (WHL). McNabb played for Team Canada during the 2009 IIHF World U18 Championships and won a gold medal with Canada at the 2008 Ivan Hlinka Memorial Tournament.

He was drafted 66th overall by the Buffalo Sabres in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft. He signed a three-year entry level contract with the Sabres on May 18, 2011. On November 26, 2011, McNabb made his NHL debut in a 5–1 win against the Washington Capitals. On December 26, 2011, he scored his first NHL goal against Tomáš Vokoun of the Washington Capitals in a 4-2 win. 

On March 5, 2014, the Sabres traded McNabb, along with Jonathan Parker and two draft picks, to the Los Angeles Kings in exchange for Hudson Fasching and Nicolas Deslauriers.

References

Other websites 

1991 births
American Hockey League players
Buffalo Sabres players
Canadian ice hockey defencemen
Ice hockey people from Saskatchewan
Kootenay Ice players
Living people
Los Angeles Kings players
Vegas Golden Knights players
Pseudogenes are genes that have lost their function. They have lost their gene expression in the cell or their ability to code protein. The term was coined in 1977.

Pseudogenes can result from mutations in a gene whose product is not needed for the survival of the organism. Although not protein-coding, the DNA of pseudogenes may be functional. It may be similar to other kinds of non-coding DNA which have a regulatory role.

Most have some gene-like features. They lack protein-coding ability resulting from a variety of disabling mutations, or their inability to encode RNA (such as with rRNA pseudogenes).  

Pseudogenes are generally thought of as the last stop for genomic material that is to be removed from the genome, so they are often labeled as junk DNA. Pseudogenes contain fascinating biological and evolutionary histories in their sequences. This is due to a pseudogene's shared ancestry with a functional gene. In the same way that Darwin thought of two species as having a shared common ancestry followed by millions of years of evolutionary divergence (see speciation), a pseudogene and its associated functional gene also share a common ancestor and have diverged as separate genetic entities over millions of years.

References 

DNA
Vigo County (  or  ) is a county along the western border of Indiana. As of the 2010 census, the population was 107,848. The county seat is Terre Haute.

References

Indiana counties
1818 establishments in Indiana
Ján Chryzostom Korec, SJ (22 January 1924 – 24 October 2015) was a Slovak Jesuit Cardinal and Bishop Emeritus of the Diocese of Nitra. He served in the church from 1990 through 2005. He was in jail for eight years (1960-1968) because of his activism against Communism.

Korec was born in Bošany, Czechoslovakia. He died in Nitra, Slovakia at the age of 91.

More reading

References

1924 births
2015 deaths
Anti-Communists
Cardinals of the Roman Catholic Church
Roman Catholic bishops
Slovakian people
Pseudepigrapha (pseudo = false; graphe = writing) are falsely attributed works. They are written works not by their supposed author.

They include Old Testament works not included in the Bible. They were a group of early writings which were not included in the  Bible, or the Apocrypha.  Most were falsely ascribed to biblical characters.

These are Jewish religious works thought to be written about 300 BC to 300 AD. They are distinguished by Protestants from the deuterocanonical (Catholic and Orthodox) or Apocrypha (Protestant). These books appear in the Septuagint and Vulgate but not in the Hebrew Bible or in Protestant bibles.

References 

Bible versions
Words
In civil proceedings and criminal prosecutions under the common law, a defendant may raise a defense (or defence) in an attempt to avoid criminal or civil liability. It is an answer, made by a defendant to a plaintiff's action or a denial of a prosecutor's charges. It is also an answer in equity.

Civil law defenses
Under common law, a defendant may raise any of the numerous defenses to limit or avoid liability. These include:
 Lack of jurisdiction of the court, such as diplomatic immunity.
 Failure to state a cause of action or other insufficiencies of pleading.
 Any of the affirmative defenses.
 Defenses conferred by statute - such as a statute of limitations or the statute of frauds.
 Ex turpi causa non oritur actio - the action against the defendant arises from an illegality.
 Volenti non fit injuria - consent by the victim or plaintiff.
 In pari delicto - both sides equally at fault
 Unclean hands

Criminal defenses 
In a criminal trial, there are a wide variety of defenses offered. Some of these include:
 You could also get shot for major bad acts.
 Most often, defendants claim that they did not commit the alleged act in question.
 The defendant had an alibi. He or she was someplace else when the crime was committed and could not be guilty.
 Self-defense, a claim that an act was justified because of something the other person did.
 An Insanity defense claiming the defendant was not capable of telling right from wrong.
 Under the Influence, a claim the defendant should not be held accountable for their actions due to the influences of drugs or alcoholic drink.
 Entrapment is an inducement to commit a crime by authorities in order to get a conviction.

Many of the above are considered an affirmative defense in which case the burden of proof may be on the defendant to prove their innocence. Otherwise in a criminal trial the burden of proof usually rests with the prosecution. They must prove the defendant is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt.

Related pages 
Absolute defense
Lawsuit
Presumption of innocence
Criminal procedure
Statute of limitations
Adversarial system

References 

Law
Legal terms
Drama is the debut studio album by British singer and songwriter Jamelia. It was released by Parlophone Records in the United Kingdom in June 2000.

Track listing
"One"
"Money" (featuring Beenie Man)
"Call Me"
"Not with You"
"Boy Next Door"
"One Day"
"Ghetto"
"Thinking 'Bout You"
"I Do"
"Room 101"
"Guilty"
"I Can't Be"
"This Time"

Japanese track listing
"One"
"Thinking 'Bout You"
"I Do"
"Not with You"
"This Time"
"Money"
"Room 101"
"You Say You Love Me"
"I Can't Be"
"Call Me"
"Boy Next Door"
"Guilty"
"One Day"
"Ghetto"
"What Is Love"

Singles

Chart performance

UK Album Chart Peak Position 39

References

2000 albums
Debut albums
Jamelia albums
Hip hop albums
R&B albums
Thank You is the second studio album by British singer-songwriter Jamelia. It was first released on 29 September 2003 by Parlophone Records.

Track listing
Original release

Re-release

French Edition Alternate Track

International Re-release Bonus Track

Japanese Edition Bonus Tracks

Charts

Weekly charts

Certifications

Singles

References

2003 albums
2004 albums
Jamelia albums
Hip hop albums
Hip hop soul albums
R&B albums
Ashland is an unincorporated community in Concordia Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Settlements in Concordia Parish, Louisiana
Unincorporated communities in Louisiana
Ashland is a village in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana, United States. It was incorporated in 1963. A few residences and a convenience store to the north spill over into neighboring Bienville Parish. The population was 291 at the 2000 census but went down 9 percent to 269 in 2010. The median age is 45.7 years. Ashland is part of the Natchitoches Micropolitan Statistical Area but is located nearly forty miles to the north of the parish seat of Natchitoches.

History 

The Ashland mayor is W. Gahagan Lee. The village council consists of Wayne Best and Carol Doyle, both Democrats, and Vincent Bown, a Republican. The police chief is Fred Holland, a Democrat. All of the Ashland town officials were unopposed for new terms in the primary election held on October 2, 2010.

On September 2, 2011, a forest fire destroyed ten houses between Ashland and Creston, but residents escaped personal injury. According to Louisiana Commissioner of Agriculture and Forestry Mike Strain, the blaze scorched several thousand acres and was propelled by past drought conditions combined with high winds coming from the aftermath of Tropical Storm Lee in the Gulf of Mexico.

Images

References

Other websites 

1963 establishments in the United States
Villages in Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana
20th-century establishments in Louisiana
Defense in depth (also known as deep or elastic defense) is a military strategy. It is a delaying tactic intended to slow down the advance of an enemy, instead of stopping it. The tactic buys time by yielding to the enemy slowly and usually causes additional casualties. A defense in depth can slow down an advancing army and cause it to lose momentum.

Examples 
Hannibal used the tactic at the Battle of Cannae in 216 BC. Facing a much larger Roman army, he placed his less experienced soldiers in the center. On either side were his most experienced fighters. When the Romans advanced, his center gradually moved back while the troops on the wings began to surround the Romans. That was the largest slaughter of Roman soldiers in the history of the republic.

The classic example is medieval hill forts and castles with rings of defenses (usually walls). The inner circles of defenders support the outer circles with missiles fire. The attacker has to breach each line of defense exhausting himself in the process.

The German Army used the tactic in 1917, during World War I. The Germans used it to great effect against both the French and the British Armies until July 1918. The arrival of the US Army, which joined the French and the British, ended that German tactic.

Strategy 
A properly-planned defense in depth can be used to reduce or eliminate any advantage an attacking force might have,such as superior numbers. The defender places the object of his attack behind several layers of defense. The defender then lets the attacker wear down his forces while they slowly give ground and then he moves back to the next layer of defense.

Carl von Clausewitz, Sun Tzu, and the martial art of Budō all agreed that the preferred form of war was defense. Clausewitz stated that defense provided the defenders with additional opportunities. A defense in depth can prevent an enemy from surrounding a position and provides an excellent opportunity to counterattack. A defense in space is not being there when an enemy attacks. A defense in time means slowing down or blocking an enemy when it attacks.

Delaying action 
A similar tactic is called a delaying action.  The object is for a smaller force to harass a larger force and to delay its advance while inflicting as much damage as possible to the larger force without directly engaging it.  This allows the defending army's main force to disengage an enemy while maintaining good order.  The main force is given the time necessary to set up a new defensive position.  The small force protecting the larger force is called a rearguard.

A famous rearguard example was given in the Song of Roland.  The nephew of Charlemagne, Roland, commanded the rearguard at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass.  He and his men protected the rear of the Frankish army while it retreated back to France.  In his delaying action, Roland and all of his men were killed in an ambush.

References

Other websites 
 Defence-in-Depth, King's College, London

Military terminology
Cody Eakin (born May 24, 1991) is a Canadian ice hockey centre. He plays in the National Hockey League (NHL). He has played for the Buffalo Sabres, Winnipeg Jets, Washington Capitals, Dallas Stars, and Vegas Golden Knights.

Career
Before playing in the NHL, Eakin played parts of 4 seasons with the Swift Current Broncos of the Western Hockey League (WHL). 

He was drafted 85th overall by the Washington Capitals in the 2009 NHL Entry Draft. He signed a three-year entry level contract with the Capitals on October 20, 2009. 

On November 1, 2011, Eakin was called up from the Hershey Bears. The same day, Eakin made his NHL debut in a 5-4 overtime win against the Anaheim Ducks. On November 4, 2011, Eakin scored his first NHL goal against Cam Ward of the Carolina Hurricanes. 

On June 22, 2012, the Capitals traded Eakin along with a second round pick to the Dallas Stars in exchange for Mike Ribeiro.

References

Other websites 

1991 births
American Hockey League players
Buffalo Sabres players
Canadian ice hockey centres
Dallas Stars players
Ice hockey people from Manitoba
Kootenay Ice players
Living people
Sportspeople from Winnipeg
Swift Current Broncos players
Vegas Golden Knights players
Washington Capitals players
Winnipeg Jets players
Nigella sativa is a black cumin (also known as nigella or kalonji). It is an annual flowering plant in the family Ranunculaceae. It is from south and southwest Asia. Nigella sativa can grow to be  tall.

The black cumin fruit has numerous seeds which are used as spice, sometimes as a replacement for original black cumin Bunium bulbocastanum. These two plants are both called 'black cumin' on account of their seeds.

References

Other websites

 Spice pages: onion seeds (Nigella sativa, falsely black cumin or black caraway)

Spices
The 2007 New York Giants season was the team's 83rd season in the National Football League. They finished with 10 wins and 6 losses. They finished second in the NFC East. They earned the fifth seed in the playoffs.

This Giants got into the playoffs in this season. The first playoff game was against the 4th-seeded Tampa Bay Buccaneers. It was played at Raymond James Stadium in Tampa, Florida. The Giants won that game 24-14. Neither team met in the regular season or preseason. The next 3 games were opponents they faced in the regular season.

The second playoff game was against the Dallas Cowboys. It was played at Texas Stadium in Irving, Texas. The Giants had lost their two previous games against the Cowboys, but this time they won 21-17. Tony Romo would throw an interception at the near end of the game.

The third playoff game was against the second-seeded Green Bay Packers. It was played at Lambeau Field in Green Bay, Wisconsin. Brett Favre threw an interception in overtime to Corey Webster. The interception is Favre's last pass as a Packer. The Giants won 23-20.

In Super Bowl XLII, the Giants played the New England Patriots. The Patriots had completed the regular season undefeated and were heavy favorites. The game is remembered for the Helmet Catch, when David Tyree caught the ball against his helmet in the fourth quarter. The Giants won the game 17-14. The game was an upset for the Patriots. It stopped the Patriots from becoming the NFL's first 19-0 team.

The team was the first NFL International Series participant to win a Super Bowl. They played the Miami Dolphins in the International Series. That was the first game to be played in London.

The 2007 Giants was the first NFC team to win three games on the road, followed by the Green Bay Packers 3 years later.

In two of their playoff games, the Giants wore blue jerseys against Tampa Bay and Dallas.

The 2007 Giants are remarked a cinderalla story.

Schedule

References

New York Giants
National Football League seasons
2007 in sports
2007 in New Jersey
The Serbo-Croatian Wikipedia (Srpskohrvatska Wikipedija) is the Serbo-Croatian version of the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia.

There are also Croatian, Serbian and Bosnian Wikipedias.

It is 19th largest edition by article count.

References 

Wikipedias
The Minangkabau Wikipedia is the Minangkabau version of the online encyclopedia, Wikipedia.  See List of Wikipedias.

It is the 31th largest edition by article count.

References 

Wikipedias
The 2007 New England Patriots season was the 38th season for the New England Patriots in the NFL. It was their 48th season overall. The Patriots won the AFC East for the sixth time.

In 2007, the Patriots won all sixteen of their regular season games. They became the first team with sixteen wins and no losses after beating the New York Giants 38-35. They were the fourth team to do this.

Before the Super Bowl, the Patriots had 18 wins and no losses (18-0). They played the 5th-seeded New York Giants. They had beaten the Giants 38-35 in the last regular season game. However, the Giants won the Super Bowl 17-14.

In 2015, the Patriots started 10-0 before losing in overtime to the Denver Broncos.

Roster

Schedule

Preseason

Regular season

 Simulcast on WCVB-TV and WMUR-TV.
 Simulcast on CBS, NBC, WMUR-TV, WWOR-TV, and WCVB-TV.

Playoffs
The Patriots did not have to play in the wild card because of their undefeated season.

Notes 

2007 in sports
2007 in Massachusetts
National Football League seasons
New England Patriots
Myrna Loy (August 2, 1905 – December 14, 1993) was an American movie, television and stage actress. She was known for her roles in The Thin Man, The Best Years of Our Lives, After the Thin Man, Libeled Lady, and in Manhattan Melodrama.

Loy devoted herself to acting after a few minor roles in silent films. She was originally typecast in exotic roles, often as a femme fatale or a woman of Asian descent. Her career prospects improved greatly after her portrayal of Nora Charles in The Thin Man (1934).

Although Loy was never nominated for a competitive Academy Award, in March 1991 she was presented with an Honorary Academy Award.

Loy was born in Helena, Montana. She was raised in Radersburg, Montana. Loy studied at Harvard-Westlake School. Loy died at a hospital in New York City during surgery at the age of 88. She was buried in Forestvale Cemetery in Helena, Montana.

References

Other websites

 
 
 
 
 
 Obituary, nytimes.com
 Profile, virtual-history.com

1905 births
1993 deaths
Deaths from surgical complications
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
People from Helena, Montana
Actors from Montana
Richard W. "Dick" Bavetta (born December 10, 1939 in Brooklyn, New York) is a retired American professional basketball referee for the National Basketball Association (NBA). 

Since starting in 1975, he had never missed an assigned game. He holds the league record for most officiated games. His game on April 12, 2013 in Washington was his 2,600th consecutive game as an NBA official. He retired in 2014.

References

Other websites

 Professional Basketball Referees Association

1939 births
Living people
Sportspeople from New York City
Philip Daniel "Flip" Saunders (February 23, 1955 – October 25, 2015) was an American basketball player and coach. During his career, he coached the Minnesota Timberwolves, Detroit Pistons and Washington Wizards. He began his career as a coach in 1977. He retired in 2015 due to health reasons.

Saunders was born in Cleveland, Ohio. He studied at the University of Minnesota. Saunders died of Hodgkin's lymphoma in Minneapolis, Minnesota, aged 60.

References

Other websites

 NBA.com Profile

1955 births
2015 deaths
American basketball players
Cancer deaths in Minnesota
Deaths from Hodgkin's lymphoma
National Basketball Association coaches
Sportspeople from Cleveland, Ohio
Sportspeople from Minneapolis, Minnesota
Roman Polák (born April 28, 1986) is a Czech ice hockey defenceman. He currently plays for the Dallas Stars of the National Hockey League (NHL) and serves as their alternate captain. He has also played for the St. Louis Blues, Toronto Maple Leafs, and San Jose Sharks.

Career
Before playing in the NHL, Polák played parts of 1 season with the Kootenay Ice of the Western Hockey League (WHL) and half of 1 season with HC Vítkovice Steel of the Czech Extraliga. Polák played for Czech Republic during the 2004 IIHF World U18 Championships and the 2005 World Junior Ice Hockey Championships. He won a bronze medal at both tournaments. He was drafted 180th overall by the St. Louis Blues in the 2004 NHL Entry Draft.

On October 9, 2006, Polák made his NHL debut in a 2-0 loss against the Anaheim Ducks. On December 20, 2008, he scored his first NHL goal against Niklas Bäckström of the Minnesota Wild in a 4-2 win. On June 2, 2011, the Blues resigned Polák to a five-year contract extension.

On June 28, 2014, the Blues traded Polák to the Toronto Maple Leafs in exchange for Carl Gunnarsson and a fourth-round pick in the 2014 NHL Entry Draft.

References

Other websites 

1986 births
American Hockey League players
Czech ice hockey players
Dallas Stars players
Kootenay Ice players
Living people
San Jose Sharks players
St. Louis Blues players
Toronto Maple Leafs players
Ice hockey defencemen
In law, evidence is an object of some kind, a document of some kind, or the testimony of a person in a court of law.  Evidence is used to show something is either true or false. Evidence has to follow rules in most jurisdictions. In the United States, for example, evidence was based on legal precedent until 1975. In that year Congress created the Federal Rules of Evidence. They became the official rules that all forms of evidence must follow in federal courts. Most states in the US use rules based on the federal rules. China, while a civil law country, has followed much of the US Federal Rules of Evidence in their " Uniform Provisions of Evidence".

A subpoena can be used to require a person or organization to provide documents used for evidence.

Admissibility of evidence 
In most jurisdictions there are exclusionary rules that automatically suppress certain kinds of evidence. For example, in the US, this may be evidence that violates the constitutional rights of a defendant. To be admissible in most jurisdictions, evidence must be relevant and it must be reliable. In most cases evidence that may prejudice a jury or judge against a defendant is inadmissible.

Kinds of evidence 
Testimony is a statement made by a witness in a court. It is accepted as true or false based on other evidence.
Real evidence (also called Physical evidence). Real evidence is a thing, an object of some kind, that can be inspected. This may to be to see it actually exists or that it makes an inference of some kind.
Hearsay evidence is when a witness or other person makes a statement outside of court. It is a statement by a witness in court regarding something not of the person's own knowledge but that they heard from someone else. Generally, hearsay evidence is rarely admitted in court.
Documentary evidence is any document presented as evidence so it may be inspected in court.
Demonstrative evidence can be a model or demonstration of what happened at a particular time or place.
Eyewitness testimony is an account given under oath to events the person witnessed. It depends on human memory and can be affected by a number of factors which may make the accounts inaccurate.
Circumstantial evidence (also called Indirect evidence) is evidence that does not directly prove a fact of a case but may be inferred or presumed to have a bearing on a case. Circumstantial evidence can make a defendant appear to be guilty without directly proving guilt. Many courts consider circumstantial evidence to be more powerful than eyewitness testimony.
Corroborating Evidence is evidence used to strengthen other pieces of evidence already given.
Expert testimony is evidence given by experts in their fields. This may include "skilled witnesses" who by their experience may testify. Examples include bankers or landowners testifying to the value of a piece of land.

References 

Legal terms
An essential part of any of the world's legal systems is impartiality. It is important for tribunals, judges, juries and arbitrators to be impartial. It is equally important for the legal systems themselves to be impartial.

Judges and tribunals 
Judges cannot favor one party over another or give more weight to one side's claims than the other. Judges learn about the law from outside the courtroom and before a trial begins. Because of this a judge may have an opinion regarding the law. When a judge expresses these views he or she is not being impartial.

Juries 
In the US legal system, juries are screened and individuals selected by a process called voir dire. Both the prosecution and the defense question jury candidates before a judge. This is to see if they can remain impartial. Any person having a personal interest in the outcome of the trial or who is obviously biased may be removed. This is called striking a juror. It is rare to have more than 10% of potential jurors struck from a trial. Trial by jury began in the United Kingdom. Except for cases where there is a provision by the law, it is the right of every person accused of a crime to have an impartial jury trial. More and more criminal trials are held without a jury. The less severe crimes are tried by magistrates. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms guarantees the right to a fair trial. In Canada juries are made up of 12 ordinary persons, male or female, who are expected to be impartial triers of fact. They decide whether the Crown (the prosecution) has made its case. Judges have the option of increasing the jury to 13 or 14 jurors, but only 12 may vote on the guilt or innocence of the accused. 

Juries in Scotland have 15 jurors. In many European civil law countries and Japan, juries can be made up of laypersons and judges. Also the opposing council may not be able to strike jurors as in the United States. 

Many believe the Magna Carta first guaranteed a right to trial by one's peers. The Latin judicium parium does not mean a trial by jury. The word judicium in the language of the day meant a judge. The term liber homo, usually translated as freeman, at that time were a limited class in England. So it did not mean every person.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Vivian Alferetta Dandridge (April 26, 1921 – October 26, 1991) was an American singer, dancer and actress. She was the older sister of actress Dorothy Dandridge. She was a member of the Dandridge Sisters music group until it ended in 1940. She played Melisse in the movie I Walked with a Zombie (1943). She was in the 1940 movie Irene.

Dandridge was born in Cleveland, Ohio. She died of a stroke at age 70 in Seattle, Washington.

References

Other websites

1921 births
1991 deaths
Actors from Cleveland, Ohio
American movie actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Washington (state)
Deaths from stroke
Singers from Cleveland, Ohio
Moda Domani Institute is a French higher studies establishment. The school is in Paris, France. It started in 2014. Moda Domani Institute is specialist in the fields of luxury, fashion and design.

References

Other websites
 Official

Education in France
Shigeru Yoshida (22 September 1878 – 20 October 1967) was a Japanese diplomat and politician. He served as Prime Minister of Japan from 1946 to 1947 and from 1948 to 1954. 

He was the Ambassador to England in 1936. By 1939 he had fallen out of favor with the government. He was against the military expansion Japan was engaged in at the time. All he felt he could do was retire. He was later imprisoned for these same views. When General Douglas MacArthur became the military governor of Japan, Yoshida was called to Tokyo to become the new foreign minister.

References 

Prime Ministers of Japan
1878 births
1967 deaths
Politicians from Kanagawa Prefecture
University of Tokyo alumni
Andrew Gregory Dalton (born October 29, 1987) is an American football quarterback for the Cincinnati Bengals of the National Football League (NFL).  He played college football at Texas Christian University (TCU).  In his final college game, the 2011 Rose Bowl against the Wisconsin Badgers, Dalton led the Horned Frogs to a 21–19 victory.  He left the TCU program as its all-time leader in wins. He also holds several statistical passing records.

Dalton was selected by the Bengals in the second round (35th overall) of the 2011 NFL Draft. He signed a four-year, $5.2 million contract.  Under a West Coast-style offensive scheme, Dalton and receiver A.J. Green, the Bengals' 2011 first-round selection from the University of Georgia, have become a great quarterback/receiver combination. Dalton and Green broke NFL records for completions (completed passes) and yards for a rookie quarterback/receiver combination.

Dalton is one of five quarterbacks in NFL history to have thrown for over 3,000 yards in each of his first three seasons. The others are Cam Newton, Peyton Manning, Andrew Luck, and Russell Wilson. Dalton is also one of five to have passed for at least 20 touchdowns in each of his first three seasons. He joins Manning, Luck, Wilson, and Dan Marino. Dalton is the only quarterback to lead the Cincinnati Bengals to four consecutive Playoffs. He is just one of five quarterbacks to lead his team to the playoffs in each of his first four seasons. He is also the Bengals franchise record holder for passing yards and touchdowns in a season. 

Due to his red hair, Dalton has been nicknamed "The Red Rifle" by Bengals fans.

References 

1987 births
Living people
American Christians
American football quarterbacks
Cincinnati Bengals players
Sportspeople from Texas
Lisa Anne Jardine, CBE FRS FRHistS (née Bronowski; 12 April 1944 – 25 October 2015) was a British historian of the early modern period.

Early life
Jardine was born in Oxford, England. She studied at Cheltenham Ladies' College, Newnham College, Cambridge, and the University of Essex.

Career
From 1990 to 2011, she was Centenary Professor of Renaissance Studies and Director of the Centre for Editing Lives and Letters at Queen Mary, University of London. From 2008 to January 2014 she was Chair of the Human Fertilisation and Embryology Authority (HFEA).

Personal life
In 1969, she married scientist Nicholas Jardine, with whom she had a son and a daughter/ In 1982, she married the architect John Hare with whom she had one son. She was the cousin of television director Laurence Moody and actress Clare Lawrence Moody.

Death
Lisa Jardine died of cancer on 25 October 2015, aged 71.

References

Other websites

1944 births
2015 deaths
Deaths from cancer
English historians
People from Oxford
Writers from Oxfordshire
Marsha Virginia Hunt (born October 17, 1917) is a retired American movie, theater, and television actress. She was blacklisted by Hollywood movie studio executives in the 1950s. She was known for her roles in Johnny Got His Gun, Raw Deal, Born to the West, Pilot #5, and in Pride and Prejudice.

References

Other websites

 Marsha Hunt documentary film 

 Interview with Glenn Lovell for 50 YEARS: SAG REMEMBERS THE BLACKLIST
 Interview with Elizabeth Farnsworth on PBS's "Newshour" about Blacklisting 
 Attitude Toward Aging with Marsha Hunt, WebMD Live Events Transcript
Marsha Hunt on the cover of Life magazine ; March 6 1950
 Interview October, 2014 in the Indianapolis Star

1917 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
American centenarians
Actors from Chicago
Ann Marie Blyth (born August 16, 1928) is an American actress and singer. Her performance as Veda Pierce in the 1945 movie Mildred Pierce, she was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress.

Blyth also appeared in Our Very Own (with Farley Granger), The Great Caruso (with Mario Lanza), One Minute to Zero (with Robert Mitchum), The World in His Arms (with Gregory Peck), Rose Marie, The Student Prince, Kismet, The Buster Keaton Story, and The Helen Morgan Story (with Paul Newman).

Other websites

Ann Blyth "Women's International Centre" biography and more recent photograph
Photographs of Ann Blyth

1928 births
Living people
American movie actors
American television actors
American stage actors
Actors from New York
Singers from New York
People from Mount Kisco, New York
Janis Paige (born September 16, 1922) is an American movie, musical theatre and television actress. She was born in Tacoma, Washington. Her career began in 1944. She retired in 2001. Paige made her live dramatic TV debut June 27, 1957, in "The Latch Key" on Lux Video Theatre. 

Paige appeared in many television shows during her career such as 87th Precinct (TV series),The Pat Boone Chevy Showroom, Trapper John, M.D., All in the Family, Columbo and Caroline in the City, and in the 1975 television movie John O'Hara's Gibbsville (also known as The Turning Point of Jim Malloy).

References

Other websites
 
 
 

1922 births
Living people
American stage actors
American television actors
Actors from Washington
People from Tacoma, Washington
Zwolle is a town in Sabine Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Settlements in Sabine Parish, Louisiana
Towns in Louisiana
Ringgold is a small town in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Bienville Parish, Louisiana
Gibsland is a small town in Bienville Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Bienville Parish, Louisiana
An injunction is a court order that either commands or prevents a party from doing a specific act.

US law 
Injunctions can be temporary or permanent. A restraining order and a preliminary injunction are examples of temporary injunctions. Either may be issued early in a lawsuit to prevent either party from doing anything that might unfairly influence the outcome of the litigation. A permanent injunction is usually issued after a case is settled. It enforces the final decision of the court.

Australian apprehended violence orders
In the state of New South Wales, an apprehended violence order (AVO) may be issued against a person from whom another person fears violence. They can be issued to prevent physical abuse, harassment or stalking. Any person who violates an AVO may be charged with a criminal offence.

UK injunctions and super-injunctions 
While the United Kingdom has injunctions much the same as other countries they also have super-injunctions. This is an injunction (sometimes called a gag-order) that prevents journalists from writing anything about a court case. It also prevents them from reporting that the injunction itself has been issued. If any injunction in the UK prevents details of the order from being known it is also called a super-injunction.

Anti-suit injunctions 
In common law countries anti-suit injunctions are court orders used to prevent a court or tribunal from assuming jurisdiction or taking over an ongoing lawsuit. An anti-suit injunction may also be used to prevent a party from filing a second lawsuit in another jurisdiction at the same time as the first case.

Related pages 
 Burden of proof
 Civil litigation
 Equity (law)
 Equity court
 Lawsuit
 Peace bond
 Anti-social behaviour order

References

Law
Legal terms
Tullos is a small town in La Salle and Winn Parishes in the U.S. state of Louisiana

Towns in Louisiana
Settlements in Winn Parish, Louisiana
Abita Springs is a town in St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana, United States.

Towns in Louisiana
Colville  (Ktunaxa: xapqǂinik̓) is a city in Stevens County, Washington, United States. The population was 4,673 at the 2010 census.  It is the county seat of Stevens County.

References

Cities in Washington (U.S. state)
County seats in Washington
Vivian is a town in Caddo Parish, Louisiana, United States and is home to the Red Bud Festival. The population was 3,671 at the 2010 census. it is the second most populous municipality in Caddo Parish (after Shreveport).

Towns in Caddo Parish, Louisiana
Harvey Scott Barr, Jr. (August 21, 1916 – October 26, 2015) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Washington. Barr was born in Spokane. He served the 7th district in the Washington House of Representatives from 1977 to 1983, and the same district from 1983 to 1993 in the Washington State Senate. His term ended with his resignation in December 1993. He was a Republican.

Barr died in Colville, Washington on October 26, 2015 from natural causes, aged 99.

References

1916 births
2015 deaths
Civil servants
Politicians from Washington
People from Spokane, Washington
US Republican Party politicians
Coushatta is the parish seat of Red River Parish, Louisiana, United States. it is the most populous municipality in Red River Parish.

Towns in Louisiana
Settlements in Red River Parish, Louisiana
Parish seats in Louisiana
In law, a judgment is a decision of a court regarding the rights and liabilities of parties in a legal action or proceeding. Judgments also generally provide the court's explanation of why it has chosen to make a particular decision.

The phrase "reasons for judgment" is often used interchangeably with "judgment." The former refers to the court's reasons for arriving at the judgment it did. The latter refers to the final court order. a judgement, whether by a court or a tribunal, is the final part of a court case. The judgement is also called a legal decision.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Case law in a legal system are those laws based on previous judicial decisions. This is opposed to decisions based on existing statutes or regulations. In countries using common law, it is generally uncodified meaning there are no collections of legal rules, and laws to rely on. Instead they rely on legal precedent. Precedents are previous legal cases that are used as examples for deciding the present case. They are also binding on lower courts where the facts and issues are similar. In countries that use civil law, their laws are codified, and there is much less reliance on case law.

Common law 
Judges make judicial decisions based on precedent, and their own understanding when there are few or no precedents. This is "judge-made law" as compared to statuary law, which is made by legislatures, and governments. In the United States the courts can rule statutes, and regulations unconstitutional if they go beyond the authority given by the constitution. In the United Kingdom judge-made law, or common law cannot rule against statutes made by an act of Parliament. The judiciary, and legislative branches are not coequal. Judges, however, have traditionally used one of three ways of interpreting statutes: 
 They may be interpreted literally or simply as the law was written.
 They may use the "golden rule" meaning that if the law is difficult to interpret the judiciary may use a less obvious meaning.
 They may apply the "mischief rule". If the act lends itself to more than one interpretation, choose the interpretation that best deals with the problem.

Civil law 
Judges make decisions by decisions based on the appropriate laws. They then investigate to learn all the facts. Finally they make a decision. Under civil law, judiciary decisions are not a critical part of forming civil laws. Under Dutch civil law for example, there are so many civil laws that it becomes difficult for lawyers and judges to know if they have found all the laws that apply to a case. Even with all the laws, not every situation is covered. The civil court will research everything it can on the subject, then make a decision. For this reason those who start a legal case never know for certain what the decision will be.

References

Other websites 
 Case law (or Common law), Library of Congress
 Case Law in the United Kingdom 

Law
Legal terms
A lien ( or ) is a form of security interest attached to property to secure the payment of a debt to a creditor. A lien is usually a public record. The owner of the property is called the lienee. The creditor or person holding the lien is called the lienor or lien holder.

In the United States, the term lien generally refers to a wide range of legal interests. It includes other forms of mortgage or charge.  In the USA, a lien is a non-possessory security interests meaning the lien holder does not usually possess the property.

In other common law countries, the term lien refers to a very specific type of security interest. The holder of a lien right to retain (but not sell) property until the debt or other obligation is discharged.  In contrast to the usage of the term in the USA, in other countries it refers to a purely possessory form of security interest. When possession of the property is lost, the lien is released.

References 

Law
Legal terms
Real estate