cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Saliva is the watery substance made in the mouths of humans and many animals.  Saliva begins digesting food in the mouth, and moistens food to make swallowing easier. Saliva consists of 99.5% water.

The mouth is obviously the point of entry to the whole alimentary canal. It follows from this that saliva must both help digestion, and protect against infections.

The digestion part is by three enzymes, one each for carbohydrates, fats and proteins. The digestion started here carries on in the stomach. There are some other 'minor' enzymes as well, and we do not know the full story about them yet. Also there is a pain-killing opiorphin, and a wrap-around haptocorrin which keeps vitamin B12 safe from stomach acids. Finally, there are a set of anti-bacterial proteins which make life difficult for any bacteria which get in with the food.

References 

Mouth
Digestive system
Villarosa is a town in the province of Enna, in the region of Sicily in southern Italy.

Sister cities
 Morlanwelz, Belgium (2002)
 Le Quesnoy, France (11/08/2006)

Other websites 
 Villarosani.it - The Community of Villarosa citizens

Towns in Italy
Settlements in Sicily
Maria Sharapova (born 19 April 1987) is a retired Russian tennis player. She was born in Nyagan, Western Siberia, RSFSR.

Early life 
Her parents had moved from Belarus to protect themselves from the Chernobyl nuclear accident. The Sharapov1 family moved again in 1989, when Maria became interested in tennis, when watching her father play, and played tennis with a second-hand racquet. She would practice tennis by hitting the tennis ball against the wall every day, and her dad soon noticed that she was very good at the sport.
Maria's tennis coaches told the Sharapovs that they should move to Moscow, Russia, to get better training. The Sharapova moved again, from Moscow, to follow Maria's coach, Martina Navratilova's advice, to move to the United States.

There was a problem, though. Sharapova's mother, Yelena, could not get a visa to go to the United States. Meanwhile, Maria and her father tried to get Maria to go to a famous sports school, and they also had to learn English. Maria had already learned a lesson in her life  that tennis excellence would only come at a price.

“I used to be so lonely,” Maria Sharapova recalls. “I missed my mother terribly. My father was working as mush as he could to keep my tennis-training going. So, he couldn't see me either “Because I was so young, I used to go to bed at 8 p.m. The other tennis pupils would come in 11 p.m. and wake me up and order me to tidy up the room and clean it.

“Instead of letting that depress me, I became more quietly determined and mentally tough. I learnt how to take care of myself. I never thought of quitting because I knew what I wanted. When you come from nothing and you have nothing, then it makes you very hungry and determine.... I would have put up with much more humiliation and insults that to steadfastly purse my dream." That toughness runs through Maria even today.

Career 
She began to win tournaments and many people started to notice her. Her games improved, and Maria gained more fans.

She has won 35 singles titles in her career, including five Grand Slam championships: Wimbledon in 2004, the US Open in 2006, the Australian Open in 2008 and the French Open in 2012 and 2014. She won an Olympic silver medal at the 2012 Summer Olympics. She is the world number 3 women's tennis player as of September 2015. In 2005, she was ranked world number 1 for the first time, and in 2012 for the last time. 

In March 2016, Sharapova revealed she had failed a drug test at the 2016 Australian Open, admitting to testing positive for meldonium, a substance banned by the World Anti-Doping Agency (WADA) at the start of 2016. On June 8, 2016, she was suspended from playing tennis for two years by the International Tennis Federation (ITF).

Foot 
1In Russia, female surnames are changed so that their gender can be identified, so Sharapov becomes Sharapova.

References 

1987 births
Living people
Australian Open champions
Doping cases in sport
Russian female tennis players
French Open champions
Medalists at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Olympic silver medalists
Russian models
US Open (tennis) champions
Wimbledon champions
World No. 1 tennis players
The true bugs are an order of insects. Biologists call true bugs the Hemiptera. There are around 80,000 species of true bugs. The word bug by itself can have other meanings.

There are many different kinds of true bugs, some of which are aphids, cicadas, planthoppers, shield bugs, and others. All of these are true bugs. Their size is from 1 mm to over 10 cm. All true bugs have similar mouthparts, which they use to suck up plant sap.

Features of true bugs 
Bugs have piercing, sucking mouthparts: this defines the Hemiptera. They pierce plants with their long, tube-like mouth, called a proboscis or a beak. They cannot chew. The true bug pumps saliva through this mouth, to partly digest their food. It then sucks up the food, which is usually plant sap.

The name "Hemiptera" is from the Greek: it means hemi (half) and pteron (wing). Most true bugs have half of their front wings hardened and have the other half soft. These wings are called hemelytra (singular hemelytron), because they halfway look like the hard wings (elytra) of beetles. The hind wings are totally soft and are shorter than the front wings.

The antennae of bugs usually have five segments. The tarsi (foot parts) of their legs have three or fewer segments.

References
Dayton is a large city in the American state of Ohio. It is where Orville and Wilbur Wright grew up. The Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, also near Dayton, gets part of its name from the Wright brothers. The National Museum of the United States Air Force is inside the Wright-Patterson Air Force Base.

Dayton has a humid continental climate (Dfa in the Koeppen climate classification).

Ten people were killed in a mass shooting in Dayton on 4 August 2019.

References

Other websites

1796 establishments in the United States
1790s establishments in the Northwest Territory
County seats in Ohio
A soldering iron is a device used to attach pieces of metal together with solder, which is called soldering. Soldering irons are used mainly for attaching electronic components onto a circuit board with tin, but can also be used for other tasks such as fixing jewelry. There are several different kinds of soldering irons, such as ones that are hotter than others, and ones that use electricity or natural gas.

A soldering iron stand can be used to hold the iron. That is a flat metal stand with a coil that holds the iron.

Electronics
tools
Hungarian Vizsla is a dog breed. Vizslas are known for being affectionate and not aggressive. They originated in Hungary and are an excellent hunting dogs.

History 
The breed was developed from dogs used by Hungarian tribes. Vizslas were owned by sporting nobility of Hungary who use to hunt with them. They were used to hunt deer, wild boar and wolf. The breed  almost disappeared during the First World War and Second. Dogs were smuggled out of Hungary during the Second World War. These dogs were used later to breed in other countries.

Appearance and personality 
Hungarian Vizsla's have a dark gold coat. Some dogs may also have small white marks on their feet and/or chest.
They are active, enthusiastic, friendly. Vizslas need human company to stay happy. They do not make good kennel dogs.

Exercise needs 
Daily exercise and mental tasks are necessary. Outside they are very active. Indoors, Vizslas can be quite inactive. The dogs prefer to rest beside their owners. Some are quite demanding of attention. If Vizslas do not receive enough  exercise, they will become bored. If bored, they may choose to do to amuse themselves with digging or chewing on things.

Dog breeds
Manufacturing is producing goods out of raw materials. It is a branch of industry. It includes making very big, complicated things that take a lot of steps to finish. Often machines are involved in manufacturing.

In the past products were made by handicraft workers using tools and manual labor. In modern times, most manufacturing jobs got replaced by automated manufacturing machines, which made the products much faster and in turn - cheaper than humans could.

Other websites 
 How Everyday Things Are Made 
 Engineers Edge
 Manufacturers Alliance
 Logistics Quarterly 
 National Association of Manufacturers

References 
Economics
Finished goods are goods that have completed required manufacturing process and are ready to be fitted/mixed/processed with final product.  The final product itself could also be called finished goods.
Examples: cars, clothing, food, furniture etc.

Manufacturing
In manufacturing there are three different sorts of stuff:

Raw material
Work in process
Finished goods

Something bought as a "raw material" is used to manufacture a product.  A thing that is not completed during the manufacturing process is called "work in process".  When the manufacturing of the thing is completed but it is not yet sold or distributed to the end-user, it is called a "finished good".

"Finished good" is a relative term. Finished goods of a supplier can be the raw material of the buyer. For example, a paper mill sells paper to a book publisher who uses it as raw material.

Factors of production
A good in economics is any object or product (factors of production) that is useful. A commodity is one kind of good. 

A good that cannot be used by consumers directly, such as an office building or  capital equipment, can be called a good because it can be useful if it is sold. A 'good' in economic usage does not necessarily mean that the object is good in a moral sense. 

If an object or service is sold for a positive price, then it is a good since the purchaser considers the utility of the object or service more valuable than the money. Some things are useful but not scarce such as air and are referred to as free goods and common goods. 

In macroeconomics and accounting, a good is contrasted with a service. A good here is defined as a physical product that one can deliver to a buyer. The service is not an object, but an action that benefits someone. A more general term that preserves the distinction between goods and services is 'commodities'. In microeconomics 'good' is often used in this more inclusive sense of a commodity.

Reference
Business Dictionary

Goods
Ruslana Stepanivna Lyzhychko (May 24, 1973) is a popular Ukrainian pop singer, composer, producer, conductor and dancer. She was born in the city of Lviv in Ukraine. She won the Eurovision Song Contest in Istanbul in 2004.  She is also a former Member of Parliament serving as deputy in the Ukrainian parliament (Verkhovna Rada) for the Our Ukraine Party.

Human rights 

In 2014, Ruslana became a leader in the Maidan movement for human rights and democratic reform in Ukraine.   During the demonstrations, Ruslana stayed on the streets.  At night she slept in a cold tent.  Every night she sang the Ukrainian national anthem for the protestors. When the government police came, she stayed on the stage.  She told the protesters to stay calm.  She told the police to respect human rights.

Ruslana was also in the 2004 Orange Revolution.  She was UNICEF National Ambassador in Ukraine in 2005. In 2008 she spoke for green energy.

Awards 

In 2014 Ruslana received the International Women of Courage Award form the U.S. Department of State.

Discography

Albums 
 Myt Vesny - Dzvinkiy viter (Moments of Spring - Sonorous wind) (1998)
 Ostanne Risdvo x-90 (Last Christmas of the 90ies) (1999)
 Najkrashche (The Best) (2001)
 Dobriy vechir, tobi... (Good evening to you...) (2002)
 Dyki Tantsi (Wild Dances) (2003)
 Dyki Tantsi (Eurobonus) (2004)
 Wild Dances (2004)
 Wild Dances (New Year Edition) (2005)
 Club'in (2006)

Singles 
 Wild Dances (2004)
 Dance with the Wolves (2004)
 The Same Star (2005)
 Dyka Energyia (Wild Energy) (2006)

References

Other websites

Official website of Ruslana
Official Fan Club of Ruslana
RuslanaTV
RuslanaTube on YouTube
 2015 International Women of Courage Awards, U.S. State Department photostream on Flickr
 Secretary's International Women of Courage Award (U.S. Department of State)

1973 births
Living people
Ukrainian singers
Pop musicians
Eurovision Song Contest winners
Women who received the International Women of Courage Award
The word mustard is used to refer to several species of plants. These plants belong to the genera Brassica or Sinapis. They have tiny seeds. These seeds can be used as a condiment. When they are first ground, and then mixed with water, vinegar and other ingredients, a condiment called mustard can be made. The seeds can also be pressed, to give a kind of oil called mustard oil. Some kinds of mustard plants have edible leaves. These leaves are known as mustard greens.

Mild white mustard (Sinapis hirta) grows wild in North Africa, the Middle East and Mediterranean Europe and has spread farther by long cultivation; brown or Indian mustard (B. juncea), originally from the foothills of the Himalaya, is grown commercially in the UK, Canada and the US; black mustard (B. nigra) in Argentina, Chile, the US and some European countries. 

In addition to the mustards, the genus Brassica also includes cabbages, cauliflower, rapeseed and turnips.

There has been recent research into varieties of mustards that have a high oil content for use in the production of biodiesel, a renewable liquid fuel similar to diesel fuel. The biodiesel made from mustard oil has good cold flow properties and cetane ratings. The leftover meal after pressing out the oil has also been found to be an effective pesticide.

An interesting genetic relationship between many species of mustard have been observed.

The mustard plant is in no way related to mustard gas, an agent for chemical warfare.

Gallery

References 

Leaf vegetables
Brassicaceae
Mustard gas or sulfur mustard is a chemical compound which has been used as a chemical weapon. It was used in World War I by the German Army against British and Canadian soldiers near Ypres, Belgium, in 1917. Later it was also used against the French Second Army.

Most sulfur mustards are squishy liquids with no color and no smell when they are at room temperature. When used in warfare, they have a color yellowish to brown. Some of them smell like culinary mustard (the type used for food), horseradish or garlic. They got their name from the smell, but are completely unrelated to culinary mustard.

Sulfur mustard (in its form mustard gas) was synthesized by Frederick Guthrie in 1860. It may have been discovered as early as the 1820s, by M.Depretz.

Its use during warfare was prohibited by the Geneva Protocol of 1925. This protocol outlawed the use of poison gas (which was widely used in the First World War). An additional agreement, the Chemical Weapons Convention, was ratified in 1993. It also outlaws the production and stockpiling of such agents.  Despite these prohibitions it has been used in several wars. 

Sulfur mustard is the organic compound with formula (ClCH2CH2)2S. 
It is a viscous liquid at normal temperatures. The pure compound has a melting point of 14 °C (57 °F) and decomposes before boiling at 218 °C (424 °F).

Chemical warfare
Amelia Mary Earhart (born July 24, 1897 – disappeared July 2, 1937, declared dead January 5, 1939) was an American aviator, one of the first women to fly a plane long distances. She was the first woman to fly a plane by herself across the Atlantic Ocean. She broke many records and showed how air travel had moved forward. She also wrote books, most of them were about her flights. Earhart vanished over the South Pacific Ocean in July 2, 1937 while trying to fly around the world. She was declared dead on July 3, 1937.

Many theories stand in place about Amelia's end. Some believe she was a spy for the U.S government and was captured by the Japanese on Gardner Island, others say she faked her death. The most plausible though is many researchers believe, which is that the Electra ran out of fuel and that Earhart and Noonan ditched at sea. The "crash and sink" theory is often the most widely accepted explanation of Earhart’s and Noonan’s fate. 

However, there is a range of documented, archaeological, and anecdotal evidence supporting the hypothesis that Earhart and Noonan found Gardner Island, uninhabited at the time, landed the Electra on a flat reef near the wreck of a freighter, and sent sporadic radio messages from there. It has been surmised that Earhart and Noonan might have survived on Nikumaroro for several weeks before succumbing.

References

Other websites 
 Official Amelia Earhart Website
 Amelia Earhart at Find a Grave
 

1897 births
1937 deaths
American aviators
Aviation deaths
Missing American people
Writers from Kansas
People declared dead in absentia
Francis Albert "Frank" Sinatra   (December 12, 1915 – May 14, 1998) was an American singer, musician, actor and filmmaker. His singing career was 60 years long, and more than 250 million records of his have been sold worldwide. Extremely regarded as one of the best and most admired popular singers in history of America standards.

He is also well known by the nickname "Old Blue Eyes". The New York Times said he was "the first modern pop superstar". At first, he was mostly known as a crooner, a singer of love songs. By the 1950s and 1960s, he was singing swing and jazz songs as well.
Sinatra was also part of the Rat Pack, a group of entertainers (musicians and actors), in the 1950s and 1960s. The name was informal, and the group was not an official organization of any sort, but a group of friends. Members of the Rat Pack included Sinatra, Dean Martin, Sammy Davis, Jr., Peter Lawford, and Joey Bishop, as well as (more loosely) Humphrey Bogart, Judy Garland, Lauren Bacall, Sid Luft, and Shirley MacLaine.

Early life
He was born in Hoboken, New Jersey to Italian immigrants.

Acting career
Sinatra was also an actor. He was in movies such as The Manchurian Candidate, From Here to Eternity, and The Man With The Golden Arm. He won an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance in From Here To Eternity.

Personal life
Sinatra was married 4 times. He was married to Nancy Barbato from 1939 to 1951, to Ava Gardner from 1951 to 1957, to Mia Farrow from 1966 to 1968, and to Barbara Marx from 1976 until his death on May 14, 1998.

Death
Sinatra died on May 14, 1998 at 10:50 pm  at the Cedars-Sinai Medical Center in Los Angeles, California, after suffering a heart attack. His wife Barbara was at his side. The words "The best is yet to come" are written on his gravestone.

References

Bibliography
• Gildo De Stefano, The Voice - Vita e italianità di Frank Sinatra, Coniglio Press, Roma 2011

Other websites
Album "Songs for Young Lovers" at YouTube
Hear Frank Sinatra on the Pop Chronicles

Actors from New Jersey
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from myocardial infarction
People from Hoboken, New Jersey
American musicians
American pop singers
Kennedy Center honorees
Singers from New Jersey
1915 births
1998 deaths
Harry Lillis "Bing" Crosby Jr. (May 3, 1903 – October 14, 1977) was an American singer and actor. His singing career was around fifty years long and more than 1 billion records of his have been sold worldwide. Crosby is known for creating the style of music that Perry Como, Frank Sinatra,  Dean Martin , Elvis Presley,  John Lennon  would later copy. Crosby said that he was inspired by Al Jolson.
 
He sang "White Christmas" and it became "the best-selling record of all time." Irving Berlin wrote this song. In 1962, Crosby became the first person ever to receive the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award.

Crosby won the Academy Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role for his role in Going My Way.

Crosby was a Roman Catholic. He died of a heart attack in Madrid, Spain.

References 

1903 births
1977 deaths
Actors from Washington
American movie actors
American Roman Catholics
American television actors
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Madrid
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Grammy Award winners
National Radio Hall of Fame inductees
Singers from Washington
Best Actor Academy Award winners
Felt is a type of cloth or textile. It is a complex network of threads or yarns. They are pressed together usually when wet. This is matting wool fibers, with water and soap. It may also be made by poking the fibers with barbed needles. Felt can be made by hand, or by machine.

People have been making felt longer than any other kind of fabric. Felt can be of any color, and made into any shape or size. Felt is used to make many things like clothing, hats, and rugs. Nomadic people in many countries live in tents made of felt.

Felt is used for many different things. Today  people use felt for hat-making, insulating (making warm), sound-proofing, and cushioning.

Felt versus fabric

The difference between felt and most fabrics, like denim, is that most fabrics have a regular criss-cross, in-and-out weaving pattern, but felt is a messy jumble of fibers. 

Most fabrics are woven for strength and smoothness: they need carding to straighten the fibers, spinning to turn fibers into long threads and weaving to make fabric. 

Felt only needs a carding comb. Because of this, felt was often used by nomadic people.

References 

Cloth
Torrance is a city in southwest Los Angeles, California. Jared Torrance founded it in 1911. In 2003, there were 142,621 people living in Torrance. It is the sixth biggest city in Los Angeles county.

Things to See 
 Del Amo Fashion center is one of the biggest malls in the United States. 
 Madrona Marsh is a nature center that protects wild animals and plants.
 Torrance Beach is between Redondo Beach and Malaga Cove.
 The Armed Forces Day Parade shows people many military vehicles and soldiers. 
 Torrance High School is one of the oldest high schools in California. Many television shows used Torrance High, for example Buffy the Vampire Slayer and She's All That.
 Alpine Village is a restaurant, market, and mall. Oktoberfest is held here.

Trivia 
 It is where superstar teens Alyson Michalka and Amanda Michalka were born.

Notes

Other websites 
 City of Torrance official website 

 
1911 establishments in the United States
1910s establishments in California
Charles Edward Anderson "Chuck" Berry (October 18, 1926 – March 18, 2017) was an American singer, guitarist and songwriter. He is one of the original musicians who helped to create rock and roll.

Career
In 1955 Berry met Muddy Waters who told him of a record company that would release his first song. In 1957 he joined the Everly Brothers, Buddy Holly and other popular musicians on a tour around the United States. Over the next few years he became more and more popular and had many popular songs on the radio.  "Maybellene" (1955), "Roll Over Beethoven" (1956), "Rock and Roll Music" (1957) and "Johnny B. Goode" (1958) were massive hits.

He has influenced many rock and pop musicians who came after him. Berry has influenced many music artists, like The Beatles, The Rolling Stones, The Beach Boys, and Bob Dylan. Berry tried to help an Apache waitress cross the US-Canadian border, but was caught by police and charged for prostitution. This dented his career: he served 18 months. When released, his first recording was "Nadine", (1964) also a huge hit. 

Berry was a favorite with The Beatles, The Rolling Stones and The Beach Boys, who adapted and recorded a number of his songs.

In 1986 a documentary film, Hail! Hail! Rock 'n' Roll, was made. It featured a celebration concert for Berry's sixtieth birthday, organized by Keith Richards.

birth of death
Berry died at his home in Wentzville, Missouri on March 18, 2017 from a congestive heart failure, aged 90.

Discography
Chuck Berry discography

References

Other websites 

 Official website
 
 

1926 births
2017 deaths
African American musicians
African-American singers
American criminals
American prisoners
American robbers
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
American singer-songwriters
Deaths from myocardial infarction
Singers from St. Louis, Missouri
Musicians from St. Louis, Missouri
Nagamaki is a Japanese pole weapon with a large and heavy blade. It is very much like a glaive. It was introduced and used primarily during the Kamakura (1192 - 1333), Nanbokucho (1334 - 1392) and early Muromachi (1392 – 1573) periods. It was a long sword with 2–4 foot blade and a handle with 2–3 foot length. The blade was single-edged. It was also sharpened along the back edge to reduce its weight. It looks similar to a traditional naginata, but the main difference was that the handle (tsuka) of the nagamaki was not constructed of wood; it was made more like a katana handle. Even the name "nagamaki" is given by the tradition of handle wrapping. The word "nagamaki" means "long wrapping". The nagamaki handle was wrapped with cords in criss-crossed manner, very similar to the wrapping that is made on katana. The nagamaki is considered to be a type of the no-dachi sword. This one was a variation of long samurai sword. 

The way to hold nagamaki was also very specific. It was held with the two hands in a fixed position in the same way a katana sword is held. Unlike the naginata, the hands did not change when handling the weapon and the right hand was always the closest to the blade. While handling nagamaki not too many sliding actions on the handle were performed as it was in naginata's case, where you use the entire length of the shaft. The nagamaki was not spread and developed until much later like the naginata sword. During the middle of the Muromachi period (1336-1600 A.D.) it reached its peak of usage. 

The nagamaki is designed for large sweeping and slicing strokes. It also works as a spear. Traditionally, it was used as an infantry weapon. Warriors used the weapon against horsemen. Still, it required more time and materials to create a nagamaki than a spears or a naginata sword, this is why it was not so widely spread. 

The closest exemplar of real nagamaki you can see today is nagamaki-naoshi. It appears to be like a long katana-shaped glaive but straighter and thinner, with a very long handle. In contrast to it naginata is shorter, wider and more curved to the tip.

Other websites 
Japanese sword etiquette 

Japanese swords
The Ainu language is the language of the Ainu people in northern Japan. It was not written until the 19th century. Since then, it has been written in katakana or the Latin alphabet.

In the 19th century, Ainu was spoken in Ezo (including Hokkaidō Island and the southern part of Chishima Islands), the southern part of Karapto (Sakhalin) and the northern part of Chishima Islands (Kuril Islands). Now it is only spoken in Hokkaidō.

Ainu had many dialects, including Chitose, Saru, and Karapto. Now only the Hokkaidō dialect survives. The dialects were so different from one another that a speaker of one dialect could not understand a speaker of another dialect.

Historically, speakers of Ainu lived near speakers of Japanese and Itelmen (from Kamchatka). The Nivkh, which was spoken in the northern part of Sakhalin, is another isolated language.

Grammar 
Ainu has subject-object-verb word order, like Japanese. Ainu phrases have left-branching structures: the word for a property is before the word for a person or thing.

Sample words 
The word ainu means "human being" and is the name used by the Ainu to refer to themselves. In contrast, kamuy means "god". The Ainu think that all existence that has mind and plays a role in this world are kamuy. Sparrows or standing trees are kamuy. In the Ainu perspective of the world, all goes well and human being can also be happy if ainu and kamuy help each other.

Most linguists think that the Ainu numeral system is based on twenty.

 Ape - fire.
 Iyomante - A festival to send a bear's soul to heaven.
 Kunnechupu - The moon.
 Kotan - village.
 Konru - ice.
 Sumari - (pronounced as in "Shumari") - fox.
 Seta - dog.
 Tonoto - sake.
 Nonno- flower.
 Huci - (pronounced as in "Hoochi") - grandmother, Old women.
 Pone - bone.
 Pirka - Beauty, cute.
 wakka - "drinkable" water.

Relations with other language families 
The Ainu language is classificated as language isolate, although there exist several theories about a genetic relation. Some linguists suggest a relation to Altaic languages while others suggest a link to Indo-European languages. Some similarities also exist with northern native american languages.

References

Bibliography
 

Language isolates
Languages of Asia
Japan
A stethoscope is a instrument used by doctors and other medical people.  It is used to measure peoples heartbeat and their breathing.  It is placed on the area where the heart is or on the back. 

The modern stethoscope is made up of a Y-shaped flexible plastic tube. An earpiece is attached to each end of the Y and a sound-detecting device at the other end. The sound-detecting device has a thin plastic sheet on one side and a bell shape with a hole in on the other. The diaphragm is used to listen to a patient's chest for high-pitched sounds. The bell end is used to detect lower-pitched sounds. The lung sounds have a higher frequency than heart sounds.Rene Theophile Hyacinthe Laënnec (1781-1826) was a French physician who, in 1816, invented the stethoscope. Using this new instrument, he investigated the sounds made by the heart and lungs and determined that his diagnoses were supported by the observations made during autopsies.

Medical equipment
A tile is a manufactured piece of hard-wearing material such as ceramic, stone, porcelain, metal or even glass.  Tiles are generally used for covering roofs, floors, and walls.  They have been made for thousands of years.

Tiles can be simple square tiles or arranged in complex mosaics. Tiles are most often made from ceramic, with a hard glaze finish.

At the end of the 20th century, the technology of porcelain and glass tiles advanced, making them cheaper.  They became more commonplace.

Roof tiles 

Roof tiles are designed mainly to keep out rain, and are traditionally made from locally available materials such as clay or slate. Modern materials such as concrete and plastic are also used and some clay tiles have a waterproof glaze.

A large number of shapes (or "profiles") of roof tiles have evolved.

Fired roof tiles are found as early as the 3rd millennium BC in the  House of the tiles in Lerna, Greece. Debris found at the site contained thousands of terracotta tiles having fallen from the roof. In the Mycenaean period, roofs tiles are documented for Gla and Midea.

References 

Ceramics
ChuChu is a comic magazine that is written for teenage girls. It is published by Syougakukan（Japan).

Famous works
Sakura zensen（Miyuki Ohbayashi）
ALMIGHTY×10(Aqua Mizuto)
NG boy×Paradise(Yukino Miyawaki)
Hitohira no koi ga furu(Yuu Yabuuchi)

Manga writers who write for ChuChu
Aqua Mizuto
Chitose Yagami
Hisa Kyoumachi
Iori Shigano
Kana Nanajima
Kei Ouri
Kirara Himekawa
Kiyoko Arai
Kyoko Mami
Mai Jinna
Mikiko Satsuki
Miwako Sugiyama
Miyuki Ohbayashi
Naomi Uramoto
Naoto Kohaku
Natsumi Kawahara
Nimi Fujita
Nozomi Shiratori
Rei Nanase
Ryouko Mizoguchi
Satoru Takamiya
Sayumi Nakamura
Tae Usami
Takemaru SaSaki
Yukako Iizaka
Yukino Miyawaki
Yuu Yabuuchi

Manga
An oxide is a chemical compound containing at least one oxygen atom and at least one atom of one other element. Most of the Earth's crust consists of oxides (mainly silica). Oxides can be made when elements are oxidized by air (when oxygen in the air reacts with the element).

Some common oxides are:
Water (hydrogen oxide) (H2O)
Iron(III) oxide (Rust) (Fe2O3)
Aluminium oxide (Al2O3)
Lead(II) oxide (PbO)
Calcium oxide (CaO)
Carbon dioxide (CO2)
Carbon monoxide (CO)
Magnesium oxide (Magnesia) (MgO)
Phosphorus pentoxide (P4O10)
Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
Sulfur trioxide (SO3)
Silicon dioxide (SiO2)
Nitrous oxide (laughing gas) (N2O)
Zinc oxide (ZnO)
Copper(I) oxide (CuO) and Copper(II) oxide (Cu2O)
A Proposal is when people suggest an idea. It is usually used when someone suggests an idea of marriage, when they ask the person they like to marry them.

Social sciences
Marriage
Versailles is a French city. It is in the western suburbs of Paris, 17.1 km. (10.6 miles) from the center of Paris. It is the capital of the Yvelines département. This city is very important for the History of France because it was formerly the capital of the kingdom of France.

Its name comes from the Latin word vertere, meaning to turn the soil.  

Versailles is made world-famous by the Palace of Versailles (Château de Versailles), where Louis XIV, Louis XV and Louis XVI lived.

In 2004, about 85,900 people lived here.

This is where the Treaty of Versailles was signed at the end of The Great War.

Surroundings
Paris
Viroflay
Ville d'Avray
Meudon

Education 
 Institut supérieur international du parfum, de la cosmétique et de l'aromatique alimentaire
 Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines

References 

Communes in Yvelines
 
Departmental capitals in France
In chemistry, a silicate is a chemical compound consisting of one or more central silicon atoms that are surrounded by electronegative anions.

The most common silicate species consist of silicon with oxygen as the anion. Silicate anions, with a negative net electrical charge, must have that charge balanced by other cations to make an electrically neutral compound.

Silicate rock
In geology and planetary science, the term silicate is used to denote types of rock that consist predominantly of silicate minerals.

On Earth, a wide variety of silicate minerals occur in an even wider range of combinations as a result of the processes that form and re-work the crust. These processes include partial melting, crystallization, fractionation, metamorphism, weathering and diagenesis. Living things also contribute to the silicate cycle near the Earth's surface. A type of plankton known as diatoms construct their exoskeletons, known as tests, from silica. The tests of dead diatoms are a major constituent of deep ocean sediment

Chemical compounds
Geology
The Newton metre is the unit of moment in the SI system Standard International.  It is abbreviated N·m, and sometimes written with hyphen newton-metre. It is a compound unit of torque  corresponding to the torque from a force of one newton applied over a distance arm of one metre.

A newton metre is dimensionally equivalent to a joule.

Conversion factors
1 metre kilogram-force = 9.8065 R/N·m
1 centimetre kilogram-force = 98.0665 mR/mN·m
1 foot-pound force (often "foot-pounds") = 1 pound-force foot (often "pound-feet") = 1.3558179 R/N·m
1 inch ounce-force = 7.0615518 mR/mN·m

SI units
Gamma rays (γ-rays) are electromagnetic waves with the smallest wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. They were discovered in 1900 by Paul Villard, and named in 1903 by Ernest Rutherford.

Gamma rays are like x-rays, but the waves are smaller in wavelength. Both gamma rays and x-rays are photons with very high energies, and gamma have even more energy. They are also a type of ionizing radiation. Gamma rays can travel through thicker materials than x-rays can.

Gamma rays are produced by some types of radioactive atoms.  Cobalt-60 and potassium-40 are two isotopes that emit gamma rays. Cobalt-60 is created in accelerators and is used in hospitals. Potassium-40 occurs naturally. Small amounts of potassium-40 are in all plants and animals. Gamma rays from potassium-40 each have an energy of 1460 thousand electron volts (keV).

Gamma rays and X-rays can also be distinguished by their origin: X-rays are emitted by electrons outside the nucleus, while gamma rays are emitted by the nucleus.

Gamma rays in medicine 
Gamma rays can also go through the skin to kill cells, such as cancerous cells. 
Doctors can use radiation therapy machines which produce gamma rays in hospitals to treat people with some types of cancer.

Doctors also use gamma rays to find disease. In hospitals, doctors can give patients radioactive medicine which emits gamma rays. Doctors can find some types of disease by measuring gamma rays which come from a patient afterward. Hospitals can also use gamma rays to sterilise (clean)  things as disinfectants do.

References 

Nuclear physics
Sonic the Hedgehog is the name of a cartoon series, starring Sonic the Hedgehog. It is more popularly known as "SatAM Sonic", especially to distinguish itself from other similarly-named animated shows that also star Sonic.

This series was made by DiC Entertainment, and originally ran on ABC from September 18, 1993 to June 3, 1995, and had a total of 26 episodes, at 13 episodes per season.

The show starred Sonic the Hedgehog, and the Knothole Freedom Fighters, a group of woodland animals united to fight the evil Doctor Robotnik, who has taken over the entire planet.

References

Animated television series
English-language television programs
Mestrius Plutarchus (; c. AD 46 – after AD 119), better known in English as Plutarch, was a Greek historian, and writer of biographies and essays.

Plutarch was born into a well-known family in Chaeronea, Boeotia Greece, a town about twenty miles east of Delphi. His works are Parallel Lives and Moralia.

Other websites 

 
 A biography of Plutarch is included in: , 18th century English translation under the editorship of Dryden (further edited by Arthur Hugh Clough).
 Works of Plutarch in etext at the University of Adelaide Library .
 Plutarch page at LacusCurtius (20th century English translation of most of the Lives, On the Fortune or Virtue of Alexander, On the Fortune of the Romans, Roman Questions, and other excerpts of the Moralia)
 Plutarch's Isis and Osiris

40s births
120s deaths
Ancient Greek historians
Ancient Greek writers
Marcus Licinius Crassus (c. 115 BC – 53 BC) was a Roman general and politician.

He commanded the left wing of Sulla's army at the Battle of the Colline Gate. It was he who finally  suppressed the slave revolt led by Spartacus. The Third Servile War began with three defeats of Roman armies against Spartacus and his followers. The revolt was finally destroyed by the concentrated military effort of a single commander, Marcus Licinius Crassus.

The last stage of his career was as a triumvir, one of the First Triumvirate, with Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus and Gaius Julius Caesar. One of the richest men of the era, he was killed after a defeat at the Battle of Carrhae. His death led to the civil wars between Julius Caesar and Pompey, the other two triumvirs.

Brutal discipline 
When Crassus formed his army, in addition to six new legions, he was given other legions which had been beaten by Spartacus. He decimated them. This was the brutal method of executing one man in ten to encourage the others to fight harder. Each group of ten men drew lots to decide who would die. This punishment had not been used since the early days of Rome.

Crassus's punishment of Spartacus's surviving men was just as brutal. They were crucified.

Battle of Carrhae 
Crassus arranged to govern the Roman province of Syria, with the transparent intention of going to war with Parthia. In fact, he set out on a war against Parthia, using his own money, and without the Senate's official approval.

After being informed of the presence of the Parthian army, Crassus panicked. His general Cassius recommended that the army be deployed in the traditional Roman fashion, with infantry forming the center and cavalry on the wings. At first Crassus agreed, but he soon changed his mind and redeployed his men into a hollow square, each side formed by twelve cohorts. This formation would protect his forces from being outflanked, but at the cost of mobility.

The day went badly for the Romans, who were repeatedly outflanked by the Parthian cavalry. The next day they received a message, offering to negotiate with Crassus. A truce was proposed, allowing the Roman army to return to Syria safely, in exchange for Rome giving up all territory east of the Euphrates. Crassus was reluctant to meet with the Parthians, but his troops threatened to mutiny if he did not. At the meeting, a Parthian pulled at Crassus' reins, sparking violence. Crassus and his generals were murdered. After his death, the Parthians allegedly poured molten gold down his throat, in a symbolic gesture mocking Crassus' renowned greed. The remaining Romans at Carrhae attempted to flee, but most were captured or killed. Roman casualties amounted to about 20,000 killed and 10,000 captured, making the battle one of the costliest defeats in Roman history. Parthian casualties were minimal.

References 

2nd-century BC births
53 BC deaths
Roman generals
Italia, under the Roman Republic and later Empire, was the name of the Italian peninsula.

Italia was the home of the capital of the Roman Empire - Rome itself.

Other websites 
A poem by Rutilius Claudius Namatianus, at The Latin Library, describing the decadence of Italia and Rome around 410.

Places of Ancient Rome
Shift may mean:

a movement
the shift key on a keyboard
gearshift, the metal rod used to change gears in a car (see also transmission [gearbox])
 the actual components of a gearbox
in computing, the analogue for literal strings, for example barrel shifter (bit shift)
in computing, the bit shift is a bitwise operator
the analogue in mathematics, e.g. a shift operator
arithmetic shift in telecommunication
derived meanings of change, such as red shift, Great Vowel Shift, paradigm shift
a work shift, typically eight hours between set times; see shift work, graveyard shift, swing shift, split shift
the Green tax shift, a fiscal policy often proposed by Green political parties and conservationist interest groups.
 in music, a shift is a change of level and is similar to but more basic and general than a chord change. On a string instrument a shift is a movement of the left hand in order to play notes that are beyond the range of the previous hand position.
 a simple kind of undergarment, also known as a chemise (smock)
 Shift (sailing), a shift of points of sail.
Shift the Ape, a character in the Chronicles of Narnia series.
Shift (magazine), a former Canadian technology and culture magazine.
an improvised knife used as a weapon, also called a shank or shiv.
The shift key is a key on a computer keyboard. It is used to type capital letters (like this: "ABC") instead of lowercase ("abc").

The shift key is also used to type with keys that have more than one symbol on them, such as the number keys and those for punctuation marks. In this case it is used to type the "upper" characters, that is, the symbol that appear above the other. The symbol below does not need the shift key to be pressed. On an English keyboard, these are some of the characters that need the shift key to be pressed down in order to type them:
the parentheses "(" and ")" are on the same keys as the numbers 9 and 0
the question mark "?" is on the same key as the slash "/"
the exclamation point "!" is on the same key as the number 1
the colon ":" is on the same key as the semicolon ";"

The way the shift key works is that it needs to be held down while the other key is pressed. Because of this, there are usually two shift keys, on the left and right sides of the keyboard, and they are held down using one of the little fingers while the other finger presses the other key.

Instead of using the shift key, one can also use the caps lock or shift lock keys. This lets one type many uppercase letters at once without having to hold down the shift key all the time.

Computer hardware
The Twenty-Second United States Census, known as Census 2000 was a count of the population of the United States. It was done by the Census Bureau. It found that the population of the United States on April 1, 2000 was 281,421,906. This was an increase of 13.2% over the 248,709,873 people counted during the 1990 Census. This was the twenty-second federal census. It was the largest single administrative effort in the history of the United States that was not done during wartime.

About 16 percent of households received a "long form" of the 2000 census. It had over 100 questions.

Other websites 

 Census 2000 gateway
 Population Profile of the United States: 2000
 Population Profile Introductory slide show, in MS Powerpoint format
 State and County QuickFacts , the most requested information
 American FactFinder , for population, housing, economic, and geographic data
 How the Census Works via Howstuffworks.com

Census
United States Census
A police procedural is a type of crime story. In a police procedural, the main characters are police officers. The story usually shows how they solve crimes with teamwork, using their specialised knowledge of criminals and the city or other area where they are.

Police procedurals have always been popular on television. Some of the best-known TV shows of this type are Dragnet, Law & Order, Hill Street Blues, NYPD Blue and The Shield.

Genres
Movie terminology
Television programs
A girth is a piece of equipment for riding a horse, used to keep the saddle in place. 

Horse riding

ru:Конская упряжь
The Lusatian Neisse is a river in the Czech Republic (Lužická Nisa), Germany (Lausitzer Neiße) and Poland (Nysa Łużycka). It is part of the Oder-Neisse line.

Other websites

Geography of Brandenburg
Geography of Saxony
Rivers of the Czech Republic
Rivers of Germany
Rivers of Poland
Anton Rubinstein (born Vikhvatinets 28 November 1829; died Petershof 20 November 1894) was a Russian pianist and composer.  Rubinstein and Franz Liszt were thought to be the greatest pianists of the 19th century.  He was very important as a teacher and influenced many Russian musicians.  He composed lots of music, although hardly any of it is heard nowadays.  As a composer he is best remembered today by a little piece of piano music called “Melody in F”.

History

First concert 
Rubinstein gave his first piano concert when he was ten.  Between 1840 and 1843 his piano teacher took him on long concert tours of Europe.  He met Chopin and Liszt and was received in London by Queen Victoria.   Between 1844 and 1846 the family lived in Berlin.  His friends there included Mendelssohn and Meyerbeer.

Lessons 
In 1846 his father died and Anton went to Vienna where he gave piano lessons to try to earn some money.  When he returned to Russia in 1848 the tsar’s sister-in-law let him live in her palace.  He played for lots of parties.  Often the tsar came.

Tours 
In 1854 he toured Europe again.  Then he returned to Russia.  He wanted to improve music education in Russia so he started the Russian Musical Society and then he started the St Petersburg Conservatory.  During his long career he spent many years as director of the Conservatory as well as conducting concerts.

Compositions 
He wrote a lot of music, but although his compositions often started off with good ideas they often become rather boring.  His opera Tom the fool was not a success.  He was annoyed and wrote an article in a music magazine saying that it was not possible to write operas using Russian stories.  He criticized several composers who were writing music which used Russian folktunes.  This included the composer Mily Balakirev and his friends who were called The Mighty Handful.  He said that they had not learned how to compose properly.

Rubinstein very much wanted to be famous as a composer as well as a teacher, but this made him very narrow-minded.  However, it was as a pianist and conductor that he was important.  He helped to improve the standard of music making in Russia by teaching and performing, and by starting the conservatory in St Petersburg.

1829 births
1894 deaths
Romantic composers
Russian composers
Russian pianists