cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Events 
 January 10 – Marriage of Napoleon and Josephine is annulled
 January 20 – Tyrolean rebel leader Andreas Hofer executed
 March 11 – Napoleon marries Marie-Louise of Austria
 April 19 – Venezuela achieves home rule: Emparan, Governor of the Captaincy General is removed by the people of Caracas and a Junta is installed.
 May 10 – Revolutionary occupation of Buenos Aires town hall.
 May 25 – Armed citizens of Buenos Aires expel the Viceroy from Spain and establish a provincial government for Argentina.
 June 8  – Birth of Robert Schumann, German composer.
 June 23 – John Jacob Astor forms the Pacific Fur Company.
 July – Napoleon annexes the Kingdom of Holland.
 July 20 – Colombia declares independence from Spain.
 August 6 – City of Mompos in modern-day Colombia is declares independence from the Spanish Empire
 September 8 – The Tonquin sets sail from New York Harbor with 33 employees of John Jacob Astor's newly created Pacific Fur Company on board. After a six-month journey around the tip of South America, the ship will arrive at the mouth of the Columbia River and Astor's men will establish fur-trading town of Astoria.
 September 16 – Dieciséis de septiembre, the Mexican War of Independence of the Republic of Mexico
 September 18 – Chile forms the National Junta, which is their first passage towards independency.
 September 26 – A new Act of Succession is adopted by the Riksdag of the Estates and Jean Baptiste Bernadotte becomes heir to the Swedish throne.
 October 12 – First Oktoberfest: The Bavarian royalty invites the citizens of Munich to join the celebration of the marriage of Crown Prince Ludwig of Bavaria to Princess Therese von Sachsen-Hildburghausen.
 October 27 – United States annexes West Florida from Spain
 November 10 – the Berners Street Hoax – Theodore Hook manages to attract dozens of people to 53 Berners Street in London
 King George III of the United Kingdom recognized as insane
 Amadou Lobbo initiates his jihad in present-day Mali.
 Russia acquires Sukhumi through a treaty with Abkhazian dukes, and declares a protectorate over the whole of Abkhazia.
 Macon's Bill No. 2
 First steamboat on the Ohio River
Events 
 The Great Awakening – A Protestant religious movement active in the British colonies of North America 
 Octant invented (probably around 1730) independently by John Hadley in Great Britain and Thomas Godfrey in the American colonies

World leaders 
 Louis XV King of France (king from 1715 to 1774)
 Shahs of Persia (Safavid dynasty and Afsharid dynasty)
 Tahmasp II, 1723–1732
 Abbas III, 1732–1736
 Nadir Shah, 1736–1747 (Began the Afsharid dynasty)
 George II King of Great Britain (king from 1727 to 1760)
 Philip V King of Spain (king from 1700 to 1746)
Events 
 June 19 – The Albany Convention of New England Colonies proposes an American Union
 July – Columbia University founded as King's College by royal charter of King George II of England.  The college was originally in Lower Manhattan.  Instruction was suspended in 1776 and the school would be reopened in 1784 as Columbia College.  With the college's growth in the 19th Century, it would be renamed Columbia University in 1896.
 Change of emperor of the Ottoman Empire from Mahmud I (1730-1754) to Osman III (1754-1757)
 Beginning of the French and Indian War in North America.
 Britain and its colonies adopted a new Marriage Act that formulated many of the rules of modern marriage.

Births 
 September 9 – William Bligh, Captain of the Bounty, Governor of New South Wales (d. 1817)

 

nv:1751 – 1800
Events 
 November 5, 1605 – The Gunpowder Plot to blow up the British Parliament.
 1607 – John Smith of Jamestown enters Virginia and meets the princess, Pocahontas.
 September 2, 1609 – Henry Hudson enters New York Bay.
 Galileo popularizes the astronomical use of the telescope.
 Breast baring is a popular fashion amongst the women of England and the Netherlands.
Events 
 September 2-Henry Hudson enters New York Bay
 Lake Champlain was named for the French explorer Samuel de Champlain.
Events 
 February 8 – Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex, rebels against Queen Elizabeth I of England – his revolt is quickly crushed
 February 25 – Robert Devereux's head is chopped off as a punishment
 Jesuit Matteo Ricci arrives in China
 A bad harvest in Russia due to rainy summer
 Dutch troops chase Portuguese from Málaga
 Start of Siege of Kinsale, in Ireland – the siege started in the Autumn of 1601, and ended in the Battle of Kinsale on 3 January 1602 according to the Gregorian Calendar used today.  This calendar was already being used by the Irish and Spanish forces in the battle, but for the English side, who were still using the old Julian Calendar, the date of the battle was 24 December 1601.
Events 
 January 11 – Pope Miltiades ends his reign as the Catholic Pope.
 August 30 – Council of Arles, which confirmed the pronouncement of Donatism as a schism, and passed other canons.
 Synod of Ancyra: consulting a magician is declared a sin earning five years of penance.
 Pope Silvester I succeeds Pope Miltiades.
 Alexander becomes Bishop of Byzantium.
Year 1500 (MD) was a leap year starting on Wednesday (link will display the full calendar) of the Julian calendar. The year 1500 wasn't a leap year in the Proleptic Gregorian calendar. 

The year was seen as being especially important by many Christians in Europe, who thought it would bring the beginning of the end of the world. Their belief was based on the phrase "half-time after the time", when the apocalypse was due to occur, which appears in the Book of Revelation and was seen as referring to 1500. This time was also just after the Old World's discovery of the Americas in 1492, and therefore was influenced greatly by the New World.[1] 

Historically, the year 1500 is also often identified, somewhat arbitrarily, as marking the end of the Middle Ages and beginning of the Early Modern Era.

The end of this year marked the halfway point of the 2nd millennium, as there were 500 years before it and 500 years after it.

Events 
 Europe's population was about 60 million.
 January 5 – Duke Ludovico Sforza recaptures Milan, but is soon driven out again by the French.
 January 26 – Vicente Yáñez Pinzón becomes the first European to discover Brazil.
 April 21 – Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral officially discovers Brazil and claims the land for Portugal.
 November 11 – Treaty of Granada – Louis XII of France and Ferdinand II of Aragon agree to divide the Kingdom of Naples between them.
 Emperor Go-Kashiwabara ascends to the throne of Japan.
 Battle of Hemmingstedt: The Danish army fails to conquer the peasants' republic of Dithmarschen.
 Second Battle of Lepanto – The Turkish fleet of Kemal Re'is defeats the Venetians.  The Turks proceed to capture Modon, Lepanto, and Koron.
 The Luo, a Nilotic people from modern Sudan, settle the Cwezi states, establishing the state of Buganda. (approximate date)
 Diogo Dias is the first European to see Madagascar.
Events 
January 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Cape St. Vincent
February – Armed Neutrality of the North alliance formed between Denmark, Sweden, and Russia.
 March 26 – The British Gazette and Sunday Monitor, the first Sunday newspaper in Britain
 April 16 – The University of Münster in Münster, North Rhine-Westphalia, Germany is founded
 May 12 – American Revolutionary War: Charleston, South Carolina is taken by  British forces.
 May 29 – American Revolutionary War: Loyalist forces under Col. Banastre Tarleton kill surrendering American soldiers in the Waxhaw Massacre.
 August 16 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Camden – The British defeat the Americans near Camden, South Carolina.
 September 25 – Benedict Arnold flees to British-held New York
 October 2 –  American Revolutionary War: British spy John Andre is hanged by American forces.
 October 10-16 – Great hurricane flattens the islands of Barbados, Martinique and St. Eustatius
 November 29 – Maria Theresa of Austria dies and her Habsburg dominions pass to her ambitious son, Joseph II, who has already been Holy Roman Emperor since 1765.

Britain attacks the United Provinces before it can join the Neutral Alliance, because of its support for the American uprising.
 First Epsom Derby horse race run at Epsom Downs, Surrey, England.
 Emperor Kokaku ascends to the throne of Japan
 In Ireland, Lady Berry, who is sentenced to death for the murder of her son, is released when she agrees to become an executioner (retires 1810)
 Good grain and wine harvest in France
 35th and last volume of Diderot's Encyclopédie published

Births

Deaths
Events 
 Rebellion against king Sancho II of Portugal in favor of his brother Alphonso.
 The rebuilding of Westminster Abbey is started.
 Pope Innocent IV sends two missions to the Mongol Khan, suggesting that the Mongols convert to Christianity.
Hawaii Volcanoes National Park is a national park in the U.S. state and island of Hawaii. It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site.  The park was created in 1916. It includes The Mauna Loa, which is the Earth's biggest volcano, and Kilauea, the Earth's most active volcano.

The park shows the results of millions of years of volcanism, and evolution. These processes produce bare land from the sea, and with complex and unique ecosystems, a distinct Ancient Hawaiian culture.  Kīlauea, one of the world's most active volcanoes, and Mauna Loa is the biggest, it offers scientists with insights on the birth of the Hawaiian Islands, and can give visitors views of the dramatic volcanic landscapes.
 
In recognition of its outstanding natural values, Hawaii Volcanoes National Park has been designated as an International Biosphere Reserve in 1980 and a World Heritage Site in 1987.

Recent events
On March 19, 2008, there was a small explosion in Halemaumau crater, the first explosive event since 1924 and the first eruption in the Kīlauea caldera since September 1982. 

Debris from the explosion was scattered over an area of . A small amount of ash was also reported at a nearby community. The explosion covered part of Crater Rim Drive and damaged Halemaumau overlook. The explosion did not release any lava, which suggests to scientists that it was driven by hydrothermal or gas sources.

This explosion event followed the opening of a major sulfur dioxide gas vent, greatly increasing levels emitted from the Halemaumau crater.

In 2008, Hawai'i Volcanoes National Park and Jeju Volcanic Island and Lava Tubes became sister parks.

Gallery

Related pages 
List of World Heritage Sites in the United States

References

Other websites

Geography of Hawaii
National parks in the United States
World Heritage Sites in the United States
1916 establishments in the United States
20th-century establishments in Hawaii
Pertussis, also known as whooping cough, is a disease that affects about 300,000 people in the US every year, out of 30–50 million cases per year. There is a vaccine that can prevent it, so most cases of it are in places where people cannot afford,  cannot get, or refuse to get the vaccine. However, this vaccine does not work forever. The disease lasts about 6 weeks, and symptoms include vomiting, violent coughing, and other flu-like symptoms. It is called whooping cough for the sound an infected person makes when they cough.

The disease usually infects younger people, as they are more prone to diseases.

Other websites 
 Pertussis: new insights in diagnosis, incidence and clinical manifestations, F.G.A. Versteegh, Thesis, 2005

Diseases caused by bacteria
Respiratory system
A deity is thought to be a powerful spirit that controls events and the nature of things. Deities are also called gods. A female god is often called a goddess. The adjective of deity is ‘divine’. This word comes from the Latin deus (female: dea).

Different religions believe in different deities. Since there are many religions in the world there are many different ideas about how many deities there are, what they are, and what they can do.  Followers of many ancient religions and some modern religions believe in many deities, which is called polytheism. 

The two largest religions on earth, Christianity and Islam, believe in only one God, which is called monotheism. Deism is the belief that a deity exists, but that the deity does not very often change or never changes things in the universe. Pantheism is the belief that the universe is the deity, while atheism is the belief that there are no deities.

In most religions, believers think deities are immortal (cannot die), and have powers far beyond human powers.

Examples 

Some of the deities of different religions are:

From the Ancient Greek religion: Zeus, Apollo, Athena, Ares, Aphrodite, Poseidon, Hades, Thanatos, Dionysus, Hera, Artemis, Hephaestus, Hermes, nymph 
From the Ancient Norse religion: Thor, Odin
From the Ancient Roman religion: Jupiter, Mars, Venus
From the Ancient Egyptian religion: Isis, Osiris, Horus, Thoth, Ra, Hathor,  bastet
From Christianity: Jesus, Yahweh, the Holy Spirit (Considered to Christians as the three parts of one God)
From Judaism: Hashem
From Hinduism: Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva, Krishna, Durga, Ganesha and many more. 
From Buddhism: Deva
From Islam: Allah
From Shinto called kami: Amaterasu the Sun goddess, Inari the Fox god, Izanagi the first human, Ryuujin the Sea god, Shinigami the death gods, Susanoo the Storm god
From Deanism: Gaia
From an unknown religion Oriphine the Draconic Curiosity goddess

References
Odin (Old Norse: Óðinn) is the god of wisdom, poetry, death, divination, and magic in Norse mythology. Son of Borr and the giantess (jötunn) Bestla, Odin is the chief of the Æsir and king of Asgard. He is married to the goddess Frigg, and is father to the gods Thor, Baldr, Höðr, Víðarr, and Váli.

Known as the All-Father, Odin is often accompanied by two ravens, Huginn and Muninn, along the wolves Geri and Freki; the god rides into battle atop an eight-legged steed, Sleipnir, and wields the mighty spear Gungnir, which was fashioned for him by the dwarves known as the Sons of Ivaldi and is said to never miss its target. 

A defining feature of Odin is his being one-eyed, a result of him having sacrificed an eye to drink from the Well of Urðr, which granted him an incomprehensible amount of knowledge of the universe. Odin himself often receives counsel from the severed head of the being Mímir, which recites secret knowledge to him. Half of the souls of those slain in battle will be guided by the Valkyries, battle maidens, to Valhalla, Odin's enormous and majestic hall: the other half go to Fólkvangr, Freyja's realm. Odin was known in Old English as Wōden, in Old Saxon as Wōdan, and in Old High German as Wuotan or Wōtan, all of which stem from the reconstructed Proto-Germanic *wōđanaz. 

The modern English weekday name Wednesday bears the god’s name. (from Old English Wōdnesdæg, “Wōden’s day”).

Family
Odin is the son of Borr and the jötunn Bestla. He is married to the goddess Frigg, by whom he is the father of the twin gods Baldr and Höðr. With the giantesses Gríðr and Rindr, Odin has two other sons named Víðarr and Váli. His eldest son is Thor, god of thunder, born to him by Jörð, the personification of the Earth.

Related pics
Saturn - Roman mythology equivalent to Odin
Kronos - Greek equivalent to Odin

Other websites 
 Odin -Citizendium 

Norse gods and goddesses
Qazi Muhammad (1893-1947) was the Nationalist and Religious Kurdish leader and the Head of Republic of Mahabad (Republic of Kurdistan), the second modern Kurdish state in the Middle East (after Republic of Ararat). He acted as the president of the Russian backed Republic of Mahabad, in Kurdistan of Iran (Eastern Kurdistan) in 1946. He was also the founder of the Kurdish Democratic Party of Iran. A year later, the Kurdish national movement (Komeley Jiyanewey Kurd) that he helped organize was crushed by Iran's central government. The Iranian military court sentenced him to death, and he was hanged in Chuwarchira Square in the center of city of Mahabad at   March 30 1947. Mustafa Barzani, the father of nationalist Kurdish movement in Iraqi Kurdistan (Southern Kurdistan), was the defence minister in his cabinet. One of his sons Ali Qazi is today an active member in the kurdish movement.

Literature
Archie Roosevelt, Jr., "The Kurdish Republic of Mahabad" ,Middle East Journal, no. 1 (July 1947), pp. 247-69

1893 births
1947 deaths
History of Iran
Kurdish politicians
Brine is water that has more than 5% salt in it. It is used for preserving food. For this it is much like vinegar or sugar. Brine is also used to transport heat. Adding salt to water lowers the freezing point of the water. The solubility of salt in water depends on temperature. At 15.5 ° Celsius, a saturated solution of brine can hold 26.4 % salt by weight. At 0°, it can hold 23.3% salt.

Brines also have some pharmaceutical properties, which can be used to treat people, especially those with diseases of the skin, allergies and common colds.

Related pages
Salinity
Salt water

References

Food preservation
Medicine
Events 
 January 1 – London, Ontario is incorporated as a city.
 January 23 – The first bridge over the Mississippi River opens in what is now Minneapolis, Minnesota, a crossing made today by the Father Louis Hennepin Bridge.
 January 23 – The region of Wairarapa, New Zealand was hit by the strongest earthquake ever recorded in New Zealand, which reached Magnitude 8.1 on the Richter Scale. There were five deaths.
 January 29 – Lord Aberdeen resigns as Prime Minister of the United Kingdom over the management of the Crimean War.
 February 5 – Lord Palmerston becomes Prime Minister of the United Kingdom
 February 11 – Kassa Hailu is crowned Tewodros II, Emperor of Ethiopia, by Abuna Salama III in a ceremony at the church of Derasge Maryam.
 March 3 – US Congress appropriates $30,000 to create US Camel Corps
 March 16 – Bates College in Lewiston, Maine was founded.
 May 15 – The Great Gold Robbery of 1855 in England
 June 29 – The Daily Telegraph begins publication
 September 3 – Last Bartholomew Fair on London, England
 September 11 – Sevastapol falls to the British troops
 December 22 – Metropolitan Board of Works established.
 Stamp duty was removed from newspapers in Britain creating mass market media in the UK.
 The Panama Railway becomes the first railroad to connect the Atlantic Ocean and Pacific Ocean by rail as the railroad's route across Panama is completed.

Births 
May 10-Sri Yukteswar Giri, Indian guru
Aladdin is a fictional person from the story Aladdin and the Enchanted Lamp, which is part of the Book of One Thousand and One Nights.

Story

The young man Aladdin is told by a sorcerer (magician), who is pretending to be his uncle, to get him an oil lamp from a cave. Aladdin gets the lamp, but the sorcerer tries to trick him. So, Aladdin keeps the lamp for himself. Aladdin learns that inside the lamp there is a djinn. The djinn can fulfill every wish of the lamp's owner. With the djinn's help, Aladdin becomes rich and powerful and marries a princess. 

The sorcerer returns and tricks Aladdin's wife into giving him the magic lamp. Aladdin finds out that in a ring he has, there is another djinn. This djinn helps Aladdin defeat the sorcerer, get back the magic lamp, and save his wife.

Adaptions (new versions of the story)
There have been different versions of the story:
 Nicolas Isouard wrote an opera from it in 1822. 
 There is a ballet version by Michael François Hoguet. That version was done in 1854. Wenzel Gährich contributed the music to the ballet version. 
 There is a film The Thief of Bagdad. It was shot in 1940. It was one of the first films to use Technicolor. 
 There is a Bollywood version Aladdin and Sinbad. In it, both characters meet and participate in the adventures of each other. The djinn is female. In the end Aladdin marries her (rather than the princess).
 Disney also made a version of Aladdin, who appeared in several adaptions. In the Disney film Aladdin, he is a smart young thief in the fictional city of Agrabah. He meets and falls in love with the Sultan's daughter, Jasmine, an independent soul who, much like Aladdin, wants to escape from her current life. Jafar, the Sultan's evil advisor, tricks Aladdin into helping him find a magic lamp, which ends up with Aladdin and his monkey and friend, Abu. The lamp's occupant is a lunatic, shape-shifting genie, who promises his master three wishes, and though he cannot make Jasmine fall in love with Aladdin – he can make things easier for him. By making Aladdin look like rich and handsome Prince Ali, Aladdin does not impress the Princess, and discovers that it was his true self she liked him all along. Using his own smartness and courage, Aladdin defeats Jafar and his evil plans, becoming a prince.

Fictional characters
In Buddhism, Nirvana is the state of perfect peace free from reincarnation reached by not wanting more than you have. It means happiness and peace. It is every Buddhist's goal to achieve Nirvana. The Buddha described it as:
“the far shore, the subtle, the very difficult to see, the unaging, the stable, the undisintegrating, the unmanifest, the unproliferated, the peaceful, the deathless, the sublime, the auspicious, the secure, the destruction of craving, the wonderful, the amazing, the unailing, the unailing state, the unafflicted, dispassion, purity, freedom, the unadhesive, the island, the shelter, the asylum, the refuge...” (SN 43:14)

Related pages 
Moksha

Other websites 
 Nibbana  - excerpts from the Pali Tripitaka defining Nirvana
  "Nirvana Sutra": full English translation of the "Nirvana Sutra" and appreciation of its teachings.
 Buddha - A Hero's Journey to Nirvana
 Salvation Versus Liberation, A Buddhist View of Paradise Worlds
 In-depth explanation of Nibbana according to the Pali Canon 
  Explanation of Nibbana according to dmc 
 Mind Like Fire Unbound - a discussion of fire imagery as used in the Buddha's time
 A Buddhist practice based on the four stages of the Buddha's enlightenment that lead him to Nirvana
 Nirvana - a modern scientific view.

Buddhist terminology
The British Virgin Islands are part of the Virgin Islands, which are chain of islands in the Caribbean, the territory is part of the United Kingdom. The British Virgin Islands are the Eastern half of the island chain, and they are a British Overseas Territory. The British Virgin Islands has sixteen islands which people live on. They have more than twenty  islands with no inhabitants (people). Over 22,000 people live there, which is many fewer than the neighbouring United States Virgin Islands.

The capital city, Road Town, is on Tortola, one of the islands in the group.  Most of the people live on Tortola, but the other main inhabited islands (islands with people) are Anegada, Virgin Gorda and Jost Van Dyke.

History 
The islands were originally lived in by Caribbean Indians called Arawaks. By the time the first European explorers discovered the British Virgin Islands all of the Arawaks had left. The first Europeans to try and settle in the British Virgin Islands were the Dutch, but the English came soon after and the English and the Dutch settlers used to fight. The Spanish also claimed the islands, but no Spanish people ever tried to settle there. But the Spanish did attack the British and Dutch settlers.

In 1672 the British took control of the islands during a war against the Dutch and they have held on to them ever since.

During the early years after European settlement the British Virgin Islands was a plantation economy which relied heavily upon slave labour. After slavery was abolished in the British Virgin Islands there was a long period of decline and many people left. Those who remained were mostly descended from African slaves, although many of them also left to try and find better lives elsewhere.

In the 1950s the British Virgin Islands got its own government, and the economy of the islands began to get better with the introduction of tourism and financial services.

Government 
The British Virgin Islands are mostly indepependent, but some parts of the Government is run by the United Kingdom.

A new constitution was introduced in 2007. It grants more control over everyday life to the Islanders, and lists the protection a person can expect from the government. The head of Government in the British Virgin Islands is called the Premier, and he is in charge of a group of ministers of Government which is called the Cabinet. Laws are passed by a group of elected politicians in the House of Assembly. Most of the international relations are still dealt with by the British Government in London on behalf of the people of the British Virgin Islands.

Economy 
Most people in the British Virgin Islands work in the tourist trade or in financial services. There are also a small number of farmers and fishermen.

References

Other websites

A visual guide to the British Virgin Islands
The state of México is one of the administrative divisions of the country of Mexico. It is one of 32 administrative divisions. It is in the centre of the country. It borders Hidalgo, Querétaro, Tlaxcala, Puebla, Michoacán, Morelos and Guerrero as well as Mexico City. The capital of the state is Toluca. Its biggest city is Ecatepec de Morelos, which borders Mexico Federal district. Teotihuacan is also in this state. It is about 21.355 km²  in surface. About 14 million people live there as of 2005.

 
States of Mexico
A yawn is a reflex. It involves a large, long taking in of air, the stretching of eardrums as the jaw opens wide, and last a (sometimes loud) breathing out. Pandiculation is the act of yawning and stretching simultaneously. It is easy to see when someone is yawning, but no-one knows what its function is.

Yawning is commonly associated with tiredness, stress, overwork, lack of stimulation and boredom. In humans, yawning is often triggered by others yawning (e.g. seeing a person yawning, talking to someone on the phone who is yawning) and is a typical example of positive feedback. This "infectious" yawning has also been observed in chimpanzees and dogs. Cats both yawn and stretch, though not necessarily at the same time.

Contagiousness 
The yawn reflex has long been observed to be contagious. In 1508, Erasmus wrote, "One man's yawning makes another yawn.," and the French proverbialized the idea to "Un bon bâilleur en fait bâillier deux." ("One good gaper makes two others gape"). Often, if one person yawns, this may cause another person to "empathetically" yawn. Observing another person's yawning face (especially his/her eyes), even reading, or thinking about yawning, or looking at a yawning picture can cause a person to yawn.

The immediate cause for contagious yawning may be the mirror neurons in the frontal cortex of certain vertebrates, which, upon being exposed to a stimulus, activates the same regions in the brain. Mirror neurons have been proposed as a driving force for imitation which lies at the root of much human learning such as language acquisition. Yawning may be an offshoot of the same imitative impulse.

Reasons, functions 
Charles Darwin argued, in The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals, that if a behaviour was present in many cultures, then it must be inherited (wholly or partly). All traits which appear in a wide range of animals must have some function which is supported (or was supported) by natural selection. In most cases the function is obvious, but with yawning we do not know what that function is. Suggestions have been made, but they do not seem to account for its widespread occurrence in mammals, and possibly in other vertebrates.

Other vertebrates 
Because mammals have similar emotions, and can show their emotions very clearly, it is agreed that when they look as if they are yawning, it is yawning in every sense. The reasons for this are similar to the reasons why we think other humans feel the same as us when the show the same signs.

References 

Ethology
Physiology
Constantine can mean:
Constantine I, a Roman (Byzantine) Emperor

Constantine, a movie with Keanu Reeves

fi:Konstantinus
is an American actor, musician, singer and writer.

Lennon was born on October 9, 1975 at New York Hospital in New York City, He is the son of John Lennon and his second wife Yoko Ono. He is Japanese on his mother's side and English, Welsh and Irish on his father's side. This makes him Eurasian. He has the same birthday as his father.

Lennon is currently dating model/musician Charlotte Muel.  Lennon had been engaged to musican Bijou Phillips.

Groups involved in
Lennon has worked  with Mark Ronson and childhood friend Jordan Galland.
He has been a member of the groups Cibo Matto, Ghost of a Saber Toothed Tiger and Dopo Yume.

Filmography

References 

1975 births
Living people
Actors from New York City
American movie actors
American rock guitarists
John Lennon
Musicians from New York City
Singer-songwriters from New York
Singers from New York City
Wallonia (, ) or the Walloon Region (French: Région wallonne) is a French-speaking region in the south of Belgium. Its official languages are French (98%) and German (2%). Many people understand the local language Walloon, some still speak it, and few people write it. German is spoken mainly in the area of the German-speaking Community of Belgium.

The capital of the region is Namur. Other important cities are: Liège, Charleroi, Mons, Tournai and Verviers.

French speaking Walloons share the French community with French speaking people of Brussels.

Current Minister-President of the Walloon Government is Willy Borsus.

Wallonia is one of three regions in Belgium. The other two regions are Flanders (or Flemish Region) and Brussels-Capital Region.
Events 
 Start of the Golden Age of the Netherlands.
 Beginning of Dutch colonization of North America
The King James Version of the Bible comes out.

Deaths 
William Shakespeare, English poet
Events 
King Gustav III of Sweden makes a new constitution in Sweden, and gains total power.
Marquis de Sade sentenced to death.

Births 
May 20-Sir William Congreve, English inventor.
August 24 – King William I of the Netherlands

Deaths 
March 29 – Emanuel Swedenborg, Swedish thinker and mathematician
Buddy Holly (born in Lubbock, Texas as Charles Hardin Holley, September 7, 1936 – February 3, 1959) was an American rock and roll singersongwriter. In April 1959, he had a number one song (after  death) on UK Singles Chart music chart. He wrote "That'll Be the Day"; In 1957 the song when played by The Crickets, went to number one on Billboard Hot 100 and UK Singles Chart.

Holly was important in the history of rock and roll music overall, and in the sub genre, rockabilly music.

Holly played several different types of instruments. His style was influenced by gospel music, country music, and rhythm and blues. The style of his music shifted from country and western to entirely rock and roll. His group were called The Crickets.

Buddy Holly died on February 3, 1959 when a Beechcraft Bonanza 35 airplane carrying him crashed into a field near Mason City, Iowa. Also killed in the crash were Ritchie Valens and J.P. "The Big Bopper" Richardson, including pilot Roger Peterson.

In popular culture
Singer Don McLean's popular 1971 song "American Pie" made February 3 known as "The Day the Music Died."

References

Other websites 
 Official website
 Buddy Holly Online
 International Buddy Site
 Buddy Holly (audio) on the Pop Chronicles

American composers
American rock guitarists
American rock singers
Singer-songwriters from Texas
Aviation deaths in the United States
1936 births
1959 deaths
People from Lubbock, Texas
Henry John Deutschendorf Jr. (December 31, 1943 – October 12, 1997) was an American musician and songwriter. He was of German and Irish ancestry. He was very popular in the 1970s. He died when the plane he was flying crashed in California.

Denver began his music career with folk music groups during the late 1960s. By 1974, he was one of America's best-selling performers, and AllMusic has described Denver as "among the most beloved entertainers of his era"  On 12 October 1997, John Denver died in a plane crash aged 53.

Studio albums

Awards and recognition 
Academy of Country Music

 1974 Album of the Year for Back Home Again

American Music Awards

 1975 Favorite Pop/Rock Male Artist
 1976 Favorite Country Album for Back Home Again
 1976 Favorite Country Male Artist

Country Music Association

 1975 Entertainer of the Year
 1975 Song of the Year for "Back Home Again"

Emmy Awards

 1975 Emmy for Outstanding Variety, Music or Comedy Special for An Evening With John Denver

Grammy Awards

 1997 Best Musical Album For Children for All Aboard!
 1998 Grammy Hall of Fame Award for "Take Me Home, Country Roads"

Songwriters Hall of Fame

 Inducted in 1996

Death 
On 12 October 1997, a lite plane Denver was piloting, crashed into Monterey Bay, killing him. Denver was 53 years old; his remains were cremated, and his ashes were scattered in the Rocky Mountains.

References 

1943 births
1997 deaths
American country guitarists
American country singers
American folk musicians
American pop musicians
American singer-songwriters
Singers from New Mexico
Aviation deaths in the United States
Musicians from New Mexico
Writers from New Mexico
Roswell, New Mexico
Namur (, ) is a city in Belgium. It is both the capital of the province with the same name, as well as of Wallonia, one of the three administrative regions of Belgium. It is in the French-speaking part of Belgium. 

In 2012, there were 112'246 people in Namur.

Namur is at 50° 27 North, 04° 51 East.

References
A helicopter (also often used: chopper or heli) is a kind of flying machine or aircraft. A helicopter lifts up off 
of the ground and moves because of its rotors. A rotor is several small wings, called rotor blades, that spin together around a shaft. For that reason, helicopters are sometimes called rotary-wing aircraft. A helicopter flies differently from an airplane. An airplane must move forward to stay in the air, but because the helicopter's rotor blades are always moving, the helicopter can stop and stay in one place above the ground. Not needing a runway, they can land in places where an airplane cannot. Helicopters can move by tilting their rotor blades, which causes the aircraft to fly in the direction the blades are tilted.

History
Since around 400 BC, the Chinese had a flying top that was used as a children's toy. The flying top was made from bamboo and used the same method of spinning wings to fly up in the air. Later flying tops were made of feathers tied to a stick. Leonardo da Vinci first thought of a helicopter flown by a man in 1490, and drew pictures of his ideas. It was hundreds of years later (in the early 20th century) before anyone built one that could really fly. The first practical helicopters were built by Frenchman Louis Breguet in 1935 and by German Henrich Focke in 1936. A Russian immigrant, Igor Sikorsky, built and perfected the first practical helicopter in America in 1939.

Uses
Helicopters are especially useful when there are disasters when infrastructure is damaged. Food packets, water, medicines and clothes are dropped from the air to people on the ground who cannot be reached by road. When people are injured, helicopters can carry them to hospitals faster than an ambulance on the road. 

Helicopters are also used by the military, because they can move troops and equipment to places an airplane cannot take them. Attack helicopters act as attack aircraft carrying and shooting guns and missiles.

Training helicopter is used for learning how to be a helicopter pilot.

 
Aircraft
Baku (; , from the medieval  Bâd-kube, meaning "wind-pounded city", a compound word of bād, "wind", and kube, which is rooted in the verb کوبیدن kubidan, "to pound", thus meaning a place where the wind would be strong and pounding, and ancient city names  Baraca/) is the capital) is the capital and the largest city of Azerbaijan, as well as the largest city on the Caspian Sea and of the Caucasus region. It is on the southern shore of the Absheron Peninsula. Baku is located  below sea level, which makes it the lowest lying national capital in the world and also the largest city in the world located below sea level. Modern Baku has three parts: the Old Town (İçəri Şəhər), the boomtown and the Soviet-built town. About 3 million people live in the metropolitan area.  There are large numbers of refugees and internally displaced persons.

In Baku area there is a lot of oil. There are a lot of state and private universities.

Baku is hosted the 57th Eurovision Song Contest in May 2012.  They also bid to host the 2020 Summer Olympics.  The city's three main football clubs are Neftchi Baku, FC Baku and Inter Baku. Baku is one of world's leading chess centres.

Divisions
Today, Baku is divided into 11 raions (administrative districts) and 5 settlements of city type.

References
Windows ME is the Millennium Edition of the Microsoft Windows operating system. Windows ME is based on Windows 98. Windows Me was based on MS-DOS (as were Windows 98 and Windows 95), and is meant for people using computers in their homes. Windows 2000 and Windows ME are similar in looks, but Windows ME has features that families find useful, while Windows 2000 was meant for businesses, although many home users also used Windows 2000 especially after Windows ME got bad reviews.

It was released in the year 2000, and thus was called Windows Millennium Edition. It was the last Windows to be based on MS-DOS. Unlike Windows 2000, Windows ME generally got negative reviews due to bugs and incompatible hardware. Support and updates for Windows ME (and Windows 98) ended in 2006, whereas Windows 2000 was supported until 2010.

References

Microsoft operating systems
A librarian is a person responsible for selecting, organizing, and delivering information materials in a variety of formats such as electronic databases, primary source materials, or printed books. Librarians also teach people to find and evaluate information found on the World Wide Web using Internet search tools and strategies. Librarians may work in different areas. Purchasing materials, putting them into categories, teaching, assisting people with questions, and working with information technology are a few of the possible specializations.

The role of a librarian varies across different types of libraries and locations.

Training 
To become a librarian in a university a person needs to have a master's degree in Library Science (MLS) or a master's degree in Library and Information Science.

Employment 
Most librarians work for libraries in schools, colleges, or universities or in municipal, regional, or national libraries. Some librarians also work for private companies, to help them to organize their documents and reports. There are librarians that also work with the deaf and in prisons.

Related jobs 
Other jobs in libraries include the job of library technician. To become a library technician, a person needs to complete a college diploma.

References 

 
Education occupations
A gold rush is when a lot of miners go to a mining place full of gold. Well-known examples are the California Gold Rush of 1849, the Australian gold rush which began in 1851, or the Fraser river gold rush in British Columbia, Canada in 1858.

References
The California Gold Rush started when James Wilson Marshall was building a water powered sawmill for John Sutter in 1848. When he finished building the sawmill, he went to the river to fetch some water. He saw some shiny little flakes of gold in the river. He immediately went to tell John, and they tried to keep it a secret. But word soon got out, and the gold rush started.

It was 1849 when the Gold Rush started. People who came to California for gold were called forty-niners because they came in the year 1849. Some of them became rich but most did not. Some people started selling things. Many of them became rich, famous, and politically powerful. Sometimes a woman could earn more than her mining husband. 

Men like Levi Strauss also sold things. He invented and sold jeans made from strong denim. The California Gold Rush ended in 1855. Many gold miners went back home because gold was harder to find; others found other work.
 

1840s in California
1850s in California
Gold rushes
The  (FIFA ; French for "International Federation of Association Football") is the organization that controls international football (also called association football). The organization’s main  buildings are in Zürich, Switzerland. FIFA organizes major international football tournaments, and the most famous one is the FIFA World Cup, which has been held since 1930. FIFA was established on May 21, 1905 in Paris and has 209 national associations as its members. The organization’s official languages are English, French, German and Spanish.

The president of FIFA is currently Gianni Infantino, serving since 26 February 2016.

The most powerful organ of FIFA is the FIFA Congress, which is an assembly made up of representatives from each member association. The Congress holds a regular meeting once a year, and since 1998 an additional meeting has been held every year. Only the Congress can pass changes to FIFA's laws.

The Congress decides whether FIFA should accept new national associations and elects the President of FIFA, its General Secretary and the other members of FIFA's executive committee. The President and General Secretary take care of what goes on within and around FIFA. The executive committee, with the President as its head, is responsible for deciding the dates, locations and format of tournaments.

Also, there are six regional confederations recognized by FIFA which take care of the game in the seven different continents of the world. National associations must be members of both FIFA and their regional confederation in order for their teams to compete in FIFA's competitions. The six confederations are AFC (Asian Football Confederation in Asia and Australia), CAF (Confédération Africaine de Football in Africa), CONCACAF (Confederation of North, Central American and Caribbean Association Football in North America and Central America), CONMEBOL (Confederación Sudamericana de Fútbol in South America), OFC (Oceania Football Confederation in Oceania) and UEFA (Union Européenne de Football Association in Europe).

Related pages 
 FIFA World Cup
 FIFA Women's World Cup
 FIFA Club World Cup
 Asian Football Confederation
 Confederation of African Football
 CONCACAF
 CONMEBOL
 Oceania Football Confederation
 UEFA

Further reading 
 Paul Darby, Africa, Football and Fifa: Politics, Colonialism and Resistance (Sport in the Global Society), Frank Cass Publishers 2002, .
 John Sugden, FIFA and the Contest For World Football, Polity Press 1998, .
 Jim Trecker, Charles Miers, J. Brett Whitesell, ed., Women's Soccer: The Game and the Fifa World Cup, Universe 2000, Revised Edition, .

References

Other websites 

 Official website 
 FIFA Laws of the Game 

 
1904 establishments
A smile is a face made by flexing the muscles near both ends of the mouth. The smile can also be made through the eyes (See 'Duchenne smile' below). Smiles usually express happiness. A smile can be natural or fake. However, smiling can be different with animals. When smiling, the teeth shows, but sometimes animals do this when they are threatening. When chimpanzees show their teeth, it can also be a sign of fear.

Dimples 

Dimples are genetically inherited. They are caused by the flesh underneath the skin, that forms on some people's cheeks, especially when they smile. Some people may only have one dimple on only one side of the face.

Duchenne smile 

Although there are many different types of smiles, researchers are interested in the duchenne smile because it is done with the eyes. The Duchenne smile was named after the French physician Guillaume Duchenne. Duchenne identified two types of smiles. A Duchenne smile is when the cheek raises and forms a wrinkle around the eyes. Many researchers think that Duchenne smiles are usually hard to make when you are pretending to smile.

Internet

On the Internet, smiles can normally be typed up. This is normally called a smiley, smiley face, or happy face. Smileys show emotion when people are not able to see it in real life. Smileys typed on the computer are called emoticons. Smileys can change depending on where the person typing the smiley is.

Western Style: :-), :-(, ;-), :-O, :-D, (;D)

Eastern Style: d(^.^)b, \(^o^)/, >.<, ^_^, *<):)

Related pages
Laughter
Smiley
Social psychology

References

More reading
Conniff, R. (2007). What's behind a smile? Smithsonian Magazine, 38,46-53.
Ottenheimer, H.J. (2006). The anthropology of language: An introduction to linguistic anthropology. Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworh.
Ekman, P., Davidson, R.J., & Friesen, W.V. (1990). The Duchenne smile: emotional expression and brain psysiology II. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 342-353. 
Russell and Fernandez-Dols eds. 1997. The psychology of facial expression. Cambridge. .
 Messinger D. & Fogel A. 2007.  The interactive development of social smiling. In  Robert Kail (ed) Advances in child development and behavior, 35, 327-366. Oxford: Elsevier. Retrieved 25 June 2010 from

Other websites 

 BBC News: Scanner shows unborn babies smile

Non-verbal communication
Słupsk is a city in northern Poland in Pomeranian Voivodeship. It has about 100.000 inhabitants and 43,15 km².

Cities in Poland
The Emperor of Ethiopia was the name of the ruler of Ethiopia until 1975 when the emperors and the royal family, the Solomonids, were taken out of power.

The name that was used for Emperor by the Ethiopians means King of Kings.

Emperors and empresses
Ethiopia
The Solomonid dynasty was a line of emperors that ruled in Ethiopia from 1270 to 1975.  There were some other emperors that ruled who were not from the Solomonid dynasty, but the Solomonids were in control most of the time.  

The emperors did not use their real name when they became Emperor of Ethiopia, but they made up a new one for their rule.  For example, the first Emperor of the Solomonids was Yekuno Amlak.  But he used the name Tasfa Iyassus after he became ruler. 

The dynasty began in 1270, when Yekuno Amlak killed the last king of the Zagwe dynasty, which had ruled Ethiopia.  Yekuno Amlak was made king, and European historians say was the first ruler of the dynasty.  But most Ethiopian books say that Menelik I, the son of King Solomon of Israel and the Queen of Sheba, was the first Emperor of this dynasty.

The leaders of Ethiopia from 1270 to 1975 (mostly Solomonids): 

History of Ethiopia
Royal dynasties
13th-century establishments in Africa
1975 disestablishments
1270 establishments
20th-century disestablishments in Africa
The Sound of Music is a musical. It was based on a 1956 German movie, Die Trapp-Familie and The Story of the Trapp Family Singers by Maria von Trapp. The book was written by Howard Lindsay and Russel Crouse. The lyrics were written by Oscar Hammerstein II. The music was written by Richard Rodgers. It was the last musical written by Rodgers and Hammerstein. Hammerstein died nine months after the Broadway opening.

Story 
A young Austrian woman named Maria Rainer becomes the governess to the children of Captain Georg von Trapp, a widow. The children included Liesl (16), Fredrich (14), Louisa (13), Kurt (10 or 11), Brigitta (9), Marta (7) and Gretl (5). Maria teaches the children how to sing, during the famous song Do Re Mi. The captain and Maria fall in love and marry. Von Trapp refuses to join the Nazis and escapes from the Salzburg Festival, where his family performed. The story ends with Maria and her family leaving from Austria to Switzerland.

Productions
The Sound of Music was released on 16 November 1959 at the Lunt-Fontanne Theatre on Broadway. It starred Mary Martin as Maria and Theodore Bikel as Captain von Trapp. It moved to the Mark Hellinger Theatre on 6 November 1962, and closed on 15 June 1963 after 1,443 performances. The musical opened on the West End at the Palace Theatre on 18 May 1961. It starred Jean Bayless as Maria and Roger Dann as Capt. von Trapp. The musical ran for 2,385 performances.

Awards
The musical won a Tony Award for Best Musical.

Adaptations
The musical was released as a 1965 movie starring Julie Andrews and Christopher Plummer.

 

1950s musicals
Broadway musicals
West End musicals
Musicals by Rodgers and Hammerstein
Musicals based on books