cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Glycolysis is a metabolic process in most organisms. It is the first stage in cellular respiration. It allows both aerobic  and anaerobic respiration. Glycolysis releases only a small amount of energy. The word "glycosis" comes from the Greek words γλυκύς (meaning "sweet") and λύσις (meaning "rupture").

Glycolysis is thought to be the archetype of a universal metabolic pathway. It occurs, with variations, in almost all organisms, both aerobic and anaerobic. The wide occurrence of glycolysis shows that it is one of the most ancient known metabolic pathways.

Glycolysis has ten intermediate compounds, catalysed by ten different enzymes. Only the broad outline is described here.

Process

Preparatory phase 
The first half of glycolysis is the preparatory phase. It starts off by adding a phosphate group to glucose (Glucose 6-phosphate). Next, the Glucose 6-phosphate is converted into Fructose 6-phosphate. Another phosphate group is added turning it into fructose -1,6- biphosphate. The fructose -1,6-biphosphate is then split in two, one part turning into G3P (Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate) and dihydroxyacetone phosphate. The dihydroxyacetone phosphate is converted into G3P, leaving us with the two G3P triose sugar molecules used in the Pay-off phase.

Pay-off phase 
The second half of glycolysis is known as the 'pay-off phase', by the net gain of the energy-rich molecules ATP and NADH. Since glucose leads to two triose (G3P) sugars in the preparatory phase, each reaction in the pay-off phase occurs twice per glucose molecule. This yields 2 NADH molecules and 4 ATP molecules, leading to a net gain of 2 NADH molecules and 2 ATP molecules from the glycolytic pathway per glucose molecule.

Summary: 2ATP → 4ATP + 2(NADH + H+) + 2 pyruvate (net production of 2ATP)

Aerobic respiration 
Cells performing aerobic respiration (respiration using oxygen) synthesize much more ATP, but not as part of glycolysis. These further reactions use the pyruvate from glycolysis. 

Eukaryote aerobic respiration produces about 30 additional molecules of ATP for each glucose molecule.
Glycolysis, through anaerobic respiration, is the main energy source in many cells.

Related pages 
Cellular respiration (overview)
Link reaction
Krebs cycle (Citric acid cycle)
Electron transport chain (ETC)

References

Other websites 
 The Glycolytic enzymes in Glycolysis 
 Metabolism, Cellular Respiration and Photosynthesis - The Virtual Library of Biochemistry and Cell Biology 
 Notes on glycolysis 

Cellular respiration
Metabolism
In psychology, an archetype is a model of a person, personality, or behavior.

In the analysis of personality, the term archetype is often broadly used to refer to
 a stereotype—personality type observed multiple times, especially an oversimplification of such a type; or
 an epitome—personality type exemplified, especially the "greatest" such example.

But in a strict linguistic sense, an archetype is merely a defining example of a personality type. In this sense "mother figure" can be considered an archetype and instances can be found in various female characters with distinct personalities.

Archetypes have been present in mythology and literature for hundreds of years. The use of archetypes to analyze personality was advanced by Carl Jung early in the 20th century. The value in using archetypal characters in fiction derives from the fact that a large group of people are able to unconsciously recognize the archetype, and thus the motivations, behind the character's behavior.

Etymology 
The word archetype appeared in European texts as early as 1545. It derives from the Latin noun archetypum via the Greek noun arkhetypon and adjective arkhetypos, meaning "first-moulded". The Greek roots are arkhe- ("first" or "original") + typos ("model", "type", "blow", "mark of a blow").

References 
 Jung, C. G., (1934–1954). The Archetypes and The Collective Unconscious. (1981 2nd ed. Collected Works Vol.9 Part 1), Princeton, N.J.: Bollingen. 
 Arrien, Angeles (1992). Signs Of Life:  The Five Universal Shapes And How To Use Them.  Sonoma, CA, USA:  Arcus Publishing Company.

Notes

Other websites
 Einführung in die Archetypen des Unbewussten nach C.G. Jung

Psychology
A prototype is an original type, form, or instance of some thing.  It serves as a typical example or standard for things of the same category. Some prototypes are used to find defects or to test an idea.

Different kinds

Prototypes are built for different reasons:
Proof of principle prototype (or model): Shows that something can be done.  These kinds of prototypes are built to test a part of the design. These prototypes do not look like the finished product, in most cases. Such prototypes are used to show that certain design choices will work or will not work.
Form-study prototype (model): This tries to show what the finished design will look like, but without the function. Such prototypes allow to take decisions about the exact shape, size, or ergonomic properties.  This lets a designer see if things fit together, and will feel right.
Visual prototype: These will look like the actual product, and are used for market research. They do not have any of the functionality of the final product. An example is a concept car at a car show.  It may look like a new car but may not even have an engine.
Functional prototype: These will behave and act like the final product as much as possible. For cost reasons, they may be smaller in size, or they may not have the final look of the product.

Manufacturing

fr:Étalon (modèle)
Flies in the genus Microdon are a type of hoverfly. Microdon and its subfamily are different from most other flies because they are myrmecophiles. This means they live in ant colonies (nests). There are more than 350 species of Microdon in the world. Some of these will be split off in time because Microdon has been used as a catch-all for various unrelated species. Most Microdon live in the tropics; 30 species live in North America.

What they look like 
Microdon adults are very hairy and look like bees. They are 8 to 15 mm long. The antennae are almost as long as the fly's face. These flies have black or pale (white or golden) hairs, and their bodies are either black or metallic green or blue.

The larvae of Microdon flies look strange. They are very round and look like stout little slugs. At first scientists thought they were mollusks and scale insects. They move slowly.

What they do 
Adult Microdon flies do not hover around flowers such as many other hoverflies; instead they remain close to the ant colonies where they grew up.

Larvae may be found very deep in ant nests. Some Microdon larvae eat ant larvae (Duffield 1981); others are scavengers, which means they eat dead plants or insects in the ant colony. Most Microdon larvae can only live in the colony of one kind of ant.

References 

Flies
A pattern is an idea, a concept or a model. The model is usually abstract, and can then be applied to the domain where it is used. Pattern matching is checking if a certain pattern is present. Many patterns can directly be recognised by the senses. 

Some patterns are based on the fact that there are repetitions, that a certain thing occurs over and over again. An example of a simple pattern might be the tiling of a floor. For example, lots of bathrooms have a paisley or floral tiling pattern on the floor. In computer science, design patterns are model solutions for problems that occur often. Sometimes people see patterns when there are none. This is called pareidolia.

Mathematical patterns 
In Mathematics, there are many different patterns. For example, the Fibonacci sequence is a complex type of pattern. There are some simple ones like:

1, 2, 4, 8, 16, ...

In this pattern, the next number is the product of the previous number multiplied by 2. Basically a mathematical pattern is a sequence of numbers which follows one rule.

Everyday life
Computer science
Bean is the name used for the seeds of several plants. Most of these plants are known as legumes. Their scientific name is Fabaceae. Common beans, lentils, soybeans, peas are some types of beans.  Beans contain a lot of fibre. They are also high in protein. Vetches and lupins are all in that group of plants but not all legumes are edible. Laburnums for example are very poisonous as are some lupins.  

The seeds of other plants (which are not Fabaceae), are sometimes also called beans. This is mostly because they look like true beans. Example for such beans are Coffee beans, Cocoa beans, and Vanilla beans.

Gallery
Edward Jonathan "Eddie" Izzard (born 7 February 1962) is an English actor and stand-up comedian. She has acted in movies and television. She is known for her strange comedy and for being a transvestite (she often wears men's clothes when working and in her personal life). Before going into entertainment, she had a successful career in clinical research where she was widely regarded as the 'Queen of risk-based monitoring'.

Personal life
Izzard has described herself as "a lesbian trapped in a man's body".

Other websites 
Izzard's website

References

British stand-up comedians
British television producers
Drama Desk Award winners
English comedians
English movie actors
English television actors
English voice actors
LGBT actors
LGBT comedians
English LGBT people
1962 births
Living people
An emulator is a computer program or software that makes one kind of computer behave like a different one, so that it can use the same programs or do the same things as the other one. They are best for using old software and games on newer computers. They can be hardware that you add to the computer, or software that you use on it. Some types of emulators require newer computers that have the right system requirements. For example, you need a processor that is fast enough to meet the demands of the emulator. Memory (both RAM and hard drive space) may be another factor to help it run smoothly and more accurately. With the more advanced emulators, if your computer is too old, the emulator or even the operating system may crash.

Types of emulators 
The simplest type of emulator is called an interpreter, and it runs the foreign program one step at a time. This is the slowest type of emulator but it is easy to debug and port to new platforms. Another type is called the dynamic recompiler, and it takes foreign code a block at a time and recompiles (converts) it into native code. Foreign code that has already been converted is kept, so if the foreign program uses that code again, the emulator does not have to recompile it again. This type of emulator is much faster than the interpreter. Another type is the virtualizer, which only makes slight modifications to the foreign code, and runs it directly on the host processor. The virtualizer requires that the guest (foreign) and host systems use the same type of CPU.

Software
Computer science
SkyOS is a privately-owned operating system currently in production. SkyOS is mostly POSIX-compliant. It comes with the core of the open source GNU tools, including GCC.

Due to its level of POSIX-compliance and port of the GTK+ widget toolkit, many Linux or other UNIX applications have been ported, including AbiWord and Gaim, as well as a few games, such as Quake.

It was made by Robert Szeleney.

Other websites 
 SkyOs official website 

Operating systems
Jodie Foster (born Alicia Christian Foster; November 19, 1962) is an American actress, movie director and producer. She has starred in many movies like Bugsy Malone, Taxi Driver, The Silence of the Lambs and Panic Room. She has won many awards including two Oscars. 

Foster began directing movies in 1991. These include Little Man Tate; Home for the Holidays  and The Beaver.

Foster is openly lesbian and is married to photographer Alexandra Hedison. Hedison is the daughter of actor David Hedison.

Movie work
1976: Taxi Driver as Iris Steensma
1976: Bugsy Malone as Tallulah
1988: The Accused as Sarah Tobias
1991: The Silence of the Lambs as Clarice Starling
1997: Contact as Dr. Ellie Arroway
2002: Panic Room as Meg Altman
2021: The Mauritanian as Nancy Hollander

References

Other websites

1962 births
Living people
Academy Award winning actors
Actors from Los Angeles
American child actors
American movie actors
American television actors
BAFTA Award winning actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
Lesbians
LGBT actors
LGBT directors
LGBT people from Los Angeles
LGBT producers
Movie directors from Los Angeles
Movie producers from Los Angeles
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
The word Context have a couple of meanings:

 Context (language): the text in which a word or passage appears and which affects its meaning; also the words and social setting which surrounds a spoken word or passage.

 ConTeXt, a macro package for the TeX typesetting system
 ConTEXT, a Windows text editor
 Context (computing), the virtual environment required to suspend a running software program
 Archaeological context, an event in time which has been preserved in the archaeological record
 the Context Science Fiction Convention, held every fall in Columbus, Ohio

Context may also be used for:

 Context analysis, analysis of the environment in which a business operates
 Context awareness, ability for computers to adjust to the natural environment
 Context menu, usability improvement based on context awareness
 Context mixing, a type of data compression algorithm
 Context principle, philosophy of language
 Context Sensitive Solutions, transportation
 Context theory, theory of how environmental design and planning of new development should relate to its context
 Contextualization, a translation approach that is not literal; predominately used in regards to Bible translations
 Trama (context or flesh), the mass of non-hymenial tissues that composes the mass of a fungal fruiting body
 Low context culture
 High context culture

Related pages
 Locality (disambiguation)
 State (disambiguation)
 Natural environment
 Causality
 Context free
 Context-sensitive
 Opaque context
Orthodoxy means right belief or purity of faith. Orthodoxy is established by an absolute authority. 

The term "orthodoxy" or "orthodox" is typically used to label or identify a specific kind of theology and doctrine of religion.

Orthodoxy or "correct" belief is not subjective.

References

Related pages 
 Orthodox Judaism
 Orthodox church

Other websites
 History of Orthodox Christianity
 Orthodox Christian Information Center

Theology
Christian terminology
Corn Pops is a breakfast cereal made by Kellogg's. It was originally called Sugar Pops in 1951, and then changed Sugar Corn Pops, and then to "Corn Pops" and in January of 2006 the name of the cereal was changed to Pops, only to be changed back to Corn Pops several months later. In the middle of 2007, Corn Pops made a new kind of cereal called "Peanut Butter Pops".

Canadian variant
Canadian Corn Pops are round, while the American Corn Pops are flat and longer.
Canadian and American Corn Pops taste very different; it has been suggested that the American type is sweeter. They also have a different texture. Canadian Corn Pops are closer to Kix cereal.
Canadian and American Corn Pops contain no trans-fat.

Taglines 
Sugar Corn Pops Are Tops! (pre-1980s)
Gotta get... POPS! (1981 - 1988)
Gotta have my pops. (1988 - 2000)
It's hard to stop when it's pops. (1995 - 1999)

References

Other websites 
Kellogg's

Breakfast cereals
Końskowola   is a village in Southeastern Poland. It is the capital of a separate commune within Puławy County and the Lublin Voivodeship. It has 2,188 inhabitants (as of 2004).

History 
The town was established on June 8, 1532. Końskowola served as a center of the foodstuffs trade for the surrounding area. Several textile production factories were also located there. 
During World War II, on September 15, 1939, Końskowola was taken by German troops and occupied. During the course of WWII, the Germans set up a POW camp and camps for slave labor in the town. The POW camp was soon stopped, but a labor camp continued in operation through 1943. 

A ghetto was established in the town, to which many groups of Jews were relocated, including Jews from Slovakia. On May 8, 1942, the Nazis conducted an Aktion in which many Jews were rounded up and transported to a death camp. In October 1942, the ghetto's population was killed in a massacre carried out by German troops. Some 800-1000 Jews, among them women and children, were taken to a nearby forest and killed. The ghetto's remaining inhabitants were moved to another camp.

With the approach of Soviet Union forces in the summer of 1944, the Germans had plans to burn the town. On July 25, 1944, the German occupation forces were attacked by fighters of the Polish resistance. The town was soon freed from the Germans.

Villages in Poland
Bellinzona ([] in French Bellinzone [] and Bilitio [] in Latin) is the capital of the Swiss Canton of Ticino. Its German name Bellenz [] is no longer in use. With about 17.300 people living there, it is the second biggest city of the canton (after Lugano, with about 52.000 people).

On 2 April 2017 the former municipalities of Camorino, Claro, Giubiasco, Gnosca, Gorduno, Gudo, Moleno, Monte Carasso, Pianezzo, Preonzo, Sant'Antonio and Sementina merged into the municipality of Bellinzona.

References

Other websites 

 Bellinzona official website 
Rabadan carnival
UNESCO

Municipalities of Ticino
Capital cities in Switzerland
James Rodney "J. R." Richard (March 7, 1950 – August 4, 2021) was an American Major League Baseball starting pitcher for the Houston Astros. Richard was excellent in basketball and baseball in high school. He was drafted by the Houston Astros in the first round of the 1969 amateur draft. He made his baseball debut on September 5, 1971, and pitched a complete game and had fifteen strikeouts. After that, he was one of the top pitchers in the National League, and in all of baseball. He led the league in many pitching categories. They include strikeouts, earned run average (ERA) and hits allowed per nine innings.

On July 30, 1980, Richard suffered a stroke and collapsed while playing catch before a game. He was sent to Methodist Hospital in Houston, Texas and had emergency surgery. The surgery removed a dangerous blood clot in his neck. The next year, Richard tried to make a comeback into baseball, but the stroke had slowed down his reaction time and vision. He then spent the next few seasons in minor league baseball. He was later released by the Astros on April 27, 1984. After baseball, Richard was involved in business. He had a few bad business deals and went through two divorces. This left him homeless in 1994. He then found help in a local church, and then became a minister and baseball instructor for young people in Houston.

Richard died on August 4, 2021 at a hospital in Houston, aged 71. The cause of death was problems caused by COVID-19.

References

Other websites

Retrosheet: J. R. Richard

1950 births
2021 deaths
American baseball players
Houston Astros players
Sportspeople from Louisiana
National League All-Stars
Deaths from the COVID-19 pandemic in the United States
Lusaka is the capital of Zambia. It is also the largest city in that country. It is in south central Zambia on a plateau at 1300 m (4265 ft) in altitude. Lusaka has 1,084,703 people living in it.

References

Capital cities in Africa
Cities in Zambia
A shield is the name used to refer to any object or force used to block something.

History 
The oldest shield known was a device used to block hand weapons and arrows. The shield has been constructed differently over time, even animal hides were used, and the size and weight were largely different as well.

Middle Ages 

In the Middle Ages, Kite shields were commonly used. The Kite shield is a shield in the form of a kite. Because of the lack of mobility due of the kite shields' weight, kite shields were given up for more mobility and two handed weapons. The Buckler was a shield with a round shape. It was commonly used as a replacement for the heavy Kite shields.

Modern Shields 

Shields were used even after gunpowder weapons. the shield is still used by police and army forces today. Many shields now in days are usually made from advanced material, as well as electronics. Shields also vary from not only hand helds, but clothing, such as vests and, in a way, boots and gloves.

Future 
The future of shields have varied from multiple ideas and fiction, usually force fields and energy shields.

Armour
Gerbilling is an urban legend.  This means it a story that is not true.  It is the act of placing a gerbil into the human rectum for sexual pleasure.  Other small live animals (usually gerbils but also mice, hamsters, rats and various other rodents) are used.

Folklorist Jan Harold Brunvand writes that the urban legend began in 1984.  It involved a mouse and an unidentified gay man. In passing years this story changes into a gerbil, and was made to involve to many named male celebrities that were publicly thought to be gay. Rumors about various male celebrities engaging in gerbilling have become popular urban legends over the years. 

In Poland, World War II historian Marek Jan Chodakiewicz lectured on gerbilling at the Institute of National Remembrance's educational center, describing that his ex-girlfriend Debbie, a registered nurse, extracted a fat-smeared hamster from the rectum of a gay man in 1984. Polish media stated that the hamster story is a well known urban legend, so well known that it has a Wikipedia page.

References

Folklore
Anomie means the absence of the usual moral or ethical values, where a person or group lacks ethical standards. In the context of society or government it may be a cause of social unrest.

Etymology 
The word comes from Greek, namely the prefix  a- “without”, and nomos “law”. The original meaning of anomie was "against or outside the law". 

In contemporary English the word anomie can mean not only normlessness but also anarchy. Émile Durkheim and later theorists, meant with anomie a reaction against or a retreat from the regulatory social controls of society, and is a completely separate concept from anarchy which is an absence of effective rulers or leaders.

Anomie in literature and film 
In Albert Camus’s existentialist novel The Stranger, the protagonist Meursault struggles to construct an individual system of values as he responds to the disappearance of the old. He exists largely in a state of anomie, as seen from the apathy evinced in the opening lines: “Aujourd’hui, maman est morte. Ou peut-être hier, je ne sais pas” (“Today Mother died. Or maybe yesterday, I don't know.”) 

Dostoevsky, whose work is often considered a philosophical precursor to existentialism, often expressed a similar concern in his novels. In The Brothers Karamazov, the character Dimitri Karamazov asks his atheist friend Rakitin, ”...without God and immortal life? All things are lawful then, they can do what they like?” Raskolnikov, the anti-hero of Dostoevsky’s novel Crime and Punishment, puts this philosophy into action when he kills an elderly pawnbroker and her sister, later rationalizing this act to himself with the words, “...it wasn’t a human being I killed, it was a principle!”

On Hermann Hesse´s Der Steppenwolf we can also find a very clear picture of anomie. The protagonist affirms that the men of the Dark Ages did not suffer more than those of the Classical Antiquity, and vice-versa. It is rather those who live between two times, those who do not know what to follow, that suffer the most. In this token, a man from the Dark Ages living in the Classical Antiquity, or the opposite, would undergo a gulping sadness and agony.

Bibliography 
 Marco Orru 1883. The Ethics of Anomie: Jean Marie Guyau and Emile Durkheim, British Journal of Sociology, 34, #4. 499–518.
 Jordi Riba 1999. La morale anomique de Jean-Marie Guyau. Paris : L'Harmattan.

References

Other websites 
"Anomie" discussed at the Émile Durkheim Archive.

Sociology
Words
Fog is a meteorological phenomenon when the clouds are getting thick. It may appear on land or sea and it usually lowers visibility (makes it hard to see very far). When fog forms at high levels it creates a cloud called stratus. When the air chills, moisture will turn to fog. 

Fog is made up of tiny water droplets or, in very cold conditions, ice crystals. When seen on a high speed camera, (a special camera that takes many frames and can view videos at very low speed) it looks like hundreds of small water droplets moving through the air. These water droplets make up the fog or mist. 

There are many types of fog, classified according to what makes the condensation. They include evaporation fog, advection fog, radiation fog, and upslope fog. The thickness of fog varies depending on the atmosphere, temperature, weather and location.

Other websites 

 

Weather
Frost is ice that is formed when water vapor freezes onto a surface. It has a white, powdery appearance. It forms on cold surfaces when the temperature of the air is very low. It can destroy crops.

Many plants can be damaged or killed by freezing temperatures or frost. This varies with the type of plant and tissue exposed to low temperatures. Greenhouses help to protect crops from cold and frost damage.

Water
Weather
Richard Tiffany Gere (born August 31, 1949) is an American actor and activist. He grew up in Syracuse, New York. He has been acting for over 20 years. In favour with 14th Dalai Lama, Tenzin Gyatso, Gere is a devout Tibetan Buddhist, which he converted to in 1978. He has three sisters and a brother. Gere was married to model Cindy Crawford from 1991 until 1995, when the two divorced.

Movies

References

Other websites 
 
 Hello Magazine, Hello! Profile
 The Gere Foundation

Actors from New York
Actors from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
American Buddhists
American human rights activists
American movie actors
American movie producers
American television actors
Golden Globe Award winning actors
People from Syracuse, New York
Screen Actors Guild Award winners
1947 births
Living people
Njörðr is the god of the seas and the wind in Norse mythology. A member of the Vanir, he is the father of the twin gods Freyr and Freyja by an unnamed sister of his. He is married to the jötunness Skaði, daughter of Þjazi.

Marriage With Skaði
Skadi's father Þjazi caught Loki, and forced him to lure out the goddess Iðunn, keeper of the apples which grant the Æsir their phenomenal youth and longevity. As the gods began to age, they sought out the one responsible for taking Idunn; discovering it was Þjazi, they killed him and freed Iðunn. Angered at the offense, Skaði came to fight the gods, but they did not want to fight her. The Æsir instead offered Skaði compensation, allowing her to choose a husband among the gods, but only by looking at their feet. Skaði wished to marry Baldr, the most handsome of the gods, but the feet she picked belonged to Njörðr, whose feet were shining and clean. (Odin later took Þjazi's eyes and placed them as stars in the night sky). When Skaði moved to her new husband's home near the sea, she missed her mountain home. Trapped in a loveless marriage, she only spends half her time with her husband. When Skaði is away, Njörðr is sad, causing storms at the sea. 

Norse gods and goddesses
Freyr / Frey(Old Norse: “[the] Lord”) is the god of prosperity, fair weather, and fertility in Norse mythology, associated with sacral kingship, and virility. A member of the Vanir, he is the son of Njördand twin brother of Freya. Husband of Gerðr, Freyr rides into battle on the massive shining boar Gullinbursti (Old Norse: “Golden maned” or “bristled”) and possesses the mighty ship Skíðblaðnir (Old Norse: “assembled from thin pieces of wood”), both forged by the drawrven brothers collectively known as the Sons of Ivaldi. Skíðblaðnir is said to always have a favorable breeze and can be folded together and carried in a pouch when not in use. Freyr once wielded the legendary sword Sümrbranðr (Old Norse: “Sword of summer”), which was said to be able to fight by itself.

When Freyr snuck in and sat on Odin's throne Hliðskjálf (on which one can see anything, anywhere across the Nine Worlds), instead of seeing Freyja (who was recently lost somewhere), Freyr came across Gerðr, a beautiful giantess native to Jötunheimr. He fell in love, and sent his servant Skírnir to woo her for him, but Gerðr refused to marry the god until Skirnir threatened to kill Gerðr with Freyr's sword and damage her lands. Gerðr finally agreed to marry Freyr, who then gave his sword to Skírnir as a reward.

Frey's realm is Álfheimr, the land of the elves. He is the patron god of Sweden. Statues of Odin, Thor, Frey, Frigg, and Freyja are often found in ancient temples.

Norse gods and goddesses
The word cardiomyopathy means "heart muscle disease". Cardiomyopathies are a group of diseases in which the function of the myocardium (heart muscle) is impaired for any reason. People with cardiomyopathy are often at risk of arrhythmia and/or sudden cardiac death.

There are four main types of cardiomyopathy:

 Dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) is the most common form. Patients with this disease usually undergo heart transplantation. In DCM the heart (especially the left ventricle) is enlarged and the pumping function is impaired.
 Hypertrophic cardiomyopathy (HCM or HOCM) is a genetic disorder in which the heart muscle is thickened, which can block blood flow and prevent the heart from functioning properly.
 Arrhythmogenic right ventricular cardiomyopathy (ARVC) is caused by an electrical disturbance of the heart in which heart muscle is replaced by fibrous scar tissue. The right ventricle is generally most affected.
 Restrictive cardiomyopathy (RCM) is the least common cardiomyopathy. The walls of the ventricles are stiff, but may not be thickened, and resist the normal filling of the heart with blood.

References

Heart disease
One common understanding of norm is: something that is regarded as normal or typical.

But it may mean as well:
Norm (artificial intelligence)
Norm (philosophy)
Norm (sociology)
Normative
The diminutive of the proper name, "Norman"

In mathematics:
Norm (mathematics), a map that assigns lengths to vectors
Normed vector space
Matrix norm
Field norm in algebraic number theory and Galois theory
Reduced norm in algebra over a field theory
The nonnegative integer function in the definition of Euclidean domain
The product of conjugate elements of an algebraic element
In descriptive set theory, a map from a set into the ordinals (see prewellordering)
A statistical concept in psychometrics

Norm may also be:
 Norm MacDonald (b. 1963), comedian and star of the 1999-2001 sitcom The Norm Show (a.k.a. Norm)
Norm Abram, carpenter in the television show This Old House
Norm Peterson, a character in the sitcom Cheers and its spin-off Norm
Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material
Norm, a character from the video game Crash Nitro Kart
Norm the Genie, a villain in The Fairly OddParents
Norm, a character from the Life. Be in it. campaign.

Norms may refer to Norms Restaurants, a chain of restaurants in Southern California.

Related pages
Normal
Norma (disambiguation)
Surface normal
Legalism was one of the four main philosophies in Chinese history during the Warring States Period. It is a political philosophy which says that people are bad by nature and need to be controlled by the government. It was introduced by Qin Shi Huang.

One of the most important contributors to Legalism was Han Fei Zi (韓非子). He said that a ruler must use following tools to govern a state:
1. Fa (Chinese: 法; pinyin: fǎ; literally "law or principle"): The law must be known by everyone. Everybody under the ruler is equal before the law. If you do what law wants you will be rewarded. If you break the law or try to break it, you will be punished.
2. Shu (Chinese: 術; pinyin: shù; literally "method, tactic or art"): These are methods the ruler has to use so that nobody is able to abolish the system.
3. Shi (Chinese: 勢; pinyin: shì; literally "legitimacy, power or charisma"): The position of the ruler is important, not the ruler himself.

Related pages 

 Confucianism
 Taoism

Other websites 
 "Chinese Legalism: Documentary Materials and Ancient Totalitarianism"
 "The Book of Lord Shang"

History of China
Philosophical movements and positions
Heterodoxy means a position that is not within the standards of orthodoxy or to put it precisely "any opinions or doctrines at variance with an official or orthodox position". As an adjective, heterodox is used to describe a subject as "characterized by departure from accepted beliefs or standards" (status quo).

Ecclesiastic usage

Eastern Orthodoxy 
In the Eastern Orthodox Church, the term is used to refer to Christian churches not belonging to the Eastern Orthodox communion, but have no positions that are as different from those of Orthodox Christianity to thought to be as false as heresy.

Roman Catholicism 
Heterodoxy in the Roman Catholic Church in a similar way means views that differ from strictly orthodox views, but retain sufficient faithfulness to the original doctrine to avoid heresy. 

Many Roman Catholics profess some heterodox views, either on doctrinal or social issues. For example, the orthodox Catholic position on unbaptized infants is that their fate is uncertain, and "the Church can only entrust them to the mercy of God" (Catechism of the Catholic Church 1261). A heterodox Catholic might profess the belief that unbaptized infants are offered the option to accept or deny salvation by God at their judgment. The belief is not orthodox, as the Church does not profess a belief as to what happens to unbaptized infants; however, it is also not heresy, as the Church accepts that such a scenario might be possible. By contrast, a denial of the doctrine of "Original Sin" (thereby negating the necessity of baptism for children) or Papal Infallibility -- would be labeled heretical.

Other denominations 
The term heterodox is occasionally used by some Christians to refer to themselves when they are in disagreement with orthodox understandings. The heterodox Christians remain in the tradition and attempt a constructive dialog around issues with which they disagree.

Related pages
 Orthodoxy
 Nastika

Footnotes

Other websites 
 Heterodox - the word of the day
 Heterodox Economics 
 Open University Heterodox Economics
 Orthodox vs Heterodox Churches

Christian theology
Isotherms are lines drawn around places with the same temperature range on isotherm maps. Each point on this line shows one temperature reading, or the average of many temperature readings. Isotherm maps also have scales that tell the signals or colors for the different temperatures. Isotherm lines are usually curvy and not straight lines.

Meteorology
Thermodynamics

en:Contour line#Temperature and related subjects
The major types of plate boundaries are:
 Spreading boundaries. Mid-Atlantic Ridge and Africa's Great Rift Valley are examples. Rift valleys, mountains (orogeny), volcanoes.
 Collision boundaries. These collide, forming a subduction zone (West coast of the Americas) or a continental collision (India with Asia). Mountains (orogeny), valleys, volcanoes.
 Transform or fault boundaries. Here plates grind past each other along transform faults. Earthquakes, volcanoes, 
 Conservative boundaries: little or no relative motion

All boundaries except the conservative ones are sites of major geological activity.

Other websites 
Bird, P. (2003) An updated digital model of plate boundaries  also available as a large (13 mb) PDF file 

Plate tectonics
The hourglass dolphin (Lagenorhynchus cruciger) (also known as the electra dolphin, little killer whale, or many-toothed blackfish) is a species of dolphin. It is small and wide compared to other dolphins. It only lives in the very cold waters of the Antarctic. It was not known to science until a drawing was made of it in 1820. Only six Hourglass dolphins have been examined by scientists. Boats do not usually go where they live. The average water temperature they live in is 0.1-0.3 degrees Celsius.  

The hourglass dolphin is black and white and for this reason was called the "sea skunk". On each side there is a white patch that looks a little like an hourglass shape. That is how it got its name. 

An adult is about 1.8 m in length and weighs 90-120 kg. There is only one other dolphin that is as small in its area.

Hourglass dolphins usually stay in groups of 5-10. Once a group of 60 was recorded. They like to ride the bow of boats. There are usually fin whales with them. It is thought they eat small fish, crustaceans, and squid. They have conical teeth probably used to crack the shells of crustaceans. 

The hourglass dolphin stays around the Antarctic. Some have been seen from the south of New Zealand and Chile. 

Oceanic dolphins
The giant salamanders are a family of large aquatic amphibia, the Cryptobranchidae. 

They are the largest living amphibians. The Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus), reaches up to , feeds on fish and crustaceans, and has been known to live for more than 50 years in captivity. The Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus) can reach a length of .

They live in brooks and ponds in the eastern United States (the hellbender), and in China and Japan.

Anatomy 
Cryptobranchids are large, fat salamanders, with folds of skin along their flanks. These help increase the animal's surface area, allowing them to absorb more oxygen from the water. 

Their metamorphosis from the larval stage is incomplete, so that the adults retain gill slits (although they also have lungs), and lack eyelids. 

Chinese giant salamanders have lived as long as 75 years in captivity. It eats aquatic insects, fish, frogs and also crabs and shrimps.

Hunting habits 
They hunt mainly at night, and as they have poor eyesight, use sensory nodes on their head and body to detect tiny changes in water pressure, allowing them to find their prey.

Reproduction 
During mating season, these salamanders will travel upstream. After the fertilization of the eggs, the male will guard them for at least six months. At this point, the offspring will live off their noticeable stored fat until they are ready to hunt. Once ready they will hunt as a group rather than individually.

Scientists at Asa Zoo in Japan have recently discovered that the male salamander will spawn with more than one female in his den. Sometimes the male "den master" will also allow a second male into the den, but the reason for this is unclear.

Scientific names 

 Genus Cryptobranchus (hellbenders)
 Hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis )
 Genus Andrias (giant salamanders)
 Chinese giant salamander (Andrias davidianus)
 Japanese giant salamander (Andrias japonicus)
Genus Aviturus (Aviturus exsecratus)
Genus Zaissanurus (Zaissanurus beliajevae)

References

Other websites 
Eastern Hellbender Fact Sheet 
 Japanese Giant Salamander 
 Cryptobranchid Interest Group
 

Salamanders
Manfred Albrecht Freiherr von Richthofen  (2 May 1892 - 21 April 1918) was a German fighter aircraft pilot in World War I. His nickname was the "Red Baron". He is considered the ace-of-aces of the war, being officially credited with 80 air combat victories. The "Red Baron" is one of the most famous aviators in history and the subject of numerous representations in music, film and other media. He already received numerous honors and award for his exploits.

Richthofen was born in Breslau, Germany.
In August 1914, Richthofen became a cavalry officer in World War I. In May 1915, he joined the air service and became an observer. He did that because the training course was shorter and would get him to fighting faster. In October, he began training as a pilot.  In March 1916, he entered combat. He had his first victory in April. In 1917, he was in command of a squadron nicknamed the "flying circus". He painted his airplane red so his fellow Germans could see him. Richthofen’s sixteenth victory flying a plane made him the best pilot in Germany in 1917.

On April 21, 1918, Richthofen was fatally shot, whilst flying low above the Somme Valley, near Amiens while fighting in France. He was 25 years old. He was chasing an enemy plane when a bullet passed through his chest. He then made a smooth landing, in a field on a hill near the Bray-Corbie road, just north of Vaux-sur-Somme. His Fokker Dr.I was not damaged by the landing. One witness, Gunner George Ridgway, said that Richthofen was still alive when he and other Australian soldiers reached the plane, but he died moments later. Another eyewitness, Sergeant Ted Smout, said that Richthofen's last word was "kaputt" ("finished"), immediately before he died.

Canadian fighter pilot Arthur Roy Brown was officially credited with killing Richthofen. However, it is now generally agreed that the bullet that killed Richthofen was fired from the ground. The enemy buried Richthofen's body with full military honors.

References

Notes

Other websites

1892 births
1918 deaths
German aviators
German military personnel of World War I
Military people killed in action
People from former German territories
People from Wrocław
The Fokker Dr.I was a World War I fighter airplane. It was designed by Reinhold Platz and built by Fokker-Flugzeugwerke. 

The Dr.I was used only in small numbers and it had many problems. It is well known as the plane flown by the "Red Baron", Manfred von Richthofen.

World War I aircraft
Military aircraft
Fokker aircraft
Modes of limited transposition are a kind of musical scale.  They were used by the French composer Olivier Messiaen.

Major scales have twelve different transpositions.  This means that a major scale can start on any of the twelve notes (C, C#, D, D# etc.).  There are also twelve different transpositions of the minor scale.  Each transposition (“each scale”) is a different combination of notes (in this case: all of them).

A chromatic scale (one which uses every note, i.e. using all white and black notes of a keyboard) only has one transposition.  This means that a chromatic scale can start on any note: each time it is the same combination of notes.

Messiaen was fascinated by scales that only had a few (usually two or three) transpositions.  For example: the whole tone scale, which rises by a whole tone each time, has two transpositions.  It can start, for example, on a C, so that the notes are C, D, E, F#, G#, A#, C.  It can start on a C# so that the notes are C#, D#, F, G, A, B, C#.  Transposing this up another semitone, starting on D,  would give D, E, F#, G#, A#, C, D which is exactly the same combination of notes as the first one (the starting note is not important).  The whole-tone scale was used by many composers including Glinka, Liszt and, especially, Debussy.  Messiaen called it the  first mode of transposition.

Messiaen’s second mode, also called the “octatonic scale”,  rises by alternating semitone, tone, semitone, tone etc.  Messiaen used this scale a great deal, not just in his tunes but in the chords that he used (i.e. melodically and harmonically).

The third mode rises by a pattern of tone, semitone, semitone.  It has four transpositions.

The other four modes each have a total of six transpositions.

Messiaen liked these modes because there is no note which sounds like the starting note.  All the notes sound equal.  He described them as having "the charm of impossibilities."

Music theory
Traditional Chinese characters are one of the two commonly used forms of Chinese characters. As its name shows, it is the "traditional" written form of the Chinese language that first came about during the Han Dynasty (shortly after the Qin Dynasty) in 206 BC. The name "traditional" is used to set them apart from simplified Chinese characters.

Court officials in the Han Dynasty believed that small seal script characters, which were standardized under Emperor Qin Shi Huangdi when he unified China, took too much time to write because Chinese characters at the time were written using curved lines instead of more angular lines. So Han officials decided to simplify writing Chinese characters by using multiple strokes, or lines, to form characters and radicals, rather than long curved lines. The changed small seal script characters are now commonly known as Hanzi (Simplified Chinese: 汉字 / Traditional Chinese: 漢字, meaning "Han characters"), because they were from the Han Dynasty. Hanzi became the standard writing system of Chinese and it even spread to other countries and languages. It was also used (with some differences) in the Japanese, Korean, and Vietnamese languages.

Today, Japanese is the only non-Chinese language that still uses Chinese characters in daily life. They call them Kanji. After WWII, the Japanese simplified many of the characters. They called their simplified characters Shinjitai (which are not to be confused with simplified characters in Chinese), while traditional characters were called Kyujitai.

The older, "traditional" forms of Chinese characters remained more or less the same (although there were a few changes now and then) until the People's Republic of China (PRC) was formed in 1949. At that time, the Communist Party of China (CPC) started to create simplified Chinese characters, in which anywhere between 20-30% of all the Chinese characters used in daily life were replaced by ones that had fewer strokes and were easier to write. This move by the CPC, which took place in the 1950s throughout Mainland China, was made in order to make education more available to common people, especially farmers.

At the same time, the government of the Republic of China, which had fled to Taiwan, chose not to simplify its writing system. They continue to use traditional Chinese characters, believing that simplified characters were made to take away important details in traditional characters in order to limit thought. The Cantonese-speaking territories of Hong Kong and Macau have also kept using traditional characters, even though they are politically part of the PRC, which uses simplified characters. The Chinese taught as a second language in Southeast Asia uses simplified characters, and the government of Singapore and the Chinese community in Malaysia have adopted simplified characters as their standard script. Many immigrant communities of overseas Chinese also tend to use traditional rather than simplified characters.

Traditional vs. simplified characters 
Below is a list of simplified characters next to their traditional versions.

Related pages 
 Standard Chinese
 Mandarin Chinese

Chinese language
Writing systems
Windows Server 2008 is the name of a server operating system from Microsoft, the previous version of which was Windows Server 2003.

This operating system was codenamed named Windows Server "Longhorn", but on May 15, 2007,  Bill Gates announced its official name on Windows Hardware Engineering Conference 2007.

This operating system has several new features compared to its previous version. Many of these new features are present in Windows Vista.

References

Other websites

Microsoft

Microsoft TechCenter for Windows Server 2008
New Networking Features in Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista – lengthy article from Microsoft Technet covering new networking features in detail
Changes in Functionality from Windows Server 2003 with SP1 to Windows Server 2008
Windows Server 2008 Technical Overview

Others
Screenshots of Server Components from Latest Longhorn Builds 
ZDnet UK article
News.com
computerperformance.co.uk
winsupersite.com Preview 
winsupersite.com Preview 2 

Microsoft operating systems
Windows Server 2003 is a server operating system produced by Microsoft. Introduced on April 24, 2003 as the next version to Windows 2000 Server, it was considered by Microsoft to be the cornerstone of their Windows Server System line of business server products.

According to Microsoft, Windows Server 2003 is more scalable and delivers better performance than Windows 2000.

References 

Microsoft operating systems
Perry or pear cider is an alcoholic drink that is made from pear juice. Its alcohol content is around 5 to 8 percent.

Perry may contain high amount of sugar, while cider does not.

Perry is made in many countries. The countries that produce the most perry are the United Kingdom, France, and Spain.

References

Fermented drinks