cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
The 1956 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the XVI Olympiad, were held at Melbourne in Victoria, Australia. 

Melbourne was chosen as the host city over instead of Buenos Aires, Mexico City, Montreal and six American cities on 28 April 1949 at the 43rd IOC session.

The equestrian events were not held in Australia because of quarantine regulations. These events were held five months earlier in Stockholm, Sweden, making it the second time that events of the same Olympics were held in different countries.

Participating nations 
A total of 67 nations sent athletes to compete at the Melbourne games.

Five nations competed in the horse riding events in Stockholm; however, athletes from these nations did not take part in the Games in Melbourne.  The five were Cambodia, Egypt, Netherlands, Spain and Switzerland.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Melbourne-Stockholm 1956 at Olympic.org

1956 Summer Olympics
1956 in Sweden
1956 in sports
1950s in Australia
History of Melbourne
History of Stockholm
The 1904 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the III Olympiad, were held in St. Louis, Missouri, United States.

The games were part of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition (St. Louis World's Fair). The sports events were not well planned; and the games were not thought to be a success.

Participating nations 
Athletes from 12 nations took part in the St. Louis games. 

 
 
 
 
 
 
 

 
 
 
 
 
 

The American bicyclist Frank Bizzoni was also known as a competitor from Italy The American wrestlers Charles Ericksen and Bernhof Hansen were also known as Norwegian competitors.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Further reading
 Lucas, Charles J. P. (1905). The Olympic Games 1904. St. Louis: Woodward & Tiernan Printing Co.
 Sullivan, James E. (1905). Spalding's Athletic Almanac for 1905.  New York: American Publishing Co.

Other websites

 St Louis 1904 at Olympic.org
 "Competitions on Anthropology Days" at St Louis Public Library 
  "Olympic" at Missouri History Museum 

Olympics
1900s in the United States
Summer Olympic 1904
Summer Olympic 1904
History of St. Louis, Missouri
Stepanakert () or Khankendi () )is a city in Nagorno-Karabakh, legally in Azerbaijan, but militarily controlled by Armenians as the capital city of the unrecognised Republic of Artsakh. The city has about 40,000 Armenians. The entire Azerbaijani population left the city during the Nagorno-Karabakh War.

Notable natives
André - Armenian singer
Armen Abaghian - academic
Vladimir Arzumanyan - Armenian singer, winner of the Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010
Don Askarian - filmmaker
Samvel Babayan - general
Zori Balayan - writer
Robert Kocharyan - Second President of Armenia
Fakhraddin Manafov - actor
Serzh Sargsyan - Third President of Armenia, incumbent
Nikolay Yenikolopov (Yenikolopyan) - academic

References

Other websites 
 Nagorno-Karabakh  Nagorno-Karabakh's website
 Karabakh’s Election Conundrum November 2005 article about elections for seats in the Milli Mejlis (Azerbaijani parliament) for Azeri refugees
 Stepanakert Armeniapedia article

Capital cities in Asia
Cities in Azerbaijan
Nagorno-Karabakh Republic

mzn:خان‌کندی (مشگین‌شهر)
Sir Charles Drummond Ellis (b.Hampstead, 11 August 1895; died Cookham 10 January 1980) was a physicist and scientific administrator.  His work helped scientists to understand nuclear structure better.

Education and internment
Ellis's father was a general manager of the Metropolitan Railway in London.  He went to Harrow School where he was very good at all subjects as well as sport.  In 1913 he become a cadet in the Royal Military Academy.  He wanted to join the Royal Engineers.  

He was on holiday in Germany the next summer when World War I broke out.   All British people who were in Germany were  sent to the Ruhleben P.O.W. Camp just outside Berlin.  The place where the detainees (prisoners of war) were held had been a horse racecourse.  There were lots of stables, and in each stable there were 27 horse boxes which became the detainees' home during the war.  The detainees were allowed to do lots of things to keep themselves busy.  They could get books, and Ellis made good use of his time to study.  Another detainee in the camp was the scientist James Chadwick.  Chadwick taught Ellis a lot and together they made a laboratory in one of the horse stables where they made scientific experiments on the photochemical process.

Career after the war
After the war Ellis decided to study at Trinity College, Cambridge.  After graduating in 1920 he did research work at the Cavendish Laboratory, Cambridge.  The director there was Sir Ernest Rutherford.  Chadwick also worked there.    In 1921 Ellis had become a fellow of Trinity College and was made assistant lecturer in natural science.  In 1925 he married the daughter of a rich Polish shipbuilder.  In 1929 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society.

In 1930 Rutherford, Chadwick and Ellis wrote a famous book together called Radiations from Radioactive Substances.

Discovery of the neutrino
During the early 1930s Ellis worked with N.F.Mott on energy relations in beta decay.  He discovered the neutrino and  worked with W.J.Henderson on the energy distribution of positrons in artificial radioactivity.  He became professor at the University of London.

During World War II he worked on the possibility of using nuclear fission to develop new weapons.  He became scientific adviser to the army council from 1943-1946.  He was knighted in 1946 for his war service.

Later career
After World War II Ellis had other jobs which were not related to nuclear weapons.  He gave scientific advice to the National Coal Board and to the British American Tobacco Company.  This was at a time when people were just starting to realize that smoking might be bad for the health.

Ellis died in 1980 in a nursing home in Cookham after a short illness.

References
Oxford Dictionary of National Biography; OUP 2004-7
 The Ruhleben Story

1895 births
1980 deaths
English physicists
POW at Ruhleben
Knights Bachelor
Scientists from London
Francombat is a French martial art similar to jiu-jitsu. It was created in the year 1988 by Alain Basset and Dominique Dumolin.

Francombat is practiced especially in the south of France. There are schools of francombat in Paris, Bordeaux, Montpellier, and in other localities.

This martial art is based on the strategy and on the knowledge of the human body. During the trainings, the instructors are dressed in red clothes and the students are dressed in green ones. According to the persons that practice this discipline, the efficiency in combat depends on three factors: good physical form, good knowledge of the techniques and of the strategy, good control of stress.

The training of francombat is based on: 
 intensive practice of physical exercises,
 complete learning of techniques of combat in the limits of the strategy that has main goal: the true efficiency,
 mental and physical preparation for stressful situations,
 respect for the law.

Other websites
 Site Officiel de l'Union Française de Francombat
 Francombat et sapeurs-pompiers: www.pompiers.fr
 Francombat Langonais
 Club de villevaudé (77) 

Sport in France
European martial arts
The classic cycle races are the most important one-day professional cycling road races in the international calendar (list of races)

All of the races are run in western Europe. Most of the events have been on the professional calendar for decades and the oldest ones date back to the 19th Century. They are normally held at roughly the same time each year. In the last few years, the five top races are sometimes described as the 'Monuments'.

From 2005, the Classics have formed part of the UCI ProTour run by the Union Cycliste Internationale. This event series also includes various stage races including the Tour de France, Giro d'Italia, Vuelta a España, Paris-Nice and the Critérium de Dauphiné Libéré, and various non-Classic single day events. The ProTour replaced the UCI Road World Cup series which contained only one-day races.

The Classics

Some races that were Classics are no longer run. These include the gruelling (very hard) 560km, Derny event, Bordeaux-Paris, run from 1891 to 1988.

The 'Monuments'
Five of the classic races are sometimes called "the Monuments"
Milan-Sanremo 
Ronde van Vlaanderen 
Paris-Roubaix 
Liège-Bastogne-Liège 
Giro di Lombardia 

Only three riders have won all five 'Monument' one-day races during their careers: Roger De Vlaeminck, Rik Van Looy and Eddy Merckx.  All were from Belgium.

Seán Kelly of Ireland won four Monuments but only finished second in the Ronde van Vlaanderen on three occasions (1984,1986,1987).

Related pages
List of important cycling events

Cycle races
A criterium, or crit, is a type of bicycle race held on a short course (usually less than 5 km), often run on closed-off city centre streets.

Race length can be either a time or a number of laps. Often a criterium lasts about one hour, which is shorter than that of a traditional road race – which can last many hours, sometimes of several days or even weeks, as in a Grand Tour. However, the average speed and is much higher. The winner is the first rider to cross the finish line without having been "lapped" (overtaken).

Events often have prizes (called primes, usually cash) for winning specific intermediate laps (for instance, every 10th lap).

Winning criteriums needs a mix of good technical skills – especially the ability to corner rapidly and sharply – and riding safely with a large group on a short circuit and exceptional fitness to attack other riders and repeatedly accelerate hard from corners.

Criteriums are relatively easy to organize and do not require a large amount of space. They are the most common type of bicycle racing in the continental United States.

Equipment

Racing bicycles used for criteriums are typically no different than those used in other mass-start road events. However, some racers use shorter bicycles to help keep control when turning  and slightly shorter cranks (pedal levers) to help pedalling through sharp turns.

Other websites
 Alto Velo Racing Club - Criterium Skills & Sprinting 
 Extreme Fitness - Guide to Criterium Training 
 Portsmouth, NH Criterium

Cycling
Flamingos () are types of birds. They are noisy birds and they live in big groups called flocks. Flamingos are wading birds. This means they live by water, such as lakes. 

They are in the genus Phoenicopterus and family Phoenicopteridae. There are six species of flamingo. Two of species are found in Africa, Europe and Asia. The other four are found in North America and South America. Flamingos are not found in England unless in zoos.

Color, shape and food
Flamingos are pink or red. This is because of small bacteria that live in water which the flamingos eat. They also eat small crayfish and algae. Baby flamingos are gray. Flamingos can fly. This is why they have wings. Flamingos are very tall birds and they have long legs. They often stand on only one leg. Scientsts found that they do this beacuse it takes less energy than standing on two legs. Flamingos have a curved bill that is shaped like a banana. This is because they feed in the mud on the bottom of lakes.
Flamingos can weigh up to 4 kg and be up to 145cm tall. They live up to around 47 years.

Conservation
Many flamingos that live in Kenya and Tanzania are dying. Scientists do not know why. They think it may be because of bacteria in the water.

Taxonomy 
The Phonenicopteriformes is an order of birds, which contains the family of flamingos and two another families which are extinct.

Living species
 Greater flamingo (Phoenicopterus roseus)
 Lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor)
 Chilean flamingo (Phoenicopterus chilensis)
 James's flamingo (Phoenicoparrus jamesi)
 Andean flamingo (Phoenicopterus andinus)
 American flamingo (Phoenicopterus ruber)

References 

Birds
For the type of cycling race see Criterium

The Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré is an annual cycling road race, run over eight stages in the Dauphiné region in France during the first half of June. It is organised by the Le Dauphiné Libéré newspaper. Along with the Tour de Suisse, the Dauphiné Libéré is an important race in the lead-up to the Tour de France in July.

Because the Dauphiné is a mountainous area, the winners are often climbing specialists. Many climbs that are famous from the Tour de France, like the Mont Ventoux, the Col du Galibier or Col de la Chartreuse appear often in the Dauphiné Libéré.

All cyclists who have won the Tour de France five times or more have also won the Dauphiné Libéré.

The first Dauphiné Libéré was held in 1947 when Eduard Klablinski from Poland was the winner. Nello Lauredi, Luis Ocaña, Charly Mottet and Bernard Hinault share the record of the most wins, with three each.

Iban Mayo won in 2004, when he climbed Mont Ventoux very quickly.  In the 2005 Dauphiné the winner was Iñigo Landaluze, of the Euskaltel-Euskadi team.

Winners

1947 to 1999

After 1999

Other websites 
 Official website 

UCI ProTour
Cycle racing in France
The 1900 Summer Olympics, officially known as the Games of the II Olympiad, were held in Paris, France.

The games were part of the 1900 Exposition Universelle (Paris World's Fair). The sports events were not well planned; and the games were not thought to be a success.

Participating nations
A total of 24 nations sent athletes to compete at the Paris games.

Related pages
 List of IOC country codes

References

Other websites

 Paris 1900 at Olympic.org

Olympics
19th century in France
Summer Olympic 1900
Summer Olympics in France
1900s in Europe
The 1998 Winter Olympics, officially known as the XVIII Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1998 in Nagano, Japan. Other possible host cities were Aosta, Italy; Jaca, Spain; Östersund, Sweden; and Salt Lake City, USA. The selection was held in Birmingham, United Kingdom in 1991.

Related pages
 Sports in Japan

Other websites 
 IOC Site on 1998 Winter Olympics
 Nagano 1998 Olympic pins

 
1998 in Japan
1998 in sports
1990s in Asian sports
Nagano Prefecture
The 1968 Winter Olympics, officially known as the X Olympic Winter Games, were held in 1968 in Grenoble, France and started on February 6. Thirty-seven countries took part. Norway won the most medals, the first time a country other than the USSR had done so since the USSR first entered the Winter Games in 1956.

Attention in the USA 
Frenchman Jean-Claude Killy won three gold medals in all the alpine skiing events. In women's figure skating, Peggy Fleming won the only United States gold medal. The games have been credited with making the Winter Olympics more popular in the United States, largely because of ABC's coverage of Fleming and Killy, who became very popular among teenage girls.

New practices 
1968 was the first year that the International Olympic Committee (IOC) let East and West Germany enter separately, and the first time the IOC ever ordered drug and gender testing of the athletes.

 
1968 in sports
Grenoble
1960s in France
The 1964 Winter Olympics, officially known as the IX Olympic Winter Games, were held in Innsbruck, Austria, from January 29 to February 9 1964. The games included 1091 athletes from 36 nations, and the Olympic Torch was carried by Joseph Rieder,

a former alpine skier who had participated in the 1956 Winter Olympics.

The games were affected by the deaths of Australian alpine skier Ross Milne and a British luge slider, during training, and by the deaths, 3 years earlier, of the entire US figure skating team and family members.

Participating nations
36 nations sent athletes to compete in Innsbruck.  India, Mongolia, and North Korea participated in the Winter Games for the first time.  Athletes from West Germany (FRG) and East Germany (GDR) competed together as the United Team of Germany from 1956 to 1964.

Medal count 
These are the top ten nations that won medals at these Games:

References 

 
1964 in sports
20th century in Austria
1960s in Europe
Counterculture is a term used in psychology and sociology. People use it to describe a set of views that are not of the mainstream. These values are in contrast to what the mainstream people believe. An example of a counterculture that was started in the 1960s is the culture of the hippies. This counterculture focused on drug use, sexual freedom (freedom of choice), and women's rights. 

Sociology
Halakha is the Hebrew word for the Jewish code of laws.

History 
A long time ago, these laws were oral (spoken, but not written down). Once they became written down they were called the Mishnah. The Mishnah was made by rabbis in the 1st and 2nd Century (CE).

Judaism
Law
A stereotype is a mistaken idea or belief many people have about a thing or group that is based upon how they look on the outside, which may be untrue or only partly true. Stereotyping people is a type of prejudice because what is on the outside is a small part of who a person is. Like other untrue opinions, stereotypes might be used as reasons to discriminate against another person, or sometimes for a humorous effect in fiction.

The term was invented in the late 18th century for a method of printing. In the mid-19th century it meant the faithful reproduction of everything which could be printed, whether words or pictures. It made the printing of cheap editions possible, and was used in printing newspapers. The term got its psychological meaning in the 20th century.

Related pages 
Gender role
Stereotype threat
Women and video games

References 

Words
Printing
Electron cloud is an informal way to describe an atomic orbital. 

The electron cloud is not really a thing. An electron cloud  model is different from the older Bohr atomic model by Niels Bohr. Bohr talked about electrons orbiting the nucleus. Explaining the behavior of these electron "orbits" was a key issue in the development of quantum mechanics.

The electron cloud model says that we cannot know exactly where an electron is at any given time, but the electrons are more likely to be in specific areas. These areas are specified by orbitals. The orbitals are specified by shells and sub-orbitals. In the Bohr model, electrons are assigned to different shells. The shells, k,l,m,n,o,p,q, each represent different levels of energy, and are also called energy levels. The sub-orbitals; s,p,d,f, are regions where it will be more likely to find electrons, and can each hold a different number of electrons. the s,p,d,f orbitals are all shaped differently. This can be proven by the repeating patterns of chemical properties in the periodic table. Using quantum mechanics, chemists can use the electron cloud model to assign electrons to different atomic orbitals. Atomic orbitals also explain the patterns in the periodic table. 

The electron cloud model was developed in 1926 by Erwin Schrödinger and Werner Heisenberg. The model is a way to help visualize the most probable position of electrons in an atom. The electron cloud model is currently the accepted model of an atom. The atoms were traveling at such a high speed that there was no predictable time or place for the electron to be. The electrons were like a blur which is where they got the 'Electron Cloud' from.

According to Bohr's calculations for a hydrogen atom, the electron under normal conditions always stays at a certain distance from the nucleus. This distance is called the Bohr radius and is approximately 0.529 Å (). But according to the wave mechanical or cloud concept model, the electron keeps on moving away or towards the nucleus and the maximum probability of locating it lies at a distance of 0.529 Å from the nucleus. In other words, the radius of the electron cloud or the radius of maximum probability is 0.529 Å.

References 

Physical chemistry
Nuclear physics
An emergency is a situation in which a risk to health, life, property or environment is about to happen. Most emergencies need quick attention to prevent it from becoming worse. Even though some emergencies are easy to see, like a natural disaster, many smaller incidents need the opinion of someone who is watching in order to decide whether it is really an emergency. The exact definition of an emergency, the agencies involved and the rules followed, depend on the jurisdiction, and this is usually set by the government, whose agencies (emergency services) are responsible for emergency planning and handling.

Related pages 
 Crisis
 Emergency department
 Emergency medicine
 Emergency communication system
 9-1-1

References

Safety
The term Sexual revolution was coined by Wilhelm Reich in his book The Sexual Revolution. That book was first published in 1936 in German, translated into English. The English edition was 1945.

Reich wrote in the book what he saw as wrong, namely the double standard regarding morals in the society of his time. These double standards and the suppression of the sex drive would make people different. This would lead to a buildup of aggressions and frustration. Freeing the sex drive would lead to a peaceful change of society, according to Reich.

Reich dies in prison 1957, but his ideas had their effect in the 1960s when people changed their views about sex. They were more open-minded about it. The publications of people like Alfred Kinsey helped give wings to the movement.

First wave of sexual emancipation 
The sexual revolution was prepared by a "first wave" of pioneers who campaigned against the sexual repression which was common in the 19th century. This change began, roughly,  at the end of the 19th and start of the 20th century. One impetus came from the pioneers of birth control and family planning. The books and publicity of Marie Stopes in England and Margaret Sanger in the United States, changed the lives of many women.

Attitudes towards homosexuality and masturbation were altered by the publications of Havelock Ellis. Ellis was the first person to say in print that masturbation was normal, and did not cause any medical problems. The ideas of Sigmund Freud were also influential. He believed that people's strong instincts toward sexuality were repressed in order to meet the constraints imposed on them by civilized life.

References 

 
Non-fiction books
Peter Martyr d'Anghiera (2 February 1457 – October 1526) was an Italian-born historian of Spain and of the discoveries and explorations in the Americas.

The international form of his name is Pietro Martire d'Anghiera. In different languages, his name is written:
 English - Anghiera, Peter Martyr d'
 French - Martyr d'Anghiera, Pierre
 German - Anghiera, Peter Martyr von
 Italian - Martire d'Anghiera, Pietro
 Latin - Anglerius, Petrus Martyr
 Spanish - Anglería, Pedro Mártir de

He was born on February 2, 1457 at Arona, near Anghiera (called now Angera) on Lake Maggiore, Lombardy, Italy. He went to Rome in 1477, at the age of twenty, and there he met important persons of the Catholic Church. In 1486, Anghiera met the Spanish ambassador in Rome, and with him to Spain in August, 1487, to the court of Ferdinand II of Aragon and Isabella of Castile.

He wrote in Latin the first accounts of explorations in the Americas in a series of letters and reports that were published from 1511 to 1530 in chapters called "Decades". The first three "Decades", together with a description of his experiences in Egypt, were published in 1516 under the title: De orbe novo decades cum Legatione Babylonica or, for short, De orbe novo ("On the New World").

He was the first writer to use the word Hispaniola to name the island that Columbus named La Española. He also wrote that the Taíno name of the island was Quizqueia, a name that no other historian of that time mentioned. Quizqueia is used now as Quisqueya or Kiskeya for the whole island (in Haiti) or for the eastern part (in the Dominican Republic).

He died in October 1526 at Granada, Spain.

References 
 

 
 
 

1457 births
1526 deaths
Italian historians
Italian people
Wilhelm Reich (March 24, 1897 – November 3, 1957) was an Austrian-American psychiatrist and psychoanalyst. In the 1920s he was a pupil of Sigmund Freud in Vienna and made important contributions to psychoanalysis (Charakteranalyse 1933; engl. 1945ff). His work was rediscovered by the activists of the sexual revolution of the 1960s and 1970s.

During the 1920s Reich became involved in the social struggles of the time. In 1927 he joined the Communist Party. There he founded "SexPol", short for Sexual Politics. In 1933 he was kicked off from the Party, and in 1934 from the organisations of Psychoanalysis. At this time he started his own research on the biological foundations of psychoanalysis, later on called "orgonomy". Orgonomy was to be the science of orgone, a "primordial energy" Reich claimed to have discovered.   

The other side of Reich's story is that he was blamed to have invented a pseudoscience method for treating cancer. He was exposed as a fraud in 1947 articles by journalist Mildred Edie Brady, published in the magazines Harper's and The New Republic, the latter titled "The Strange Case of Wilhelm Reich," with the subhead, "The man who blames both neuroses and cancer on unsatisfactory sexual activities has been repudiated by only one scientific journal". The Food and Drug Administration (FDA) decided that they were dealing with a "fraud of the first magnitude". 

Finally, in 1956 Reich violated an injunction got by the FDA, and was arrested. All his research equipment including his books was destroyed. He was sentenced to two years prison. Reich died on 3 November 1957 (aged 60) in the United States Penitentiary, Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, Opinions about him remain very divided.

Reich had founded "Orgonon" in Rangeley, Maine after immigrating to the US. It was his  home, laboratory and research center, and also Reich's burial place. It is now open to the public as the Wilhelm Reich Museum.

References 

1897 births
1957 deaths
Deaths from heart failure
Austrian psychiatrists 
Psychoanalysts
Psychiatry
American psychiatrists
Choline is an organic compound. It is the precursor molecule (~building block) for the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. Acetylcholine is involved in many functions including memory and muscle control.

Some animals cannot produce choline, but must have it in their diet to stay healthy. Humans make a small amount of choline in the liver. In the United States, choline is recommended as an essential nutrient after research showed that humans need to get it. They need to have choline in their diet or take a supplementation for proper health. Possible benefits include reducing the risk of neural tube defects and fatty liver disease. It has also been found that intake of choline during pregnancy can have long-term beneficial effects on memory for the child.

Choline is usually grouped with the Vitamin B complex. It is a vitamin that is needed by the human body. Adults should take between 425 and 550 milligrams of it daily. Choline is used by the body in the walls of cells and as a neurotransmitter. It also helps to prevent heart disease. There are claims that it helps reduce body fat, but this has not been proven.

History 
Choline was discovered by Andreas Strecker in 1864. In 1998 choline was classified as an needed nutrient by the Food and Nutrition Board of the Institute of Medicine (USA).

Sources 
Sources of Choline are egg yolks, soy and cooked beef, chicken, veal and turkey (bird) livers. Many foods contain small amounts of choline, even iceberg lettuce.

References 

Vitamins
Food supplements
Nutrients
La Borinqueña is the national anthem of Puerto Rico. The current official music and words were made up in 1903 and have been taught in schools and accepted by the public. The music was officially made the national anthem by the government in 1952, and the words in 1977. The title refers to the Taíno (Native American) name for the island of Puerto Rico, Boriken or Borinquen.

Spanish lyrics and translation

References

 National Symbols of Puerto Rico , from the official governor's website.

Puerto Rico
National anthems
1903 establishments in the United States
Establishments in Puerto Rico
An ergastic substance is a non-protoplasm material that one can find in cells. These are usually products of metabolism. 

Ergastic substances include crystals, oil drops, gums, tannins, resins and other compounds. Some of these substances help the organism function, keep up cell structure, or are just stored food material such as oil or fat.  During the life of a cell, they can appear and disappear. Ergastic substances may appear in the protoplasm, in vacuoles, or in the cell wall.

Ergastic substances are usually absent in tissue with dividing cells, such as meristem tissue in plants. Plant cells often store noxious substances in leaf cells as a kind of defence against herbivory. In animals storing noxious substances is done as defence against predation. Storing venom for use in biting or stings is common in some groups of animals.

In general, if animals need quantity of a liquid substance they produce it with special cells in a gland, and send the product to where it is needed or stored.

Cells
Tissues
Glands
Organic compounds
Adenine is one of the nucleobase or basic molecules which form DNA and RNA. They are usually called Nitrogenous bases in genetics.

Function
In DNA, adenine sticks to thymine with two hydrogen bonds to help in making the nucleic acid structures stronger. In RNA, which is used in the cytoplasm for protein synthesis, adenine sticks to uracil.

History
Adenine was sometimes called Vitamin B4, but no longer. However, two B vitamins, niacin and riboflavin, bind with adenine to form the essential cofactors NAD and FAD respectively.

Adenine when bonded to ribose forms adenosine, part of molecules such as adenosine triphosphate.

Some think that, at the origin of life on Earth, the first adenine was formed by the polymerization (joining) of five hydrogen cyanide (HCN) molecules. This is not generally accepted.

References

Other websites
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 

Vitamins
Biochemistry
Trial and error is a primitive method of solving problems. It is characterised by repeated, varied attempts which are continued until success, or until the agent stops trying. It is an unsystematic method, which does not employ insight, theory or organised methodology.

According to W.H. Thorpe, the term was devised by C. Lloyd Morgan after trying out similar phrases "trial and failure" and "trial and practice". Under Morgan's canon, animal behaviour should be explained in the simplest possible way. Where behaviour seems to imply higher mental processes, it might be explained by trial and error learning. An example is the skilful way in which his terrier Tony opened the garden gate, easily misunderstood as an insightful act by someone seeing the final behaviour. Lloyd Morgan, however, had watched and recorded the series of approximations by which the dog had gradually learned the response, and could demonstrate that no insight was required to explain it.

Edward Thorndike showed how to manage a trial and error experiment in the laboratory. In his famous experiment, a cat was placed in a series of puzzle boxes in order to study the law of effect in learning. He plotted learning curves which recorded the timing for each trial. Thorndike's key observation was that learning was promoted by positive results, which was later refined and extended by B.F. Skinner's operant conditioning.

References 

Psychology
Problem solving
Learning
Ethology
Harris Scarfe is an Australian department store. It sells items including clothing, pots and pans, cutlery. The store went bankrupt in 2001, but has since bounced back.   

In 2004, Harris Scarfe bought the Allens group of seven department and five homewares stores. They continued to trade under the Allens name in New South Wales and the Australian Capital Territory, until 2008 when they got merged with Harris Scarfe.

Stores

Harris Scarfe has stores located in most Australian states. In New South Wales and the ACT they used to trade as Allens. They were acquired by Harris Scarfe in 2004, but continued to trade under the Allens name. In late 2008, the name of these stores was being changed from Allens to Harris Scarfe.

The main store for the company is located in Rundle Mall, Adelaide. The store is five stories tall. The main store for Tasmania is in Hobart and it is three stories tall.

Items stocked
Harris Scarfe sells items in two main groups, In Style (which includes all clothing) and At Home (all other goods, such as homewares & linen). The Adelaide store sells more goods than the other stores. Many of the Allens stores sell less goods than other stores.

References

Companies of Australia
Department stores
T-Mobile is a mobile (cell phone) network operator headquartered in Bonn, Germany. It was founded in 1990 and is a part of Deutsche Telekom and belongs to the FreeMove alliance.

T-Mobile is a group of mobile phone companies (all owned by Deutsche Telekom) that operate GSM and UMTS networks in Europe and the United States. The "T" stands for "Telekom". Most subsidiaries (companies) of Deutsche Telekom have names beginning with "T-" like T-Home and T-Online. T-Mobile also owns parts of mobile operators in Eastern Europe. Globally, T-Mobile has 101 million subscribers, making it the world's sixth largest mobile phone service provider by subscribers and the third largest multinational after the United Kingdom's Vodafone and Spain's Telefonica.

T-Mobile International has a large presence in eleven European countries: Austria, Croatia, Czech Republic, Germany, Hungary, North Macedonia, Montenegro, the Netherlands, Poland, Slovakia and the United Kingdom as well as in the United States.

Deutsche Telekom recently tried to buy rival mobile network operator O2, but it was eventually bought by Spain's Telefonica.

As well as football kit sponsors for FC Bayern Munich, Ferencvárosi TC, The Blues City and Borehamwood, T-Mobile is also a sponsor of several sports events, some of which carry the company name. For example, it sponsors its own cycling team, the T-Mobile Team, and the Austrian first division football competition, the T-Mobile Bundesliga. It was also the official global mobile phone carrier for the 2006 FIFA World Cup (football) in Germany.

1990 establishments in Germany
Telephone companies of Europe
Mobile phones
Companies of Germany
Bonn
Simplified English is a set of approved words and writing rules. Its makers made it to help engineers write manuals (instruction books) so that people all over the world can read them. 

Some people think that:
 It can decrease doubt.
 It can make reading faster.
 It can help understanding for people whose first (native) language is not English.
 It can make translation easier for humans.
 It can make computer-helped translation and machine translation better.

The rules say to only use the words in simplified English in approved ways. This decreases misunderstanding. For example, the rules approve the use of the verb close ("Do not close the door"). The rules approve the use of the adjective closed, meaning "not open" ("The door is not closed"). The adjective close means near ("Do not go close to the door"). The rules disapprove the use of the adjective close. The rules approve the use of the adjective near ("Do not go near the door") for this meaning. The rules specify the use of the adjective near instead of the adjective close. This way, the reader can be sure if the instructions say to keep the door open or to stay far from the door.

People started developing simplified English in the 1970s. People continue developing simplified English today. AECMA is the "European Association of Aerospace Manufacturers". AECMA began work on simplified English. ASD is the "AeroSpace and Defence Industries Association of Europe". ASD has a Maintenance Group called STEMG that continues work on simplified English. STEMG is the "Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group". STEMG maintains the ASD-STE100, the latest simplified English.

Related pages
Basic English
Constructed language
Special English

Other websites
Official page of ASD Simplified Technical English Maintenance Group (STEMG)
A brief overview of Simplified English with a selection of links 
World English Organization
Simplus - Simplified English Checker
Plain Language

English language
Thymine, or 5-methyluracil, is a pyrimidine base found in the nucleic acid DNA.

In RNA thymine is swapped for uracil to represent the same genetic information.  In DNA, thymine (T) connects to adenine (A) by two hydrogen bonds. These pair bonds hold the two strands of the DNA double helix structure together.

Other websites 
 Computational Chemistry Wiki 

Organic compounds
Probability distribution is a term from mathematics. Suppose there are many events with random outcomes. A probability distribution is the theoretical counterpart to the frequency distribution. A frequency distribution simply shows how many times a certain event occurred. A probability distribution says how many times it should have occurred in the long run (that is, its probability). The probability distribution of a random variable  is often written as  (or simply ). Such a distribution can either be discrete, taking a discrete (or countable) amount of values, or continuous, taking an uncountable amount of values (as from a continuous interval).

As an example, the probability distribution for a single roll of a normal 6-sided dice can be presented by:

where result is the outcome of the dice roll, and the probability shows the chances of that result occurring. If we roll a dice 60 times, then in the long run, we should expect to have each side appear 10 times on average. 

There are different probability distributions. Each of them has its use, its benefits and its drawbacks. Some common probability distributions include:

 Binomial distribution
 Cauchy distribution
 Chi-square distribution
 Exponential distribution
 Gumbel distribution
 Normal distribution 
 Poisson distribution
 Student's t-distribution

Related pages 

 Probability density function

References 

 

it:Variabile casuale#Distribuzione di probabilità
In probability and statistics, the binomial distribution is a probability distribution which models the probabilities of having a certain number of successes among n identical trials (each having p as the probability of success). It is also written as . The variables n and p are thus the two parameters of a binomial distribution.

The binomial distribution has discrete values. It counts the number of successes in yes/no-type experiments. Each of these experiment, also called Bernoulli trial, either results in success or failure. Examples of binomial distribution include:
 Tossing a coin 10 times, and counting the number of face-ups. (n=10, p=1/2)
 Rolling a dice 10 times, and counting the number of sixes. (n=10, p=1/6)
 Counting the number of green-eyed people among 500 randomly chosen people (assuming that 5% of all people have green eyes). (n=500, p=0.05)
In order to use the binomial distribution, the following must be true about the problem:
 The outcomes are mutually exclusive, that is, there are two possible outcomes which cannot occur simultaneously (for example. in flipping a coin, there are two possible outcomes: heads or tails. It is always one or the other, never both or a mix of outcomes).
 The probability of a success (p) is consistent throughout the problem (for example, a basketball player makes 85% of his free throws. Each time the player attempts a free throw, 85% is assumed to be the likelihood of a made shot).
 The trials are independent of each other (for example, on the second flip of a coin, the first outcome does not impact the chance of the next toss: the chance of tossing a heads (or tails) is still 50%).

Related pages 

 Bernoulli distribution
 Poisson distribution

References 

Probability distributions
In probability and statistics, Poisson distribution is a probability distribution. It is named after Siméon Denis Poisson. It measures the probability that a certain number of events occur within a certain period of time. The events need to be unrelated to each other. They also need to occur with a known average rate, represented by the symbol  (lambda). 

More specifically, if a random variable  follows Poisson distribution with rate , then the probability of the different values of  can be described as follows: 

    for  

Examples of Poisson distribution include:
 The numbers of cars that pass on a certain road in a certain time
 The number of telephone calls a call center receives per minute
 The number of light bulbs that burn out (fail) in a certain amount of time
 The number of mutations in a given stretch of DNA after a certain amount of radiation
 The number of errors that occur in a system
 The number of Property & Casualty insurance claims experienced in a given period of time

Related pages 

 Binomial distribution
 Exponential distribution

References 

Probability distributions
In computer science, an interpreter is a computer program that performs commands written in a computer programming language. Interpreters are one of the two most important ways a program can be run, the other being compilation.

Function 
The interpreter is a language processor which converts a HLL(High-Level Programming Language) program into machine language by converting and executing it line-by-line. If there is any error in any line, it reports it at the same time and program execution cannot resume until the error is rectified.
Interpreter must always be present in the memory every time the program is executed as every time the program is run, it is first interpreted and then executed. For error debugging, interpreter is very much useful as it reports the error(S) at the same time. But once errors are removed, unnecessary usage of memory takes place as it has to be present in the memory always.

Software
Computer programming
The flag of the United Arab Emirates () is used to represent, or show, the United Arab Emirates. It contains the Pan-Arab colors, which are red, green, white, and black, to show Arab unity. The Flag was designed by a Young Emirati boy named as Abdullah Mohammed Al Maainah  in 1971.

Red 
Red represents hardiness, bravery, strength and courage. The vertical red band can also be interpreted as binding all the other meanings together in unity.

Green 
Green represents hope, joy, optimism, and love. It can also symbolize the countries prosperity.

White 
White represents peace and honesty. White is the purest colour, and is interpreted by some to symbolise cleanliness.

References 

United Arab Emirates
United Arab Emirates
The Donna Reed Show is an American sitcom television series. It aired on ABC from 1958 to 1966. The show stars Donna Reed as Donna Stone, a housewife, Carl Betz as Alex Stone, a pediatrician (baby doctor), Shelley Fabares as their teenage daughter Mary, and Paul Petersen as their son Jeff. Mary left for college in the show's fifth year and Paul Petersen's real life little sister Patty Petersen joined the show as Trisha, a child the Stones adopt. Bob Crane and Ann McCrea joined the show in its last years as Stone family friends Dave and Midge Kelsey.

The show focuses on an upper middle class American family. Donna is a somewhat idealized housewife who capably handles any problems or situations that come her way. The show had many famous guest stars: singers James Darren and Lesley Gore, actor George Hamilton, swimmer and actress Esther Williams, Lassie as her TV character, sports stars Don Drysdale and Willie Mays, Buster Keaton, and Jay North as his TV character Dennis the Menace. Reed won the 1963 Golden Globe Best Female TV Star Award.

Other websites 

1950s American television series
1960s American television series
American sitcoms
Golden Globe Award winning programs
English-language television programs
Television series about families
Black and white television series
Team Milram is an Italian-registered UCI ProTeam established in 2006. The team is often called a German team because its main sponsor is Milram, part of the Nordmilch company  from the German state of Bremen.

Milram took over the ProTeam licence of Domina Vacanze. Erik Zabel and Alessandro Petacchi are the team’s top cyclists. There are 25 other riders, mainly from Germany and Italy. Milram is the third team in the UCI ProTour with a German main sponsor.

The team manager is led by Italian Gianluigi Stanga, who has been a team manager in professional cycling since 1983. The directeurs sportifs (Sports Directors) are the Italians Vittorio Algeri, Antonio Bevilacqua and Oscar Pellicioli . Gerry van Gerwen from the Netherlands is the commercial manager.

Milram only joined the UCI ProTour in 2006.  Since then they have won 88 podium positions (that is, finished a race either first, second, or third) (24 first, 29 second, 35 third ).

Team MILRAM reorganised itself for its second season. Five new riders joined and eight riders left the team. The most prominent new rider is Igor Astarloa, 2003 World Champion from Spain. Additionally, the team added Brett Lancaster, the up-and-coming riders Marcel Sieberg and Niki Terpstra, as well as neo pro Sebastian Schwager. After breaking his kneecap in 2006, Alessandro Petacchi regained his top form and won some races.

There is a MILRAM Continental Circuit Team, and those young riders and those from other U23 teams are helped so they can develop their skills

2007 season

Results in the Continental Tour

2007 ProTeam
As of January 5, 2007.

References

Other websites
 Official page 

UCI ProTour teams
In probability theory and statistics, the chi-square distribution (also chi-squared or   distribution) is one of the most widely used theoretical probability distributions. Chi-square distribution with  degrees of freedom is written as . It is a special case of gamma distribution.

Chi-square distribution is primarily used in statistical significance tests and confidence intervals. It is useful, because it is relatively easy to show that certain probability distributions come close to it, under certain conditions. One of these conditions is that the null hypothesis must be true. Another one is that the different random variables (or observations) must be independent of each other.

Related pages 

 Chi-squared test

References

Other websites
Chi-Square Tutorial by Khans Academy

Probability distributions
In statistics, a null hypothesis, often written as , is a statement assumed to be true unless it can be shown to be incorrect beyond a reasonable doubt. The idea is that the null hypothesis generally assumes that there is nothing new or surprising in the population. The most common null hypothesis is the "no-change" or "no-difference" hypothesis (as in "there is no difference between a sample mean and a population mean"). When testing whether something works, one would start with the null hypothesis that it will not work. The term was first used by Ronald Fisher in his book The Design of Experiments.

Every experiment has a null hypothesis. For example: 
 When performing an experiment to see if a medicine works, the null hypothesis is that it does not work.
 When performing an experiment to see if people prefer chocolate or vanilla ice cream, the null hypothesis is that people like them equally.
 When performing an experiment to see if either boys or girls can play piano better, the null hypothesis is that boys and girls are equally good at playing the piano.

The opposite of a null hypothesis is an alternative hypothesis. Some examples of alternative hypotheses are:
 This medicine makes people healthier.
 People like chocolate ice cream better than vanilla.
 Boys are better at playing the piano than girls.

Related pages 

 Statistical hypothesis test
 Statistical significance

References 

Statistics
Ralph Metzner (May 18, 1936 – March 14, 2019) was an American psychologist, and writer. He was born in 1936, in Germany. With Timothy Leary and Richard Alpert he was involved in a series of tests done at Harvard University, in the 1960s. These tests involved psychedelic drugs.

In the 1960s, professors Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner and Richard Alpert collaborated on a book titled The Psychedelic Experience, which adapted portions of the Tibetan Book of the Dead as a guide for use in LSD experiences. They hoped to give users of LSD a simulation of death and rebirth, to "liberate" them from past problems or mistakes in their lives.

References

American psychologists
Writers from Massachusetts
German writers
1936 births
2019 deaths