cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Goodbye is a word used to express good wishes when parting. It may originate from the phrase "God be with you".

Goodbye can also mean:

Music
Goodbye (Cream album), an album by Cream
Goodbye (Ben & Jason album), an album by Ben & Jason
Goodbye (Dubstar album), an album by Dubstar
Goodbye (Ulrich Schnauss album), an upcoming album by Ulrich Schnauss
"Goodbye", a song written by Lennon-McCartney in 1968 and recorded by Mary Hopkin on the Apple Records label
"Goodbye" (Elton John song), a song written by Elton John and Bernie Taupin
"Goodbye" (Spice Girls song), a 1998 single by Spice Girls
"Goodbye", a 2002 song by Mudvayne from their album The End of All Things to Come
"Goodbye?", a 2005 song by Grandaddy
"Goodbye" (Def Leppard song), a single by Def Leppard
"Goodbye", a song by Gravity Kills from their album Gravity Kills
"Good Bye", a song by Japanese musician hide from the album Psyence
"Goodbye", a song by Night Ranger from their 1985 album Seven Wishes
"Goodbye" (Tevin Campbell song), a 1992 single by Tevin Campbell
"Goodbye" (The Corrs song), a 2006 single by The Corrs
"Goodbye", a 2006 single by Army of Anyone from their album Army of Anyone
"Goodbye" (Everlife song), a 2007 single by Everlife
"Goodbye" (Eurovision song), the Bosnian and Herzegovinian entry in the Eurovision Song Contest 1997, performed by Alma Čardžić.
Leon Spinks (July 11, 1953 – February 5, 2021) was an American boxer. He won the world heavyweight championship. He won a gold medal in the 1976 Olympics in the boxing category. He became a professional boxer. In his eighth bout, he won the heavyweight championship from Muhammad Ali. In his first defense, he lost the title back to Ali. He was born in St. Louis, Missouri.

Spinks continued boxing with little success after that. He fought Larry Holmes for the heavyweight title in 1981, but lost. He also fought for the cruiserweight championship, but he lost that fight, too. He stopped fighting in 1995.

He ws the brother of boxer Michael Spinks and the father of boxer Cory Spinks.

In December 2019, Spinks was hospitalized in Las Vegas after his prostate cancer spread to his bladder. He died on February 5, 2021 from the disease in Henderson, Nevada at the age of 67.

References

Other websites

 Boxing Record

1953 births
2021 deaths
Deaths from prostate cancer
American boxers
American Olympic gold medalists
Sportspeople from St. Louis, Missouri
Cruiserweight is a division in boxing for fighters who weigh over 175 pounds and up to 200 pounds (91 kg). The weight limit was once 190 pounds. The World Boxing Council created this weight division in the late 1970s because it felt that some fighters were too small to fight in the heavyweight division but too big to fight in the light heavyweight division. So they made a weight class in-between. Many cruiserweight champions and contenders may eventually fight in the heavyweight division.

Longest reigning cruiserweight champions 
Below is a list of longest reigning cruiserweight champions in boxing measured by the player's longest reign. Career total time as champion (for multiple time champions) does not apply.

 Active reign
 Reign has ended

References

Cruiserweight
Botanic is a district of South Belfast, in the country of Ireland. It is named after Botanic Gardens, a local park dedicated to the science of botany.

Northern Ireland
Stephen "Steve" Jay (born January 26, 1951) is a bassist best known for working with the singer-songwriter "Weird Al" Yankovic.

1951 births
Living people
Bassists
The minimum wage is the least amount of salary that employees of a business can be paid. Around the world, the minimum wage is enforced as a law that every company must follow. If companies do not give their employees at least the minimum wage, the companies will be forced to pay an expensive fine for breaking the law.

Minimum wage is a relative term. Different countries have different minimum wages. Nunavut in Canada has a minimum wage of $11.00 per hour. Ontario, another place in Canada has a minimum wage of $10.25 per hour. 

Some people think the minimum wage should be raised, so poor working people will have more money and enjoy human rights. Others think it is worse because the government will not have enough money to pay all the employees, so they will raise the taxes or raise the inflation. Some people think that the minimum will hurt employees because companies only hire employees whose labor is worth the price they are required to pay. They think that if the minimum wage is raised employees will lose their job because companies cannot afford to pay them the raised minimum wage.

Related pages
 Constitution
 Constitutional economics
 Economic, social and cultural rights

Macroeconomics
Many of the most famous and best-loved works of art in the world were created during the time known as the Renaissance. The Renaissance began about 1400 and lasted until about 1600. Italy, and in particular the city of Florence is thought of as the home of Renaissance art. 

Many Flemish painters from the area of modern Belgium were also very busy at this time. The style of their pictures, and their use of oil painting influenced the Italian painters.

Important artworks
 Competition for the Baptistry Doors
In 1401, a competition was held to find a sculptor to make a huge set of bronze door for the oldest church in Florence. Lorenzo Ghiberti, Filippo Brunelleschi and Donatello all entered the competition. Ghiberti won. When he finished the first set of doors, he had to make another set. It took fifty years. In that time, dozens of artists helped Ghiberti to make the doors. 

 Brancacci Chapel 
On the walls of this family chapel at the church of the Carmelite Monastery, Massaccio painted pictures which were so realistic that everyone was amazed. 

 The statue of the Smug Cat 
The most famous sculptor of the Early Renaissance was Donatello. His most important job was to make a huge equestrian monument of a soldier (on horseback). The soldier's was called by his nickname, Gattamelata, meaning the Smug Cat (a Cat who is fed on Honey). Donatello had seen a huge equestrian monument before; there is one in Rome of the Emperor Marcus Aurelius. No-one had made such a big bronze statue for more than a thousand years. Donatello's statue was a huge success. It still stands outside the Basilica of Saint Antonio, in the city of Padua. 

 The painting of the Last Supper 
Leonardo da Vinci did one of the world's most famous paintings, the Last Supper on the wall of the dining room in a monastery in Milan while he was working there for the Duke. It shows Jesus, on the night before he died, sharing a meal with his disciples. It has been reproduced and copied thousands of times. 

 The Sistine Chapel Ceiling 
Michelangelo painted the whole ceiling of the Sistine Chapel all by himself over five years. The way that the figures were painted was to influence other artists for hundreds of years.

 Mona Lisa
Mona Lisa (also known as La Gioconda) is a 16th century portrait painted in oil on a poplar panel by Leonardo Da Vinci during the Italian Renaissance. The work is owned by the French government and hangs in the Musée du Louvre in Paris, France with the title Portrait of Lisa Gherardini, wife of Francesco del Giocondo.

The painting is a half-length portrait and depicts a woman whose expression is often described as enigmatic. The ambiguity of the sitter's expression, the monumentality of the half-figure composition, and the subtle modeling of forms and atmospheric illusionism were novel qualities that have contributed to the painting's continuing fascination. Few other works of art have been subject to as much scrutiny, study, mythologizing and parody.

Related pages 
Renaissance architecture
Renaissance music

Art
Renaissance
The Dome of Florence Cathedral
Florence Cathedral, (called il Duomo), built by Arnolfo di Cambio, had a huge hole at the centre. The competition to build a roof over it was won by Brunelleschi who built the largest dome since Roman times. He cleverly got the whole city excited by getting teams of workers from the eight parts of the city. 

Church of San Lorenzo 
This church in Florence was designed by Brunelleschi using all the things he had learnt by looking at the architecture of Ancient Rome. It has arches, columns and round-topped windows in the Roman style. It looks completely different to the pointy-arched churches of the Middle Ages. Only the inside was finished. The outside is still all rough bricks and no-on knows exacly how it was meant to look. On the inside, however, Brunelleschi taught everyone a new set of architectural rule that revolutionised The Renaissance.

Church of Sant' Andrea 
When the Ancient Roman Emperors came back from winning a battle, they built a Triumphal Arch as a monument to themself. There are several of these monuments in Rome and they have the same design: a big arch at the centre, and a smaller lower arch or doorway on either side. The architect Alberti used this as the design for the front of the church of Sant' Andrea in Mantua. He used the same pattern of tall and arched, low and square, all down the inside of the church as well. This was copied by many other architects. 

Medici-Riccardi Palace 
When it came to building palaces, the rich people of the Renaissance had different needs to the Roman Emperors, so the architects had to use the rules to make a new sort of grand building. These Renaissance palaces are usually three stories high and quite plain on the outside. On the inside there is a courtyard, surrounded by beautiful columns and windows. Architects like Michelozzo who worked for Cosimo de' Medici, looked at the Roman Colisseum (sports arena) which is three stories high with rows of arches. 
 https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Florence_Medici_Riccardi_Palace.jpg  
Saint Peter's Basilica
The most famous church in Rome was the ancient Church that had been built over the grave of St. Peter. By 1500 it was falling down. The Pope decided that instead of repairing it, it should be pulled down and a brand new church should be built. By the time it was finished, lots of important artists had worked on the design including Michelangelo, Raphael, Bramante, Maderna and Sangallo. It was the first building to use huge columns called a "giant order". It has one of the most magnificent domes in the world. It has been copied in many countries. 

Villa Rotunda 
This country house was built by Palladio in 1550. It is a square building which looks the same from every side. At the centre, there is a dome. On every side is a large porch, (portico), like a Greek temple. It is such an elegant design that other architects used the same style which can be seen on churches, houses and palaces, including the White House.

Architecture
Renaissance
Comet was a chain of shops in the UK. They were the second largest retailer of TVs, and biggest retailer of fridges, washing machines and dishwashers in England.

Shops
Sainsbury's is the biggest supermarket chain based in the United Kingdom. Sainsbury's originally sold only food, but it now sells other things like mobile phones, clothing, and books. Sainsbury's is the second largest supermarket in the UK (after Tesco). The clothing range at Sainsbury's has changed a lot over the years. It started off with, Jeff & Co, then another range was brought in, after that Adams Kids. Now it is called TU. Sainsbury's sister store is called Argos.

References

Supermarkets of the United Kingdom
Shops
1869 establishments in the United Kingdom
Ronnie James Dio (born Ronaldo Giovanni Padovan July 10, 1942 - May 16, 2010) was an American heavy metal singer. His parents were Italian Americans. He performed with Elf, Rainbow, Black Sabbath, and his own band Dio. He was also part of the band Heaven and Hell (named after Black Sabbath's most famous song), with some of the original Black Sabbath members. Dio was born in Portsmouth, New Hampshire and raised in Cortland, New York. He starred in the Tenacious D movie, The Pick Of Destiny.

In November 2009, Dio was diagnosed with stomach cancer, which caused his death in Houston, Texas, on May 16, 2010. He was 68.

References

Other websites 
 Official site of Ronnie James Dio

American rock singers
Bassists
Cancer deaths in the United States
Deaths from stomach cancer
People from Portsmouth, New Hampshire
Singers from New York
Singers from New Hampshire
1942 births
2010 deaths
Chow Yun-fat SBS (born May 18, 1955), formerly called Donald Chow, is a Hong Kong actor and singer. He often worked with John Woo in the action movies A Better Tomorrow, The Killer, and Hard Boiled. He also acted in Pirates of the Caribbean: At World's End, and has acted in many drama movies.

Career
His parents were farmers and poor. He grew up on an island without electricity. While in college, Chow began training to become an actor with TVB. He first appeared on the 1980 TV series The Bund. Chow appeared in many TV series, but he wanted to act in movies. He acted in a few movies, but they were very bad. He finally became sucessful when he teamed with John Woo in A Better Tomorrow.

References

Other websites

1955 births
Living people
Actors from Hong Kong
Atze Schröder is a German comedy figure played by Hubertus Albers.

Atze Schröder 
The figure "Atze Schröder" was born on 27 September 1965 in the German town Essen.

Biography of the comedian 
In public, he always acts as his pseudonym "Atze Schröder". Some sources report Emsdetten as his place of birth. He was suing a German newspaper and the German Wikipedia after publishing his real name Hubertus Albers.

Awards 
 2000: Deutscher Comedypreis – Best Comedy Act for Alles Atze
 2003: Deutscher Comedypreis – Best Actor in a comedy show for Alles Atze
 2003: Deutscher Fernsehpreis – Best Sitcom for Alles Atze
 2005: Deutscher Comedypreis – Best Comedy Series for Alles Atze

Other websites 
Official Atze Schröder homepage (German)

Atze Schröder as a trademark
Commentary of WikiMedia CEO

References

1965 births
Living people
Fictional characters

fr:Atze Schröder
tr:Atze Schröder
simple:Atze Schröder
Autonomy means being able to rule without having to obey some other higher authority. Autonomy is something that philosophers often talk about.  The idea occurs in moral, political, and bioethical philosophy.  It means that someone is able to make a sensible decision without being forced to do so by someone else.  They are able to make a "free" decision.  

In moral and political philosophy, autonomy is often used when discussing whether someone has a moral responsibility for what he does. One of best known philosophical theories of autonomy was developed by Kant. In medicine, doctors have to respect the autonomy of the patient, i.e. the patient has been given good information about their illness, they should be able to decide whether they want treatment.  The doctor cannot force it on them.

In politics, autonomy means self-determination that people can govern themselves instead of being ruled by someone else.

References

Other page 
Bodily integrity
Independence

Philosophy
Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (August 27, 1770 – November 14, 1831) was a German philosopher born in Stuttgart, Württemberg, which is now southwest Germany. He started Hegelianism and is a part of German Idealism. He influenced many writers and philosophers, including those who agreed with him (Bradley, Sartre, Küng, Bauer, Stirner, Marx), and those who did not agree with him (Kierkegaard, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche, Heidegger, Schelling). Hegel's books are difficult to read and deal with many different ideas at the same time. He has written about history, politics, religion, art, logic and metaphysics.

Major works 
 Phenomenology of Spirit (Phänomenologie des Geistes Sometimes translated as Phenomenology of Mind) 1807 (This gives an example of the problem: The English translators of the Phänomenologie des Geistes are not sure if they should translate "Geist" by "Spirit" or by "Mind", although the terms "Spirit" and "Mind" are sharply distinct in the English language.)
 Science of Logic (Wissenschaft der Logik) 1812–1816 (last edition of the first part 1831)
 Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (Enzyklopaedie der philosophischen Wissenschaften) 1817–1830
 Elements of the Philosophy of Right (Grundlinien der Philosophie des Rechts) 1821
 Lectures on Aesthetics
 Lectures on the Philosophy of History (also translated as Lectures on the Philosophy of World History) 1830
 Lectures on Philosophy of Religion
 Lectures on the History of Philosophy

Secondary literature 
 Theodor W. Adorno, 1994. Hegel: Three Studies. MIT Press. Translated by Shierry M. Nicholsen, with an introduction by Nicholsen and Jeremy J. Shapiro, . Essays on Hegel's concept of spirit/mind, Hegel's concept of experience, and why Hegel is difficult to read.
 Avineri, Shlomo, 1974. Hegel's Theory of the Modern State. Cambridge University Press. Best introduction to Hegel's political philosophy.
 Frederick C. Beiser, ed., 1993. The Cambridge Companion to Hegel. Cambridge University Press. . The Cambridge Companions are a good way to start learning about a particular philosopher; this one is no exception.

Other websites 

 The new HegelWiki
 A superior biography of Hegel with graphics
 Hegel.net - resources available under the GNU FDL
 Hegel.net  - wiki article on Hegel
 Alicia Farinati -  Hegelian Works  Several articles on Hegel. Available in English, Spanish and French
 Commented link list
 Hegel mailing lists in the internet
 Explanation of Hegel, mostly in German
 The Hegel Society of America
 Hegel in Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
 http://www.gwfhegel.org/
 Hegel page in 'The History Guide'
 Is Hegel a Christian? 
 Rethinking the Place of Philosophy with Hegel - Call for Papers for Cosmos and History

Hegel texts online 
 
 Philosophy of History Introduction
 Hegel's The Philosophy of Right
 Hegel's The Philosophy of History
 Hegel by HyperText reference archive

Continental philosophers
German philosophers
People from Stuttgart
1770 births
1831 deaths
Nicolas Sarkozy, born on 28 January 1955 in Paris, France,
 is a French politician. He was the  23rd President of France and, because of that position, ex officio Co-Prince of Andorra from 16 May 2007 to 15 May 2012 succeeding Jacques Chirac.
 
He was the leader of the UMP, and was elected President of the French Republic on 6 May 2007. He defeated Ségolène Royal, of the Socialist Party.

Political career
Sarkozy was known for his conservative law and order politics and his admiration for a new economic model for France during his presidency. He wanted a more liberalised economy for France because he saw the United States and the United Kingdom as positive examples. Until 26 March 2007, he was the Minister of the Interior of France. His nickname Sarko was  used by both supporters and opponents. On 6 May 2012, Sarkozy was defeated in the 2012 election by Socialist François Hollande by a margin of 3.2%, or 1,139,983 votes. After leaving the office, Sarkozy pretended to retire from political life. As a former president, Sarkozy is entitled to de jure membership in the Constitutional Council.

Corruption trial
On 23 November 2020, a corruption trial started. He was accused for an attempted bribery of a judge. The trial was postponed until November 26, following a request from one of his co-defendants for health reasons.

On March 1, 2021, a court in Paris found former Sarkozy guilty of corruption, trading in influence in a wiretapping and illegal data exchange. Sarkozy and his two co-defendants were sentenced to three years, two of them suspended, and one in prison.

Notes

Other websites

Official websites 
 Nicolas Sarkozy Construire Ensemble—Official web site of the presidential campaign 
 Website of the UMP, Sarkozy's party 
 Nicolas Sarkozy–Official Website
 Supporters de Sarkozy–Official Website of Nicolas Sarkozy's supporters

Press 
  Charlie Rose show 02.02.07 (video interview at Place Beauvau, Paris with PBS journalist Charlie Rose, 30.01.07)
  Sarkozy takes over Chirac's UMP party (BBC)
  Profile: Nicolas Sarkozy (BBC)
  Nicolas Sarkozy: French Choose the American Way?  by David Storobin
  Vive this difference by Suzanne Fields
  France's chance, Economist, 12 April 2007
  Letter From Europe- Round 1  Jane Kramer, The New Yorker, April 23, 2007

Related contents 
 Some Nicolas Sarkozy's quotations (French)
 Sarkozy 2007 — Website to promote Nicolas Sarkozy's candidacy in 2007

French Roman Catholics
French lawyers
Politicians from Paris
Honorary Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath
Presidents of France
Princes of Andorra
1955 births
Living people
French Ministers of Finance
A tyrant (pronounce: tie-rant) is a person who rules with absolute power. In its Greek origin the word has no negative meaning: we translate Oedipus Tyrannus as 'Oedipus the King'. A tyrant  usually rules a country, and he often got his position as powerful ruler by force, although some of them inherited their power.

Later, the word came to mean someone who ruled with cruelty and injustice. The rule of a tyrant is called tyranny.  The adjective is tyrannical.

A dictator or despot is someone who rules with absolute authority, usually cruelly. It now has the same meaning as 'tyrant', whereas before, 'tyrant' meant something like 'ruler' or 'king'.

In the 10th and 9th centuries BC, Ancient Greece was ruled by monarchs. By the 7th century BC, they were ruled by groups of aristocrats. These aristocrats started to become unpopular. This gave cruel people the chance to get power for themselves, telling the people that they would be good rulers, but turning bad once they got power.

Around 650 BC the tyrant Cypselus became powerful in Corinth.  There were other tyrants in the Asiatic countries that were ruled by Greece.  Cypselus’s son Periander was also a cruel tyrant who ruled for 40 years. The tyranny in Corinth came to an end after he died.

Politics
Ancient Greece
Johann Pachelbel  (born Nuremberg (German:Nürnberg), baptized 1 September, 1653; died Nürnberg, buried 9 March, 1706) was a German composer and organist.  He is very famous for his organ music.  He also wrote other keyboard music and music for the Protestant church.  His Canon in D has become a very popular piece of music and is very often played today at church weddings and other events.

He was brought up in Nürnberg and had his first music lessons there.  In 1669 he went to study at the university of Altdorf, but after a year he had to leave because his father could not afford to keep him.  About a year later he went to study at the Gymnasium Poeticum in Regensburg.  The directors of that school must have realized that he was an extremely talented musician, because they made an extra scholarship for him and allowed him to have special music lessons outside the school.

In 1673 he went to Vienna where he was deputy organist at  St Stephen’s Church.  He heard a lot more music there, especially the music of the catholic composers of  South Germany and Italy.  After a short while at Eisenach he got the job of organist at the Predigerkirche in Erfurt.

In 1681 he married, but his wife and their baby boy died in the plague.  In 1684 he married again and the couple had five sons and two daughters. Pachelbel taught Johann Christoph Bach who later taught Johann Sebastian Bach.

Pachelbel became a very famous organist.  He stayed in Erfurt until 1690.  After another five years he became organist at St Sebald, Nürnberg where he stayed for the rest of his life.

His music
Pachelbel is best known for his organ music.  He wrote many organ pieces based on chorales while he was in Erfurt.  In Nürnberg he wrote many pieces called Magnificat fugues. These were preludes which were played before the singers sang the Magnificat. His organ music also includes toccatas, ricercares, fantasias and ciacconas.  He wrote many suites for harpsichord and chamber music and vocal music.

Audio
Canon in D played on a piano:

1653 births
1706 deaths
Baroque composers
Entertainers from Bavaria
German composers
German organists
People from Nuremberg
Blender is a free, open source 3D computer graphics program. It is available for many operating systems, for example Microsoft Windows, macOS and Linux. It is made by the Blender Foundation. It was used, for example, to make the short movies Elephants Dream, Big Buck Bunny and Sintel.

History
A Dutch animation studio called NeoGeo created Blender as an in-house application. The song Yello, which is from a song album called Baby, started an idea of the name "Blender". Ton Roosendaal founded NaN in June of 1998. He wanted to make and show off the program to the public. The program was published as shareware until NaN went bankrupt in 2002. The creditors, people who have other people oweing money to them, agreed to sell out Blender under the laws of the GNU General Public License in exchange for a one-time payment of 100,000 Euros (102,000 in U.S. dollars.) On July 18, 2002, Roosendaal put money into a Blender funding campaign—in order to collect donations. On September 7, 2002, the collected funds was given notice to the public. This proved that the Blender source code would be published. Blender is now an open source program. Right now, the Blender Foundation watches and takes care of it. It is the Blender Foundation's responsibility to do such a thing. The Blender Foundation have the right to use dual licensing, so that, in addition to GNU GPL, Blender would also have the permission to use the following name: "Blender License". Blender License does not have a rule that says it needs a disclosing source code but it does have a rule on payments to the Blender Foundation. On the other hand, this choice was never used and became null in 2005. Right now, Blender belongs only to GNU GPL.

Features
Blender has many features and tools, such as:
 Modelling tools for creating 3D models, materials etc.
 Rendering engine (part of the program that draws the image of the 3D scene).
 Physics engine which can be used to make simulations of collisions, water, smoke etc.
 Animation tools which can be used to make 3D models move, e.g. for movies.
 Video editor.

Other websites
 Blender website

References 

Graphics software
Free software
Animation
Paracetamol (or acetaminophen) is a common analgesic, a drug that is used to relieve pain. It can also be used to reduce fever, and some kinds of headache. This makes it an antipyretic, something that reduces fevers. It is used in many drugs that treat the flu and colds.

The words acetaminophen and paracetamol both come from the names of the chemicals used in the compound: N-acetyl-para-aminophenol and para-acetyl-amino-phenol. Sometimes, it is shortened to APAP, for N-acetyl-para-aminophenol.

Harmon Northrop Morse was the first to make Paracetamol, in the year 1878. Drugs made with Paracetamol became common in the 1950s. Today, these drugs are some of the most used, together with those containing salicylic acid or Ibuprofen. In the year 1977, Paracetamol was put on the List of Essential Medicines of the WHO.

Safety and dosage
Paracetamol is considered safe for use. The drug is easily available without a prescription. People often take too much Paracetamol. Sometimes this is because people do not know how much they should take. The recommended dose may not work for some individuals. Other times it is because they are trying to commit suicide. Very often, a person's liver can be hurt they take too much Paracetamol. A dose of 150 milligrams for every kilogram of the person's weight (about 10 grams for most adults) will lead to permanent liver damage, and may cause the liver to fail. For people whose livers have already been damaged, such as alcoholics, and for those with a limited secretion of Paracetamol, this amount can be much smaller.==
In England and Wales, about 30.000 people per year go to the hospital after taking too much paracetamol (called paracetamol poisoning), and about 150 die of the poisoning. Since a law was passed saying that Paracetamol packets cannot be too large, fewer people have been committing suicide with Paracetamol. In Great Britain and the United States Paracetamol is the main reason for acute liver failure. About half of the cases are because of an 'unintentional overdose'.

References 

Analgesics
Morphine (INN) (IPA: ) is a strong opiate pain killer drug. It is the principal active agent in opium and the prototypical opiate.  Like other opioids, e.g. diacetylmorphine (heroin), morphine acts directly on the central nervous system (CNS) to relieve pain, and at synapses of the nucleus accumbens in particular.  Morphine is highly addictive when compared to other substances, and tolerance and physical and mental dependences develop very rapidly. 

Patients on morphine sometimes say they have insomnia, visual hallucinations and nightmares; if these occur then reduction in dosage or switch to an alternative opioid analgesic should be considered.

The word "morphine" is derived from Morpheus, the god of dreams in Greek mythology. He is the son of Hypnos, god of sleep.

Medical uses 
Morphine is used legally: 
 As a pain killer in hospital settings for
 treating pain after surgery
 relieving pain associated with trauma
 In the relief of severe chronic pain, e.g.
 Cancer pain
 Pain from kidney stones
 Back pain
 As an adjunct to general pain killers
 In epidural anesthesia or intrathecal analgesia 
 For palliative care (i.e. to lessen pain without curing the underlying reason for it. This is often done for patients with incurable diseases)
 As a medication for severe cough
 In nebulised form, for treatment of dyspnoea.  The evidence for efficacy is slim . Evidence is better for other routes .
 As an antidiarrheal in chronic conditions (e.g., for diarrhea associated with AIDS), although loperamide (a non-absorbed opioid acting only on the gut) is the most commonly used opioid for diarrhea.
 Morphine was first isolated in 1804 by Friedrich Sertürner, which is generally believed to be the first ever isolation of a natural plant alkaloid in history. Sertürner began distributing it in 1817, and Merck began marketing it commercially in 1827. At the time, Merck was a single small chemists' shop. Morphine was more widely used after the invention of the hypodermic syringe in 1857. Sertürner originally named the substance morphium after the Greek god of dreams, Morpheus (Greek: Μορφεύς), for its tendency to cause sleep.[2] It is on the WHO Model List of Essential Medicines, a list of the most important medications needed in a basic health system.[3]

References

Opioids
Analgesics
Codeine or methylmorphine is an opiate used for its analgesic properties. It is also used to treat coughing and diarrhea. It is marketed as the salts codeine sulfate and codeine phosphate. Codeine hydrochloride is more commonly marketed in continental Europe and other regions.

Codeine is an alkaloid found in opium in concentrations ranging from 0.3 to 3.0 percent. Codeine can be extracted from opium. Today, most codeine is synthesized from morphine through the process of O-methylation.

Uses 
Codeine is used to treat the following:
Cough, though its efficacy in low dose over the counter formulations has been disputed.
Diarrhea
Moderate to severe pain
Irritable bowel syndrome

Compound analgesics 
Codeine is often marketed as drugs in combination with paracetamol (acetaminophen) as co-codamol (best known in North America as Tylenol 3). Research has shown the combination to be very much more effective than paracetamol, and much less addictive that pure codeine. 

There are similar combinations with aspirin as co-codaprin or with ibuprofen. These combinations provide greater pain relief than either agent alone. Drug synergy is an important principle.

References 

Opioids
Analgesics
Opium is a narcotic resin produced from opium poppies (Papaver somniferum). It contains up to 16% morphine, an opiate alkaloid, which is most frequently processed chemically to produce heroin for the black market. The resin also has non-narcotic alkaloids in it. Some of these are papaverine and noscapine. Opium is also known as afeem, and was called "God's Own Medicine" during its time of greatest popularity. It can be yellow or dark brown, and has a bitter taste.

Opium has been used and produced for thousands of years. During this time, the source plant has been changed and adapted. The methods of processing the plant, and extracting substance and consuming it also have changed.  The medicinal use of poppies for pain relief dates back to ancient times, but widespread use in patent medicines or as a recreational drug has occurred only in the last few centuries.  Drug prohibition laws in most countries were introduced in the 20th century.  Today the opium crop is worth in excess of $400 million legally and $7 billion illegally, after processing. Opium has caused many wars in China, such as the Opium Wars, because of heavy addiction to the drug. People who become addicted to opium become dull, lazy, and even sleepy. Opium itself is a very harmful and addictive ingredient and comes in many other forms of illegal drugs; including Heroin and/or Diamorphine. 

Health Risks

Health risks include, overdose, respiratory depression, risk of HIV if injected, and risk of permanent brain dulling if used for prolonged periods of time.

References  

Opioids
Pethidine or meperidine (often called Demerol in the United States) is a synthetic opioid - a man-made drug similar to morphine. It is a painkiller. It is used against moderate to severe pain. It can mix badly with other medicines, including muscle relaxants, some antidepressants, benzodiazepines, and alcohol.

Pethidine can be bad for people with liver disease, kidney disease, an enlarged prostate, trouble peeing, hyperthyroidism, asthma or Addison's disease. It can also be bad for people who have had seizures or epilepsy.

Opioids
Analgesics
The French National Assembly (French: Assemblée nationale) is one of the two houses of the Parliament of France under the Fifth Republic. The other is the Senate ("Sénat").

The National Assembly consists of 577 members known as députés (deputies), each elected by a single-member constituency. Deputies are elected in each constituency through a two-rounds system. It is presided over by a president normally from the largest party represented, assisted by vice-presidents from across the represented political spectrum. The term of the National Assembly is five years; however, the President of France may dissolve the Assembly (by i.e.: calling a new election), unless he dissolved it in the preceding year.

The official seat of the National Assembly is the Palais Bourbon on the left bank of the river Seine.

Other websites 
 Official website

Politics of France
Parliaments
Hyperthyroidism is a medical condition. It is caused by a thyroid gland that is too active. The thyroid gland makes hormones. These hormones manage the body’s metabolism. An example of one of these hormones is thyroxine. The thyroid-stimulating hormone starts the making of thyroxine. The thyroid-stimulating hormone is also called “TSH.” TSH is made in the pituitary gland. Hyperthyroidism is determined by a doctor by blood tests that show a decreased thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) level.

The most common cause of this disorder is "Graves’ disease.” Graves’ disease is a condition in which the thyroid gland becomes overactive. Antibodies from the immune system in the bloodstream attack itself (this is called an autoimmune disease). This causes the thyroid gland to grow, as well as produce more thyroid hormones.

Some symptoms of this disorder are the swelling of the neck, as well as weight loss. In addition, patients could experience their hands trembling, as well as their blood pressure increasing. They could also experience nervousness and anxiety attacks. Medication can stop the effects of hyperthyroidism. However, hyperthyroidism cannot be fixed completely. Hyperthyroidism can occasionally cause death.

References

Diseases
Endocrine system
(99942) Apophis is a near-Earth asteroid that worried people for a short time in December 2004. This was because observations seemed to show that it would hit the Earth in 2029. Other observations had more accurate, or better, ideas. During 2029, Apophis would go through a "gravitational keyhole", an area in space no more than about 400 meters across. This would make it hit the Earth on April 13, 2036. This danger made the asteroid Level 1 on the Torino impact hazard scale until August 2006.

More watching showed scientists that the "keyhole" would be missed. On August 5, 2006, Apophis was lowered to a Level 0 on the Torino Scale. As of October 19 2006 the probability that Apophis will hit the Earth on April 13, 2036 is something around 1 in 45,000. It may also hit in 2038, but however the probability for that encounter, or meeting, is 1 in 12.3 million.

More reading 
Cooke, Bill. (2006) Fatal attraction. Astronomy, May 2006, pp. 46-51.

Other websites

Risk assessment 
These sources are updated as new orbital data becomes available:
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/risk/a99942.html  (NASA JPL)
  page and  impactor table from NEODyS.

NASA 
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news146.html  (JPL)
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news148.html  (JPL)
 http://neo.jpl.nasa.gov/news/news149.html  (JPL)

Other articles 
 Closest Flyby of Large Asteroid to be Naked-Eye Visible (2029 approach)
 http://skyandtelescope.com/news/article_1458_1.asp  (Sky and Telescope)
 An asteroid, headed our way (Christian Science Monitor, on efforts to deflect the asteroid if needed)

Asteroids
Baruch Spinoza (24 November 1632 in Amsterdam – 21 February 1677 in The Hague) was a Dutch philosopher of Portuguese Jewish origin. He is considered to be one of the great Rationalist philosophers of the 17th century. Other famous rationalists include Gottfried Leibniz and René Descartes.

Life 

Spinoza's ideas were not cherished by the Jewish community in Amsterdam of the time, and Spinoza was excommunicated in 1656.

Key ideas 

An important idea in Spinoza's philosophy is God and Nature (everything that exists) are the same thing. Opposing Dualism, Spinoza said that the body and the mind (soul)  are two of God's infinite attributes. 

There is no good or evil in Nature, and that these words only have meanings for human beings. For a person, an event that leads to happiness is good, and an event that leads to suffering is bad. 

Spinoza describes two types of thoughts, or emotions:

 When a person acts from his own nature, he is said to be Active. The more you understand your actions, the more active you become. Active emotions lead to happiness and an understanding of God, as well as to Freedom. 
 When a person is being influenced by another person, or a thing, he is said to be Passive. 

The goal of every person is to intellectually love God (that is, understand Nature as much as humanly possible).

References 
 Jewish Encyclopedia

1632 births
1677 deaths
17th-century philosophers
Dutch Jews
Dutch philosophers
Jewish philosophers
Writers from Amsterdam
Rationalism is the view that reasoning by itself is a source of knowledge or proof. It is a philosophical movement that began in the 17th century, but the same ideas were also talked about before then. Rationalist philosophers believe that all knowledge can be understood through a process of reasoning, without any external sources. They do not believe that human beings can understand everything this way, but that it is theoretically possible. Rationalist philosophers attempt to understand ideas like God and the soul in this manner.

The first people to talk about rationalism were Marin Mersenne and René Descartes, in the 17th and 18th centuries. Other philosophers who are seen as rationalist today include Baruch Spinoza, Gottfried Leibniz and Immanuel Kant. Famous people opposed to this idea were David Hume and John Locke.

Rationalism also influenced natural law. Natural law is a theory that says that there are laws given by nature, valid everywhere. Deism was also influenced by rationalism. According to deism, a supreme being created the universe. This being, and other religious truths can be determined by observing nature, and finding natural laws. This would make religions that are based on  revelation unnecessary.

References 

Epistemology
Philosophical movements and positions
2029 (MMXXIX) will be .

Predicted events 
 Friday, April 13 — The asteroid 99942 Apophis (previously also known by its provisional designation 2004 MN4) will pass within 30,000 km (18,600 mi) of the Earth. 
 Music by Buddy Holly will enter the public domain this year.
 Ray Kurzweil and other futurists predict that computer intelligence will exceed biological intelligence.
 The FBI will have permission to reveal to the public the Top Secret papers on John F. Kennedy's assassination.

2029 in fiction

Computer and video games 
 Deus Ex (2000): JC Denton's "assigned birth date" is  March 17.

Manga 
 Ghost in the Shell:  Public Security Section 9 is established.

Movies 
 The Terminator (1984): Kyle Reese and a Terminator are sent back in time to 1984.
 Terminator 2: Judgment Day (1991): Two Terminators, a T-800 and a T-1000, are sent back in time to, respectively, protect and kill John Connor as a teenager.

Music 
 Post-Grunge rock band Our Lady Peace's popular song "In Repair", among others, from their 2000 album Spiritual Machines, references the year 2029 in the opening, which states "The year is 2029. The machines will convince us that they are conscious...". The entire album was attributed and decidated to futurist Raymond Kurzweil.
 Gothic Metal band Type O Negative speaks of the year 2029 (specifically April 13, 2029) in their song "The Profit of Doom", which is from the narrative of a doom prophet. The album with the song "The Profit of Doom", entitled Dead Again, was released on March 13, 2007.

Television 
 Six Feet Under ("Everyone's Waiting," 2005): Keith Charles is shot and killed by robbers seizing the contents of his armored truck.

Comics 
 10 January — Comic book character Tintin, from The Adventures of Tintin created by Herge, turns 100 years old.

Other websites 

 
Years in the future
Elephants Dream is a short movie made using mostly open source software. Blender was the main program used to make the movie. It began production in September 2005 and was released on March 24, 2006. It was first developed under the name Orange, then later changed to Machina then finally to Elephants Dream since the people working on the movie could not decide how "Machina" would be pronounced. The movie is 11 minutes long.

Overview 
The movie has a very random and abstract nature. Despite the film's title, Elephants Dream does not have any elephants or dreams. It instead has Proog and Emo in an extremely bizarre construction referred to only as "the machine." Proog tries to introduce Emo to its nature, but Emo is reluctant (If a person is reluctant to do something, he/she does not want to do it.) and argues about its purpose.
Bassam Kurdali, Director of Elephants Dream, explained the plot of the movie by saying:
"The story is very simple- I'm not sure you can call it a complete story even- It is about how people create ideas/stories/fictions/social realities and communicate them or impose them on others. Thus Proog has created (in his head) the concept of a special place/machine, that he tries to "show" to Emo. When Emo does not accept his story, Proog becomes desperate and hits him. It's a parable of human relationships really- You can substitute many ideas (money, religion, social institutions, property) instead of Proog's machine - the story does not say that creating ideas is bad, just hints that it is better to share ideas than force them on others. There are lots of little clues/hints about this in the movie- many little things have a meaning- but we are not very "tight" with it, because we are hoping people will have their own ideas about the story, and make a new version of the movie. In this way (and others) we tie the story of the movie with the "open movie" idea." 
Ton Roosendaal announced the film in May 2005. He is the chairman of the Blender Foundation. The Blender Foundation and the Netherlands Media Art Institute funded the project. The Foundation raised a lot of their funds by selling pre-orders of the DVD. Everyone who preordered before September 1 has his or her name listed in the film's credits. The film was released for download on the Official Orange Project website on May 18, 2006.

Other websites
 The Elephants Dream website

Animated movies
2006 movies
English-language movies
The Chapel Royal is a department of the monarch's household in the United Kingdom. 

Incorrectly, the term is also used for the choirs of these chapels. The correct name for these choirs is the Gentlemen of the Chapel. They are a group of priests and singers who sing church services for the British monarch (king or queen). They are helped by young boy singers called choristers or Children of the Chapel. It is an old tradition.  

Today there are two consecrated buildings at St James’s Palace, near Buckingham Palace in London served by the Chapel Royal. These chapels do not belong to the diocese (group of churches in a district).  That is why they are called “royal peculiars” (“peculiar” in this sense does not mean “strange” but “special”). Services are held every Sunday except during August and September.  Members of the public are welcome to go to these services.  This is the only time that the public can go into the royal chapels. The choir also sing at special services, including one held every year on 6 January to celebrate Epiphany when offerings of gold, frankincense and myrrh are made on behalf of the queen.

History 
The Chapel Royal dates back to the late 13th century.  At that time the priests and choir travelled with the king wherever he went.

In the 17th century the chapel had its own building in Whitehall, which burned down in 1698.  Since 1702 it has been based in St. James's Palace.

In the 16th and 17th centuries the choir was the best choir in England.  William Byrd and Thomas Tallis were both organists there during the reign of Elizabeth I.  Boy choristers from choirs outside London were sometimes made to join the Children of the Chapel if they had beautiful voices. These boys also took part in plays at the king or queen’s court.  Charles II liked musical instruments, so the choir were often joined by violins, lutes and viols. 

Some very famous composers were organists at the Chapel Royal.  These include: Thomas Tallis (c.1545-85), William Byrd (c.1572-c.1618), John Bull (1591-1613), Orlando Gibbons (1605-25), John Blow (1673/4-1708), Henry Purcell (1682-95), Jeremiah Clarke (1704-1707), William Croft (1708-27), and George Frideric Handel who was organist from (1723-59).  At the time Handel was appointed he was still German, not English, so he was not allowed to be a member.  Instead, he was given a special title: "Composer of Musick of His Majesty's Chappel Royal".

Today the Choir rehearses twice weekly at St James's Palace. The choir consists of six Gentlemen-in-Ordinary who are professional singers, and ten boys who have scholarships to go to the City of London School where they are called Queen's Scholars. 

The composer Sir Peter Maxwell Davies, who was Master of the Queen's Music, worked closely with the Chapel Royal, composing a new carol for them every Christmas.

The head of the Chapel Royal in Scotland is a Dean. Another Chapel Royal once existed in Ireland.

Other websites
 Chapels Royal, from the official site of the British Monarchy
Churches in the United Kingdom
British royalty
Church architecture