cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Gaetano Bresci (November 10, 1869 - May 22, 1901) was an Italian American anarchist who killed Italian King Umberto I. He is still considered a hero by many anarchists and republicans.

Life
Bresci was born in Tuscany, and he went from Italy to the United States, he lived for many time Paterson, New Jersey, where there was a large Italian-American community. He was one of the founders of La Questione Sociale, the Italian language anarchist paper published in Paterson. 

In 1898, the high bread prices led to demonstrations all over Italy. In Milan, an unarmed group of workers, women and children marched together for protesting, near the palace, which was surrounded by a strong military force under command of General Fiorenzo Bava-Beccaris. The people ignored the order to stop, so the General gave the signal of fire with rifles and cannons, resulting in a massacre of innocent people. Ninety people died, one of whom was Bresci's sister.

Umberto I's killing
King Humbert later decorated Bava-Beccaris, and the king after said thanks to him,for "the defense of the royal house", the king did not do anything for the innocent people died, he decorated the murtder, this is the reason that made Bresci determined to kill the king.Bresci had his loan to the paper returned (without telling his comrades why), and with the money he went to Italy. In Monza, where the king was visiting on July 29, 1900, he shot him three times.

Bresci was captured and put on trial, where he was defended by the anarchist lawyer Francesco Saverio Merlino. He was sentenced in Milan on August 29, 1900, to life imprisonment on the jail of Santo Stefano Island near Ventotene, where lot of other anarchists had also been sent over the years. Less than a year later he was found dead in prison. It is not clear whether he committed suicide, as officially announced, or whether he was murdered by his guards.

Other websites
Gaetano Bresci Page in the Anarchist Encyclopedia 

1869 births
1901 deaths
Italian anarchists
Murderers
Songs for Polarbears is the debut album by the alternative rock group Snow Patrol. It was released on August 31 1998. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and helped Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn write the music. The name of the album is a reference to how Snow Patrol was once called 'Polar Bear', but changed their name.

Songs for Polarbears was re-released in 2006.

Track listing

Original release 
 "Downhill From Here" – 3:23
 "Starfighter Pilot" – 3:19
 "The Last Shot Ringing in My Ears" – 4:26
 "Absolute Gravity" – 2:45
 "Get Balsamic Vinegar... Quick You Fool" – 3:27
 "Mahogany" – 2:46
 "NYC" – 4:27
 "Little Hide" – 2:41
 "Make Up" – 2:12
 "Velocity Girl" – 4:37
 "Days Without Paracetamol" – 3:32
 "Fifteen Minutes Old" – 3:08
 "Favourite Friend" – 2:46
 "One Hundred Things You Should Have Done in Bed" (UK release) – 6:14
 "Marketplace" (hidden track on UK version, bonus track on U.S. version)
 "I Could Stay Away Forever" (bonus track on U.S. version)
 "Sticky Teenage Twin" (bonus track on U.S. version)
 "Holy Cow" (bonus track on U.S. version)
 "When You're Right, You're Right (Darth Vader Bringing in His Washing Mix)" (bonus track on U.S. version)

2006 re-release 
 "Downhill From Here" – 3:23
 "Starfighter Pilot" – 3:19
 "The Last Shot Ringing In My Ears" – 4:26
 "Absolute Gravity" – 2:45
 "Get Balsamic Vinegar... Quick You Fool" – 3:27
 "Mahogany" – 2:46
 "NYC" – 4:27
 "Little Hide" – 2:41
 "Make Up" – 2:12
 "Velocity Girl" – 4:37
 "Days Without Paracetamol" – 3:32
 "Fifteen Minutes Old" – 3:08
 "Favourite Friend" – 2:46
 "One Hundred Things You Should Have Done in Bed/ Marketplace" – 6:14
 "Sticky Teenage Twin" – 2:08
 "Limited Edition" – 2:33
 "Jj" – 1:47
 "My Last Girlfriend" – 2:59
 "T.M.T." – 2:51
 "I Could Stay Away Forever" – 4:28
 "When You're Right, You're Right (Darth Vader Bringing In His Washing Mix)" – 3:31
 "Raze The City" – 4:20
 "Riot Please" – 2:52

Snow Patrol albums
Debut albums
1998 albums
Rock albums
The Dominican city of San José de Ocoa is the head municipality of the San José de Ocoa province, on the southern part of the country and close to the Ocoa river.

Name
Ocoa is the name of the river that crosses the province; it is a Taíno word that means "a place with many mountains".

The old name of the town was El Maniel.

Population
The city had, in , a total population of 25,710: 12,819 men and 12,891 women. The urban population was  of the total population.

Geography
San José de Ocoa has a total area of , about  of the total area of the province of San José de Ocoa. The city is an elevation of , and at  to the northwest of Santo Domingo.

San José de Ocoa is on the southern side of the Cordillera Central ("Central mountain range"). The city is along the Ocoa river.

The municipality of San José de Ocoa has the Azua province to the west, the Peravia province to the south, the municipality of Sabana Larga to the north, the municipality of Rancho Arriba to the northwest and the San Cristóbal province to the west.

Climate
San José de Ocoa has a tropical wet and dry/savanna climate (Köppen-Geiger classification: Aw) with a pronounced dry season in winter.

The average amount of rainfall for the year in the city is . The month with the most precipitation on average is May with  of rainfall, followed by September with .

The driest season is winter. The month with the least rainfall on average is January with an average of  and the second is February with .

San José de Ocoa is in a warm region; the average temperature for the year is . The warmest month, on average, is August with an average temperature of . The coolest month on average is January, with an average temperature of .

Administrative division
The municipality of San José de Ocoa has four municipal districts:

Economy
The main economic activity of the municipality is farming; the main products are coffee, beans and potato. Other vegetable, as cabbage and carrot are also grown as well as some tropical fruits (avocado and mango).

References

Settlements in the Dominican Republic
1805 establishments
19th-century establishments in the Spanish West Indies
1800s establishments in North America
When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up is the second full-length album by the Alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released on March 5 2001. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and wrote the music with Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn.

When the album first was released, it was not bought enough to get its name onto the top 200 albums chart. After the next album, Final Straw, became popular, people began buying When It's All Over We Still Have To Clear Up, and it went onto the chart.

Track listing

First release
"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" – 2:10
"Ask Me How I Am" – 2:34
"Making Enemies" – 4:18
"Black and Blue" – 3:40
"Last Ever Lone Gunman" – 2:43
"If I'd Found the Right Words to Say" – 4:47
"Batten Down the Hatch" – 3:29
"One Night Is Not Enough" – 3:23
"Chased by... I Don't Know What" – 2:41
"On/Off" – 2:40
"An Olive Grove Facing the Sea" – 5:18
"When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up" – 3:17
"Make Love to Me Forever" – 2:55
"Firelight" – 3:43

2006 re-release
"Never Gonna Fall in Love Again" – 2:10
"Ask Me How I Am" – 2:34
"Making Enemies" – 4:18
"Black and Blue" – 3:40
"Last Ever Lone Gunman" – 2:43
"If I'd Found the Right Words to Say" – 4:47
"Batten Down the Hatch" – 3:29
"One Night Is Not Enough" – 3:23
"Chased by... I Don't Know What" – 2:41
"On/Off" – 2:40
"An Olive Grove Facing the Sea" – 5:18
"When It's All Over We Still Have to Clear Up" – 3:17
"Make Love to Me Forever" – 2:55
"Firelight" – 3:43
"In Command of Cars" – 3:59
"Talk to the Trees" – 1:57
"Monkey Mobe" – 1:16
"Workwear Shop" – 2:25
"Ask Me How I Am" (Video) – 2:44

2001 albums
Snow Patrol albums
Final Straw is the third full-length album by the alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released in the United Kingdom in 2003 and in the United States in 2004, under Polydor Records. Gary Lightbody wrote all of the lyrics, and wrote the music with Nathan Connolly, Mark McClelland and Jonny Quinn. The album was the first by Snow Patrol to become popular outside Northern Ireland and Scotland. Final Straw was re-released in the UK in 2004 with two extra tracks, and then was able to be bought in the U.S. without the bonus tracks.

Album credits 
Stephen Marcussen - Mastering
Louie Teran - Mastering
Iain Archer - Vocals (Background)
Bruce White - Viola
James Banbury - Piano, String Arrangements, Cello
Fiona McCapra - Violin
Ben Georgiades 	- Engineer
Snow Patrol - Main Performer
Dan Swift - Engineer
Garrett Lee - Producer, Mixing
Gary Lightbody - Guitar, Glockenspiel, Vocals, Group Member, Vocals (Background), Keyboards
Mark McClelland - Bass, Group Member, Keyboards
Jonny Quinn - Drums, Group Member
Phil Tyreman - Assistant Engineer
Ian Dowling - Assistant Engineer
Mike Nelson - Mixing
Nathan Connolly - Guitar, Group Member, Vocals (Background)
Jeff McLaughlin - Assistant
Chris Lord-Alge - Mixing

Track listing
"How to Be Dead" – 3:22
"Wow" – 4:02 (This song is on the PlayStation 2 game Gran Turismo 4)
"Gleaming Auction" – 2:04
"Whatever's Left" – 2:39
"Spitting Games" – 3:46
"Chocolate" – 3:02
"Run" – 5:54  (This song was part of the soundtrack for the movie Chumscrubber)
"Grazed Knees" – 2:55
"Ways & Means" – 4:48
"Tiny Little Fractures" – 2:27
"Somewhere a Clock Is Ticking" – 4:32
"Same" – 3:54
"We Can Run Away Now They're All Dead and Gone" (UK re-release bonus track) – 3:15
"Half the Fun" (UK re-release bonus track) – 2:54

Chart positions

2003 albums
Snow Patrol albums
Eyes Open is the fourth full-length album by the alternative rock band Snow Patrol. It was released May 1, 2006 internationally, and May 9, 2006 in the United States. The "Special Edition" of the album has a bonus DVD with music videos of "You're All I Have". Eyes Open was the best-selling album in the UK in 2006, and sold more than one and a half million copies.

History

The album reached #1 in its 11th week on the New Zealand chart and reached 2x Platinum there for shipping over 30,000 units.  In the UK, the album became 5x Platinum by the British Phonographic Industry. It has also reached #1 in the ARIA Albums Chart, and became 3x Platinum on January 8, 2007 (210,000+ units shipped). On November 26, 2006, it became the best-selling album of the year in the UK.

Track listing
"You're All I Have" – 4:33
"Hands Open" – 3:17
"Chasing Cars" – 4:27
"Shut Your Eyes" – 3:17
"It's Beginning to Get to Me" – 4:35
"You Could Be Happy" – 3:02
"Make This Go on Forever" – 5:47
"Set the Fire to the Third Bar" (featuring Martha Wainwright) – 3:23
"Headlights on Dark Roads" – 3:30
"Open Your Eyes" – 5:41
"The Finish Line"  – 3:28

The untitled track is a recording of background noise and one of Jacknife Lee's young children talking.

Lyrics by Gary Lightbody, music by Lightbody/Connoly/Simpson/Quinn/Wilson, published by Big Life Music Ltd.
Produced by Jacknife Lee for Big Life Management.

Peak positions and certifications

Other websites

2006 albums
Snow Patrol albums
Wrestling is a competition in which two people try to pin the other person to the ground during matches. The people who wrestle are called wrestlers. Striking is not allowed in wrestling. Wrestlers use throws, takedowns, and trips to get their opponents down to the ground. On the ground, they use holds and pins to control their opponent. Wrestling is a popular and effective base for fighters in mixed martial arts competitions.

Western styles of wrestling:
Freestyle
Greco-Roman (French wrestling) 
Collegiate (folk style) (USA)

International folk wrestling styles:
Kuresh ( Central Asia)
Guresh (Turkey)
Sumo (Japan)
Ssireum (Korea)
Bekh (Mongolia)
Chidaoba (Georgia)
Kushti  (India)

Related pages

Professional wrestling
Boxing
Judo
The power trio is a popular type of a rock and roll band format since the 1960s. The usual power trio has three people playing the guitar, bass, and drums. It does not include the rhythm guitar or keyboard often included in other rock music. In more recent years, the term has come to mean any type of a three-person band.

Famous power trios
Beck, Bogert & Appice
The Cream
Nirvana

Rock music
Rock bands
Gillian Howard Welch (born October 2, 1967 in New York City) is an American singer-songwriter. Her musical style combines bluegrass, country, and folk into a style she calls "American Primitive".

References

Other websites
 Official website
 Concert review 

Singer-songwriters from New York
American guitarists
American drummers
Singers from New York City
Musicians from New York City
American bluegrass musicians
Country musicians
American folk musicians
1967 births
Living people
David Todd Rawlings is a United States guitarist.  He is best known as the musical partner of bluegrass singer-songwriter Gillian Welch. Rawlings has also been a record producer, producing albums such as those by Welch and other artists like Old Crow Medicine Show.

Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American guitarists
American singer-songwriters
American folk musicians
American bluegrass musicians
Singers from Rhode Island
Musicians from Rhode Island
Writers from Rhode Island
Meitnerium is a chemical element in the periodic table. Its atomic number is 109. It is not found on earth naturally. Because of this, it needs to be made in a science laboratory. Its half life, or the amount of time it takes for half of the element to go away is a little over one second. Meitnerium was first made in 1982. 

The element is named in honor of Lise Meitner (1878-1968).

The two letter abbreviation is Mt and is a solid. Nobody knows for sure what meitnerium looks like, but scientists think it is a white, gray, or silver color.

Other websites 

WebElements.com - Meitnerium

Chemical elements
704 Interamnia is a very big asteroid. Scientists think it is 350 kilometers wide. Its mean distance from the Sun is 3.067 (AU). It was found on October 2, 1910 by Vincenzo Cerulli. It is named after the Latin name for Teramo, Italy, which is where Cerulli worked. It is the fifth heaviest asteroid after Ceres, Vesta, Pallas and Hygiea, and scientists think that it makes up 2.0% of the mass of the whole asteroid belt.

Characteristics 
Although the biggest asteroid apart from the "big four", Interamnia is not studied a lot. 
It is easily the biggest of the F-type asteroids, but there are few details of what the inside is made of or shape and no lightcurve analysis has been done to find out the ecliptic coordinates of Interamnia's poles (and its axial tilt). Its apparently high bulk density (though subject to much error) suggests a very solid body entirely without internal porosity or traces of water. This also strongly suggests that Interamnia is big enough to have withstood all the collisions that have happened in the asteroid belt since the Solar System was made.

Its very dark surface and fairly far distance from the Sun means Interamnia can never be seen with 10x50 binoculars. At most oppositions its magnitude is around +11.0, which is less than the minimum brightness of Vesta, Ceres or Pallas. Even at a near-perihelion opposition its magnitude is only around +9.9, which is over four magnitudes lower than Vesta.

Its orbit is a more eccentric than Hygiea (15% versus 12%) but is different because Hygiea's orbit is much more inclined and takes less time to complete one orbit. Another difference is that Interamnia's perihelion is at the other side of the perihelia of the "big four", so that Interamnia at perihelion is actually closer to the Sun than Ceres and Pallas are at the same longitude. It is unlikely to collide with Pallas because their nodes are located too far apart. Although its nodes are located on the opposite side from those of Ceres, it is generally far from Ceres when both cross the same orbital plane and a collision is again unlikely.

Other websites 
 Orbital simulation  from JPL (Java)
 G. Michalak Determination of asteroid masses Astronomy & Astrophysics, Vol. 374, 703 (2001)
 Animation of Asteroid Interamnia taken on April 1—2nd, 2003
 Occultation of GSC 23450183 by (704) Interamnia on 1996 December 17 (dia: 329 km; rotation period of 8.70 +/- 0.06 hours)
 Interamnia Occultations Observed before 2003
 Occultation  of HIP36189 by (704) Interamnia on 2003 March 23 (dia: 350.4×303.7 km) recorded by Isao Ootsuki (graze) and Hideo Takashima and Fujio Ohbain Japan, analysis by Tsutomu Hayamizu

Asteroids
The River Ocoa is a river in the southern side of the Cordillera Central, Dominican Republic. It is 68 km long and flows through mountains except near its end in the Caribbean Sea.

Name
Ocoa is a Taíno word that means "a place with mountains"; coa meant "place" and o meant, in some cases, "mountain".

Course
The source of the Ocoa is at the La Chorreosa mountain (also known as La Chorriosa), on the eastern side of Valle Nuevo (Cordillera Central). It flows through the San José de Ocoa province and then form part of the limits between the Azua and Peravia provinces.

It ends at the eastern side of Ocoa Bay, on the Caribbean Sea.

The city of San José de Ocoa is the most important city near the river. Other towns are Las Carreras, Sabana Buey and Villa Fundación, in the Peravia province, and Palmar de Ocoa in the Azua province, near its mouth. The water of the river is used for irrigation in those towns; it is not used for the houses because it has too much solid materials because mountains have very few trees.

The most important tributaries are Banilejo, Canal and Arroyo Parra, all in the higher part of the river. There is not any important tributary in the lower part.

In history
In the 16th century, sugar cane was grown near the mouth of the river to produce sugar.

On April 1849, there was an important battle (the Battle of Las Carreras) here during the Dominican-Haitian War; the fight was on the western side of the river in Las Carreras, a place at about 20 km from the mouth. The Dominican army won the battle against the Haitian army.

References

Rivers of the Dominican Republic
Louise Michel is a station of the Paris Métro, serving Line 3. It is located in the commune of Levallois-Perret northwest of the French capital, Paris.

History
Before 1946, this station was named Vallier after a mountain (2839m)in the Pyrenees near the Val d'Aran. 

The station was renamed on May 1, 1946 to Louise Michel, in honour of the French anarchist and communarde.

Paris
Transport in France
An idol is a religious item that represents a god. It can also mean someone who is admired by many people, like a pop idol. Idolatry refers to the worship of idols.

Christians disagree about what idolatry is. Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy see Christian art and icons as good, because they see Christ's Incarnation as having made images of God lawful.  However many Protestants regard much Catholic art as idolatry.

This is due to differences in the understanding of the Ten Commandments. "You shall have no other gods before me. You shall not make for yourself a graven image, or any likeness of anything that is in heaven above, or that is in the earth beneath, or that is in the water under the earth; you shall not bow down to them or serve them; for I the Lord your God am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers upon the children to the third and the fourth generation of those who hate me, but showing steadfast love to thousands of those who love me and keep my commandments." (RSV Exodus 20:3-6)

Islamic art is often based on Geometric abstraction or calligraphy to avoid idolatry, but Jewish art is somewhat broader. Hindus have murtis, a term often translated as “idols”.

References 

Religious objects
Gods and goddesses
Worship
Stanley (also known as Port Stanley) is the capital city of the Falkland Islands. It is found on the island of East Falkland and has a population of 2,000. Stanley was the sight of fighting in the 1982 Falklands War, where Argentinian forces captured Government House, the seat of the Falklands Government. Today, Stanley is the biggest town in the Falkland Islands. It has an airport and a seaport. Cruise ships going through the South Atlantic often make a stop in Stanley, which has a small tourism industry to serve cruise ship passengers and others visiting the islands.

Falkland Islands
Numismatics is the study and collecting of coins and the history behind the coins. A Numismatist is either a collector of coins or a scholar who studies the history of coins.

Origin of Word
The term comes from a word meaning "of coins." The original word is French (numismatique), which itself is from a Latin origin (numismatis).

History of Numismatics
Coin collectors may have existed in ancient times. Caesar Augustus may have been an example. The first known book about coin collecting was in 1514, "De Asse et Partibus", by Guillaume Budé. However, only royalty really enjoyed coin collecting until the 19th century. That's when professional organizations started to sprout, like the American Numismatic Society in 1858.

Modern Numismatics
Modern numismatics is a sub-field that focuses on when coins started being stamped by machines (around 17th century on). Because of its focus, modern numismatics is more popular with collectors than with historians. Other subfields/variants include exonumia (focus on coin-like objects), notaphily (focus on paper money instead of coins), and scripophily (focus on stocks and bonds instead of coins).

References

Hobbies
Philately is the study and collection of postage stamps and postal history.

Types of Philately 

 Thematic philately, also known as topical philately, is the study of art shown on stamps. This can be pictures of many things on a stamp, like people, animals, boats, insects, and vehicles. Interesting parts of thematic philately also include mistakes in the art of a stamp. For example, the removal of cigarettes from United States stamps.
 Postal history studies the history of how mail and stamps were processed. This relates to post offices, postmarks, and how mail is taken from place to place.
 Aerophilately studies airmail (mail that travels on planes).
 Astrophilately studies stamps that are related to outer space, and objects like the Moon.

Organizations 
In the United Kingdom
 National Philatelic Society UK
 Philatelic Traders Society (London)
 Royal Philatelic Society London
 Welsh Philatelic Society 

In the United States
 American First Day Cover Society
 American Philatelic Society
 American Revenue Association
 American Topical Association
 National Postal Museum (USA)
 Precancel Stamp Society
  Old World Archaeological Study Unit

Other places
 Académie Européenne de Philatélie
 Fédération Internationale de Philatélie
 Scouts on Stamps Society International
 GEOPHILA Association of collectors of stamp territories around the world
 Wreck & Crash Mail Society
 Europe: Small European Postal Administration Cooperation
 Argentina: Féderación Argentina de Entidades Filatélicas
 Australia: Australian Philatelic Federation
 Canada: British North American Philatelic Society
 Cyprus: Cyprus Philatelic Society
 India: Indian Postal Service
 New Zealand: Royal Philatelic Society of New Zealand Inc 
 Russia: The Rossica Society of Russian Philately
 South Africa: Thematic Collecting Group in South Africa
 Ukraine: Odessa City Collectors' Society

Related pages 
 All-Russian Society of Philatelists
 Organisation of the Commissioner for Philately and Scripophily
 Philatelic International
 Soviet Philatelic Association
 Stamp collector
 Soviet Philatelist

Other websites

 

 
Collecting
In the legends of King Arthur, Camelot is Arthur's castle. In fiction about the Middle Ages, Arthur rules scotland from Camelot and holds feasts at his round table. The round table, which has no legs or head, symbolized the idea of a good king because every knight who sat at it had an equal place. Since Camelot's original place is still uncertain, the truth about it, if it ever existed, is still unknown. Camelot once held many great things such as The Holy Grail, The Holy Sword Excalibur and The Round Table which brought Arthur's best knights together. 

The end of Camelot was caused by Sir Lancelot's and Queen Guinevere's love affair, which forced Camelot to plunge into civil-war.

Arthurian legend
The University of Hawaii is a group of public colleges and universities in Hawaii. There are three universities, seven community colleges, an employment training center, four education centers and some research laboratories:

Universities
University of Hawaii at Hilo, doctoral university in Hilo
University of Hawaii at Manoa, doctoral university in Honolulu
University of Hawaii-West Oahu, baccalaureate university in Kapolei

Community Colleges
Hawaii Community College, Hilo
Honolulu Community College, Honolulu
Kapiolani Community College, Honolulu
Kauai Community College, Līhu'e
Leeward Community College, Pearl City
Windward Community College, Kāne'ohe
University of Hawaii Maui College, Kahului

References

Hawaii
Cowlitz River is a river in the state of Washington in the United States. The river is a tributary of the larger Columbia River. There are several mountains near the river including Mount St. Helens, Mount Rainier, and Mount Adams.

Other websites
 USGS Cowlitz River Basin map
 Cowlitz Falls Project 
 http://www.energy-northwest.com/generation/packwood 

Rivers of Washington (U.S. state)
Leonidas I (Greek: Λεωνίδας) (c. 530–480 B.C.) was a king of the Greek city-state of Sparta from about 490 BC until his death in 480. The Spartans and associates defended the pass at Thermopylae against the Persian army. Although Leonidas lost the battle, his death at Thermopylae was seen as a heroic sacrifice. Leonidas sent most of his army away when he realized that the Persians had outmaneuvered him. Three hundred of his fellow Spartans stayed with him to fight and die. Almost everything that is known about Leonidas comes from the work of the Greek historian Herodotus (c. 484–c. 425 BC)

Thermopylae

Invasion of Greece 
In 480 BC, the Persians with their king Xerxes attacked Greece. When the Greeks asked the Spartans to join their army against the Persians, the Spartans went to the Oracle at Delphi. The Oracle gave a prophecy. It said that either Sparta would fall or the Spartans would lose a king.

Fighting back 
In August 480 BC, Leonidas went to Thermopylae with 300 of his bodyguards. Other Greek forces joined him there and formed an army of 4,000 soldiers. This army would try to hold the pass of Thermopylae against the great army of Xerxes I, King of Persia.

Siege 
Leonidas and his men held Thermopylae for three days. On the third day, a Greek traitor named Ephialtes led the Persian army behind the Spartans. It was then that Leonidas sent away all the Greek troops except 700 Thespians, who refused to leave. The small Greek force was attacked from both sides. They fought hard but finally they were all killed. Xerxes told his men to remove Leonidas' head and put it on a stake. He also told them to crucify his body. Now, there is a monument near Leonidas’ death site. It has the following inscription:

After the battle 
Only two Spartans survived that battle. One was Kirtanian. He was injured and sent behind the rest of the soldiers. The other was Pantites. He was sent by Leonidas to get help in Thessaly. He did not get back to Thermopylae until after the battle was done. At the end, he hanged himself because he was harassed and often referred as a coward.

Year of birth unknown
5th-century BC deaths
Ancient Greeks

Kings of Sparta
An introduced species is an living thing that is not from to a given place. It has been brought there by human activities.  People may have brought the living thing by accident or on purpose.  The introduced species can cause problems when it becomes a pest in the new place.  It may damage the ecosystem of the new place.  This damage can be to other animals, plants and also human activity.

One introduced species is the tilapia.  It is a fish that comes from warm freshwater areas of Africa, North and South America, India and Sri Lanka.  It has been taken to other areas because it is good for fish farming, and it also is a good pet for an aquarium.  When the fish is released into other parts of the world, it quickly takes over from the native fish.  It can do this because it breeds quickly, eats all the available food, and eats the eggs and babies of native fish.  This can cause the water to become so muddy, that the native fish cannot live.  Tilapia has been listed as one of the 100 worst introduced species.  A person owning or selling one in Australia could be fined up to AU$11,000.

An introduced species may have a great advantage over the native species.  They usually come in without the predators and parasites which they suffer in their old environment.  This allows them to have young quickly. Fire ants and Africanized honeybees became invasive insects in the 20th century.

Examples

People brought rabbits to Australia because they wanted to raise and eat them.  The rabbits got into the wild and became pests.  Australians built the rabbit-proof fence to try to stop them from covering the whole country.
People put mosquitofish in rivers and lakes in western North America because they thought the fish would eat mosquito young.  Instead, the mosquitofish killed the other fish that had been eating the mosquitoes.  There were more mosquitoes than ever. 
People brought cats and stoats to islands.  When birds live on islands with no mammal predators, they sometimes do not build nests in trees.  Instead, they nest on the ground.  This makes it easy for the cats and stoats to eat the chicks and eggs.  Some birds, for example the kiwi and kakapo do not fly.  The animals that like to eat the kakapo were mostly birds of prey that flew high overhead.  They would find the kakapo by seeing it.  The kakapo would stand very still so the bird of prey would not find it.  But this does not work against a mammal predator that finds its prey by smelling it.  The kakapo would stand very still, and the introduced mammal would catch it.
Rats hid on human ships and got onto Easter Island.  Historians think the rats might have eaten palm tree seeds and could be what made the trees on the island die out.

Related pages 
 Invasive species
Feral

References 

Plants
Animals
Ecology
A bunker is a military building for fortification. They are usually built below ground. Blockhouses are like bunkers, but are built above ground.  Bunkers were of big importance during World War I and World War II.  Bunkers were built during the Cold War for important political people and for the general public because of the scare of a nuclear war.

Types of bunkers
There are many different types of bunkers:

Trench 
A trench is long and narrow.  It may be part of a big system of trenches.  Soldiers often dig and use trenches.  When most of the front-line soldiers use trenches, it is called trench warfare.

Pillbox
A pillbox is a small building made of concrete that also has small windows that people can shoot guns out of.  The name came from the fact that they look like the boxes that pills came in.
Pillboxes were used a lot during World War I when defence in depth was being used.  Pillboxes are most often found camouflaged so that they are harder to spot.  They can also be part of a trench system, where the pillbox is a firing step that has been built to take grenade blasts and smaller mortar fire.  Pillboxes were also built to help protect strategic structures such as bridges or jetties.

Industrial
Industrial bunkers are built like regular bunkers and they can be mining sites, food storage areas, dumps for materials, data storage, and sometimes places that people live in.  They were built by nations during World War II to help protect the important industries from getting bombed.  Many mines in France and Germany were made into bunkers by both the Germans and the French in both World War I and World War II.

Famous bunkers
Famous bunkers include the World War II V-weapon buildings in Germany (e.g., Mittelwerk, La Coupole, and Éperlecques) and the Cold War buildings in the United States (Cheyenne Mountain, Site R, and The Greenbrier) and Canada (Diefenbunker).

Examples of bunkers
 Atlantic Wall, coasts of Western Europe, built by Nazi Germany during WWII
 Maginot Line, eastern France, built by France, pre-WWII

References

Other websites

 Europe WW2 bunkers in Europe (reference website about museums and sites of WW2 pillboxes, bunkers and other defensive structures with maps and photos)
 Great Britain  (image collection of WW2 coastal defences)
 Great Britain Pillboxes UK (reference website about WW2 pillboxes and other defensive structures)
 Great Britain UK Heritage: Pillboxes  (short article about "Miniature modern castles")
 Great Britain Subterranea Britannica: Cold War  (information on Cold War-era underground structures in Britain)

Fortification
Over-harvesting means taking more from the land (or sea) than it can replace. It includes extreme farming, grazing, fishing, and using fresh water. 

Over-harvesting is harmful in the long term. Forests or wetlands are hard to replace. Damage to nature hurts animals and humans. Most wetlands are damaged by overuse as a source of drinking water, and are sometimes drained to make farmland or land for building. A thriving and diverse ecosystem is destroyed. 

Over-harvesting also applies to animals. Population numbers may drop as a result, and species may become extinct. Overfishing is a typical example. Nowadays, you can only fish, shoot deer or birds at certain times of the year. The season when they mate, reproduce and lay eggs or have the young are protected. Areas of especial natural beauty or scientific interest are also protected. Taking bird eggs is also now against the law, at least in the United Kingdom.

One thing which acts against conservation is the overpopulation of the world. The greatest single reason why the world loses forests is that some people want the land for other purposes. A few people gain, but everyone shares the cost. This is called the tragedy of the commons.

References

Related pages 
Overfishing

Environmental issues
Ecology
Cecil was a rock band from Liverpool, England.

History

Formation 
Cecil formed in Liverpool in 1993. The members were Ste Williams (vocals), Patrick Harrison (guitar), Ally Lambert (drums), Anthony Hughes (guitar and keyboards), and Jay Bennett (bass).

First concert 
The band took part in a "Battle of the Bands". It was sponsored by Liverpool Echo who later tried to stitch the band up by putting them on the front cover under the title "Bulger Band", a reference to their song No Excuses that they believed, incorrectly, to be about the murder of toddler James Bulger. The band never spoke to the Liverpool Echo again. The band signed a manangement contract with Raymond Coffer. They later signed with the record label Parlophone (EMI). They released their first single "No Excuses" with Parlophone in October 1995.

Tours 
The band spent the end of 1995 and most of 1996 playing concerts in much of the United Kingdom. They played with such bands as The Levellers, Skunk Anansie, and Paw. They also played in music festivals at Donnington and T in the Park. During this time, they released their second single "My Neck", which was backed with an acoustic track and a piano version of the single, giving a hint of the direction they were heading in for the recording of their 2nd record.

First album 
In 1996, their first album Bombar Diddlah was getting good reviews. It was produced by Barrett Jones of Foo Fighters.

Later history 
Cecil spent most of 1997 writing songs, touring with the band Mansun and making their music sound even better.  The changes could particularly be heard in the sound of Ste Williams' vocals. By the end of 1997, their new sound could be heard in their new release "Red Wine At Dead Time". They released a second album in 1998, "Subtitles". It did not sell as well as hoped. The band spent the next few years writing and touring sporadically, finally relocating to Seattle in 2001 to work on a third album with long time cohort Barrett Jones. After a productive 2-month stint, straight after the 9/11 bombings, the band went back home to write more songs and booked to go into Stone Gossard's (Pearl Jam) Studio Litho with Barrett to record the rest of the third record. This never happened after being dropped from their label.The band went their separate ways in March 2002 and remain firm friends, occasionally reuniting for off the cuff live shows in their native Liverpool.

Discography

Albums 
 Bombar Diddlah (1996)
 Subtitles (1998)

Singles 
 "No Excuses" (1995)
 "My Neck" (1996)
 "Measured" (1996)
 "Red Wine at Dead Time" (1997)
 "Hostage in a Frock" (1997)
 "The Most Tiring Day" (1998)

EPs 
 "Canyon EP" (2000)
 "Missile EP" (2001)

English rock bands
Musical groups from Liverpool
Christopher "Kit" Marlowe (1564–30 May 1593) was a major dramatist, poet, and translator of English Renaissance drama. Swinburne has written that: "Marlowe is a Father of English Tragedy and the creator of English blank verse and therefore also the teacher and guide of Shakespeare." He is the best Elizabethan tragedian. He was born the same year as Shakespeare, or at least baptised, but lived only to the age of 29, when he was murdered in a brawl.

Marlowe was the son of a shoemaker in Canterbury. His intelligence won him scholarships, to King's School in Canterbury at age 15, and two years later to the University of Cambridge. Marlowe was well-educated; he earned a bachelor's degree in 1584 and a master's degree in 1587. 

Marlowe's plays were both popular and controversial, in his own era and later. His plays deal with disturbing subjects like devil worship (Doctor Faustus), homosexuality (Edward II), and anti-Semitism (The Jew of Malta). Marlowe is generally regarded as master of blank verse.

In addition to seven plays, Marlowe wrote one long poem, Hero and Leander, and one famous shorter poem, "The Passionate Shepherd to His Love."

Marlowe's death was also highly controversial. He was killed in a tavern brawl, stabbed in the head. Yet there is some historical evidence that he was a secret agent. Marlowe also was, or sometimes claimed to be, an atheist, at a time when atheism was a crime that could be punished by death. Some people have wondered if his death was connected with these other issues.

Uncertainty about Marlowe's death has led some people to believe that Marlowe faked his death and continued to write plays using the name "William Shakespeare." This is called the "Marlovian theory." In modern times, the changes were attempted to rename the theory in  "Derogation of the king."

Plays 
 Dido Queen of Carthage
 Tamburlaine, Parts 1 and 2
 The Jew of Malta
 Doctor Faustus
 Edward II
 The Massacre at Paris

Other possible works 
 The Contention of York and Lancaster (or The First Part of the Contention betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster) is an annoymous work that some people think may have been written by Marlowe. It was the basis for Shakespeare's play Henry VI, Part 2.

References 

1564 births
1593 deaths
Canterbury
English murder victims
English playwrights
English poets
Murders by blade weapons
People murdered in England
Spies
Writers from Kent
British translators
Plays by Christopher Marlowe
The bass clarinet is a type of clarinet, and is a woodwind single-reed instrument. The earliest record of a bass clarinet is called a 'bass tube' invented in Paris in 1772 by G. Lott. It usually has a B-flat pitch. It plays an octave lower than the normal clarinet. This means that when a Bass Clarinet makes a note, the note that actually sounds is an octave and a whole tone lower. There are some bass clarinets that have an A or C pitch as well as E flat, but there are not very many of these.

References

Other websites 
 

Woodwind instruments
Snorri Sturluson (1179 – 23 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet and politician. He was three-time elected lawspeaker at the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He was the author of the Prose Edda or Younger Edda and the Heimskringla, a history of the Norwegian kings that begins with legendary material and moves through to early medieval Scandinavian history.

References

Snorri Sturluson, "Kringla leaf" (c. 1260), part of Heimskringla treasure 1  National Library of Iceland displayed via The European Library
. A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W. Heffer.
Enoksen, Lars Magnar. (1998). Runor : historia, tydning, tolkning. Historiska Media, Falun.

Notes

Other websites

Icelandic Medieval Manuscripts , site maintained by Unnur Valgeirsdóttir at the University of Iceland.
Snorri Sturluson , article by Jónas Kristjánsson at snorrastofa.is.
The Women in Snorri's Life .

1178 births
1241 deaths
Historians
Snorri Sturluson
Medieval literature
Mythology
Poets
Heimskringla is the best known of the old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland by the poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (1179 – 1242) ca. 1230. The name Heimskringla was first used in the 17th century, it comes from the first two words of one of the manuscripts (kringla heimsins - the circle of the world).

Heimskringla is a collection of tales about the Norwegian kings, beginning with the legendary Swedish dynasty of the Ynglingas, followed by accounts of historical Norwegian rulers from Harald Fairhair of the 9th century up to 1177.

Bibliography
 . A reprint of the 1932 Cambridge edition by W. Heffer.

Other websites

 Heimskringla in Old Norse from "Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad" Norway.
 Berkeley page on Snorri Sturluson's text 

Medieval literature
Norse mythology
A copt is an Egyptian Christian. Today, more than 95% of the Copts belong to the Latin community of the Coptic Catholic Church, and other of the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria. They used the Coptic calendar and speak the Coptic language. Baptism and male Circumcision is done. There folk saint is Mark the Evangelist.

References

Other websites
 Copts

Religion in Egypt
Pectus excavatum is a congenital medical condition where the ribs and sternum grow abnormally, producing a sunken appearance to the chest. This makes the chest look  like it has caved in on itself.  It is also commonly referred to as "funnel chest" or "chest bowl". It is the most common form of pectus deformity, occurring in approximately 1 in 300-400 births, with a 3:1 male predominance ratio. While Pectus Excavatum occurs at birth, it often does not develop properly until early adolescence when growth is more rapid.

Causes
Doctors do not know why some people have the dent.  They think it might be caused by a bad gene from the parent.  It is also linked to syndromes (illnesses) that affect other parts of the body.

Numbers
Pectus excavatum happens in about 1 in every 300-400 children, with the 75% majority of cases being male.

Non-invasive treatment

Suction Cup

A vacuum bell, also called a suction cup, can be used to fix pectus excavatum.  The cup is placed on the chest and all the air is removed: this pulls up the chest. This non-invasive procedure shows promise to be a permanent cure for pectus excavatum. Treatment must continue for two years after the appearance of correction is made.

Surgery
The dent can be fixed by a doctor.  The following are alternate surgical ways of fixing the chest:

Nuss Procedure

The Nuss Prodcedure was created by Doctor Nuss from Norfolk in Virginia.  A metal bar is put into the chest; the bar holds the chest up.

Ravitch
The Ravitch technique is from the 1950s.  It involves cutting out part of the chest, placing a bar in the chest, and having the bone grow back.  Most doctors do not use the Ravitch because it causes much blood loss.

References

Health problems
The Analects was a book put together by the students of Confucius. It is about his thoughts on family, government and war. Also was the teachings of Kong Fuzi and was likely written by his followers.

See
MIT text

Non-fiction books
Confucianism
Ethylene or ethene is a chemical compound with two carbon atoms and four hydrogen atoms in each molecule.  These molecules are put together with a double bond that makes it a hydrocarbon.  It is very important in industry and has even been used in biology as a hormone.  It is also the most made chemical. About 75 million tons of it have been made each year since 2005. Its biggest use is to make polyethylene.

History
Since 1795, ethylene was called an olefiant gas, or oil making gas.  This was because it came together with chlorine to make the oil of the Dutch chemists.

In 1866, the German chemist August Wilhelm von Hofmann came up with a system for naming hydrocarbons. The suffixes -ane, -ene, -ine, -one, and -une were used to call the hydrocarbons with 0, 2, 4, 6, and 8 fewer hydrogen atoms than the alkane it came from.  Because of this system, ethylene became ethene.

In 1979, the IUPAC decided that ethylene would stay ethylene.

How it is made
Ethylene is made in the chemical industry by steam cracking.  Some of the parts of an ethylene plant can be:

 The steam cracking furnaces;
 Heat recovery systems;
 A steam recycling system;
 A system to compress the cracked gas;
 A system to remove acid gas;

There are other systems in an ethylene plant.  The systems listed above were the most important systems in an ethylene plant.

Since making ethylene uses a lot of energy, the people making the ethylene try very hard to keep the heat from the gasses from leaving the furnaces.

References

Other websites
International Chemical Safety Card 0475

2
Skol is a brand of beer made by the Danish company Carlsberg Group. Skol was first brewed in 1959 for European customers. The beer's name comes from the Danish word skål which means "to your health", a common toast (a word or phrase said before drinking). Skol is available in a few different flavors.

Skol was started in 1964 in Europe. It became available in Brazil in 1967. In 1979, it was one of the first beers to be sold in aluminum cans. As of 2004, Skol was available in more than 20 countries.

In 2000, the first annual Skol Beats music festival was held in São Paulo, Brazil. The type of music featured at Skol Beats is electronic, including trance, techno, electro, drum and bass, house, and breakbeat. Skol's new "Beats" beer was revealed at the 2000 festival. Beats has a different flavor and alcohol content than the original Skol. It is marketed as the beer for people that like parties and excitement.

In October of 2006, the new Skol Lemon was released. Response to Skol Lemon has been divided. Some people really like it and others do not.

References

Beer
Rheinfelden is a town in Germany that was started in 1922.  The name means the fields of the Rhine, like Rheinfelden in Switzerland.

References

Other websites