cahya/simple-wikipedia huggingface dataset:
Doom is a first-person shooter video game made by id Software in 1993. It is one of the first games to use three-dimensional levels. The game is about killing demons and zombies in order to stop an invasion. Doom has traps, including crushing ceilings, radiation pools, and exploding barrels, that can kill the player. Doom was also the first game with multiplayer deathmatch. This means you can fight with other players instead of the demons and zombies. The game was made with a computer language called C using some new techniques created by John Carmack.

It has five sequels: Doom 2 that came out in 1994, Final Doom that came out in 1996, Doom 3 that came out in 2004, Doom (2016), and Doom Eternal.

Doom is split into three basic components, the engine, the Iwad file, and the optional Pwad file. The engine contains the code needed to run the game on a computer. The Iwad file contains the default levels, sounds, pictures, and other components. Pwad files contain custom levels. The source code to the Doom engine was released in 1997 and can be downloaded for free. The full 3-episode and 4-episode Iwad files have not been released for free and must still be purchased.

Doom is a shareware game of three episodes, each having eight standard levels and one secret level. The secret level in each episode is accessed by finding a secret exit in one of the normal levels. The episodes are Knee-Deep In The Dead, The Shores Of Hell and Inferno. In the shareware version the only episode that can be played is Knee-Deep In The Dead. The expansion pack of Doom is Ultimate Doom, which has the fourth episode, Thy Flesh Consumed.

In Doom, the player can carry and use many different weapons. Each have their own special features and strengths. They are your Fists, the Pistol, Shotgun, Chaingun, Rocket Launcher, Plasma Gun, BFG-9000, and Chainsaw. The player gets new weapons by finding them in the level. Most weapons can be found in more than one level. Some weapons share ammo. For example, both the Pistol and Chaingun use bullets, and the Plasma Gun and BFG both use energy cells. The player must be careful not to waste ammo because if he or she does, there may be more than one weapon that cannot be used. The Fists and Chainsaw do not have ammo limits, so the player can use them as long as they want.

Doom was also made for the SNES, Sega 32X, PlayStation, Sega Saturn, 3DO, Atari Jaguar, and Game Boy Advance. It can also be downloaded online for the PlayStation 4, Xbox One, and Nintendo Switch. 

Shooter video games
1993 video games
Doom series
DOS games
Sega 32X games
Sega Saturn games
Super Nintendo Entertainment System games
The Jam was an English rock band formed in Woking, Surrey in 1972. The members were Paul Weller (guitar, vocals), Bruce Foxton (bass guitar, vocals), and Rick Buckler (drums). Having come out of from the short Punk movement they went on to become one of the UK's top bands. They had four number one hits which were Going Underground, Start!, Town Called Malice and Beat Surrender.

The Jam disbanded in 1982. Lead singer Paul Weller went on to have hits with The Style Council during the remainder of the 1980s. During the 1990s he had a successful solo career.

References

1972 establishments in the United Kingdom
1982 disestablishments in Europe
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
English punk bands
English rock bands
Musical groups disestablished in 1982
Musical groups established in 1972
New wave bands
Surrey
1980s disestablishments in the United Kingdom
Alchemy is the very old study and philosophy of how to change basic substances (such as metals) into other substances. It also studied how substances (and how they are changed into other substances) were related to magic and astrology. People who studied alchemy were called alchemists. Some things alchemists tried to do were change lead or mercury into gold, make the philosopher's stone, and make the "elixir of life," which they thought could cure (make better) any disease and make someone young again.

Alchemists believed that substances, mind, philosophies, religion, magic and astrology were related to each other. They tried to find connections between them. They tried to understand one by understanding the other. Some alchemists used metals (like gold or silver) to represent spiritual or occult ideas. People in many different countries studied alchemy.

In the 1600s and 1700s, people started to study only the properties of substances without trying to relate them to secret, old knowledge. They did experiments and wrote down what they discovered so other people could learn from them. One of the important people who did these experiments was Robert Boyle. People called the new study of substances chemistry.

Scientists have since discovered how to change one kind of element (the simplest kind of chemical substance) into another. In 1980, an American scientist named Glenn Seaborg discovered how to change a very tiny amount of bismuth into gold with a nuclear reactor. Making gold this way is much more difficult and expensive (costs a lot of money) than mining or recycling it.

References

Alchemy
Goldfinger is a 1964 spy movie based on the seventh James Bond book written by Ian Fleming. Goldfinger is the third James Bond movie in the series. It is also third to star Sean Connery as the British Secret Service agent James Bond. Shirley Bassey sings the title song of the movie.

Plot
In this movie, the main bad guy is named Auric Goldfinger, and he likes gold a lot. In the movie, James Bond tries to find out what Goldfinger's bad plan is, and in the end James Bond wins and stops Goldfinger.  His plan is to blow up Fort Knox so that the price of gold will go up.  Goldfinger has a sidekick called Oddjob who throws his metal hat at people.

It is noted for the character with the unusual name Pussy Galore, played in the movie by Honor Blackman.

Cast 
 Sean Connery as James Bond
 Gert Fröbe as Auric Goldfinger
 Honor Blackman as Pussy Galore
 Harold Sakata as Oddjob
 Cec Linder as Felix Leiter
 Shirley Eaton as Jill Masterson
 Tania Mallet as Tilly Masterson
 Desmond Llewelyn as Q
 Bernard Lee as M
 Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny
 Burt Kwouk as Mr. Ling
 Martin Benson as Mr. Solo
 Raymond Joung as Sierra
 Nadja Regin as Bonita
 Alf Joint as Capungo
 Michael Mellinger as Kisch
 Margaret Nolan as Dink
 Bill Nagy as Mr. Midnight
 Hal Galili as Mr. Strap

James Bond movies
1964 movies
Movies based on books
English-language movies
Movies directed by Guy Hamilton
A scar is the natural result of a healing process in the human body. When the dermis is hurt by a wound, the wounded tissue will be replaced by scar tissue. Scar tissue is not identical to the tissue it replaces. A scar will look different (and have different characteristics) than the surrounding tissue.

Scar tissue is composed of the same protein (collagen) as the tissue that it replaces, but the fiber composition of the protein is different; instead of a random basketweave formation of the collagen fibers found in normal tissue, in fibrosis the collagen cross-links and forms a pronounced alignment in a single direction. This collagen scar tissue alignment is usually of inferior functional quality to the normal collagen randomised alignment. For example, scars in the skin are less resistant to ultraviolet radiation, and sweat glands and hair follicles do not grow back within scar tissues. A myocardial infarction, commonly known as a heart attack, causes scar formation in the heart muscle, which leads to loss of muscular power and possibly heart failure. However, there are some tissues (e.g. bone) that can heal without any structural or functional deterioration.

References

Dermatology
DIN Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V. (DIN German Institute for Standardization) is the German national organization for standardization.  

It publishes on average 2,000 standards per year in almost all fields of technology and increasingly in non-technical fields (e.g. services).

Example of DIN standards

DIN 476: international paper sizes (now ISO 216 or DIN EN ISO 216). Specifies the System where the paper size DIN A4 is from. In short, there are different series (A,B,C,..). Each series has a number of different sizes. If you go up one with the number, you halve the size. DIN A3 is as large as two pages of DIN A4. The biggest in that series is DIN A0. See Paper size for more.
DIN 1301: International System of Units (better known as the SI System of units)
DIN 5007: Rules for sorting words alphabetically. Also tells what to do with special characters, like ä or ß.
DIN 5008: Rules for writing a (German) letter. Specifies how the letter as a whole should look. Also looks at things like correctly writing a date, or a time.
DIN 72552: electric terminal numbers in automobiles
DIN 31635: transliteration of the Arabic language.

Germany
Paper comes in different sizes. There are names for the different sizes of paper. In different parts of the world, different sizes and names are used.

There are also envelope sizes made to fit different kinds of paper. Envelope sizes are normally wider to fit the paper inside.

International sizes 
In most of the world an international system of paper sizes is used. The normal size of paper is called A4. It is measured in metric units. It is 210 millimetres wide and 297 millimetres long. This is about the size of US letter, but it is a little narrower, and a little longer. The Deutsches Institut für Normung chose this standard in 1922 and other countries soon followed. 

The other common size of paper in Europe is called B5. It is 176 millimetres wide by 250 millimetres long. This is about the same as executive size in the United States. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.

There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.

In the international paper size system, the sizes are based on mathematical formulas. A0 is the biggest at 1 square metre. A1 is half as big as A0. A2 is half as big as A1, and so on. The sizes with "B" and "C" in their name are in between the "A" sizes.

Sizes in United States and Canada
In the United States and Canada the normal size of paper is called letter size, or sometimes US letter. It is  inches wide and 11 inches long (216 × 279 mm).

The other common size of paper in the US is called legal, or sometimes US legal. It is also  inches wide, but it is 14 inches long. It is similar to the size called foolscap in Britain.

Another size is called executive. It is  inches wide by  inches long. It is not very common. It is sometimes used for writing personal letters to people.

There is also a size called tabloid. It is 11 inches wide, and 17 inches long. That is the same size as two pieces of letter size put next to each other.

There are also many other paper sizes used for writing notes, for big posters, for books, and for other things.

Paper sizes and computer printers 
Most printers used with computers are designed to fit US letter and A4, and smaller paper sizes. Sometimes they can fit US legal also. For larger paper sizes, printers at professional printing businesses may be needed.

Details 
Below are charts showing all the different sizes of paper that are usually made, listed in increasing order of size. Dimensions are shown width first, then length.

If a company wants to make something with a different size of paper than these, they have to have it specially cut for them.

Paper
An envelope is a form of packing. Envelopes are used for sending letters or documents using regular postal mail. Envelopes are usually made of paper or hardened paper.

An envelope may be small enough to make you need to fold the paper going into it, or it can be as large as the paper so that you do not need to fold it. A large envelope is called a manila envelope, usually colored a color in between yellow and orange, and is used to send several pages of papers when a regular envelope would be too small. Another reason a manila envelope would be used would be to send important papers (e.g. birth certificates) that are better left unfolded.

To pay to send the mail, a stamp is usually attached to the envelope.

Related pages 
 Electronic mail
 Letter (paper)
 Letter box
 Postcard
 Telegram

Other websites 

 

Postal service
Stationery
Paper
Yasser Arafat  (24 August 1929 – 11 November 2004) is best known as the first leader of the Palestinian people. He was Chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) from 1969 to 2004. In 1993, he also became president of the Palestinian National Authority (PNA).

Arafat was born in Jerusalem, Gaza or Cairo. He studied civil engineering at Cairo University. He worked as an engineer in Kuwait.

In 1994, Yasser Arafat was one of the three recipients of the Nobel Peace Prize. The others were Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres. They got the prize for their peace efforts in the Middle East when Palestinian National Authority was formed.

The views of him are somewhat divided. Some people see him as a hero, who fought for the cause of the Palestinian people. Others see him as a terrorist, who promoted the use of violence to reach his goals. Still others think he was a charismatic leader, but he made too many concessions to the Israeli government. 

Yasser died in Paris from a cerebral hemorrhage. The next day he was buried at his compound, with a hasty funeral in Ramallah on November 12. He was reburied on November 13, about 3:30 am. He was buried in a special casket, with the hope of being reburied in Jerusalem one day when an independent State of Palestine with East Jerusalem as its capital would be established.

Related pages 
 List of Nobel Prize winners by country

Notes

References

Other websites 

 Life in Palestine after Arafat, Situation worse, not what Bush and Sharon planned 
 The Real Obstacle to Peace was Ariel Sharon, not Yasser Arafat
 Death of Arafat, burial and reburial November 13 2004
 Dr. Fathi Arafat, brother of Yasser Arafat

1929 births
2004 deaths
Asian military people
Billionaires
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
Engineers
Muslim terrorists
Palestinian Muslims
Palestinian nationalists
Palestinian politicians
Palestinian terrorists
People from Cairo
People from Jerusalem

Presidents (government)
Time People of the Year
Yitzhak Rabin (March 1, 1922 – November 4, 1995) was an Israeli politician and general. He was born in Jerusalem. He was the fifth Prime Minister of Israel from 1974 until 1977 and again from 1992 until his assassination in 1995 by Yigal Amir, a right-wing extremist who had strongly opposed Rabin's signing of the Oslo Accords and to peace with Palestine. He was the first local-born Prime Minister of Israel, the only Israeli Prime Minister to be killed and the second to die in office (following Levi Eshkol).
Yitzhak Rabin was one of the three recipients of the 1993 Nobel Peace Prize.  The others were Yasser Arafat and Shimon Peres. All three got the prizes for trying to make peace in the Middle East.

He died in Tel Aviv in 1995 after being assassinated. He was buried Helkat Gdolei Ha'uma in  Mount Herzl in Jerusalem.

References

Other websites 

1922 births
1995 deaths
Assassinated people
Burials at Mount Herzl
Former Members of Knesset
Government ministers of Israel
HaAvoda politicians
Israeli former political leaders
Israeli generals
Israeli Nobel Prize winners
Jewish Israeli politicians
Jewish military people
Jewish Nobel Prize winners
Murder victims
Murders by firearm
People from Jerusalem
Prime Ministers of Israel
Time People of the Year
Pleasure is an emotion. It is the opposite of pain. Humans and many other mammals feel pleasure. People feel pleasure when they do something that is fun or that feels good.

Pleasure in neuroscience
Pleasure is studied in neuroscience. Neuroscientists have mapped pleasure "hotspots" in the brain. Pleasure is important for a person's mental health and well-being. The loss of pleasure is common in people with mental illnesses like depression, schizophrenia, and addiction.

Pleasure in psychology
Pleasure is studied in positive psychology. How much pleasure someone feels changes from person to person. Pleasure depends how special something is. There is no rule that says what pleasure is for every person. 

Sigmund Freud wrote about the "pleasure principle" in the 1920 essay Beyond the Pleasure Principle. According to Freud, the pleasure principle is what drives people to do things that give them a feeling of immediate gratification.

Pleasure in philosophy
The ancient Greek philosopher Epicurus said that people feel the most pleasure possible when they have no suffering.

Hedonism is another philosophy that is focused on pleasure. It says that pleasure is good. In Hedonism, people focus on pleasure and avoid pain. 

Utilitarianism is a philosophy that focuses on pleasure. It says that morality requires that people do what has the most utility for the most people.

Related pages
Happiness

References 

Emotions
A kettle is a type of pot that is used in a kitchen. It is used to make water hot or to boil water. It comes from the Latin word catillus ("deep pan or dish for cooking").

In the past, kettles were made of metal bins like copper. Kettles were put on a rack or a hook above the fire to become hot. Now, metal kettles are put on the stove or rangetop. Sometimes they are made of ceramic or clay.  

Now, some people have electric kettles. These kettles plug into the wall and use electricity to generate heat. They are usually plastic or metal. They heat water faster than kettles on a stove. Kettles are often used to make tea. 

They are more common in the United Kingdom and the Commonwealth than other places like the United States.

References 

Basic English 850 words
Cooking appliances
A herbicide is a poison that kills plants. There are many kinds of herbicides, from weedkillers for gardens to Agent Orange which was used to destroy forests in the Vietnam War.

Agriculture
Chemical compounds
Hugh Marston Hefner (April 9, 1926 – September 27, 2017) was the founder of Playboy Magazine and its Editor-in-Chief.

Birth and education
Hefner was born into a Methodist family, to Glenn Hefner, an accountant, and Grace (Swanson) Hefner, a teacher, on April 9, 1926 in Chicago, Illinois. He was raised in Woodlawn, Chicago. Hefner served in the US Army (1944 - 1946). He attended the Art Institute of Chicago (1946), the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, earning a BA in Psychology (1949), and Northwestern University, 1949.

Marriages and children
Hefner married Mildred Williams (June 25, 1949 - 1959, divorced); Kimberley Conrad (July 1, 1989 - September 2009, divorced); and Crystal Harris (December 31, 2012 - 2017, his death).

Hefner has several children. With Mildred, he has David Paul (August 30, 1955) and Christie Ann (November 8, 1952). With Kimberley, he has Cooper Bradford (September 4, 1991) and Marston Glenn (April 9, 1990).

Hefner was a distant relative of George W. Bush and John Kerry.

Career

Hefner owned a multi-million mansion called the Playboy Mansion. He was also the executive producer of Roman Polanski's 1971 movie version of Macbeth. Hefner also appeared in cameos of himself in some movies.

When nude photographs of Jayne Mansfield on the set of Promises! Promises! were published in the June 1963 issue of Playboy, Hefner was brought into Chicago city court on obscenity charges.

In 2013, Hefner announced that his youngest son, Cooper, would succeed him and eventually help run the Playboy Empire.

Hefner supported legalizing same-sex marriage. He said that a fight for gay marriage is "a fight for all our rights. Without it, we will turn back the sexual revolution and return to an earlier, puritanical time."

Hefner owned a burial plot next to Marilyn Monroe's grave in Los Angeles.

Death
Hefner died at his home in Beverly Hills, California on September 27, 2017 after suffering from a cardiac arrest and sepsis caused by respiratory failure and an e. coli infection the age of 91.

References

Other websites

Hugh M. Hefner Foundation

1926 births
2017 deaths
Actors from Chicago
American chief executives
American civil rights activists
American editors
American journalists
American LGBT rights activists
American military personnel of World War II
American movie actors
American sex industry businesspeople
American socialites
Businesspeople from Chicago
Cardiovascular disease deaths in Los Angeles
Deaths from cardiac arrest
Deaths from respiratory failure
Deaths from sepsis
Infectious disease deaths in Los Angeles
Magazine founders
Military people from Chicago
Publishers
Writers from Chicago
Urination (peeing) is how animals and humans remove urine from their bodies.  Urine is the scientific term for "pee", the liquid bodily waste filtered out of the bloodstream by kidneys and from the liquids that a person drinks.  The bladder temporarily holds the waste fluid.  

Urinary system
Nyctalopia (Greek for Night blindness) is a disease of the human eyes.The eyes of people who are night-blind cannot adapt to situations where there is relatively little light; as a result, they have trouble seeing in such situations. 

There are a number of conditions that can cause this; most commonly:
lack or deficiency of Vitamin A
Several genetic conditions, most notably retinitis pigmentosa
Wounds of the eye

Diseases
Martinique is an island in the Caribbean Sea. It has an area of 1,128 km². Nearly 400,000 people live there.

Martinique was known by indigenous peoples of the Caribbean as Madiana or Madinina. It was colonized by the French in the 17th century, and they introduced racist slavery there as they spread it all around the world. France still claims to own the island today, even though there has been an independence movement.

The capital city is Fort-de-France. Other towns include Sainte-Anne and St. Pierre (which was destroyed by a volcano named Mont Pelée in 1902 and killed 30,000 people).

Martinique is well known for its zouk music. Artists such as Kassav' have made it famous over the years. Frantz Fanon, an important anti-colonial revolutionary, was born there.

The ethnic makeup of the country is: 90% African and Mixed African with anything from Chinese, East Indian or White. and 10% White, Amerindian, Chinese and East Indian.

Related pages
 Guadeloupe, another French island in the Caribbean

Other websites

 Martinique Tourism Authority
PHP (PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor) is a scripting language that helps people make web pages more interactive by allowing them to do more intelligent, complex things. PHP code is run on the web server.

A website programmed with PHP can have pages that are password protected. A website with no programming cannot do this without other complex things. Standard PHP file extensions are: .php .php3 or .phtml, but a web server can be set up to use any extension.

Its structure was influenced by many languages like C, Perl, Java, C++, and even Python. It is considered to be free software by the Free Software Foundation.

History 
PHP was first created by Rasmus Lerdorf in 1995. It is now developed and improved by a large team of people. Its name at first stood for Personal Home Page, but it was later changed to PHP: Hypertext Preprocessor; using its old acronym in the new name.

Example 
An example Hello World program:

<?php
echo "Hello, World!";
?>

It is common to put PHP code inside a HTML document, for example:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<html>
	<head>
		<title>Hello World</title>
	</head>
	<body>
		<?= '<p>Hello World</p>'; ?>
	</body>
</html>

References

Other websites 
 Official PHP website
 PHP Tutorial  for beginners
 PHP Tutorial for beginners
[./Https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/07/php-what-is-php-in-hindi-technology.html  https://webtopfree.blogspot.com/2021/08/How-to-learn-PHP.html ] what is PHP

 PHP.orgPHP tutorials for beginners

Programming languages
Web design
A Hello world program is usually a program made by computer programmers that are new to a programming languages, or to test if the compiler for this language is working correctly. It will simply put the text Hello, World! on the screen. 
One way to do the Hello World program is shown below, in the C programming language.
#include <stdio.h>

int main(int argc, char* argv[])
{
     printf("Hello World");
     return 0;
}

On Python programming language:print("Hello World")On Pascal programming language
program helloworld;
begin
     WriteLn('Hello World');
end.

On Lua programming language:print("Hello World")

On C++ programming language:#include <iostream>

int main()
{
  std::cout << “Hello World” << std::endl;
  return 0;
}

Other websites 
helloworld.org
 The Hello World Collection
 codepad.org  - Can compile some of the programs

Programming languages
Software
The 2030s (pronounced "twenty-thirties") will begin on January 1, 2030 and will end on December 31, 2039.

The decade as a whole 

This decade will be called "the twenty-thirties". The Roman number will be MMXXX.

Events to happen 
 Voyager 2 will stop transmitting back to Earth.
 January 19, 2038 - 32-bit clocks will return to 1970.
 September 1, 2039 will be the 100th anniversary of Nazi Germany's invasion of Poland (the start of World War II).

References
The Extensible Markup Language (short XML) is a markup language like HTML but is extensible. It's created by the World Wide Web Consortium (W3C). XML defines rules for the construction of a document. XML adds context to the information in a document. It does not say how this should be displayed.

Some programs get information out of an XML-document. To do that, they need an API.  There are many APIs for XML.

You can write a description of an XML document in a way that is useful for programmers. There are several languages for this; the best known is called DTD.

Syntax 
XML uses less than (<) and greater than (>) to show tags. For example, a paragraph in HTML would be <p>.

A closing tag is a tag used to enclose the value of the tag. The tag has a slash (/) before its name. For example, </p>

A tag which is empty can be represented as an opening tag but with a slash before the >. For example, <p />

The XML specification defines a valid XML document as a well-formed XML document which also conforms to the rules of a Document Type Definition (DTD).

Languages 
The following languages are based on XML.

Text 
 XSL-FO
 DocBook
 DITA
 XHTML (HTML based on ALL)
 TEI (Text Encoding Initiative)
 NITF (News Industry Text Format)

Images 
 SVG (vector graphics)
 X3D (3D modelling language)
 Collada (Language to change informations between different 3D programs)

Earth 
 Geography Markup Language (GML)
 GPS Exchange Format (GPX): XML for GPS informatons
 Keyhole Markup Language (KML): coordinates for Google Earth
 OpenImmo : XML for Houses with position informations

Multimedia 
 SMIL (Informations with times from multimedia)
 MPEG-7 (for MPEG-7)
 Laszlo (LZX)

Safety 
 SAML (describe and send informations about safety)
 XML Signature
 XML Encryption

Other 
There are a lot more languages that use XML. A couple of them are:
 RSS
 WAP/WML

Sources

Other websites 
 XeML.net
 W3C XML Page

Markup languages
The World Money Fair is an international bourse of coins. A bourse is where dealers, collectors and the public to buy, sell and trade coins. 

In 1970 A. M Beck founded in Muinch the "Organisation of European Coins-Bourses", "Organisation Europäischer Münzen-Börsen" (OEMB) in German. He had the idea to build up a stronger market for the collecting of coins.

Two years later the organisation organized in Basel the 1st international bourse of coins. During the time it was developed to the "World Money Fair". Today more than 40 nations are members of this organisation. In 2006, the bourse is at the 1st time in Berlin. At the start the German Secretary of State Karl Diller presented the new German 2 Euro Coin. It shows the Holstentor of Lübeck.
Money
Autocracy is a form of government.  In an autocracy, a single person has all legal and political power, and makes all decisions by himself or herself. The person who holds the power is called an autocrat.

When there is a monarch ruling a country as an absolute monarchy, this is also called an autocracy. Having an autocratic government does not mean the country is governed well or governed poorly. It is just a description on how it is set up.The two types of Autocracy are Absolute monarchy and Dictatorship 

In modern times, most autocrats gain power as part of a larger nationalist, communist, or fascist movement. Once in power, they eliminate all other kinds of authority in the country, such as judges, the legislature, and political parties.

Historical examples of autocracies include: The Aztec Empire in Mesoamerica, in it, the Aztec Emperor functioned as both the sole ruler of the Empire himself, as well as of its military, he also was the religious figurehead behind the empire's aggressive foreign policy (In this time, the priesthood supported a pantheon that demanded human sacrifice, and the nobility consisted mainly of warriors who had captured many prisoners for these sacrificial rites), Eastern Han under Dong Zhuo, the Empire of Japan under Hirohito, and the Roman Empire, in 27 B.C., Augustus founded the Roman Empire following the end of the Roman Republic.  Augustus officially kept the Roman Senate while effectively consolidating all of the real power and influence in himself.  In recent years dictators have been called autocratic.

Related pages
 De facto rule, government
 Absolute monarchy
 Byzantine Empire
 Theocracy
 Totalitarianism

References

Forms of government
Oligarchy is a form of government. In an oligarchic system, all the power is held by a small group of people. It is usually the most powerful people who govern the state. It was used in Sparta, where the kingship alternated between three leading families.

Rule by the best 
An oligarchy where the best rule is called Aristocracy.

Rule by the rich 
If the richest people rule the country, this is called Plutocracy.

Other websites 
 Online Text: Leonard Whibley, Greek Oligarchies: Their Character and Organisation  (1896), still the only full-scale treatment of oligarchy in Classical Greece.

Forms of government
Land can mean some territory, forming part of a country. Roughly 22% of the surface of Earth is land, while the rest is covered with water. Land can have different types of soil; it may be covered with stones, sand, dirt, etc. Sometimes it is not clear where land ends and a body of water begins.

Related pages
 Geology
 Landscape
 Land (economics)

Other websites
 Conserving Land for People

References 

Basic English 850 words
Earth
Geology
Geography
Navigation
Events 
The Congress of the United States signs a treaty to end the American Revolutionary War.
The Methodist Church is started by John Wesley.

Births 
October 13 – King Ferdinand VII of Spain
November 24 – Zachary Taylor, 12th President of the United States

Deaths 
August 28 – Junípero Serra, Spanish missionary
December 26 – Seth Warner, American Revolutionary War leader
The following is a list of Atlantic hurricane seasons. All began on June 1 in their respective years. They ended on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the Atlantic Ocean.

The Atlantic hurricane season is the time of year that hurricanes form in the northern Atlantic Ocean. The season starts on June 1 and ends November 30. There is an average of ten tropical storms, six hurricanes, and two or three major hurricanes in the Atlantic.

The National Hurricane Center helps watch for hurricanes in the northern Atlantic and makes forecasts about were the storms will go.

Before 1800s 
 Before 1600
 17th century
 18th century

1800s 
1800–1809 
1810–1819 
1820–1829 
1830–1839 
1840–1849 

1850–1859 
1860–1869 
1870 
1871–1879

1880
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1900s 

1900
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1909

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1960
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1970
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1980
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1990
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2000s 
2000
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2010
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2013
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019

2020
2021

Related pages 
 List of Pacific hurricane seasons

Weather lists
The following is a list of Pacific hurricane seasons. They all began on May 15 in the eastern Pacific and June 1 in the central Pacific in their respective years. There, they end on November 30. These dates are when tropical cyclones usually form in the eastern Pacific Ocean.

Before the satellite age started in the 1960s, data on east Pacific hurricanes is extremely unreliable. Most east Pacific storms are of no threat to land.

1900s
1950
1951
1952
1953
1954
1955
1956
1957
1958
1959

1960
1961
1962
1963
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1965
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1967
1968
1969

1970
1971
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1980
1981
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1989

1990
1991
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1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
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2000s
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009

2010
2011
2012

Related articles
List of Atlantic hurricane seasons
List of Pacific typhoon seasons

Weather lists
Sildenafil is an aphrodisiac. It is a medication that is also called Viagra, Revatio and (in the Indian subcontinent) Caverta. 

Sildenafil makes the blood vessels become wider. This lowers the blood pressure. Sildenafil mostly works in the penis and in the lungs. This medicine increases blood flow to the penis. This helps the penis become erect during sexual intercourse. Sildenafil also helps pulmonary hypertension. Because this medicine makes the blood vessels wider, it makes it easier for blood to flow. Sildenafil was patented in 1996 and first made to sell in 1998.

Related pages
 Adverse effect

References 

Human sexuality
Pharmacology
Events 
January 4 – King Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies dies and is succeeded by his son Francis I of the Two Sicilies.
 February 12 – The Creek cede the last of their lands in Georgia to the United States government, and migrate west
March 4 – John Quincy Adams officially succeeds James Monroe as President of the United States.
 July 6 – The Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sønderborg-Beck gains possession of Glücksburg and changes his title to Friedrich Wilhelm, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg. The line of Schleswig-Holstein-Sonderburg-Glücksburg later became the Royal House of Greece, Denmark and Norway.
 July 30 – Malden Island (an uninhabited island in the central Pacific Ocean) discovered. 
 August 6 – Bolivia gains independence from Peru as a republic with the instigation of Simón Bolívar
 August 25 – Uruguay declares independence from Brazil (See Uruguay's independence)
 September 27 – The world's first modern railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway opens in England.
 October 26 – The Erie Canal opens – passage from Albany, New York to Lake Erie
 December 1 – Nicholas I of Russia succeeds his older brother Alexander I.
 Decembrist Revolt in Russia.
 The first horse-drawn omnibuses established in London
 First roller skates
 Aluminium discovered
 City of Brisbane founded – see History of Brisbane
 The electromagnet was invented by William Sturgeon

Deaths
 May 2 – Michail Leontievich Bulatov, Russian military
Events 
 January 17 – Johann Friedrich Struensee and Queen Caroline Matilda are arrested, leading to his execution and her banishment from Denmark
 July 17 – Massacre at Bloody Falls: Chipewyan chief Matonabbee traveling as the guide to Samuel Hearne on his Arctic overland journey, massacre a group of unsuspecting Inuit.
 September 8 – In California, Fathers Pedro Cambon and Angel Somera found Mission San Gabriel Arcangel in what is now San Gabriel, California.
 October 9 – The Dutch merchant ship Vrouw Maria sinks near the coast of Finland. Captain Raymund Lourens and his crew escape unharmed.
 November 16 – During the night the Tyne floods, destroying many bridges and killing several people; the main bridge at Newcastle upon Tyne is not completed until 1781
Discovery of Oxygen.
The territory of Baden-Baden is inherited by the Margrave of Baden-Durlach, forming Baden.
Emperor Go-Momozono ascends to the throne of Japan
 Plague in Moscow – 57,000 dead
 The trade monopoly with Iceland is transferred to the Danish crown.

Births 
April 13 – Richard Trevithick, English inventor (d. 1833)
April 18 – Karl Philipp Fürst zu Schwarzenberg, Austrian field marshal (d. 1820)
April 27 – Jean Rapp, French general (d. 1821)
June 5 – Prince Ernest Augustus of Great Britain, King of Hanover (d. 1851)
August 14 – Sir Walter Scott, Scottish writer (d. 1832)
September 5 – Archduke Charles of Austria, Austrian general and statesman (d. 1847)
September 23 – Emperor Kokaku of Japan (d. 1840)
October 9 – Frederick William, Duke of Brunswick (d. 1815)
October 23 – Jean-Andoche Junot, French general (d. 1813)
November 14 – Marie François Xavier Bichat, French anatomist and physiologist (d. U momma)

Deaths
Events 
 The Cornish language died out
 2nd edition of Encyclopædia Britannica published
 January 3 – American Revolutionary War: American general George Washington defeats British general Charles Cornwallis at the Battle of Princeton.
January 12 – Mission Santa Clara de Asís is founded in what is now Santa Clara, California
January 16 – Vermont declares its independence from New York becoming an independent country, a status it retained until it joined the United States as the 14th state in 1791
 June 13 – American Revolutionary War: Marquis de Lafayette lands near Charleston, South Carolina to help the Continental Congress train its army.
 June 14 – Stars and Stripes adopted by the Continental Congress as the Flag of the United States.
 August 16 – American Revolutionary War:  Battle of Bennington – British forces are defeated by American troops.
 September 3 – Cooch's Bridge – Skirmish of American Revolutionary war in New Castle County, Delaware where the Flag of the United States was flown in battle for the first time.
 September 11 – Battle of Brandywine – Major American Revolutionary war victory for British in Chester County, Pennsylvania.
 September 19 – American Revolutionary War: First Battle of Saratoga/Battle of Freeman's Farm/Battle of Bemis Heights.
 October 4 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Germantown– Troops under George Washington are repelled by British troops under Sir William Howe.
 October 17 – American Revolutionary War: Battle of Saratoga– American troops defeat the British.
 November 15 – American Revolutionary War: After 16 months of debate, the Continental Congress approves the Articles of Confederation in the temporary American capital at York, Pennsylvania.
 November 17 – Articles of Confederation submitted to the states for ratification.
November 29 – San Jose, California founded.  It is the first pueblo in Spanish Alta California.
 December 24 – Kiritimati discovered by James Cook
 The code duello is adopted at the Clonmell Summer Assizes as the form for pistol duels in Ireland.  It is quickly denounced but nevertheless widely adopted throughout the English-speaking world.
Events 
 January 2 – The United Kingdom captures Calcutta, India.
 March 14 – On board the HMS Monarch, Royal Navy Admiral John Byng is executed by firing squad for breach of the Articles of War.
 May 6 – Battle of Prague – Frederick the Great defeats an Austrian army and begins to besiege the city.
 June 18 – Battle of Kolin – Frederick is defeated by an Austrian army under Marshal Daun, forcing him to evacuate Bohemia.
 June 23 – Battle of Plassey – 3000 British troops under Robert Clive defeat a 50,000 strong Indian army under Siraj-ud-Dawlah at Plassey.
 July 26 – Battle of Hastenbeck – An Anglo-Hanoverian army under the Duke of Cumberland is defeated by the French under Louis d'Estrées and forced out of Hanover.
 July 30 – Battle of Gross-Jägersdorf – A Prussian army under Hans von Lehwald is defeated by the Russian army of Marshal Stepan Apraksin.
 October 16 – Austrian raiders plunder Berlin.
 October 30 – Osman III dies and is succeeded as Ottoman Sultan by Mustafa III.
 November 5 – Battle of Rossbach. Frederick defeats the French-Imperial army under the Duc de Soubise and Prince Joseph of Saxe-Hildburghausen, forcing the French to withdraw from Saxony.
 November 22 – Battle of Breslau – An Austrian army under Prince Charles of Lorraine defeats the Prussian army of Wilhelm of Brunswick-Bevern and forces the Austrians behind the Oder.
 December 6 – Battle of Leuthen – Frederick defeats Prince Charles's Austrian army.

Deaths
Percy James Patrick Kent-Smith or Sylvester McCoy (born 20 August 1943) is a Scottish actor. He is best known for playing the seventh incarnation of the Doctor on Doctor Who from 1987–1989, he also briefly played the Doctor in beginning of the 1996 TV movie.

Other websites

1943 births
Living people
Scottish movie actors
Scottish stage actors
Scottish television actors
Georgia O’Keeffe (November 15 1887 – March 6 1986) was an American artist. She was born near Sun Prairie, Wisconsin, U.S. O'Keeffe studied art at the Art Institute of Chicago, Art Students' League, University of Virginia, Charlottesville and Teachers College.

She is mainly known for her modernist paintings. These paintings use both abstract and concrete elements.
 Concrete means that objects can be recognized. For example, she painted flowers, rocks, shells, animal bones and landscapes.
 Abstract means that there may be colors and forms, but nothing real can be seen in the pictures.

Family 
Georgia O'Keeffe married Alfred Stieglitz in 1924. Stieglitz was a famous photographer and he helped O'Keeffe gain success in her career. He owned the first studio her art was displayed in. Georgia and Alfred evidently wrote over 25,000 love letters to each other.

Auction record 
O'Keefe holds the world auction record for a painting by a woman (November 2014). Her Jimson Weed/White Flower No 1 sold for $44.4m (£28.8m) at the O'Keeffe Museum in Santa Fe, New Mexico. O'Keeffe's large-format depictions of flowers which she painted as if they had been seen in close-up.

Gallery

References

1887 births
1986 deaths
American painters
People from Wisconsin
Genesis is an English progressive rock group. They formed in 1967. They have sold about 150 million albums all over the world. This puts them among the top 30 best-selling recording artists of all time. The group's members have included Peter Gabriel and Phil Collins. Both of them were successful as solo artists as well.

Members of the group 
Over the years, Genesis has changed members more than once. The first line-up was Peter Gabriel (vocals), Anthony Phillips (guitar), Tony Banks (keyboards), Mike Rutherford (bass & guitar), and Chris Stewart (drums).

Other drummers until 1970 were John Silver and John Mayhew. In August 1970, Phil Collins began playing drums for Genesis. In some songs, he also sang. The same year Phillips left, and Steve Hackett joined as a guitarist in 1971.

The band also made a song called "Supper's Ready" which is almost 23 minutes long. Many fans call it their best because it has many different parts.

After the release of the album The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974), Gabriel left the band. Collins took over the singing. He was singer for Genesis from 1976 to 1996. When Hackett also left, in 1977 there were only three members left. The 1978 album was called ...And Then There Were Three... because of this.

The band ended up making lots of well-known songs, like Abacab, Invisible Touch and No Son of Mine.

The last studio album with Collins was We Can't Dance in 1991. He left the band in 1996 and was replaced with singer Ray Wilson. Because the album Calling All Stations (1997) with Ray Wilson was not very successful, the group disbanded.

After a break of eight years, Genesis started a world tour in 2006. The members now are Phil Collins, Mike Rutherford and Tony Banks. The band disbanded again at 2011 due to Collins retiring and Collins came back from retiring at 2015.

Genesis were inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2010.

Band members 
 Peter Gabriel – Lead vocals (1967–1975)
 Tony Banks – Keyboards (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
 Mike Rutherford – Bass guitars, guitars, backing vocals (1967–1998, 2006–2011)
 Anthony Phillips – Guitars (1967–1970)
 Chris Stewart – Drums (1967–1968)
 John Silver – Drums (1968–1969)
 John Mayhew – Drums (1969–1970)
 Phil Collins – Drums, lead vocals, backing vocals (1970–1996, 2006–2011)
 Mick Barnard – Guitars (1970–1971)
 Steve Hackett – Guitars (1971–1977)
 Ray Wilson – Lead vocals (1996–1998)
 Nir Zidkyahu – Drums (1996–1998)

Discography
Studio albums
 From Genesis to Revelation (1969)
 Trespass (1970)
 Nusery Cryme (1971)
 Foxtot (1972)
 Selling England by the Pound (1973)
 The Lamb Lies Down on Broadway (1974)
 A Trick of a Tail (1976)
 Wind & Wuthering (1976)
 ...And Then There Were Three... (1978)
 Duke (1980)
 Abacab (1981)
 Genesis (1983)
 Invisible Touch (1986)
 We Can't Dance (1991)
 Calling All Stations (1997)

1967 establishments in England
1960s British music groups
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English rock bands
 
Musical groups established in 1967
Progressive rock bands
Surrey
Atlantic Records artists
Deadly nightshade or belladonna (Atropa belladonna) is a well-known, hardy perennial shrub. It is a member of the nightshade family. 

Originally, it grew in Europe, North Africa, and Asia. It has also been seen in North America, but is far less common there. Usually it grows in the shade. The plant does not like direct sunlight. Often it grows in places where the soil is rich in limestone.

Belladonna is poisonous 
Most parts of the plant are known to be very poisonous. Children have died from eating as few as three berries. One leaf contains enough poison to kill an adult. The root usually contains the most poison.

The poison present in the plant is called atropine.

Effects of the poison 
The effects of atropine are dilated (big) pupils, hallucinations, and difficulty in seeing (the vision may not be as sharp as always, it may be difficult to focus on some object). Problems keeping upright, feeling like one is flying, and being confused are also symptoms.
The pulse of the victim grows faster and faster, and the rate at which the heart is beating will go up. Toxic reaction to atropine causes fever, delirium, stupor and rash on head, neck and upper trunk. There may be agitation, difficulty in speaking and swallowing. Coma and convulsions usually come before death.

Nightshades
Perennials
A perennial is a plant that bears leaves and perhaps flowers every year.  Some plants only bear leaves and flowers once, then they die. Such plants are called annual. Other plants live for two years. They are called biennial.

Most trees and shrubs are perennial plants.
A shrub or bush is a category of plants. A tree usually has one stem, which at some height has branches. A shrub can have multiple stems from the bottom up. Usually, bushes do not grow as tall as trees, very often they are less than 1–2 m tall.

Very many  plants can be either shrubs or trees, depending on the growing conditions. Small, low shrubs such as lavender, periwinkle and thyme are often termed subshrubs. Shrubs can be either deciduous or evergreen.

A shrubbery is a garden with shrubs as the main feature.

Shrubs as a botanical structural form 
In botany and ecology a shrub is more specifically used to describe the particular physical structural or plant life-form of woody plants which are less than 8 meters high and usually have many stems arising at or near the base.

For example, a descriptive system widely used in Australia is based on structural characteristics based on life-form, plus the height and amount of foliage cover of the tallest layer or dominant species.

For shrubs 2–8 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-scrub
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — open-scrub
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — tall shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — tall open shrubland

For shrubs less than 2 m high the following structural forms are categorized:
 dense foliage cover (70–100%) — closed-heath
 mid-dense foliage cover (30–70%) — heath
 sparse foliage cover (10–30%) — low shrubland
 very sparse foliage cover (<10%) — low open shrubland

References

Other websites
Selecting Shrubs for Your Home (University of Illinois Extension)