Context: Document [1](Title: Eastern Question) Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse and division of the Ottoman holdings. The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its

Context: Document [2](Title: Ottoman wars in Asia) the main problem was the rebel in Yemen which was subdued. Ottoman Empire fought against the Allies in the First World War and was defeated. According to Armistice of Mudros Ottoman Empire accepted the loss of all territories in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and most of Iraq. Although Turkey and North Iraq were still under Ottoman rule, soon Allies occupied the Mediterranean coast and North Iraq. They also offered Aegean coast (as well as Thrace) to Greece and eastern Anatolia to newly establiahed Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres. However the treaty became ineffective during the Turkish

Context: Document [3](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 border was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims. Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran. Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always

Context: Document [4](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk deposed the last caliph, Abdul Mejid II. Allied military losses are placed between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 including killed, wounded, captured or missing. This includes 303,000 British Empire and French casualties in Gallipoli, 601,000 British Empire casualties in Sinai-Palestine, at least 140,000 Russian casualties in the Caucasus, and 256,000 British Empire casualties in

Context: Document [5](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.

Context: Document [6](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) caused by the Ottoman counter-coup of 1909, which preceded the 31 March Incident (Restoration, 1909) and 1912 Ottoman coup d'état ("Saviours") and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état in the Empire up to World War I. The Ottoman entry into World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, gave a nominal land and permitted the title Ottoman Caliphate (compared with Vatican; a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope), not to be a further threat but

Context: Document [7](Title: Pax Ottomana) with the period after World War I, when only Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace remained under Turkish rule. The term is derived by analogy from the more common "Pax Romana", "the Roman Peace". Pax Ottomana In historiography, the Pax Ottomana (literally "the Ottoman Peace") or Pax Ottomanica is the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire, which, at the height of the Empire's power during the 16th and 17th centuries, applied to lands in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus. The term is preferred in particular by historians and

Context: Document [8](Title: Ottoman casualties of World War I) by Ottoman and Kurdish armies in 1914 and 1920. Sources have put the death tolls at nearly 750,000. After the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, for reliability reasons, the data regarding the Muslim casualties had to be collected by region. The records regarding the Muslim civilians were sealed at the time of the Paris Peace Conference, and there is very little literature review on the Muslim millet, compared to Christian millet of the Empire (see: Armenian casualties). One plausible explanation that needs further study may be attributable to productivity patterns of the Muslim millet, which could have dropped beyond sustainable

Context: Document [9](Title: Diplomatic history of World War I) wars, most recently in 1912. The economy was heavily traditional, but with a strong German influence in terms of modernization, especially building railways. In 1914 the Ottoman government in Constantinople took the initiative in supporting the Central Powers. see Ottoman–German alliance Its Army already was under German guidance, especially by General Otto Liman von Sanders. The British expected the alliance with Germany and seized two dreadnoughts under construction that had been paid for by the Ottomans. Negotiations with the Allies went nowhere after the Turks demanded very large concessions. Instead, a secret alliance was made with Germany in early August,

Context: Document [10](Title: Turkish War of Independence) Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. The treaty granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe—the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente′s public position that they had no intention to dismantle the government of the Ottoman Empire or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective

Context: Document [11](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period. The History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman's attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November

Context: Document [12](Title: Black Sea Raid) quickly retaliated with naval attacks in the Dardanelles, and the Russians declared war on 2 November, followed by the British and the French three days later. The Ottomans did not officially declare war until 11 November. The Ottomans desperately tried to secure an alliance with a great power before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, but almost all of their attempts ended in failure. Even when the Germanophile Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha directly proposed an alliance on 22 July to the German ambassador in Istanbul, Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim, he was turned down. Kaiser Wilhelm II overruled

Context: Document [13](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies" about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks’ anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks' position brought a conflict with the Germany's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria’s claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December

Context: Document [14](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I. At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. LU flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the CUP to seize control of the government. The Liberal

Context: Document [15](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory. The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port. During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate." On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders

Context: Document [16](Title: Assyrian independence movement) Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria) and join them in dividing up the British, Russian and French empires in Asia. In 1914, knowing that it was heading into the war, the Ottoman government passed a law that required the conscription of all young males into the Ottoman army to support the war effort. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in October 1914 by bombarding Russian ports on the Black Sea. In late 1914 and 1915, the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turk regime declared a holy war on the British, French and Russian Empires. Ottoman Turkish army and allied Kurdish, Turcoman,

Context: Document [17](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) 18 January 1919, peace negotiations began with the Paris Peace Conference. The negotiations continued at the Conference of London, but the treaty took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain had been secretly planning the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920, but the treaty was not sent to the Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as the Parliament had been abolished on 18 March 1920 by the British. As a result, the treaty

Context: Document [18](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire) the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play

Context: Document [19](Title: Ottoman wars in Europe) by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I. After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (or in 1358 - disputable due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Süleyman Pasha) which provided it with Gallipoli as a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna (1444) and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). The remaining Greek states fell in 1461 (Despotate of the Morea

Context: Document [20](Title: Yalova Peninsula massacres) the atrocities. Michael Smith claims that Circassian irregulars also took part in the massacres. One of the results was that refugees were transported to Constantinople on ships. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire officially surrendered to the Entente Powers and it had to disband its army. At the peace conference the British and French tried to secure territory for the Kingdom of Greece in Smyrna and its surrounding regions. As a result, the Greek army, with the support of the Entente Powers, invaded Anatolia and occupied Smyrna. The Ottoman government and Turkish nationalists, which included people from all layers

Question: when did the ottoman empire surrender in ww1?

Answer: 1918

Answer: 30 October 1918


Context: Document [1](Title: Eastern Question) Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse and division of the Ottoman holdings. The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its

Context: Document [2](Title: Ottoman wars in Asia) the main problem was the rebel in Yemen which was subdued. Ottoman Empire fought against the Allies in the First World War and was defeated. According to Armistice of Mudros Ottoman Empire accepted the loss of all territories in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and most of Iraq. Although Turkey and North Iraq were still under Ottoman rule, soon Allies occupied the Mediterranean coast and North Iraq. They also offered Aegean coast (as well as Thrace) to Greece and eastern Anatolia to newly establiahed Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres. However the treaty became ineffective during the Turkish

Context: Document [3](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 border was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims. Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran. Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always

Context: Document [4](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk deposed the last caliph, Abdul Mejid II. Allied military losses are placed between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 including killed, wounded, captured or missing. This includes 303,000 British Empire and French casualties in Gallipoli, 601,000 British Empire casualties in Sinai-Palestine, at least 140,000 Russian casualties in the Caucasus, and 256,000 British Empire casualties in

Context: Document [5](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) caused by the Ottoman counter-coup of 1909, which preceded the 31 March Incident (Restoration, 1909) and 1912 Ottoman coup d'état ("Saviours") and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état in the Empire up to World War I. The Ottoman entry into World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, gave a nominal land and permitted the title Ottoman Caliphate (compared with Vatican; a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope), not to be a further threat but

Context: Document [6](Title: Pax Ottomana) with the period after World War I, when only Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace remained under Turkish rule. The term is derived by analogy from the more common "Pax Romana", "the Roman Peace". Pax Ottomana In historiography, the Pax Ottomana (literally "the Ottoman Peace") or Pax Ottomanica is the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire, which, at the height of the Empire's power during the 16th and 17th centuries, applied to lands in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus. The term is preferred in particular by historians and

Context: Document [7](Title: Ottoman casualties of World War I) by Ottoman and Kurdish armies in 1914 and 1920. Sources have put the death tolls at nearly 750,000. After the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, for reliability reasons, the data regarding the Muslim casualties had to be collected by region. The records regarding the Muslim civilians were sealed at the time of the Paris Peace Conference, and there is very little literature review on the Muslim millet, compared to Christian millet of the Empire (see: Armenian casualties). One plausible explanation that needs further study may be attributable to productivity patterns of the Muslim millet, which could have dropped beyond sustainable

Context: Document [8](Title: Diplomatic history of World War I) wars, most recently in 1912. The economy was heavily traditional, but with a strong German influence in terms of modernization, especially building railways. In 1914 the Ottoman government in Constantinople took the initiative in supporting the Central Powers. see Ottoman–German alliance Its Army already was under German guidance, especially by General Otto Liman von Sanders. The British expected the alliance with Germany and seized two dreadnoughts under construction that had been paid for by the Ottomans. Negotiations with the Allies went nowhere after the Turks demanded very large concessions. Instead, a secret alliance was made with Germany in early August,

Context: Document [9](Title: Turkish War of Independence) Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. The treaty granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe—the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente′s public position that they had no intention to dismantle the government of the Ottoman Empire or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective

Context: Document [10](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.

Context: Document [11](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period. The History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman's attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November

Context: Document [12](Title: Black Sea Raid) quickly retaliated with naval attacks in the Dardanelles, and the Russians declared war on 2 November, followed by the British and the French three days later. The Ottomans did not officially declare war until 11 November. The Ottomans desperately tried to secure an alliance with a great power before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, but almost all of their attempts ended in failure. Even when the Germanophile Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha directly proposed an alliance on 22 July to the German ambassador in Istanbul, Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim, he was turned down. Kaiser Wilhelm II overruled

Context: Document [13](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies" about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks’ anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks' position brought a conflict with the Germany's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria’s claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December

Context: Document [14](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I. At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. LU flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the CUP to seize control of the government. The Liberal

Context: Document [15](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory. The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port. During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate." On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders

Context: Document [16](Title: Assyrian independence movement) Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria) and join them in dividing up the British, Russian and French empires in Asia. In 1914, knowing that it was heading into the war, the Ottoman government passed a law that required the conscription of all young males into the Ottoman army to support the war effort. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in October 1914 by bombarding Russian ports on the Black Sea. In late 1914 and 1915, the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turk regime declared a holy war on the British, French and Russian Empires. Ottoman Turkish army and allied Kurdish, Turcoman,

Context: Document [17](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) 18 January 1919, peace negotiations began with the Paris Peace Conference. The negotiations continued at the Conference of London, but the treaty took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain had been secretly planning the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920, but the treaty was not sent to the Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as the Parliament had been abolished on 18 March 1920 by the British. As a result, the treaty

Context: Document [18](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire) the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play

Context: Document [19](Title: Ottoman wars in Europe) by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I. After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (or in 1358 - disputable due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Süleyman Pasha) which provided it with Gallipoli as a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna (1444) and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). The remaining Greek states fell in 1461 (Despotate of the Morea

Context: Document [20](Title: Yalova Peninsula massacres) the atrocities. Michael Smith claims that Circassian irregulars also took part in the massacres. One of the results was that refugees were transported to Constantinople on ships. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire officially surrendered to the Entente Powers and it had to disband its army. At the peace conference the British and French tried to secure territory for the Kingdom of Greece in Smyrna and its surrounding regions. As a result, the Greek army, with the support of the Entente Powers, invaded Anatolia and occupied Smyrna. The Ottoman government and Turkish nationalists, which included people from all layers

Question: when did the ottoman empire surrender in ww1?

Answer: 1918

Answer: 30 October 1918


Context: Document [1](Title: Eastern Question) Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse and division of the Ottoman holdings. The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its

Context: Document [2](Title: Ottoman wars in Asia) the main problem was the rebel in Yemen which was subdued. Ottoman Empire fought against the Allies in the First World War and was defeated. According to Armistice of Mudros Ottoman Empire accepted the loss of all territories in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and most of Iraq. Although Turkey and North Iraq were still under Ottoman rule, soon Allies occupied the Mediterranean coast and North Iraq. They also offered Aegean coast (as well as Thrace) to Greece and eastern Anatolia to newly establiahed Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres. However the treaty became ineffective during the Turkish

Context: Document [3](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 border was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims. Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran. Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always

Context: Document [4](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk deposed the last caliph, Abdul Mejid II. Allied military losses are placed between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 including killed, wounded, captured or missing. This includes 303,000 British Empire and French casualties in Gallipoli, 601,000 British Empire casualties in Sinai-Palestine, at least 140,000 Russian casualties in the Caucasus, and 256,000 British Empire casualties in

Context: Document [5](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) caused by the Ottoman counter-coup of 1909, which preceded the 31 March Incident (Restoration, 1909) and 1912 Ottoman coup d'état ("Saviours") and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état in the Empire up to World War I. The Ottoman entry into World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, gave a nominal land and permitted the title Ottoman Caliphate (compared with Vatican; a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope), not to be a further threat but

Context: Document [6](Title: Pax Ottomana) with the period after World War I, when only Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace remained under Turkish rule. The term is derived by analogy from the more common "Pax Romana", "the Roman Peace". Pax Ottomana In historiography, the Pax Ottomana (literally "the Ottoman Peace") or Pax Ottomanica is the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire, which, at the height of the Empire's power during the 16th and 17th centuries, applied to lands in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus. The term is preferred in particular by historians and

Context: Document [7](Title: Ottoman casualties of World War I) by Ottoman and Kurdish armies in 1914 and 1920. Sources have put the death tolls at nearly 750,000. After the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, for reliability reasons, the data regarding the Muslim casualties had to be collected by region. The records regarding the Muslim civilians were sealed at the time of the Paris Peace Conference, and there is very little literature review on the Muslim millet, compared to Christian millet of the Empire (see: Armenian casualties). One plausible explanation that needs further study may be attributable to productivity patterns of the Muslim millet, which could have dropped beyond sustainable

Context: Document [8](Title: Diplomatic history of World War I) wars, most recently in 1912. The economy was heavily traditional, but with a strong German influence in terms of modernization, especially building railways. In 1914 the Ottoman government in Constantinople took the initiative in supporting the Central Powers. see Ottoman–German alliance Its Army already was under German guidance, especially by General Otto Liman von Sanders. The British expected the alliance with Germany and seized two dreadnoughts under construction that had been paid for by the Ottomans. Negotiations with the Allies went nowhere after the Turks demanded very large concessions. Instead, a secret alliance was made with Germany in early August,

Context: Document [9](Title: Turkish War of Independence) Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. The treaty granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe—the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente′s public position that they had no intention to dismantle the government of the Ottoman Empire or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective

Context: Document [10](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period. The History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman's attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November

Context: Document [11](Title: Black Sea Raid) quickly retaliated with naval attacks in the Dardanelles, and the Russians declared war on 2 November, followed by the British and the French three days later. The Ottomans did not officially declare war until 11 November. The Ottomans desperately tried to secure an alliance with a great power before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, but almost all of their attempts ended in failure. Even when the Germanophile Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha directly proposed an alliance on 22 July to the German ambassador in Istanbul, Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim, he was turned down. Kaiser Wilhelm II overruled

Context: Document [12](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies" about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks’ anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks' position brought a conflict with the Germany's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria’s claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December

Context: Document [13](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I. At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. LU flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the CUP to seize control of the government. The Liberal

Context: Document [14](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory. The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port. During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate." On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders

Context: Document [15](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.

Context: Document [16](Title: Assyrian independence movement) Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria) and join them in dividing up the British, Russian and French empires in Asia. In 1914, knowing that it was heading into the war, the Ottoman government passed a law that required the conscription of all young males into the Ottoman army to support the war effort. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in October 1914 by bombarding Russian ports on the Black Sea. In late 1914 and 1915, the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turk regime declared a holy war on the British, French and Russian Empires. Ottoman Turkish army and allied Kurdish, Turcoman,

Context: Document [17](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) 18 January 1919, peace negotiations began with the Paris Peace Conference. The negotiations continued at the Conference of London, but the treaty took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain had been secretly planning the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920, but the treaty was not sent to the Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as the Parliament had been abolished on 18 March 1920 by the British. As a result, the treaty

Context: Document [18](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire) the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play

Context: Document [19](Title: Ottoman wars in Europe) by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I. After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (or in 1358 - disputable due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Süleyman Pasha) which provided it with Gallipoli as a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna (1444) and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). The remaining Greek states fell in 1461 (Despotate of the Morea

Context: Document [20](Title: Yalova Peninsula massacres) the atrocities. Michael Smith claims that Circassian irregulars also took part in the massacres. One of the results was that refugees were transported to Constantinople on ships. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire officially surrendered to the Entente Powers and it had to disband its army. At the peace conference the British and French tried to secure territory for the Kingdom of Greece in Smyrna and its surrounding regions. As a result, the Greek army, with the support of the Entente Powers, invaded Anatolia and occupied Smyrna. The Ottoman government and Turkish nationalists, which included people from all layers

Question: when did the ottoman empire surrender in ww1?

Answer: 1918

Answer: 30 October 1918


Context: Document [1](Title: Eastern Question) Eastern Question was put to rest after World War I, one of the outcomes of which was the collapse and division of the Ottoman holdings. The Eastern Question emerged as the power of the Ottoman Empire began to decline during the 18th century. The Ottomans were at the height of their power in 1683, when they lost the Battle of Vienna to the combined forces of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and Austria, under the command of John III Sobieski. Peace was made much later, in 1699, with the Treaty of Karlowitz, which forced the Ottoman Empire to cede many of its

Context: Document [2](Title: Ottoman wars in Asia) the main problem was the rebel in Yemen which was subdued. Ottoman Empire fought against the Allies in the First World War and was defeated. According to Armistice of Mudros Ottoman Empire accepted the loss of all territories in the Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and most of Iraq. Although Turkey and North Iraq were still under Ottoman rule, soon Allies occupied the Mediterranean coast and North Iraq. They also offered Aegean coast (as well as Thrace) to Greece and eastern Anatolia to newly establiahed Armenia by the Treaty of Sèvres. However the treaty became ineffective during the Turkish

Context: Document [3](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) Enver informed the Quadruple Alliance that they would like to see the 1877 border (Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878)), pointing out that the only Ottomans lost territory and 1877 border was Ottoman territories inhabited by Muslims. Ottomans did not pushed 1877 position too hard, scared to fall back to bilateral agreements. On the other hand, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Bulgaria clearly stood behind on the pulling back the Ottoman and Russian forces from Iran. Ottomans wanted Muslim Iran be under its own control. The ambassador to Berlin, Ibrahim Hakki Pasha, wrote: "Although Russia may be in a weakened state today, it is always

Context: Document [4](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) was never ratified by the Ottoman Empire. The Treaty of Sèvres was annulled in the course of the Turkish War of Independence, and the parties signed and ratified the superseding Treaty of Lausanne in 1923. On 3 March 1924, the Ottoman Caliphate was abolished when Mustafa Kemal Ataturk deposed the last caliph, Abdul Mejid II. Allied military losses are placed between 1,000,000 and 1,500,000 including killed, wounded, captured or missing. This includes 303,000 British Empire and French casualties in Gallipoli, 601,000 British Empire casualties in Sinai-Palestine, at least 140,000 Russian casualties in the Caucasus, and 256,000 British Empire casualties in

Context: Document [5](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) caused by the Ottoman counter-coup of 1909, which preceded the 31 March Incident (Restoration, 1909) and 1912 Ottoman coup d'état ("Saviours") and the 1913 Ottoman coup d'état in the Empire up to World War I. The Ottoman entry into World War I in the Middle Eastern theatre ended with the partition of the Ottoman Empire under the terms of the Treaty of Sèvres. This treaty, as designed in the conference of London, gave a nominal land and permitted the title Ottoman Caliphate (compared with Vatican; a sacerdotal-monarchical state ruled by the Catholic Pope), not to be a further threat but

Context: Document [6](Title: Pax Ottomana) with the period after World War I, when only Asia Minor and Eastern Thrace remained under Turkish rule. The term is derived by analogy from the more common "Pax Romana", "the Roman Peace". Pax Ottomana In historiography, the Pax Ottomana (literally "the Ottoman Peace") or Pax Ottomanica is the economic and social stability attained in the conquered provinces of the Ottoman Empire, which, at the height of the Empire's power during the 16th and 17th centuries, applied to lands in the Balkans, Anatolia, the Middle East, North Africa and the Caucasus. The term is preferred in particular by historians and

Context: Document [7](Title: Ottoman casualties of World War I) by Ottoman and Kurdish armies in 1914 and 1920. Sources have put the death tolls at nearly 750,000. After the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire, for reliability reasons, the data regarding the Muslim casualties had to be collected by region. The records regarding the Muslim civilians were sealed at the time of the Paris Peace Conference, and there is very little literature review on the Muslim millet, compared to Christian millet of the Empire (see: Armenian casualties). One plausible explanation that needs further study may be attributable to productivity patterns of the Muslim millet, which could have dropped beyond sustainable

Context: Document [8](Title: Diplomatic history of World War I) wars, most recently in 1912. The economy was heavily traditional, but with a strong German influence in terms of modernization, especially building railways. In 1914 the Ottoman government in Constantinople took the initiative in supporting the Central Powers. see Ottoman–German alliance Its Army already was under German guidance, especially by General Otto Liman von Sanders. The British expected the alliance with Germany and seized two dreadnoughts under construction that had been paid for by the Ottomans. Negotiations with the Allies went nowhere after the Turks demanded very large concessions. Instead, a secret alliance was made with Germany in early August,

Context: Document [9](Title: Turkish War of Independence) Eastern theatre of World War I to a close. The treaty granted the Allies the right to occupy forts controlling the Straits of the Dardanelles and the Bosporus; and the right to occupy "in case of disorder" any territory in case of a threat to security. Somerset Arthur Gough-Calthorpe—the British signatory of the Mudros Armistice—stated the Triple Entente′s public position that they had no intention to dismantle the government of the Ottoman Empire or place it under military occupation by "occupying Constantinople". However, dismantling the Ottoman government and partitioning the Ottoman Empire among the Allied nations had been an objective

Context: Document [10](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) was based on the arrangements nominally made in the Treaty of Berlin (1878) and the Treaty of San Stefano. According to this arrangement the inspectors general, whose powers and duties constituted the key to the question, were to be named for a period of ten years, and their engagement was not to be revocable during that period. The History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I began with the Ottoman's attack on Russia's Black Sea coast on 29 October 1914. The attack prompted Russia and its allies, Britain and France, to declare war on the Ottoman Empire in November

Context: Document [11](Title: Black Sea Raid) quickly retaliated with naval attacks in the Dardanelles, and the Russians declared war on 2 November, followed by the British and the French three days later. The Ottomans did not officially declare war until 11 November. The Ottomans desperately tried to secure an alliance with a great power before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, but almost all of their attempts ended in failure. Even when the Germanophile Ottoman War Minister Enver Pasha directly proposed an alliance on 22 July to the German ambassador in Istanbul, Hans Freiherr von Wangenheim, he was turned down. Kaiser Wilhelm II overruled

Context: Document [12](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) bay without spreading to Ottomans in a violent. On 3 December the Ottoman foreign minister Ahmed Nesimi Bey informed the "Chamber of Deputies" about the prospects. Chamber discussed the possible outcomes and priorities. On 15 December Armistice between Russia and the Central Powers signed. On 18 December Armistice of Erzincan signed. The Bolsheviks’ anti-imperialist formula of peace with no annexations and no indemnities was close to Ottoman position. The Bolsheviks' position brought a conflict with the Germany's aim to preserve control over the East European lands it occupied and with Bulgaria’s claims on Dobruja and parts of Serbia. In December

Context: Document [13](Title: Dissolution of the Ottoman Empire) cast covetous eyes on this new and largely Islamic state. The young state, however, collapsed within weeks of the outbreak of World War I. At the turn of 1913, the Ottoman Modern Army failed at counterinsurgencies in the periphery of the empire, Libya was lost to Italy, and Balkan war erupted in the fall of 1912. LU flexed its muscles with the forced dissolution of the parliament in 1912. The signs of humiliation of the Balkan wars worked to the advantage of the CUP The cumulative defeats of 1912 enabled the CUP to seize control of the government. The Liberal

Context: Document [14](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) on 18 March 1915 was a set of secret assurances, which Great Britain promised to give the Capital and the Dardanelles to the Russians in the event of victory. The city of Constantinople was intended to be a free port. During 1915, British forces invalidated the Anglo-Ottoman Convention, declaring Kuwait to be an "independent sheikdom under British protectorate." On 10 September 1915, Interior Minister Talat Pasha abolished the "Capitulations". On 10 September 1915 Grand Vizier Said Halim Pasha annulled (Vizer had the authority on annuls) the Capitulations, which ended the special privileges they granted to foreign nationals. The capitulation holders

Context: Document [15](Title: Assyrian independence movement) Austro-Hungarian Empire and Bulgaria) and join them in dividing up the British, Russian and French empires in Asia. In 1914, knowing that it was heading into the war, the Ottoman government passed a law that required the conscription of all young males into the Ottoman army to support the war effort. The Ottoman Empire entered World War I in October 1914 by bombarding Russian ports on the Black Sea. In late 1914 and 1915, the Ottoman Empire under the Young Turk regime declared a holy war on the British, French and Russian Empires. Ottoman Turkish army and allied Kurdish, Turcoman,

Context: Document [16](Title: Middle Eastern theatre of World War I) 18 January 1919, peace negotiations began with the Paris Peace Conference. The negotiations continued at the Conference of London, but the treaty took definite shape only after the premiers' meeting at the San Remo conference in April 1920. France, Italy, and Great Britain had been secretly planning the partitioning of the Ottoman Empire as early as 1915. The Ottoman Government representatives signed the Treaty of Sèvres on 10 August 1920, but the treaty was not sent to the Ottoman Parliament for ratification, as the Parliament had been abolished on 18 March 1920 by the British. As a result, the treaty

Context: Document [17](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire) the Ottoman Empire lost Libya, the Balkan League declared war against the Ottoman Empire. The Empire lost the Balkan Wars (1912–13). It lost its Balkan territories except East Thrace and the historic Ottoman capital city of Adrianople during the war. Some 400,000 Muslims, out of fear of Greek, Serbian or Bulgarian atrocities, left with the retreating Ottoman army. The Baghdad Railway under German control was a proposal to build rail lines into Iraq. The railway was not actually built at this time but its prospect worried the British until that issue was resolved in 1914. The railway did not play

Context: Document [18](Title: Ottoman wars in Europe) by the signing of the Treaty of Sèvres at the close of World War I. After striking a blow to the weakened Byzantine Empire in 1356 (or in 1358 - disputable due to a change in the Byzantine calendar), (see Süleyman Pasha) which provided it with Gallipoli as a basis for operations in Europe, the Ottoman Empire started its westward expansion into the European continent in the middle of the 14th century. Constantinople fell in 1453 after the Battle of Varna (1444) and the Second Battle of Kosovo (1448). The remaining Greek states fell in 1461 (Despotate of the Morea

Context: Document [19](Title: Yalova Peninsula massacres) the atrocities. Michael Smith claims that Circassian irregulars also took part in the massacres. One of the results was that refugees were transported to Constantinople on ships. After World War I, the Ottoman Empire officially surrendered to the Entente Powers and it had to disband its army. At the peace conference the British and French tried to secure territory for the Kingdom of Greece in Smyrna and its surrounding regions. As a result, the Greek army, with the support of the Entente Powers, invaded Anatolia and occupied Smyrna. The Ottoman government and Turkish nationalists, which included people from all layers

Context: Document [20](Title: History of the Ottoman Empire during World War I) On 30 October 1918, the Armistice of Mudros was signed, ending Ottoman involvement in World War 1. The Ottoman public, however, was given misleadingly positive impressions of the severity of the terms of the Armistice. They thought its terms were considerably more lenient than they actually were, a source of discontent later that the Allies had betrayed the offered terms.

Question: when did the ottoman empire surrender in ww1?

Answer: 1918

Answer: 30 October 1918


Context: Document [1](Title: Electron transport chain) The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

Context: Document [2](Title: Reactive oxygen species) chain. In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed through a series of proteins via oxidation-reduction reactions, with each acceptor protein along the chain having a greater reduction potential than the previous. The last destination for an electron along this chain is an oxygen molecule. In normal conditions, the oxygen is reduced to produce water; however, in about 0.1–2% of electrons passing through the chain (this number derives from studies in isolated mitochondria, though the exact rate in live organisms is yet to be fully agreed upon), oxygen is instead prematurely and incompletely reduced to give the superoxide radical (),

Context: Document [3](Title: Electron transport chain) aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in

Context: Document [4](Title: Electron transport chain) to the acceptor through another electron transport chain. Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in "all" photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial "Complex III". Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction. Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation

Context: Document [5](Title: Electron transport chain) can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are "branched", "modular", and "inducible". In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to "create" a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor

Context: Document [6](Title: Electron transport chain) pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. This entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many

Context: Document [7](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by quantum tunnelling, which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m. Many catabolic biochemical processes, such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and beta oxidation, produce the reduced coenzyme NADH. This coenzyme contains electrons that have a high transfer potential; in other words, they will release a large amount of energy upon oxidation. However, the cell does not release this energy all at once, as this would be an uncontrollable reaction. Instead, the electrons are

Context: Document [8](Title: Chlorophyll a) electron transport chain. These two systems are different in their redox potentials for one-electron oxidation. The E for P700 is approximately 500mV, while the E for P680 is approximately 1,100-1,200 mV. Chlorophyll "a" is very important in the energy phase of photosynthesis. Two electrons need to be passed to an electron acceptor for the process of photosynthesis to proceed. Within the reaction centers of both photosystems there are a pair of chlorophyll "a" molecules that pass electrons on to the transport chain through redox reactions. Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll "a" is a specific form of chlorophyll used in oxygenic photosynthesis. It

Context: Document [9](Title: Anoxygenic photosynthesis) transport chain, proteins such as halorhodopsin capture light energy with the aid of diterpenes to move ions against the gradient and produce ATP via chemiosmosis in the manner of mitochondria. There are two main types of anaerobic photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria. The type I reaction centers found in GSB, Chloracidobacterium, and Heliobacteria and the type II reaction centers found in FAPs and Purple Bacteria Type I Reaction Centers The electron transport chain of green sulfur bacteria — such as is present in model organism "Chlorobaculum tepidum" — uses the reaction centre bacteriochlorophyll pair, P840. When light is absorbed

Context: Document [10](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) removed from NADH and passed to oxygen through a series of enzymes that each release a small amount of the energy. This set of enzymes, consisting of complexes I through IV, is called the electron transport chain and is found in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Succinate is also oxidized by the electron transport chain, but feeds into the pathway at a different point. In eukaryotes, the enzymes in this electron transport system use the energy released from the oxidation of NADH to pump protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. This causes protons to build up in

Context: Document [11](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by

Context: Document [12](Title: Electron transport chain) steps. A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging. Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase

Context: Document [13](Title: Electron transport chain) ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water. Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain: In "Complex I" (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; ), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus

Context: Document [14](Title: Adenosine diphosphate) electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 through electron carriers. The energy released when electrons are passed from higher-energy NADH or FADH2 to the lower-energy O2 is required to phosphorylate ADP and once again generate ATP. It is this energy coupling and phosphorylation of ADP to ATP that gives the electron transport chain the name oxidative phosphorylation. During the initial phases of glycolysis and the TCA cycle, cofactors such as NAD+ donate and accept electrons that aid in the electron transport chain's ability to produce a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The ATP synthase complex exists within the

Context: Document [15](Title: Mitochondrion) of FADH) that are a source of electrons for the "electron transport chain", and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP). The redox energy from NADH and FADH is transferred to oxygen (O) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle. Protein complexes in the inner

Context: Document [16](Title: Electron transport chain) and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy. In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate. Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD/NADH redox pair and the O/HO redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O

Context: Document [17](Title: Crista) molecules of water (HO). By accepting the electrons, oxygen allows the electron transport chain to continue functioning. The electrons from each NADH molecule can form a total of 3 ATP's from ADPs and phosphate groups through the electron transport chain, while each FADH molecule can produce a total of 2 ATPs. As a result, 10 NADH molecules (from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle), along with 2 FADH molecules, can form a total of 34 ATPs during aerobic respiration (from a single electron transport chain). This means that combined with the Krebs Cycle and glycolysis, the efficiency for the electron transport

Context: Document [18](Title: Photosynthetic reaction centre) pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light-harvesting complex, they release two electrons into an electron transport chain. Light is made up of small bundles of energy called photons. If a photon with the right amount of energy hits an electron, it will raise the electron to a higher energy level. Electrons are most stable at their lowest energy level, what is also called its ground state. In this state, the electron is in the orbit that has the least amount of energy. Electrons in higher energy levels can return to ground state in a

Context: Document [19](Title: Electron transport chain) proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of "reverse electron transport" is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is NADH → "Complex I" → Q → "Complex III" → cytochrome "c" → "Complex IV" → O where "Complexes I, III" and" IV" are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome "c" are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen. In prokaryotes (bacteria

Context: Document [20](Title: Chlorophyll) electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron,

Question: where does the electron transport chain get its electrons from?

Answer: electron donors

Answer: donor molecule


Context: Document [1](Title: Reactive oxygen species) chain. In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed through a series of proteins via oxidation-reduction reactions, with each acceptor protein along the chain having a greater reduction potential than the previous. The last destination for an electron along this chain is an oxygen molecule. In normal conditions, the oxygen is reduced to produce water; however, in about 0.1–2% of electrons passing through the chain (this number derives from studies in isolated mitochondria, though the exact rate in live organisms is yet to be fully agreed upon), oxygen is instead prematurely and incompletely reduced to give the superoxide radical (),

Context: Document [2](Title: Electron transport chain) aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in

Context: Document [3](Title: Electron transport chain) to the acceptor through another electron transport chain. Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in "all" photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial "Complex III". Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction. Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation

Context: Document [4](Title: Electron transport chain) can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are "branched", "modular", and "inducible". In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to "create" a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor

Context: Document [5](Title: Electron transport chain) The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

Context: Document [6](Title: Electron transport chain) pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. This entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many

Context: Document [7](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by quantum tunnelling, which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m. Many catabolic biochemical processes, such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and beta oxidation, produce the reduced coenzyme NADH. This coenzyme contains electrons that have a high transfer potential; in other words, they will release a large amount of energy upon oxidation. However, the cell does not release this energy all at once, as this would be an uncontrollable reaction. Instead, the electrons are

Context: Document [8](Title: Chlorophyll a) electron transport chain. These two systems are different in their redox potentials for one-electron oxidation. The E for P700 is approximately 500mV, while the E for P680 is approximately 1,100-1,200 mV. Chlorophyll "a" is very important in the energy phase of photosynthesis. Two electrons need to be passed to an electron acceptor for the process of photosynthesis to proceed. Within the reaction centers of both photosystems there are a pair of chlorophyll "a" molecules that pass electrons on to the transport chain through redox reactions. Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll "a" is a specific form of chlorophyll used in oxygenic photosynthesis. It

Context: Document [9](Title: Anoxygenic photosynthesis) transport chain, proteins such as halorhodopsin capture light energy with the aid of diterpenes to move ions against the gradient and produce ATP via chemiosmosis in the manner of mitochondria. There are two main types of anaerobic photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria. The type I reaction centers found in GSB, Chloracidobacterium, and Heliobacteria and the type II reaction centers found in FAPs and Purple Bacteria Type I Reaction Centers The electron transport chain of green sulfur bacteria — such as is present in model organism "Chlorobaculum tepidum" — uses the reaction centre bacteriochlorophyll pair, P840. When light is absorbed

Context: Document [10](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) removed from NADH and passed to oxygen through a series of enzymes that each release a small amount of the energy. This set of enzymes, consisting of complexes I through IV, is called the electron transport chain and is found in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Succinate is also oxidized by the electron transport chain, but feeds into the pathway at a different point. In eukaryotes, the enzymes in this electron transport system use the energy released from the oxidation of NADH to pump protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. This causes protons to build up in

Context: Document [11](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by

Context: Document [12](Title: Electron transport chain) steps. A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging. Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase

Context: Document [13](Title: Electron transport chain) ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water. Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain: In "Complex I" (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; ), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus

Context: Document [14](Title: Adenosine diphosphate) electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 through electron carriers. The energy released when electrons are passed from higher-energy NADH or FADH2 to the lower-energy O2 is required to phosphorylate ADP and once again generate ATP. It is this energy coupling and phosphorylation of ADP to ATP that gives the electron transport chain the name oxidative phosphorylation. During the initial phases of glycolysis and the TCA cycle, cofactors such as NAD+ donate and accept electrons that aid in the electron transport chain's ability to produce a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The ATP synthase complex exists within the

Context: Document [15](Title: Mitochondrion) of FADH) that are a source of electrons for the "electron transport chain", and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP). The redox energy from NADH and FADH is transferred to oxygen (O) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle. Protein complexes in the inner

Context: Document [16](Title: Electron transport chain) and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy. In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate. Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD/NADH redox pair and the O/HO redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O

Context: Document [17](Title: Crista) molecules of water (HO). By accepting the electrons, oxygen allows the electron transport chain to continue functioning. The electrons from each NADH molecule can form a total of 3 ATP's from ADPs and phosphate groups through the electron transport chain, while each FADH molecule can produce a total of 2 ATPs. As a result, 10 NADH molecules (from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle), along with 2 FADH molecules, can form a total of 34 ATPs during aerobic respiration (from a single electron transport chain). This means that combined with the Krebs Cycle and glycolysis, the efficiency for the electron transport

Context: Document [18](Title: Photosynthetic reaction centre) pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light-harvesting complex, they release two electrons into an electron transport chain. Light is made up of small bundles of energy called photons. If a photon with the right amount of energy hits an electron, it will raise the electron to a higher energy level. Electrons are most stable at their lowest energy level, what is also called its ground state. In this state, the electron is in the orbit that has the least amount of energy. Electrons in higher energy levels can return to ground state in a

Context: Document [19](Title: Electron transport chain) proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of "reverse electron transport" is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is NADH → "Complex I" → Q → "Complex III" → cytochrome "c" → "Complex IV" → O where "Complexes I, III" and" IV" are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome "c" are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen. In prokaryotes (bacteria

Context: Document [20](Title: Chlorophyll) electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron,

Question: where does the electron transport chain get its electrons from?

Answer: electron donors

Answer: donor molecule


Context: Document [1](Title: Reactive oxygen species) chain. In the electron transport chain, electrons are passed through a series of proteins via oxidation-reduction reactions, with each acceptor protein along the chain having a greater reduction potential than the previous. The last destination for an electron along this chain is an oxygen molecule. In normal conditions, the oxygen is reduced to produce water; however, in about 0.1–2% of electrons passing through the chain (this number derives from studies in isolated mitochondria, though the exact rate in live organisms is yet to be fully agreed upon), oxygen is instead prematurely and incompletely reduced to give the superoxide radical (),

Context: Document [2](Title: Electron transport chain) aerobic respiration is molecular oxygen although a variety of acceptors other than oxygen such as sulfate exist in anaerobic respiration. Electron transport chains are used for extracting energy via redox reactions from sunlight in photosynthesis or, such as in the case of the oxidation of sugars, cellular respiration. In eukaryotes, an important electron transport chain is found in the inner mitochondrial membrane where it serves as the site of oxidative phosphorylation through the action of ATP synthase. It is also found in the thylakoid membrane of the chloroplast in photosynthetic eukaryotes. In bacteria, the electron transport chain is located in

Context: Document [3](Title: Electron transport chain) to the acceptor through another electron transport chain. Photosynthetic electron transport chains have many similarities to the oxidative chains discussed above. They use mobile, lipid-soluble carriers (quinones) and mobile, water-soluble carriers (cytochromes, etc.). They also contain a proton pump. It is remarkable that the proton pump in "all" photosynthetic chains resembles mitochondrial "Complex III". Photosynthetic electron transport chains are discussed in greater detail in the articles Photophosphorylation, Photosynthesis, Photosynthetic reaction center and Light-dependent reaction. Electron transport chains are redox reactions that transfer electrons from an electron donor to an electron acceptor. The transfer of electrons is coupled to the translocation

Context: Document [4](Title: Electron transport chain) can synthesize different transmembrane complexes and produce different electron transport chains in their cell membranes. Bacteria select their electron transport chains from a DNA library containing multiple possible dehydrogenases, terminal oxidases and terminal reductases. The situation is often summarized by saying that electron transport chains in bacteria are "branched", "modular", and "inducible". In oxidative phosphorylation, electrons are transferred from a low-energy electron donor (e.g., NADH) to an acceptor (e.g., O) through an electron transport chain. In photophosphorylation, the energy of sunlight is used to "create" a high-energy electron donor and an electron acceptor. Electrons are then transferred from the donor

Context: Document [5](Title: Electron transport chain) pass electrons to a more electronegative acceptor, which in turn donates these electrons to another acceptor, a process that continues down the series until electrons are passed to oxygen, the most electronegative and terminal electron acceptor in the chain. Passage of electrons between donor and acceptor releases energy, which is used to generate a proton gradient across the mitochondrial membrane by actively "pumping" protons into the intermembrane space, producing a thermodynamic state that has the potential to do work. This entire process is called oxidative phosphorylation, since ADP is phosphorylated to ATP using the energy of hydrogen oxidation in many

Context: Document [6](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) serve solely to transport electrons through proteins. Electrons move quite long distances through proteins by hopping along chains of these cofactors. This occurs by quantum tunnelling, which is rapid over distances of less than 1.4 m. Many catabolic biochemical processes, such as glycolysis, the citric acid cycle, and beta oxidation, produce the reduced coenzyme NADH. This coenzyme contains electrons that have a high transfer potential; in other words, they will release a large amount of energy upon oxidation. However, the cell does not release this energy all at once, as this would be an uncontrollable reaction. Instead, the electrons are

Context: Document [7](Title: Chlorophyll a) electron transport chain. These two systems are different in their redox potentials for one-electron oxidation. The E for P700 is approximately 500mV, while the E for P680 is approximately 1,100-1,200 mV. Chlorophyll "a" is very important in the energy phase of photosynthesis. Two electrons need to be passed to an electron acceptor for the process of photosynthesis to proceed. Within the reaction centers of both photosystems there are a pair of chlorophyll "a" molecules that pass electrons on to the transport chain through redox reactions. Chlorophyll a Chlorophyll "a" is a specific form of chlorophyll used in oxygenic photosynthesis. It

Context: Document [8](Title: Anoxygenic photosynthesis) transport chain, proteins such as halorhodopsin capture light energy with the aid of diterpenes to move ions against the gradient and produce ATP via chemiosmosis in the manner of mitochondria. There are two main types of anaerobic photosynthetic electron transport chains in bacteria. The type I reaction centers found in GSB, Chloracidobacterium, and Heliobacteria and the type II reaction centers found in FAPs and Purple Bacteria Type I Reaction Centers The electron transport chain of green sulfur bacteria — such as is present in model organism "Chlorobaculum tepidum" — uses the reaction centre bacteriochlorophyll pair, P840. When light is absorbed

Context: Document [9](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) removed from NADH and passed to oxygen through a series of enzymes that each release a small amount of the energy. This set of enzymes, consisting of complexes I through IV, is called the electron transport chain and is found in the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. Succinate is also oxidized by the electron transport chain, but feeds into the pathway at a different point. In eukaryotes, the enzymes in this electron transport system use the energy released from the oxidation of NADH to pump protons across the inner membrane of the mitochondrion. This causes protons to build up in

Context: Document [10](Title: Electron transport chain) The electron transport chain consists of a spatially separated series of redox reactions in which electrons are transferred from a donor molecule to an acceptor molecule. The underlying force driving these reactions is the Gibbs free energy of the reactants and products. The Gibbs free energy is the energy available ("free") to do work. Any reaction that decreases the overall Gibbs free energy of a system is thermodynamically spontaneous.

Context: Document [11](Title: Oxidative phosphorylation) passing electrons from donors to acceptors, and transporting protons across a membrane. These processes use both soluble and protein-bound transfer molecules. In mitochondria, electrons are transferred within the intermembrane space by the water-soluble electron transfer protein cytochrome c. This carries only electrons, and these are transferred by the reduction and oxidation of an iron atom that the protein holds within a heme group in its structure. Cytochrome c is also found in some bacteria, where it is located within the periplasmic space. Within the inner mitochondrial membrane, the lipid-soluble electron carrier coenzyme Q10 (Q) carries both electrons and protons by

Context: Document [12](Title: Electron transport chain) steps. A small percentage of electrons do not complete the whole series and instead directly leak to oxygen, resulting in the formation of the free-radical superoxide, a highly reactive molecule that contributes to oxidative stress and has been implicated in a number of diseases and aging. Energy obtained through the transfer of electrons down the ETC is used to pump protons from the mitochondrial matrix into the intermembrane space, creating an electrochemical proton gradient (ΔpH) across the inner mitochondrial membrane (IMM). This proton gradient is largely but not exclusively responsible for the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). It allows ATP synthase

Context: Document [13](Title: Electron transport chain) ions to reduce molecular oxygen to water. Four membrane-bound complexes have been identified in mitochondria. Each is an extremely complex transmembrane structure that is embedded in the inner membrane. Three of them are proton pumps. The structures are electrically connected by lipid-soluble electron carriers and water-soluble electron carriers. The overall electron transport chain: In "Complex I" (NADH:ubiquinone oxidoreductase, NADH-CoQ reductase, or NADH dehydrogenase; ), two electrons are removed from NADH and ultimately transferred to a lipid-soluble carrier, ubiquinone (UQ). The reduced product, ubiquinol (UQH), freely diffuses within the membrane, and Complex I translocates four protons (H) across the membrane, thus

Context: Document [14](Title: Adenosine diphosphate) electrons from NADH or FADH2 to O2 through electron carriers. The energy released when electrons are passed from higher-energy NADH or FADH2 to the lower-energy O2 is required to phosphorylate ADP and once again generate ATP. It is this energy coupling and phosphorylation of ADP to ATP that gives the electron transport chain the name oxidative phosphorylation. During the initial phases of glycolysis and the TCA cycle, cofactors such as NAD+ donate and accept electrons that aid in the electron transport chain's ability to produce a proton gradient across the inner mitochondrial membrane. The ATP synthase complex exists within the

Context: Document [15](Title: Mitochondrion) of FADH) that are a source of electrons for the "electron transport chain", and a molecule of GTP (that is readily converted to an ATP). The redox energy from NADH and FADH is transferred to oxygen (O) in several steps via the electron transport chain. These energy-rich molecules are produced within the matrix via the citric acid cycle but are also produced in the cytoplasm by glycolysis. Reducing equivalents from the cytoplasm can be imported via the malate-aspartate shuttle system of antiporter proteins or feed into the electron transport chain using a glycerol phosphate shuttle. Protein complexes in the inner

Context: Document [16](Title: Electron transport chain) and inorganic. If oxygen is available, it is invariably used as the terminal electron acceptor, because it generates the greatest Gibbs free energy change and produces the most energy. In anaerobic environments, different electron acceptors are used, including nitrate, nitrite, ferric iron, sulfate, carbon dioxide, and small organic molecules such as fumarate. Since electron transport chains are redox processes, they can be described as the sum of two redox pairs. For example, the mitochondrial electron transport chain can be described as the sum of the NAD/NADH redox pair and the O/HO redox pair. NADH is the electron donor and O

Context: Document [17](Title: Crista) molecules of water (HO). By accepting the electrons, oxygen allows the electron transport chain to continue functioning. The electrons from each NADH molecule can form a total of 3 ATP's from ADPs and phosphate groups through the electron transport chain, while each FADH molecule can produce a total of 2 ATPs. As a result, 10 NADH molecules (from glycolysis and the Krebs cycle), along with 2 FADH molecules, can form a total of 34 ATPs during aerobic respiration (from a single electron transport chain). This means that combined with the Krebs Cycle and glycolysis, the efficiency for the electron transport

Context: Document [18](Title: Photosynthetic reaction centre) pigment molecules, or passed to them by resonance transfer from a surrounding light-harvesting complex, they release two electrons into an electron transport chain. Light is made up of small bundles of energy called photons. If a photon with the right amount of energy hits an electron, it will raise the electron to a higher energy level. Electrons are most stable at their lowest energy level, what is also called its ground state. In this state, the electron is in the orbit that has the least amount of energy. Electrons in higher energy levels can return to ground state in a

Context: Document [19](Title: Electron transport chain) proton gradient). ATP synthase is also readily reversible. Thus ATP can be used to build a proton gradient, which in turn can be used to make NADH. This process of "reverse electron transport" is important in many prokaryotic electron transport chains. In eukaryotes, NADH is the most important electron donor. The associated electron transport chain is NADH → "Complex I" → Q → "Complex III" → cytochrome "c" → "Complex IV" → O where "Complexes I, III" and" IV" are proton pumps, while Q and cytochrome "c" are mobile electron carriers. The electron acceptor is molecular oxygen. In prokaryotes (bacteria

Context: Document [20](Title: Chlorophyll) electron to a series of molecular intermediates called an electron transport chain. The charged reaction center of chlorophyll (P680) is then reduced back to its ground state by accepting an electron stripped from water. The electron that reduces P680 ultimately comes from the oxidation of water into O and H through several intermediates. This reaction is how photosynthetic organisms such as plants produce O gas, and is the source for practically all the O in Earth's atmosphere. Photosystem I typically works in series with Photosystem II; thus the P700 of Photosystem I is usually reduced as it accepts the electron,

Question: where does the electron transport chain get its electrons from?

Answer: electron donors

Answer: donor molecule