Towards Multimodal Understanding of Passenger-Vehicle Interactions in Autonomous Vehicles: Intent/Slot Recognition Utilizing Audio-Visual Data

Understanding passenger intents from spoken interactions and car's vision (both inside and outside the vehicle) are important building blocks towards developing contextual dialog systems for natural interactions in autonomous vehicles (AV). In this study, we continued exploring AMIE (Automated-vehicle Multimodal In-cabin Experience), the in-cabin agent responsible for handling certain multimodal passenger-vehicle interactions. When the passengers give instructions to AMIE, the agent should parse such commands properly considering available three modalities (language/text, audio, video) and trigger the appropriate functionality of the AV system. We had collected a multimodal in-cabin dataset with multi-turn dialogues between the passengers and AMIE using a Wizard-of-Oz scheme via realistic scavenger hunt game. In our previous explorations, we experimented with various RNN-based models to detect utterance-level intents (set destination, change route, go faster, go slower, stop, park, pull over, drop off, open door, and others) along with intent keywords and relevant slots (location, position/direction, object, gesture/gaze, time-guidance, person) associated with the action to be performed in our AV scenarios. In this recent work, we propose to discuss the benefits of multimodal understanding of in-cabin utterances by incorporating verbal/language input (text and speech embeddings) together with the non-verbal/acoustic and visual input from inside and outside the vehicle (i.e., passenger gestures and gaze from in-cabin video stream, referred objects outside of the vehicle from the road view camera stream). Our experimental results outperformed text-only baselines and with multimodality, we achieved improved performances for utterance-level intent detection and slot filling.

section_name: Introduction
paragraphs: Understanding passenger intents from spoken interactions and car's vision (both inside and outside the vehicle) are important building blocks towards developing contextual dialog systems for natural interactions in autonomous vehicles (AV). In this study, we continued exploring AMIE (Automated-vehicle Multimodal In-cabin Experience), the in-cabin agent responsible for handling certain multimodal passenger-vehicle interactions. When the passengers give instructions to AMIE, the agent should parse such commands properly considering available three modalities (language/text, audio, video) and trigger the appropriate functionality of the AV system. We had collected a multimodal in-cabin dataset with multi-turn dialogues between the passengers and AMIE using a Wizard-of-Oz scheme via realistic scavenger hunt game. In our previous explorations BIBREF0, BIBREF1, we experimented with various RNN-based models to detect utterance-level intents (set destination, change route, go faster, go slower, stop, park, pull over, drop off, open door, and others) along with intent keywords and relevant slots (location, position/direction, object, gesture/gaze, time-guidance, person) associated with the action to be performed in our AV scenarios. In this recent work, we propose to discuss the benefits of multimodal understanding of in-cabin utterances by incorporating verbal/language input (text and speech embeddings) together with the non-verbal/acoustic and visual input from inside and outside the vehicle (i.e., passenger gestures and gaze from in-cabin video stream, referred objects outside of the vehicle from the road view camera stream). Our experimental results outperformed text-only baselines and with multimodality, we achieved improved performances for utterance-level intent detection and slot filling.
section_name: Methodology
paragraphs: We explored leveraging multimodality for the NLU module in the SDS pipeline. As our AMIE in-cabin dataset has video and audio recordings, we investigated 3 modalities for the NLU: text, audio, and video. For text (language) modality, our previous work BIBREF1 presents the details of our best-performing Hierarchical & Joint Bi-LSTM models BIBREF3, BIBREF4, BIBREF5, BIBREF6 (H-Joint-2, see SECREF5) and the results for utterance-level intent recognition and word-level slot filling via transcribed and recognized (ASR output) textual data, using word embeddings (GloVe BIBREF7) as features. This study explores the following multimodal features:
Speech Embeddings: We incorporated pre-trained speech embeddings (Speech2Vec BIBREF8) as features, trained on a corpus of 500 hours of speech from LibriSpeech. Speech2Vec is considered as a speech version of Word2Vec BIBREF9 which is compared with Word2Vec vectors trained on the transcript of the same speech corpus. We experimented with concatenating word and speech embeddings by using pre-trained GloVe embeddings (6B tokens, 400K vocab, dim=100), Speech2Vec embeddings (37.6K vocab, dim=100), and its Word2Vec counterpart (37.6K vocab, dim=100).
Audio Features: Using openSMILE BIBREF10, 1582 audio features are extracted for each utterance using the segmented audio clips from in-cabin AMIE dataset. These are the INTERSPEECH 2010 Paralinguistic Challenge features (IS10) including PCM loudness, MFCC, log Mel Freq. Band, LSP, etc. BIBREF11.
Video Features: Using the feature extraction process described in BIBREF12, we extracted intermediate CNN features for each segmented video clip from AMIE dataset. For any given input video clip (segmented for each utterance), one frame per second is sampled and its visual descriptor is extracted from the activations of the intermediate convolution layers of a pre-trained CNN. We used the pre-trained Inception-ResNet-v2 model BIBREF13 and generated 4096-dim features for each sample. We experimented with adding 2 sources of visual information: (i) cabin/passenger view from the BackDriver RGB camera recordings, (ii) road/outside view from the DashCam RGB video streams.
section_name: Experimental Results
paragraphs: For incorporating speech embeddings experiments, performance results of NLU models on in-cabin data with various feature concatenations can be found in Table TABREF3, using our previous hierarchical joint model (H-Joint-2). When used in isolation, Word2Vec and Speech2Vec achieves comparable performances, which cannot reach GloVe performance. This was expected as the pre-trained Speech2Vec vectors have lower vocabulary coverage than GloVe. Yet, we observed that concatenating GloVe + Speech2Vec, and further GloVe + Word2Vec + Speech2Vec yields better NLU results: F1-score increased from 0.89 to 0.91 for intent recognition, from 0.96 to 0.97 for slot filling.
For multimodal (audio & video) features exploration, performance results of the compared models with varying modality/feature concatenations can be found in Table TABREF4. Since these audio/video features are extracted per utterance (on segmented audio & video clips), we experimented with the utterance-level intent recognition task only, using hierarchical joint learning (H-Joint-2). We investigated the audio-visual feature additions on top of text-only and text+speech embedding models. Adding openSMILE/IS10 features from audio, as well as incorporating intermediate CNN/Inception-ResNet-v2 features from video brought slight improvements to our intent models, reaching 0.92 F1-score. These initial results using feature concatenations may need further explorations, especially for certain intent-types such as stop (audio intensity) or relevant slots such as passenger gestures/gaze (from cabin video) and outside objects (from road video).
section_name: Conclusion
paragraphs: In this study, we present our initial explorations towards multimodal understanding of passenger utterances in autonomous vehicles. We briefly show that our experimental results outperformed certain baselines and with multimodality, we achieved improved overall F1-scores of 0.92 for utterance-level intent detection and 0.97 for word-level slot filling. This ongoing research has a potential impact of exploring real-world challenges with human-vehicle-scene interactions for autonomous driving support with spoken utterances.
section_name: Appendices
paragraphs: AMIE In-cabin Dataset: We obtained 1331 utterances having commands to AMIE agent from our in-cabin dataset. Annotation results for utterance-level intent types, slots and intent keywords can be found in Table TABREF7 and Table TABREF8.
Hierarchical & Joint Model (H-Joint-2): 2-level hierarchical joint learning model that detects/extracts intent keywords & slots using seq2seq Bi-LSTMs first (Level-1), then only the words that are predicted as intent keywords & valid slots are fed into Joint-2 model (Level-2), which is another seq2seq Bi-LSTM network for utterance-level intent detection (jointly trained with slots & intent keywords) BIBREF1.

Questions and Answers:
question: By how much is performance improved with multimodality?
answers: answer: unanswerable: no
free_form_answer: by 2.3-6.8 points in f1 score for intent recognition and 0.8-3.5 for slot filling
evidence: FLOAT SELECTED: Table 1: Speech Embeddings Experiments: Precision/Recall/F1-scores (%) of NLU Models
answer: unanswerable: no
free_form_answer: F1 score increased from 0.89 to 0.92
evidence: For incorporating speech embeddings experiments, performance results of NLU models on in-cabin data with various feature concatenations can be found in Table TABREF3, using our previous hierarchical joint model (H-Joint-2). When used in isolation, Word2Vec and Speech2Vec achieves comparable performances, which cannot reach GloVe performance. This was expected as the pre-trained Speech2Vec vectors have lower vocabulary coverage than GloVe. Yet, we observed that concatenating GloVe + Speech2Vec, and further GloVe + Word2Vec + Speech2Vec yields better NLU results: F1-score increased from 0.89 to 0.91 for intent recognition, from 0.96 to 0.97 for slot filling.
For multimodal (audio & video) features exploration, performance results of the compared models with varying modality/feature concatenations can be found in Table TABREF4. Since these audio/video features are extracted per utterance (on segmented audio & video clips), we experimented with the utterance-level intent recognition task only, using hierarchical joint learning (H-Joint-2). We investigated the audio-visual feature additions on top of text-only and text+speech embedding models. Adding openSMILE/IS10 features from audio, as well as incorporating intermediate CNN/Inception-ResNet-v2 features from video brought slight improvements to our intent models, reaching 0.92 F1-score. These initial results using feature concatenations may need further explorations, especially for certain intent-types such as stop (audio intensity) or relevant slots such as passenger gestures/gaze (from cabin video) and outside objects (from road video).
question: Is collected multimodal in cabin dataset public?
answers: answer: unanswerable: yes
answer: unanswerable: no
yes_no: no
evidence: We explored leveraging multimodality for the NLU module in the SDS pipeline. As our AMIE in-cabin dataset has video and audio recordings, we investigated 3 modalities for the NLU: text, audio, and video. For text (language) modality, our previous work BIBREF1 presents the details of our best-performing Hierarchical & Joint Bi-LSTM models BIBREF3, BIBREF4, BIBREF5, BIBREF6 (H-Joint-2, see SECREF5) and the results for utterance-level intent recognition and word-level slot filling via transcribed and recognized (ASR output) textual data, using word embeddings (GloVe BIBREF7) as features. This study explores the following multimodal features:

Figure and Table Captions:
caption: Table 1: Speech Embeddings Experiments: Precision/Recall/F1-scores (%) of NLU Models
caption: Table 2: Multimodal (Audio & Video) Features Exploration: Precision/Recall/F1-scores (%) of Intent Recognition
caption: Table 3: AMIE In-cabin Dataset Statistics: Intents
caption: Table 4: AMIE In-cabin Dataset Statistics: Slots