bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Of Age
Authors: Clarke Frances M. , Plant Rebecca Jo 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Enormous numbers of boys and youths served in the American Civil War. The first book to arrive at a careful estimate, Of Age argues that underage enlistees comprised roughly 10 percent of the Union army and likely a similar proportion of Confederate forces. Their importance extended beyond sheer numbers. Boys who enlisted without consent deprived parents of badly needed labor and income to which they were legally entitled, setting off struggles between households and the military. As the contest over underage enlistees became a referendum on the growing centralization of military and political power, it was the United States, more than the Confederacy, that fought tooth and nail to retain this valuable cohort. How far could the federal government breach the sanctity of the household when the nation’s very survival was at stake? Should military officers bow to the will of local and state judges? And what form should the military take to ensure victory while remaining true to the nation’s republican principles? As they detail how Americans grappled with these questions, Clarke and Plant introduce readers to common but largely unknown wartime scenarios—parents chasing after regiments to recover their sons, state judges defying the federal government by discharging boys, and recently enslaved African American youths swept up by Union recruiters. Examining the phenomenon from multiple perspectives—legal, military, medical, social, political, and cultural—Of Age demonstrates why underage enlistment is such an important lens for understanding the Civil War and its transformative effects.
Introduction
Authors: Clarke Frances M. , Plant Rebecca Jo 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
For all that has been written about the American Civil War, historians have not previously recognized the scale or significance of underage enlistment. Nor have they appreciated how underage enlistees provoked political and legal conflicts that raised fundamental questions about the proper scope of federal and military power. In fact, enormous numbers of boys and underage youths served in the military throughout the American Civil War; they constituted around 10 percent of all Union soldiers, and probably a similar proportion of Confederate soldiers. Calling attention to the vast numbers of underage enlistees, however, is the beginning rather than the end of our inquiry. By approaching the phenomenon from multiple perspectives—legal, military, medical, social, political, and cultural—we show why underage enlistment is a crucial lens for understanding the Civil War and the nineteenth-century United States more broadly.
A Great Inconvenience
Authors: Clarke Frances M. , Plant Rebecca Jo 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Between the War of 1812 and the Civil War, a struggle to free the US military from judicial interference played out mainly as a fight over enlisted minors. Most legal authorities in this period accepted the principle of concurrent jurisdiction, meaning that both state and federal courts could hear cases involving federal detainees, including those serving in the US military. State and local judges routinely discharged youths whom they determined had lied about their age or failed to obtain parental consent. Such cases typically arose when parents sought a writ of habeas corpus, claiming that the military had illegally detained their son. Some courts ruled against parents, arguing that the new nation needed a strong federal government and national military. But most sided with parents and guardians, upholding their rights over minor children while asserting the jurisdictional claims of lower-level courts.
Instructive Violence
Authors: Clarke Frances M. , Plant Rebecca Jo 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
While fretting constantly about their sons’ physical health, Civil War–era parents showed remarkably little apprehension over how young enlistees might be affected by witnessing or perpetrating violence. The reasons why become clearer upon examining antebellum children’s literature. Even when addressing the most immature of readers, writers interspersed scenes of death and brutal carnage amid their moral and educational messages. Such vivid depictions of violence, they believed, would cement important lessons in young minds by making them easier to recall. Authors also helped to prepare youthful male readers for war by regaling them with martial exploits, instructing them in military nomenclature, and portraying boys in uniform performing heroic acts. The ubiquity of such content helps to explain why so many boys wanted to enlist, and why so many Americans of all socioeconomic classes accepted or even celebrated their attempts to enter the ranks.
A War Fought by Boys
Authors: Clarke Frances M. , Plant Rebecca Jo 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In the late nineteenth century, Americans celebrated white boy soldiers who had fought on both sides of the Civil War. Beginning in the 1880s, former underage soldiers began inserting themselves into the historical narrative. A large number wrote memoirs, and many more claimed the mantle of “youngest boy” to have served. Depictions of the Civil War as a “boys’ war” downplayed the conflict’s political importance, helping to promote a national memory of the Civil War based on white male heroism that could overcome lingering sectional tensions. Such narratives also aimed to teach boys the stalwart virtues, which seemed increasingly imperative in a new age of rising class conflict, overseas imperialism, Social Darwinism, and growing concerns over the socialization of male youth. Gone were the wartime images of fresh-faced, angelic soldier boys; instead, the Civil War’s boy soldiers were recast as adventuresome and fearless youths who exemplified American manhood.
The Sorrowful Age of Presence
Authors: Ghobadzadeh Naser 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The words and deeds of the twelve infallible Imāms are part of the authoritative texts of Twelver Shīʿism that have played a determining role in shaping Shīʿī political theology. The Shīʿa present a narrative about the political behavior of the infallible Imāms that is coherent, uniform, and, of course, purposeful. This chapter argues that in contrast to this narration, the political behavior of the infallible Imāms in their interactions with government institutions was not uniform, and no single model can be inferred from it. While the first three Imāms actively sought to rule the caliphate, the subsequent Imāms refused to make any attempt to gain political power. The political behavior of the Shīʿa from the time of the fourth Imām onward can be explained by the concept of theocratic secularism. While the Shīʿa maintained their claim to the caliphate, they did not take any concrete action to threaten the government, considering their own acquisition of rulership dependent on the appearance of the promised savior. However, this version of theocratic secularism had an element of instability, in the sense that there was lively hope and expectation in the lifetime of every infallible Imām that he would be the one to rise up and implement the ideal Shīʿī government.
The Political Economy of the Eurozone’s Post-Crisis Growth Model
Authors: Johnston Alison , Matthijs Matthias 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Using the Eurozone as a case study, this chapter provides an IPE account of how power struggles within international institutions can change the growth models of their member states. Prior to 2009, EMU could accommodate growth model diversity, but the Eurozone debt crisis brought an end to that. By virtue of being EMU’s creditors, the export-led core countries rewrote the rules to champion their own growth strategies. While the ECB was an imperfect source of offsetting falling domestic demand, the adoption of a German-style export-led growth model for the Eurozone as a whole mainly relied on external demand. While this worked initially, it became more problematic in a world where protectionism was on the rise. Though the response to COVID-19 demonstrated that the EU has the potential to put its future growth on a more sustainable footing, the national politics in the Northern member state governments continue to work against it.
Financialization and Growth Models
Authors: Ban Cornel , Helgadóttir Oddný 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter identifies the analytical value added that a financialization lens brings for the established growth regimes approach. The main argument is that each of the growth regimes theorized by Bacarro and Pontusson have distinct financialization dynamics that inform the observed variation in the key aspect of the relevant literature: the contribution of exports and consumption to GDP growth in each of the growth regimes. The chapter suggests that all growth regimes have been transformed by financialization, leading to the recovery of corporate profits even as capital investment declined. However, the domestic translation of financialization practices in terms of depth and mode was consequential for the balancing of consumption and exports in real-existing growth regimes. Thus, the extent and mode of financialization explains why Sweden has higher capital investment than all the other cases while still projecting robust consumption growth, why consumption has been so robust in Britain but not in Italy, and why the German growth regime was constrained to stay competitive in export markets by repressing consumption.
Political Parties and Growth Models
Authors: Hopkin Jonathan , Voss Dustin 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the place of party politics in the growth model research agenda. Since dominant growth coalitions are unlikely to represent a majority of the electorate, we posit that parties play a key role in the construction and maintenance of the political alliances that underpin growth regimes. Drawing on the cases of Germany and the United Kingdom, we argue that electoral politics should not be seen as epiphenomenal to growth models, but neither do they shape institutional development in the direct way imagined by optimistic accounts of how parties “matter.” Examining how parties and leaders manage processes of growth model reform allows us to move beyond the dichotomy of organized interests versus electoral dominance that has hitherto conditioned the debate on growth models. Pivoting to the recent rise in anti-system politics, we show that growth models cannot insulate themselves from electoral pressures, particularly when they fail to deliver growth.
History, the Humanities, and the Human
Authors: Graham Burnett D. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In arguing for the value of history to human flourishing, this chapter investigates the origins and programmatic coherence of humanistic endeavor more generally. A claim is made for the irreducibly “metaphysical” nature of these enterprises, and they are placed in relation to spiritual and theological traditions. Is a substantive account of the nature of the human person required if humanistic work is to have meaning? Such an account is hazarded and then defended. Its implications are explored, and the malaise/dysfunction of much contemporary university life in the humanities is assessed accordingly. Three specific proposals are made for historically oriented humanistic work that can conduce to human flourishing.
Undocumented Saints
Authors: Calvo-Quirós William A. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
UnDocumented Saints follows the migration of popular saints from Mexico into the United States and the evolution in their meaning. The book explores how Latinx battles for survival are also performed in the worlds of faith, religiosity, and the imaginary and how the sociopolitical realities of exploitation and racial segregation frame popular religious expressions. It analyzes the emergence of interreligious states, transnational ethnic and cultural enclaves unified by faith/religiosity. Following a chronological approach, this book analyzes five vernacular saints who have emerged in Mexico and whose devotions have migrated into the United States in the last one hundred years: Jesús Malverde, a popular bandito turned saint caudillo; Santa Olguita, an emerging feminist saint linked to border women’s experiences of sexual violence and assault; Juan Soldado, a soldier who was a murderer and rapist, who was the main suspect in the death of an eight-year-old victim known now as Santa Olguita, and who is now a patron for undocumented immigrants; Toribio Romo, a Catholic priest whose ghost/spirit has been helping people cross the border into the United States since the 1990s; and La Santa Muerte, a controversial personification of the dead who is particularly popular among some LGBTQ migrants. Each chapter contextualizes a particularly popular saint with broader discourses about the construction of masculinity and the state, the long history of violence against Latina and migrant women, female erasure from history, discrimination against non-normative sexualities, and the United States and Mexico’s investment in the control of religiosity within the discourses of immigration in the United States.
Out of Place
Authors: Silber Norman I. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, Guido discusses his family’s relocation to New Haven and his childhood. His father Massimo took up his fellowship at the Yale Medical School. As many did, the Calabresi arrived with few possessions despite their previous prosperity. New Haven was then an ethnically diverse and growing city; notwithstanding the Great Depression, its strong manufacturing base attracted African Americans and European immigrants, especially Jews and southern Italians. Yale, the city’s great university, drew an annual flow of undergraduates, professional students, and new faculty. Like other new arrivals, the Calabresi encountered customs and practices that revealed deep prejudice and discrimination mixed with good intentions. The policies and social messages delivered by the Protestant establishment were at times assimilative, and at other times exclusionary; at times totally ill-informed, and at other times encouraging to assimilation and dreams of accomplishment.
Our Wartime
Authors: Silber Norman I. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers expatriate Italians in America during the War and also their relationship with family members who remained in Italy during the War. It is often recognized that life on the “home front” for most Americans disrupted ordinary patterns of living, often required separation from loved ones who had gone to fight, entailed adjustment to new domestic and work arrangements, and frequently involved relocation to new jobs in war-related industries. It is less frequently acknowledged that thousands of refugees from Europe already had been subjected to worse upheaval—occasioned by their forced departure and resettlement in the United States. For such families, America’s entry into the War magnified existing difficulties and increased hostility against them, notwithstanding their opposition to Fascism and their gratitude for refuge. War also left Guido and his family—and so many others—understandably concerned about the well-being of the friends and relatives they left behind.
Postwar Dilemmas
Authors: Silber Norman I. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses Italy’s daunting economic, political, and social challenges to its successful reconstruction after the close of the Second World War. Among the key economic problems were an unstable currency resulting from scarce goods and a bloated money supply; plummeting industrial output and employment levels due in part to the unavailability of coal and the destruction by Germans of the industrial areas in the South; and also the reluctance of private investors to re-enter the economy given years of Fascist control over economic decision-making. Socially, the country had endured the occupation of its soil, massive internal displacement of its population, and another defeat in war. Millions of its citizens had attached themselves to a disgraced ideology. Traditional understandings of familial hierarchy and religious authority had been shaken to their foundations. The stain and impact of the Racial Laws and the Holocaust left deep wounds that needed to be addressed.
The Perils of Greatness
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Chapter 7 examines an effort by the federal government to advance sweeping change: the “Great Society” program put forth by President Lyndon Baines Johnson. In particular, the chapter examines two anti-poverty programs, Community Action and Model Cities, that struggled to achieve their goals despite being launched with great fanfare (and a significant infusion of federal money). In both examples, individuals involved in program development initially advocated for an incremental approach, but were unable to resist strong political pressure to act more quickly. Chapter 7 argues that these programs are examples of failed incrementalism; many of the problems they encountered can be attributed to moving too big, too fast.
Conclusion
Authors: Berman Greg , Fox Aubrey 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The book concludes with a rumination on Amara’s Law. This is the idea, named after Stanford computer scientist Roy Amara, that people fall into the trap of overestimating what can be accomplished in the short term and underestimating what can be accomplished in the long term. It is usually hard to see progress happening in the moment. But by taking a step back and using a longer time horizon, it often becomes apparent that significant change has happened. The Conclusion also addresses some of the most enduring criticisms that incrementalism has engendered. In particular, the authors argue that incrementalism is not a defense of the status quo, but rather an endless effort to alleviate injustices.
The Paradox of Discrimination
Authors: Ohlin Jens David 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that the ethical requirement to reduce harm in warfare creates a paradoxical situation. On the one hand, targeted killings are heralded for their surgical precision and their reduction in the amount of killing—a requirement imposed by both international law and morality. On the other hand, targeted killings are deplored because they look too much like executions, which are barbaric. The more a nation works to comply with international law and reduce the number of people killed in military strikes, the more the killings start to look like criminal law enforcement. War usually involves killing many people, often based on their status as members of an enemy army. In contrast, the criminal law involves imprisoning (or executing) a specific individual who has been prosecuted in a court of law for their conduct. As American military force becomes more humane, it looks less warlike, and therefore triggers the operation of a nonwar paradigm, the framework of criminal law. When viewed through that alternate lens, the force suddenly becomes the opposite: it becomes inhumane. There seems to be no way out of this paradox.
Fighting Terrorism under All Applicable Law
Authors: Andresen Joshua 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter shows that attempts to liberalize restrictions on the use of force in counterterrorism operations should be rejected not only on legal grounds but also as contrary to our national security interest. An increasing number of empirical studies show that more force, particularly in the form of airstrikes, increases terrorist violence and recruitment while increasing popular support for terrorist groups. A restrictive approach to the law governing the use of force against terrorist threats is thus the most effective way to address the reality of those threats. Contrary to the view that international humanitarian law (IHL) is the only source of restrictions on the use of force in counterterrorism operations, this chapter argues that international human rights law (IHRL) can impose additional restrictions on the use of force, particularly when force is used in civilian populated areas away from active combat. Following the jurisprudence of international courts on the application of IHL and IHRL to armed conflict, this chapter puts forward seven factors that should be analyzed to determine the relative application of IHL and IHRL to the use of force in counterterrorism operations. A determination of whether an armed conflict exists is just the first step in determining what kind of force may be used. It is also necessary to consider the circumstances in which force will be used and the reliability of the information on which a strike is predicated to determine the law properly governing the operation.
Fighting State Actors with the Tools of Hybridized Warfare
Authors: Finkelstein Claire 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
With the killing by the United States of Iranian general Qassim Soleimani, the war on terror crossed a new frontier in the use of extra-judicial lethal operations outside of armed conflict. As a state actor, Soleimani would once have been entirely off-limits as a target outside the context of a formal armed conflict between the U.S. and Iran, despite his leadership of the Quds force, an organization that lends support to violent nonstate actor groups across the Middle East. Nevertheless, the fact that the Trump Administration felt entitled to conduct a one-off strike on a state military leader using drone technology underscores the degree to which conflicts among state adversaries are increasingly fought using the hybridized tools of the war on terror. This chapter will argue that the rise in the use of such techniques, and the perceived relaxation of the constraints of international law in conflicts among states, is a regrettable, but foreseeable, result of a certain way of conceiving of violent nonstate actors that started immediately after the attacks on 9/11. Greater clarity about the legal boundaries governing the use of Bush-era interrogation methods as well as Obama’s dramatic increase in the use of extrajudicial killing against nonstate actors might have forestalled this development and ensured that the techniques of the war on terror were constrained to their original context. This chapter first addresses the legal ambiguity of targeted killing as it devolved from the Bush and Obama Administrations in the aftermath of 9/11 with respect to nonstate actors, particularly the decision to predicate the legality of targeted killings on the status of terror groups as “unlawful combatants.” This framework meant that the detainees captured in the war on terror lacked the traditional protections of the Law of Armed Conflict (LOAC), at the same time that they were deprived of the protections ordinarily extended to criminal defendants. Leaving detainees between two legal regimes provided license for their abuse as well as an uncertain legal basis for those who were targeted rather than captured in the next phase of the war. This chapter will argue that greater clarity would have resulted from considering violent non-state actors as civilians rather than combatants, an approach that is wholly in appropriate for state actors like Soleimani, whose status as a state actor should leave little doubt as to his legal status outside the context of armed conflict..