bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Traces of the Atheist
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractDescartes was always careful to avoid conflict with ecclesiastical authorities and to emphasize his conformity with orthodoxy. Wherever possible, Descartes also sought to iron out any disagreements with the previous philosophical tradition. Sometimes he pursued this task through actual dissimulation techniques. The Discourse on the Method is a particularly striking example of this. To appreciate the prudent approach adopted by Descartes in this text, it is enough to recall the absence of the hypothesis of the deceiving God, which not only weakens the reasons for doubt, but ultimately makes the search for some divine guarantee implausible. Even a theory that essentially seems to favor Christian apologetics, such as that of machine animals, is concealed behind a very traditional analysis of animal behavior. This coexistence of audacity and dissimulation makes the Cartesian texts reminiscent of certain procedures that were widespread in the early modern age and that open up the possibility of approaching many philosophical texts by reading them ‘between the lines’, as theorized by Leo Strauss in his famous study Persecution and the Art of Writing. Reading “between the lines,” however, is tricky when dealing with early modern literature, as the arguments present in apologetic writings are often reproduced by libertine or even atheist authors. Descartes found himself confronted with the intertwining of apologetic texts and libertine-inspired texts when Mersenne, hidden behind the mask of unspecified “theologians,” raised objections which Descartes himself identified as part of the atheists’ repertoire. This episode shows that Descartes was wary of heterodox literature not only for reasons of prudence, but also—and on a deeper level—on account of his own distance from an intellectual universe linked to Renaissance naturalism. At the same time, this episode leads us to reflect on the risks of Strauss’ reading, based on which certain texts are traditionally and unhesitatingly included in atheist literature. Mersenne presented Descartes with a series of objections to the Meditations. A careful analysis of these objections can throw light on the theological context in which those criticisms were grounded. Mersenne’s objections reproduce theses already advanced in the Quaestiones celeberrimae in Genesim. In this work, in which he intended to refute Vanini, Mersenne used some proofs of the existence of God derived from the Jesuit Lessius, and already used by Vanini himself. These same proofs, together with others developed by Mersenne, were then taken up by the free thinker Pierre Petit. A reconstruction of the origin of the arguments used by Mersenne can provide important elements to evaluate the interweaving of apologetic and heterodox literature in the first half of the seventeenth century and to discuss Leo Strauss’s proposal to “read between the lines.”
Knowledge and Causality
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractIn assessing the arguments in support of Occasionalism, Malebranche sides against the supporters of the autonomy of nature. Malebranche’s opponents are usually seen to fall within the Scholastic camp. Yet the deification of substantial forms, which is the main target of Malebranche’s criticism, is hardly detectable in the works of Scholastic philosophers. Malebranche repeatedly mentions “physicians” responsible for the deification of substantial forms. This chapter suggests that Malebranche’s main target is Jean Fernel’s work De abditis rerum causis. This reconstruction would explain why Malebranche chose to resort to the principle that an effect can be brought about only by an agent who knows how to produce it. Indeed, by recasting this principle as an argument for Occasionalism, Malebranche deprived Fernel of his main argument in support of the deification of nature.
The Insurgent's Dilemma
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractDespite attracting headlines and hype, insurgents rarely win. Even when they claim territory and threaten governmental writ, they typically face a military backlash too powerful to withstand. States struggle with addressing the political roots of such movements, and their military efforts mostly just "mow the grass"; yet, for the insurgent, the grass is nonetheless mowed--and the armed project must start over. This is the insurgent's dilemma: the difficulty of asserting oneself, of violently challenging authority, and of establishing sustainable power. In the face of this dilemma, some insurgents are learning new ways to ply their trade. With subversion, spin and disinformation claiming centre stage, insurgency is being reinvented, to exploit the vulnerabilities of our times and gain new strategic salience for tomorrow. As the most promising approaches are refined and repurposed, what we think of as counterinsurgency will also need to change. The Insurgent's Dilemma explores three particularly adaptive strategies and their implications for response. These emerging strategies target the state where it is weak and sap its power, sometimes without it noticing. There are options for response, but fresh thinking is urgently needed--about society, legitimacy and political violence itself.
Infiltrative Insurgency the Trojan Horse
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractFacing declining fortunes via military contestation, some insurgents are moving toward co-opting the state instead, using seemingly legal mechanisms yet also covert violence to clear the path. Termed infiltrative insurgency, this approach exploits the openness of party politics. Compared with traditional insurgency, it is a subtler method of seizing power--one that minimizes international censure and shields against armed repression. What distinguishes this approach from standard party politics and social movement mobilization is the continued use of violence, which is disguised, unattributed and therefore capable of achieving results without significant political costs. This chapter sets out the nature and functioning of infiltrative insurgency, blending its theory with case studies. Insight is drawn from historical precedents, including the Russian Revolution, the Nazi Party's overthrow of the Weimar Republic, and the blending of violence and party politics by the IRA, FARC and Golden Dawn in Greece. This approach is particularly responsive to today's strategic conditions, in which stark exercises in power work less well and less often. Given this context, the chapter discusses the dangers of infiltrative insurgency to political openness and state legitimacy--and therefore to democratic societies most of all.
In Defense of Democracy
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractInsurgents using the infiltrative approach present themselves as a legitimate political party, even as a social movement, yet retain the use of violence and terrorism to clear the path and implement their agenda. This veneer of respectability avoids the backlash that might result from starker expressions of power and make gains made more sustainable. The ambiguity also presents the state with severe ethical and strategic hazards. To respond to the Trojan horse of anti-democratic forces--those who seek to use the system only to destroy it--it must engage in the delicate task of unraveling a conspiracy located within the central institutions of state. This chapter sets out options for states confronting an infiltrative insurgency. It reviews the "inclusion-moderation thesis," which advocates integration of anti-democratic forces, as well as strategic of repression, which operate according to the observe logic. It also evaluates theories of proscription, including "militant democracy," which seek to ban specific parties from democratic competition. All options can have merit, depending on context. They also all present the state with an ethical and strategic minefield, where missteps cause grave and enduring harm to that which is being protected: the democratic functioning of society.
Conclusion
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis concluding chapter summarizes the three adaptive insurgent approaches examined in previous chapters: localized, infiltrative and ideational. In all three, the theory of victory relies on staying below a particular threshold where a military counterattack becomes likely. In localized insurgencies, the group seeks survival by limiting its objectives to the local level. In infiltrative insurgencies, the group finds protection within the political system all the while using violence behind the scenes. In ideational insurgencies, movements are united by an idea rather than territory and, therefore, become difficult to locate and to repress. Counterinsurgency must therefore also change. Suppressive firepower may have helped states survive past struggles, but it will yield ever-diminishing returns if insurgents solve the dilemma that was thus imposed upon them. The conclusion proposes a new analytical model to map the innovations in insurgency strategy and summarizes its implications for countering the three types of insurgency reviewed in this book. Underlying the entire discussion of response, and regardless of the challenge at hand, the state must also focus on what it is fighting for, not just on the threats that it seeks to defeat.
Contextualizing Specificity
Authors: Brown Adam R. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe world’s first written constitutions were adopted by American states in the 1770s, and experience under these charters informed deliberations at the 1787 federal convention. State constitutions then and now resemble typical national constitutions more than the familiar but unusual US Constitution. That is, state constitutions protect both positive and negative rights; they address education, labor, corporations, local governance, and diverse other issues; they tend toward detail; and they undergo frequent amendment. Most important, state constitutions confer plenary rather than enumerated power, starting from an assumption that the legislature may take any action unless the constitution expressly prohibits it. Plenary power leads to different interpretive challenges than for the US Constitution. It also means that state constitutions adopted during periods of distrust of centralized authority, like the late 19th century, are much more detailed than state constitutions adopted at other times.
Evaluating State Constitutions
Authors: Brown Adam R. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractAmericans know little about the US Constitution, but they know even less about their state constitutions. Around half are uncertain that their state constitution even exists. Despite this ignorance, Americans readily express veneration for the US Constitution, but they appear to value it more for its link to a vaunted past than for its unfamiliar substance. State constitutions benefit from no such founding mythos, so Americans evaluate them differently. Survey experiments reveal that Americans take a Jeffersonian view of state constitutions, offering more favorable evaluations of their state constitution when informed of its frequent amendment rate or recent replacement. Though Americans hesitate to amend the US Constitution, though show no such reticence about amending state constitutions.
The Death and Life of State Repression
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The Death and Life of State Repression provides insight into a problem that dates back at least 75 years, if not before. Since World War II, individuals and institutions from around the world have been concerned with state repression/human rights violation and since about 1990 a robust empirical literature has emerged to investigate what drives this behavior up or down (i.e., exploring variation). While useful, this work has generally ignored important aspects of the “Death/Life cycle” of state repression: i.e., its onset, escalation, termination and recurrence. Such an approach is important because different explanations and policies might be relevant for different parts of the cycle. Exploring a new database of repressive spells from 1976-2006 and new theory regarding spells, The Death and Life of State Repression breaks new ground in a variety of different ways. Within the book, it is argued that repression is a sticky process that is largely slow-moving and non-adaptive. Consequently, change in this behavior is rare unless the ruling cohort is perturbed in some manner. Now, what perturbs is somewhat surprising. The Death and Life of State Repression does not find support for the predominant variables/policies advanced by the international community (i.e., naming/shaming, international law, military intervention and economic sanctions). Rather, it finds that political democratization plays a crucial role in reducing and stopping most aspects of repressive spells and democratization itself is influenced by non-violent direction action. The book has major implications for those who wish to study state repression as well as those who have an interest in trying to reduce as well as stop it from occurring across the Death/Life cycle.
Introduction
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The Introduction provides a general overview of The Death and Life of State Repression. It identifies a new conception of repressive behavior/human rights violation: the spell. This involves the onset of large-scale and violent state activity above a particular threshold, its escalation, its termination, and its recurrence (i.e., return after having previously stopped). The chapter outlines the variety of policies/solutions that have been advanced from research, policymakers, and activists (e.g., military intervention, economic sanctions, international law, naming and shaming, democratization, and non-violent direct action). Chapter 1 then moves to outline what is limited about the predominant approach as well as what needs to be changed with regard to theory, data, and empirical analysis in order to address the topicof interest.
What We Can Do to Better Understand, Prevent, Reduce, and End Repressive Spells
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 of The Death and Life of State Repression provides an overview of the manuscript but also points forward to what the study of state repressive action should address moving forward (Repression 2.0). Specifically, the chapter raises the point that there are some explanatory factors that hold across distinct phases of the Death/Life cycle. If one was interested in developing a general approach to reducing and ending state repression/human rights violation, then this merits attention. The chapter also raises the point that there are some explanatory factors that only hold within the context of a specific phase of the Death/Life cycle. If one was interested in developing a specific approach to reducing or ending a particular phase of the Death/Life cycle, then this merits attention. The chapter concludes with a listing of insights and challenges moving forward across theory, data, investigation, and policy implementation.
Offensive Cyber Operations
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractCyber-warfare is often discussed, but rarely truly seen. When does an intrusion turn into an attack, and what does that entail? How do nations fold offensive cyber operations into their strategies? Operations against networks mostly occur to collect intelligence, in peacetime. Understanding the lifecycle and complexity of targeting adversary networks is key to doing so effectively in conflict. Rather than discussing the spectre of cyber war, Daniel Moore seeks to observe the spectrum of cyber operations. By piecing together operational case studies, military strategy and technical analysis, he shows that modern cyber operations are neither altogether unique, nor entirely novel. Offensive cyber operations are the latest incarnation of intangible warfare--conflict waged through non-physical means, such as the information space or the electromagnetic spectrum. Not all offensive operations are created equal. Some are slow-paced, clandestine infiltrations requiring discipline and patience for a big payoff; others are short-lived attacks meant to create temporary tactical disruptions. This book first seeks to understand the possibilities, before turning to look at some of the most prolific actors: the United States, Russia, China and Iran. Each has their own unique take, advantages and challenges when attacking networks for effect.
Targeting Networks1
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractOffensive cyber operations (OCOs) are often lumped together as a single mass of capabilities, as if they were missiles, warplanes or tanks. This chapter divides the full scale of OCOs to two principal categories: presence-based and event-based operations. Presence-based operations are protracted clandestine intelligence operations which at their tail end culminate in the activation of an offensive payload. Event-based operations are robust, deployable, near-instantaneous capabilities which are meant to be reusable. The former are often strategic sensitive capabilities that are saved for high-value targets. The latter may even be used by non-technical forces engaged in active combat as part of tactical maneuvers to degrade the capacity of the enemy to rely on their networked resources. The distinction matters as presence-based capabilities may be held in reserve by specialist units, while event-based capabilities can more safely be disseminated. Similarly, this chapter dissects the full complexity of planning and executing OCOs by observing the unique circumstances around their four key stages: preparation, engagement, presence and effect. Each requires different types of expertise and investment and demonstrates why some countries are uniquely positioned to succeed over others.
American Cyber Superiority
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe United States of America is one of the oldest and most advanced employers of offensive cyber operations (OCOs). This chapter fuses analysis from official declared doctrine, publicized incidents, leaked materials and additional available documentation to portray a bureaucracy-heavy behemoth capable of immense tactical, operational, and even strategic successes. A highly capable signals intelligence (SIGINT) apparatus in the National Security Agency (NSA) eventually gave birth to US Cyber Command (USCYBERCOM), an entity now uniquely dedicated to the integration and deployment of cyber capabilities into military conflict. As such, the US is uniquely positioned to be one of the most successful users of cyber-warfare and has provided glimpses of its capacity to do so--albeit in limited form. However, it still suffers from significant limitation on its ability to capitalize on its strengths due to the US insistence on viewing cyber as a distinct warfighting domain rather than a crucial aspect of all others. The need to put cyber in a separate box, along with US predilection to layer legal and bureaucratic hurdles on its use of cyber capabilities may hold the country back from fully realizing its strengths.
Approximating the Iranian Threat
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe Iranian government has exhibited significant creativity in achieving its regional security objectives. Hampered by crippling sanctions and faced with technologically superior adversaries, Iran continuously seeks to rebalance asymmetries through unconventional means of warfare. Iranian strategy includes high volumes of light, effective munitions, terrorism and a significant investment in compatible proxy forces. Considering the deep reliance of Iran's enemies on information networks and technological superiority, it is no surprise that Iran attempts to achieve its objectives through the targeting of these elements. This chapter reviews how Iran uses commercial, academic and individual proxies alongside national forces such as the IRGC to carry out Offensive Cyber Operations (OCOs) against its enemies, to some degree of success. While Iranian operations are riddled with errors and of limited technical sophistication, they are often good enough to create the desired effect. From Denial of Service attacks to Shamoon variants, this chapter explores a variety of Iranian attacks and capabilities and how they were employed as part of a broader strategy.
Conclusions
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractCyber security is neither an offensive panacea nor the Pearl-Harbor-like vulnerability it is imagined to be. The conclusions review how it is uniquely difficult to create effects successfully, continuously and meaningfully through offensive cyber operations (OCOs) in a military context. They require immense investment, operational discipline, and access to immense amounts of accurate targeting intelligence. While many countries actively use--or plan to--OCOs, few do so very well. The United States is uniquely positioned to deliver both tactical and strategic effects alongside combat operations and beyond them, but is often hampered by the limitations of its own bureaucracy and shackling "cyber" within a domain of warfare. Russia is a prolific, aggressive and technically capable user of OCOs, but frequently makes operational errors which are costly in a high-accuracy medium such as OCOs. The Chinese People's Liberation Army invests significantly in creating capabilities suitable to its military aims but is as-of-yet untested in campaign-wide joint operations. Iran frequently punches above its weight in effects by creating low-complexity, noisy, but noticeable effects delivered through proxies and conventional forces.
Religion and Politics in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that religion and politics are both systems of ordering the power inherent in human society, in the process of which elements of authority and hierarchy tend to emerge. As such, religion and politics are closely related. In the modern Western tradition these two systems of harnessing or manipulating power have been subject to sharp organizational and intellectual distinctions which conform to the separation of politics and religion or church and state. However, it is clear that a large number of the world's people, including in Africa, continue to regard these two spheres of power as impinging upon one another or even, in some circumstances, of being virtually indistinct. The chapter provides some examples from African popular texts and discusses the implications for understanding politics on the continent.
This Present Darkness
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyzes how Nigeria acquired its unfortunate reputation as an epicenter of global illicit trade and organized crime. It discusses how precolonial culture and indigenous religion shaped "the psychology of Nigerian organized crime," while the theory and practice of early colonialism, especially in Southern Nigeria, provided an early contribution to "a culture of corruption."
West Africa’s International Drug Trade
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Since the publication in 2007 of a report on West Africa's role in the illegal cocaine trade from Latin America to Europe, considerable media attention has focused on Guinea-Bissau in particular, as a country infiltrated by drug interests. However, West Africa has a long history of involvement in the international drug trade, that has been dominated by Nigerian interests especially. Consideration of this history may help stimulate a debate in historical sociology that will illuminate both the nature of involvement in the drug trade itself, and also larger questions about the long-term formation of the state.