bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Politics of Global Competitiveness
Authors: Cammack Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Marx’s ‘general law of social production’, proposed in Capital (1867), suggests that as the capitalist system of production becomes global, and competition between capitalists becomes more intense, workers are compelled to be versatile (multi-skilled), flexible, and mobile in order to survive. This general law, resulting from scientific and technological innovation and continuous advances in the division of labour generated by competition between capitalists, has given rise to global production chains, ‘zero hours’ contracts, and the breaking down of production processes into smaller and smaller individual steps, increasingly supported by advanced machines and digital platforms. This book identifies the universal policy framework that promotes these developments as the politics of global competitiveness, and shows that the Washington-based World Bank and the Paris-based Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), working together, are its principal advocates. They do not narrowly promote the interests of the advanced capitalist economies, or the ‘West’ and its transnational corporations, but rather the unlimited development of the global capitalist system and the world market as a whole. When their policies are examined together and compared, they reveal a single, shared programme, focused not on the relationship between the developed and the developing world, but on the global relationship between capital and labour. Put at its simplest, their aim is to ensure that as many people as possible across the world have the potential to be productive workers, and to propose reforms to welfare or social protection that will oblige them to offer themselves to capitalists for work.
Three Major Works, 1806‒1808
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the contents of the three major writings in the early Göttingen years: Allgemeine Pädagogik, Hauptpunckte der Metaphysik, Ueber philosophisches Studium. The discussion of the Allgemeine Pädagogik centers around the problematic unity of the work and its critique of Rousseau. The treatment of the Hauptpunckte der Metaphysik is a commentary on its leading sections and deals with Herbart’s relationship with Kant’s idealism. Ueber philosophisches Studium is Herbart’s first discussion of philosophical method.
Herbart and Prussian Educational Reform
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers Herbart’s work as an educator in his Königsberg years. It covers first Herbart’s remarkable relationship with Wilhelm von Humboldt and their work on the reform of Prussia’s educational institutions. It considers Herbart’s various projects to improve education in Prussia, his pedagogic institute, his didactic seminar, and his work on the scientific deputation. It treats Herbart’s attitude toward state intervention in education and his stance toward the repressive Wartburg decrees.
Marriage, Separation, and Divorce in England, 1500-1700
Authors: Kesselring K. J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
England is well known as the only Protestant state not to introduce divorce in the sixteenth-century Reformation. Only at the end of the seventeenth century did divorce by private act of parliament become available for a select few men, and only in 1857 did the Divorce Act and its creation of judicial divorces extend the possibility more broadly. Aspects of the history of divorce are well known from studies which typically privilege the records of the church courts that claimed a monopoly on marriage. But why did England alone of all Protestant jurisdictions not allow divorce with remarriage in the era of the Reformation, and how did people in failed marriages cope with this absence? One part of the answer to the first question, this book argues, and a factor that shaped people’s responses to the second, lay in another distinctive aspect of English law: its common-law formulation of coverture, the umbrella term for married women’s legal status and property rights. The bonds of marriage stayed tightly tied in post-Reformation England in part because marriage was as much about wealth as it was about salvation or sexuality, and English society had deeply invested in a system that subordinated a wife’s identity and property to those of the man she married. To understand this dimension of divorce’s history, this study looks beyond the church courts to the records of other judicial bodies, the secular courts of common law and equity, to bring fresh perspective to a history that remains relevant today.
Resisting an Alien Invasion of Principles
Authors: Kapoor Ria 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the anti-colonial nationalist led Indian government’s decision to remove itself from international humanitarian bodies and covenants addressing refugee relief and rehabilitation in the 1940s, as a result of the experiences of the Second World War. Instead, all aliens, regardless of their circumstances, were flattened into a single umbrella category by legal instruments like the 1946 Foreigners Act. The decision rested on a particular understanding of how the self-determination and the rights it guaranteed were in tension with a more universalist notion of human rights adopted in the 1940s. It thus explores the nature of rights, humanitarianism and the establishment of the self-determined nation-state in India, and how the figure of the refugee was caught in between these, at the immediate moment of India’s transition from colony to nation-state.
Refugees to (Re)Build the Nation
Authors: Kapoor Ria 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The rehabilitation of refugees after Partition was formative for the Indian state, connected with issues of citizenship, of politics and parties, of Kashmir and Hyderabad, and the very development of the Indian state. This chapter explains how refugee rehabilitation was intrinsically intertwined with the Nehruvian state’s efforts to (re)construct the Indian state after the events of the 1940s, while actions in the name of these same refugees became a way to challenge the Nehruvian vision too. The Indian government exerted more control over the refugees than any other citizens, recovering as both the state and the displaced were from the loss of Pakistan. The contradictions of establishing the secular, planned, developmentalist state in a place where the two-nation theory and ethno-religious division had recently caused a mass migration left the refugees of Partition as the site at which the tensions of Indian citizenship, state-building, and consolidation played out.
A Nation-in-Exile in the Age of Non-Alignment
Authors: Kapoor Ria 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The arrival of Tibetan refugees along with the Dalai Lama in 1959 saw India reframe its understanding of the refugee away from that of the citizen figure of Partition to one more closely resembling the international, UN, one, even relabelling ‘returning’ diasporic Indians from Burma as repatriates where they had previously been called refugees. The Tibetans were granted partial rights by India, as part of that state’s sovereign right to grant asylum, effectively turning the decision into a matter of Indian sovereignty rather than trying to paint this as an international censure of China’s violation of human rights in the bipolar atmosphere of the Cold War. In keeping with a non-aligned stance, India’s leaders debated the place of human rights as self-determination for the Tibetan people, with a resulting impact on how humanitarian aid offered by the international community, for a group that met the UN definition even though India rejected such recognition, was handled. The relationship both with China and with Burma, in the handling of the ‘refugees’ and the ‘repatriates’ reflected the Cold War and regional tensions inherent in the Afro-Asian bloc as anti-colonial solidarities were transformed by postcolonial state-building.
War and Modern Taxation
Authors: Frizell Jakob 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The chapter analyses the effect of war on tax modernization across world regions. By the example of the Angolan civil war, it questions the conventional wisdom according to which warfare is a distinctly European pathway to fiscal development. It argues that the fiscal exigencies of war are near-universal and lead to similar tax policy reactions irrespective of geographical area. This is equally true for civil as for interstate wars. The availability of natural resource rents or external finance may mitigate the immediate effect of war, but does not neutralize it. The argument is supported by a series of logit regressions estimating the effect of war on the probability of permanently introducing any of six modern taxes in a global sample of countries covering the two last centuries. The sole diverging case is Latin America, where the link between war and taxation is weak at best. Latin America thus represents the exception from the ‘bellicist’ rule of fiscal development.
The Historical Roots of Post-Communist Taxation
Authors: Todor Arpad 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The chapter investigates whether and how communist and pre-communist legacies have shaped post-communist taxation in Eastern Europe and Central Asia. It starts with a literature review showing that post-communist tax outcomes are usually explained by post-communist political, institutional and economic variables. Historical legacy effects are largely ignored. The chapter then provides a short historical overview of the spread of modern taxes in Eastern Europe and Central Asia before the rise of Communism. It reconstructs breaks and continuities in national tax systems during Communism. Finally, it uses regression analysis to gauge the influence of pre-communist and communist legacies on post-communist tax systems. It shows that the timing of income tax introductions before Communism and the role of income taxation during Communism have shaped post-communist taxation in important ways.
“Like a Phoenix from Her Ashes”
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the aftermath of the New York’s Great Fire of 1835. At precisely 9 AM on the morning of December 17, 1835, New York Herald editor James Gordon Bennett headed out to look at what quickly became known as the “Burnt District.” What he found was “heart rending in the extreme.” Not only were buildings destroyed, but boxes, bales, desks, safes, and dry goods as well as the remains of frozen fire hoses were scattered everywhere. In human terms, the damage was comparatively light; because the area served primarily as the city's business sector, only two people died. Yet the city needed to recover, and Mayor Cornelius Lawrence quickly summoned the Common Council to figure out how to safeguard the exposed property. Lawrence also formed a number of fire-related committees; there were to be inquiries to determine the cause of the fire, suggestions as to what alterations should be made to city streets, and what modifications needed to be carried out for building construction. Philip Hone and others formed a group that planned to appeal to the Albany legislature for financial aid. Unsurprisingly and inevitably, the losses sorely taxed insurance companies. Nevertheless, New York quickly got back to business, and within a year much of the damage seemed to be swept away as merchants rebuilt.
Covering the Waterfront
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes how, at the end of the 1840s, New York was responsible for half the U.S. imports and a third of U.S. exports. Alexander Stewart had a lot to do with this. In 1846 he opened his Marble Palace on Broadway, and set a new standard for merchants. As more people flocked to the city, the roadways became crowded. To deal with the increase in foot and vehicle traffic into the city, there was a growing need for hotels. Food preparation also boomed in the city. Oysters were a New York staple, oyster harvesting developed into a big business, and oyster cellars lining the city’s streets beckoned customers. The arrival of California gold further spurred New York's economy. Throughout, workers filled the shoreline and extended the land, harbor construction continued at a furious clip, and new docks and piers stretched into the rivers. With so much activity, businessmen needed to know what was going on, so papers such as the New York Sun and the New York Herald ran news, social notices, crime reports, gossip, accounts of slave conspiracies, and literature, along with ads for everything from ship dockings to auctions for house sales.
The Croton River Flows into the City
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter studies the construction of the Croton Aqueduct. In the late 1830s, engineer John Jervis devised a masonry conduit that brought water from the Croton River to Manhattan. Water pipes were laid in the streets, and the massive Murray Hill Distributing Reservoir was constructed at Fifth Avenue and 42nd Street on the site where the main branch of the New York Public Library now stands. The water supply’s health benefits, in a city that had recently suffered through a devastating outbreak of cholera, became clear from the start. Jervis’ Croton system revolutionized New York and spurred its continued growth, as water flowed to homes, businesses, even fountains at hotels. Not surprisingly, and perhaps inevitably, people started to take the water supply for granted, and soon the city had to start to look for new supplies to satisfy the city’s growing thirst.
“A Burial Can Scarcely Take Place without Disturbing a Previous One”
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses how high mortality in New York affected both the wealthy and the poor, though of course it was higher in the latter, who had less access to proper sanitation and clean water. With so many deaths, New York was constantly a place of funerals. Yet while some of the dead were buried in the yards of fine churches, others ended up in potter’s fields. The city's lax sanitary laws meant there were few rules regulating burials and the upkeep of sites. And in a city obsessed with expansion, the dead were seen as lying in the way of progress. The truncating and closing of cemeteries, and the moving of bodies to make way for new streets and buildings, was thus a regular event in the city in the first half of the 19th century. By 1850, facing overcrowded burial places, mounds of manure, and general filthiness, the city had no choice but to look into ways to clean up. However, the creation of a uniform sewer system was a slow process. It would take until the turn of the 20th century for much of New York City to properly flush away a large amount of its filth.
A Rural Retreat in the Gridded City
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the development of Central Park. In 1857, Frederick Law Olmsted was hired as the park’s new superintendent. He explored the land and organized the workers, and his efforts suitably impressed the commissioners. By this point, architect Calvert Vaux's agitation for a new design for the park had worked, and on October 13, the commissioners announced a public competition and called for proposals. This was the first significant landscape competition in the country. Olmsted and Vaux formed a partnership and set out to create a beautiful, harmonious park. They titled their proposal the “Greensward Plan,” since it contained large grass-covered areas. There were 33 submissions, and the partners were awarded first prize. With Vaux and Olmsted now in charge, work got underway, and ultimately, Central Park became the nation's biggest public works project.
An Ungovernable Metropolis
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter studies how 19th-century New York lacked a social safety net for the poor and dispossessed. Poverty was especially widespread among African Americans. The boom and the inequalities meant New York was a chaotic place, and much happened on the streets. A good many, native-born New Yorkers and immigrants alike, eked out a living as peddlers and hawkers. A dearth of reputable work also meant that many women found themselves forced into prostitution. The chapter then looks at the work of the reform movement, focusing on those like Charles Loring Brace who established homes for homeless newsboys. It likewise considers the formation of the City Reform League in 1852 in response to the rapacious ways of William Tweed and his fellow aldermen. Finally, the chapter highlights Fernando Wood's ascension as mayor of New York City, much of which was made possible by his control of the city's Municipal Police force and the support of street gangs such as the Dead Rabbits. His rule would lead to major riots along the city’s streets.
Maelstrom
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines New York during the American Civil War. Northern support for the South almost immediately evaporated following the bombing of Fort Sumter, and many citizens who had previously backed that region's interests joined the Union cause. Democrats like William Tweed and those in Tammany Hall who supported the struggle became known as “War Democrats.” Meanwhile, “Peace Democrats” like Mayor Fernando Wood couched their backing of the federal government with talk of negotiation and reconciliation with the South and the continuation of slavery. After the initial shock to New York's economy, the city, like the nation, geared up for war. Indeed, New York was transformed into a military industrial juggernaut that stoked the Union Army's arsenal. Enlistment stations popped up around town, with various regiments preparing and veteran corps organizing. Men soon headed for war. Some departed not long after Fort Sumter's surrender, and fought in the First Battle of Bull Run. However, what many believed would be a brief and splendid war ended up being anything but.
The Place of Punishment
Authors: Beckett Katherine 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The continued use of prisons and jails at historically high levels in rural and suburban areas is sustaining mass incarceration. Although urban counties have far higher crime rates, criminal legal authorities in suburban and rural counties send a much greater share of the people who are arrested on felony charges to prison. Counties with higher levels of social disadvantage, more conservative electorates, and larger Black populations have higher prison admission rates after controlling for crime-related problems. Even after taking all of these factors into account, however, rural and suburban counties have comparatively high prison admission rates. If rural and suburban counties matched urban counties in terms of their use of prison, prison admissions would be reduced by roughly one-third. While geographic variation in the propensity to punish increasingly falls along urban/nonurban lines, it is made possible by the existence of tough sentencing laws that enable zealous prosecutors and judges to impose severe penalties.
The Limits of Recent Drug Policy Reforms
Authors: Beckett Katherine 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Judging by historical standards, it appears that the drug war is alive and well. This chapter identifies several factors that explain why recent drug policy reforms have had such a modest impact on drug arrests and incarceration. First, state lawmakers have focused overwhelmingly on reducing penalties for drug possession, but people who were convicted of this specific offense comprise a very small share (3.5 percent) of the prison population. Second, while reducing the use of confinement in cases involving drug distribution could have a more meaningful impact on the scale of incarceration, policy is moving in the opposite direction. Third, the ongoing commitment to drug war practices in rural and suburban areas is sustaining high drug arrest rates and incarceration. Finally, one of the most pervasive kinds of drug policy reforms—reliance on drug courts—is likely increasing rather than reducing drug arrests and incarceration. There is also evidence that drug courts enhance racial disparities in drug case outcomes.
A White Man’s World
Authors: Byman Daniel 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Abstract: For most of the post-Reconstruction era, whites enjoyed political, social, and economic dominance in America, and lynchings and other brutality was common. When challenges arose from immigration and, especially, civil rights, white supremacist organizations like the Ku Klux Klan arose to combat them. Such groups, however, saw themselves as defenders of the social order and often worked with law enforcement or with its tacit approval. The civil rights movement of the 1950s and 1960s, however, shattered white dominance. Through peaceful resistance, it transformed American politics and led to outrage against once-tolerated white supremacist violence. This, in turn, led to political pressure on the U.S. government to end the violence, and the FBI, at times working with and through state officials, began a devastating crackdown against various Klan chapters and like-minded groups. Government lawsuits and those of civil society organizations like the Southern Poverty Law Center impoverished many white supremacist organizations, creating new strains on the overall movement. Together, such efforts reduced the political influence of white supremacists and would make them more radical, opposed to the order they once championed.
Strategies of White Supremacy and the Weaknesses of the Cause
Authors: Byman Daniel 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
White supremacists have employed a variety of means to increase their influence on society and impose their hateful agenda. In the post–civil rights era, avowedly white supremacist candidates have failed in elections, especially in the United States, though some of their ideas have moved toward the mainstream. Because peaceful politics have largely failed, white supremacists have tried to foster a race war, use violence to spark an uprising, accelerate what they see as the inevitable collapse of a multiracial system, intimidate minorities, and create a separate homeland. Many white supremacists fall back on leaderless resistance, which makes violent individuals harder to identify and arrest but compounds the movement’s strategic problems. Although they fall short of their most ambitious goals, white supremacists have nevertheless proven able to shape political discourse and otherwise increase their influence in smaller ways.
Institutionalizing a Partisan-Gender Identity
Authors: Wineinger Catherine N. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 examines the collective action of Republican congresswomen. Through case studies of the Congressional Caucus for Women’s Issues (CCWI) and the Republican Women’s Policy Committee (RWPC), the chapter demonstrates how institutional and political changes over time have shaped the recognition and mobilization of a partisan-gender identity among Republican women. The first half of the chapter examines the evolution of CCWI membership, focusing on Republican women. It shows how ideological differences, party loyalty, and institutional changes have affected Republican congresswomen’s decisions to work within the bipartisan women’s caucus. The second half of the chapter discusses how this partisan-gender identity would gradually become institutionalized as the RWPC. Through an analysis of the formation of the RWPC, it shows how ideological cohesion, interparty competition, and changes in the political environment have resulted in opportunities for women to organize collectively within the GOP. Chapter 4 also reveals the various challenges faced by Republican congresswomen and the significance of male party leaders as gatekeepers.