bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Administration of Losses
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal 
Published: September 2022

AbstractElectricity transmission and distribution losses are the portion of electricity supplied to a distribution system that are not billed to consumers. Losses are an important feature of a distribution system that can be analyzed in multiple ways related to the infrastructural state. Most straightforwardly, they are important to the cash flows of the sector for all the reasons discussed in Chapter 2. The unevenness of the electricity sector across the entirety of Pakistan reflects a long history of uneven development as practiced by the federal government. This chapter focuses on the unevenness of the infrastructural state within four districts centered on the city of Lahore through a statistical analysis of operational data from the Lahore Electric Supply Company (LESCO). As governance is so uneven in these core areas, reliance on formal written institutions or adjustments to them are unlikely to produce the desired governance outcomes.
Negotiating Formality in Islamabad’sKatchi Abadis
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal 
Published: September 2022

AbstractSecuring access to infrastructure is a central theme in the lives of the urban poor in the Global South. This is most evident in the large—and growing—squatter settlements, where the absence of property ownership is typically grounds for denying basic services such as electricity⁠ to residents. The politics of squatter settlements are invariably bound up in their fight to secure those services. Multilateral and bilateral development actors have embraced neoliberal approaches to poverty reduction that work from the principle that poverty reduction can be pursued by bestowing formal and secure property rights for the poor. Consequently, it is common to see programs that propose the relocation of squatters from urban centers and offer secure tenure on compensatory plots as an incentive for relocation. This chapter challenges the widespread assumption that more formal rights are always and necessarily better for the urban poor.
Conclusion
Authors: Naqvi Ijlal 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter concludes the book and has four major objectives. It first summarizes the key points of the book by building up from the individual level of analysis to the national challenges. Second, it brings the apex field of national power into the picture of this book’s study of the state in Pakistan. Third, it provides some original ideas toward addressing key challenges of the power sector. Finally, it discusses the recent influx of Chinese investments in the Pakistani power sector as part of the China–Pakistan Economic Corridor (CPEC), which is the flagship effort leading the rollout of the Belt and Road Initiative.
Citizenship and Its Alternatives
Authors: Bryen Ari Z. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter attempts to provide a model for connecting the history of personal status with the history of governmentality. It traces a process that begins with intrusions of Roman citizens into the eastern provinces and ends, perhaps paradoxically, with provincial subjects asserting their rights. The two processes, the chapter argues, are connected, though not in the ways that current scholarship on citizenship might lead one to expect. The Roman state, largely for pragmatic and fiscal reasons, was highly concerned with the inequities that emerged from waves of privileged citizens acquiring large amounts of wealth and, perhaps more important, engaging in brutal behavior with respect to subject populations. Subject populations were similarly concerned and developed, in collaboration with Roman governors, a robust language for protecting their rights—the language of subjecthood.
Roman Citizenship, Marriage, and Family Networks
Authors: Lavan Myles 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines the legal regime governing the status of children of Romans and non-Romans and considers its role in shaping family networks in the provinces. The first section reviews two key principles of Roman law: the rule established by the lex Minicia that the offspring of a mixed union took the status of the “inferior” partner and the ban on testation to peregrines. The second section traces the evolution of these rules over the long second century, stressing the modest scale of efforts to mitigate their prejudicial effects on mixed unions. The two principles remained intact at the time of Caracalla’s grant. The third section supplements the legal analysis with concrete examples from inscriptions and papyri of peregrine children of Roman parents, proving the operation of the first principle through to the end of the second century. The fourth section examines the effects of the legal regime on the structure of family networks in the provinces. It presents evidence that Roman law did have the expected effect of promoting endogamy among Roman families in non-Roman communities; there are mixed unions but fewer than we would expect. The chapter ends by noting the paradox that the strict rules about the transmission of status and property made Roman citizenship a potentially burdensome constraint but also, indirectly, an advantageous status, insofar as it gave preferential access to a network of families that had disproportionate access to patronage and control of capital.
Manumission, Citizenship, and Inheritance
Authors: MacLean Rose 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines the social contexts in which formal manumission (manumissio iusta) distinguished citizens from non-citizens in the provincial West. In the absence of reliable onomastic criteria, testation and heirship are used as markers of citizenship among epigraphically attested liberti/ae, with some important exceptions. Patterns of testation to freed citizens are analyzed in a corpus of 466 Latin inscriptions from the Danube that document testators with identifiable heirs. Non-Roman civilians and auxiliary soldiers almost never appear with freed heirs. Veterans appear with at least one freed heir more frequently than do citizen soldiers and Roman civilians (24 percent vs. 12 percent and 17 percent, respectively). Among twenty-eight freed testators, nearly half instituted another freed person as heir. These epigraphic phenomena can be explained by a combination of social, juridical, and cultural factors
Documenting Roman Citizenship
Authors: Dolganov Anna 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines Roman state documentation practices with regard to Roman citizenship—and, more generally, civic and legal status—in the empire before the Constitutio Antoniniana. In the story of the apostle Paul, a Hellenized Jew traveling far from his home province makes claims of Roman citizenship that are accepted by Roman officials. How did the inhabitants of the empire go about asserting and proving claims of privileged status? To what extent were Roman administrators capable of verifying the civic and legal status of individuals? Documents from Roman Egypt suggest new answers to these questions. A confrontation of papyrological sources with evidence from other provinces points to the progressive development of a differentiated, centralized, and, by premodern standards, remarkably functional system of retrievable records that gave imperial and local officials an effective means to verify status claims and regulate membership in fiscally privileged status groups. The functionality of Roman record-keeping institutions has been greatly underestimated, and their impact and implications await further investigation.
Romans, Aliens, and Others in Dynamic Interaction
Authors: Ando Clifford 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines structures, policies, and situations in which the citizen–alien distinction was regularly confounded, as well as persons whose lives the discourse of citizenship systematically effaced. Particular attention is given to minority populations within city-states that were granted limited rights to observe their own norms. The best attested such populations are local communities of Judaeans. Also examined are rituals that Romans and locals performed alongside one another, most particularly the swearing of the annual loyalty oath to the emperor, as well as court systems, where Romans and others often found themselves on the opposite sides in a dispute—and also together constituting single juries.
Debt in Service of the State
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe authors begin their discussion of sovereign debt with the role of debt in state building and survival. This chapter covers the period from the earliest evidence of sovereign borrowing (in Classical Greece) to the sixteenth century. Throughout this period, the main purpose of state borrowing was to finance warfare, especially in Europe, a continent where war was endemic. War being risky, sovereigns had to devise ways of convincing creditors to part with their money: from forced loans to pledging collateral. Small Italian city-states, which were organized as creditors’ republics, had an early advantage here, but this was later replicated by modern nation-states. The chapter describes how debt once closely held by bankers came to be traded more widely, and how the emergence of markets for trading debt securities invigorated private finance and fostered commercial and economic development.
Cycles of Debt
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James 
Published: September 2022

AbstractBetween 1945 and the 1970s, the advanced economies underwent a long period of debt consolidation, facilitated by economic growth, fiscal restraint, and financial repression. Rapid productivity gains in the United States and catch-up growth elsewhere resulted in “thirty glorious years” of growth. Capital controls, credit regulation, and accommodating central banks created a captive market for government debt. Since interest rates remained below growth rates, governments could reconcile social spending with budget balance. Overall, debt-to-GDP ratios fell by more than two-thirds from their postwar highs. The oil shocks of the 1970s then inaugurated a period of slower growth, larger budget deficits, and rising debts. Developing countries, in contrast, started out with lower debt ratios and borrowed more modestly, until the oil shocks reversed these trends. From this point, developing nations borrowed heavily abroad, from money-center banks that recycled petrodollars. This debt cycle ended in tears, with a Latin America debt crisis, painful deleveraging, and poor growth for a decade.
Oil and Water
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter describes how emerging economies rebounded from the late 1980s and reentered the global debt market, building on their experience with Brady bonds. However, the 1997–98 East Asian crisis was a brutal reminder that external borrowing had to be carefully managed. Among the lessons from the crisis was a realization that currency and maturity mismatches exposed governments and banks to serious risks in the event of capital flight. Following the crisis, policymakers in emerging economies accumulated foreign exchange reserves and sought to create local-currency markets for public debt. This addressed some structural fragilities but ignored others, such as excessive dependence on domestic banks, a problem that would return with a vengeance in the new millennium.
Missed Opportunities
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe two decades preceding the Global Financial Crisis are known as the “Great Moderation.” Over its course, most advanced countries made progress on debt consolidation. Debt ratios came down, mainly as a result of concerted efforts to run budget surpluses. In Europe, qualifying for the single currency added extra incentive, since membership in Europe’s monetary union required a country to keep its deficit low and to reduce its debt. An exception to the trend was Japan, where a real estate bubble and unfavorable demographics resulted in stagnation and the largest-ever peacetime increase in public debt. Fiscal prudence then receded in the 2000s, when debt started piling up again. In hindsight, this pro-cyclicality was ill-advised. When the subprime crisis hit, governments lacked fiscal space.
COVID-19
Authors: Eichengreen Barry , El-Ganainy Asmaa , Esteves Rui , Mitchener Kris James 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe fiscal response to COVID-19 was striking for not just its scale but also its speed. Six months into the pandemic, G20 governments had committed $15 trillion in fiscal support. Central banks again played a crucial part by backstopping the market in public debt. The crisis also challenged long-held German debt aversion and upended the impasse over debt mutualization in Europe. More uncertain was the prognosis for developing nations, some of which came out of the crisis with unsustainable debt burdens. Although questions were understandably raised about how economies emerging from the pandemic would deal with elevated debt burdens, COVID-19 once more highlighted the role of debt in enabling governments to meet existential crises.
Introduction
Authors: Nelson Chad E. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractChapter 1 sets the book in the larger context of the debate over whether ideological differences between states, differences in how rule is legitimated domestically, affect their relations. While an “ideological” tradition insists on the importance of these differences, much of international relations scholarship explicitly or implicitly rejects this. The chapter argues that a better question is why ideological differences matter, when, and how much. One key mechanism for ideological differences mattering is when leaders fear that an opposing ideology will spread to overtake their own polity. The domestic contagion effects theory in this book explains when this is salient and what the international effects are.
Communist and Fascist Revolutions in Europe
Authors: Nelson Chad E. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter applies the domestic contagion effects theory to the Russian communist revolution and the Italian fascist revolution. It finds a significant socialist movement in France, Germany, and Italy, with Britain somewhat ambiguous. Most great powers were hostile toward the Bolsheviks, but Germany was more complicated. Regarding the Italian Revolution, only Germany had a significant fascist movement, but even in that case, there was little concern about contagion—rather, states focused on the threat from the left rather than the right. Although there are some anomalies for the theory, contagion effects explain important aspects of the period that otherwise would be puzzling.
The Islamic Revolution and the Middle East
Authors: Nelson Chad E. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter applies the domestic contagion effects theory to the response of the leading powers in the Middle East to the Iranian Revolution. The author finds that there was a significant Islamist revolutionary movement in Iraq, Syria, and Egypt, but not in Saudi Arabia at first. Correspondingly, there were contagion concerns in Iraq, Egypt, and Saudi Arabia when they had a significant revolutionary movement there, which prompted hostility toward the revolutionary state and cooperation with each other. This did not apply to Syria, however. In addition, Iran’s actions as a platform were significant in causing the Iran-Iraq War.
The Geopolitical Context of Cultural Heritage Destruction
Authors: Paludan-Müller Carsten 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Intentional destruction of cultural heritage during conflict often happens because heritage constitutes a strong link between cultural groups and geography. Geopolitics offers a perspective for examining how values ascribed to cultural heritage relate to territory on a global to local scale through time. During the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, geopolitics became a way of understanding the implications of control over certain territories and seas. But after World War II it vanished out of focus. When the system controlled by the two hegemons USA and USSR collapsed around 1989, re-emerging narratives of conflict relating to history, culture, and identity substituted the economic, social, and ideological conflict narratives of the Cold War and added new interest in geopolitics. With a weakening international order and the collapse of a number of nation-states as primary organizers of identity and territorial belonging combined with the identity-focused narratives of contemporary conflicts, cultural heritage (re)emerges as crucial references for mooring collective identities to geography. Hence, cultural heritage has come into focus as symbolic rallying points for manifestation of identities and conflicts between them, since conflicts often follow or feed on historic themes. This is why heritage is often purposefully destroyed during conflict and why its eventual reconstruction may or may not help post-conflict reconciliation. To illustrate these theoretical points, this chapter uses examples from the Ottoman Empire and its collapse and transformations during the twentieth century—a process that still casts long shadows throughout the regions, Eurocentrically referred to as “Europe’s ring of fire.”
German Diction
Authors: Adams David 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents the sounds of German: vowels, consonants, diphthongs, and glides, along with the relevant phonetic symbols, and explains diacritical marks (umlaut), vowel length, basic word structure, and word stress. More detail about word structure is presented later in the chapter, specifically information about prefixes and suffixes and how they affect words stress and vowel quality. It presents and discusses words of non-Germanic origin, which function quite differently from words of Germanic origin, and presents monosyllabic words and polysyllabic words that are exceptions to usual patterns. There are extensive examples of words with translations and phonetic transcriptions, as well as musical examples. It discusses usage of glottal separation in German speech and singing. Problematic sequences of consonant sounds are presented and discussed, with practical suggestions for their execution. Resources for German and sample vocal texts with phonetic transcriptions and translations are provided. There are several exercises interspersed throughout the chapter.
Descartes in Context
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis collection of essays focuses on some pivotal theses in Cartesian philosophy, examining them in light of the philosophical context and of essential reference authors for seventeenth-century intellectuals. These include Scholastic thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Suárez; classical writers such as Galen; authors contemporary to Descartes, such as Campanella and Silhon; and philosophers who referred to Cartesian philosophy, such as La Forge and Malebranche. By considering their influence and contributions, it is possible to clarify some basic theses of Cartesian philosophy and to answer some long-debated questions in Descartes scholarship pertaining to issues such as the intuitive character of the proof of God’s existence, the presence of the theory of the free creation of eternal truths in the hypothesis of divine deception, the limits of divine power, the theory of animals as machines, and the possible Cartesian origin of some central theses in Occasionalism.
Descartes’ Innatism as Anti-Augustinianism
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractScholars have often spoken of “Augustinianism” in relation to Descartes’ theory of knowledge. Instead, this chapter intends to prove that Cartesian innatism involves a clear rejection of the Augustinian theory of knowledge. Augustine himself, searching for a suitable theory to explain knowledge of necessary and eternal truths, had rejected innatism, in the form of Platonic reminiscence, in favor of the participation of human mind in uncreated truth. Moreover, innatism had acquired a strong anti-Augustinian characterization with Aquinas. Although Aquinas rejects innatism for man, it is to this Platonic model of knowledge that he resorts when it comes to defining angels’ knowledge. Angel’s natural knowledge consists of innate ideas, independent of vision in the Word. Consequently, innatism becomes a kind of natural knowledge, as opposed to vision in God, which can be reached only via supernatural intervention. According to Descartes, the human mind, like the angel’s mind in Aquinas, knows by connatural ideas and attains the truth, even though it is separated from the divine understanding. For an attentive reader of Aquinas, innatism evokes not only angelic knowledge but also the refusal to base the search for truth on vision in God and Augustinian illumination. The proof a contrario is given by Malebranche, who regards innatism precisely as the enemy of Augustinian illumination.
Divine Deception in Descartes’Meditations
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe notion of divine deception evoked by Descartes in the First Meditation has frequently been interpreted in light of the Cartesian theory of the free creation of eternal truths. However, numerous elements disprove this hypothesis. First of all the very structure of the Meditations, which assumes that the path to the discovery of truth begins with established knowledge and common prejudices. Secondly, in accordance with the prejudices of common Aristotelian philosophy, the theory of mathematics present in the First Meditation views mathematical concepts as ideas abstracted from external bodies and not as eternal essences, as the free creation of eternal truths supposes. Furthermore, the theory of error developed by Suárez in the Disputationes metaphysicae helps to interpret the concept of divine deception without having to invoke God’s power to create the truth.
TheReplies to the Seventh Set of Objections, the Skeptic’s Duties, and the Circle
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe Seventh Set of Objections with the Author’s Replies is a Cartesian text that has hardly ever been made the focus of in-depth analysis in discussions concerning the circular reasoning into which Descartes allegedly falls when trying to find a way out of the radical doubt laid out in the First Meditation. However, the distinction between the clarity and distinction of an idea and the appearance of clarity and distinction of the same idea—a distinction which Descartes invokes in order to respond to the objections raised by the author of the Sixth Objections—offers an interpretive key capable of disproving this accusation of circularity.
Descartes and False Ideas
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractIn the Third Meditation Descartes introduces the notion of true and false ideas. The latter category has attracted considerable scholarly attention, especially because of the difficulty of reconciling the theory of misconceptions set out in the Third Meditation with the replies to the Objections that Arnauld addressed to Descartes on this subject. Indeed, Descartes made significant changes to the theory of the material falsity of ideas in his replies to Arnauld. These changes are particularly evident in light of what presumably served as Descartes’ source of inspiration, namely the theory developed by Suárez about the entities of reason. A hypothesis is put forward as to the reason for these changes.