bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Huq Aziz Z. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The introduction of the book sets out the present state of constitutional remedies in US federal courts by contrasting two different recent cases. In one case, a victim of police violence received no hearing at all, despite being badly hurt by actions that were very likely illegal. In the second case, a law firm challenged antifraud regulation, expressing the hypothetical concern that the president might not be able to fire the relevant regulator consistent with the Constitution. That case received a hearing and prevailed. These cases, the introduction explains, show a deep schism in the present system of constitutional remedies. It argues that these differences have to be understood in light of the deeper structure and history of courts in the United States.
The planning theory of individual and shared intentional agency
Authors: Bratman Michael E. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents planning theories of individual temporally extended agency and of shared intentional agency. It highlights norms of plan rationality and the framework-providing roles of prior, partial plans. Following a strategy of sufficiency, it describes—in the spirit of work of H. P. Grice—a plan-theoretic construction of shared intention. This construction involves each publicly and interdependently intending the joint activity by way of the intentions of each, meshing subplans, and mutual responsiveness. This chapter highlights the interplay of this construction with norms of plan rationality. It discusses complexities in extending this model to larger scale cases. It introduces the idea of authority according shared intention. And it defends a weaker connection between shared intention and mutual obligation than that proposed by Margaret Gilbert.
Institutional intentional agents
Authors: Bratman Michael E. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter moves from institutional intention to institutional intentional agency. Institutional intentions are robust with respect to changes in participating individuals. Further—drawing on Frankfurt’s idea of an agent’s standpoint—robust institutional intentions can be central to an institutional standpoint whose functioning can constitute the intentional agency of that institution. This is a path between collapsing institutional intentional agency into shared intentional agency and requiring a dense holistic institutional subject. The account is offered as a constructive, not eliminative, reduction of institutional agency. Given the possibility of disagreement and partiality within an institution, an institution may be rationally guided by an institutional intention and act intentionally even though it does not act for a reason of its own. And the theory helps articulate multiple ways in which rule-guided organized institutions can involve, or fail to involve, social unity.
Introduction
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the ongoing American experiment in guaranteeing religious freedom to all through law. It summarizes the founding principles of religious freedom forged from 1776 to 1791 and the four eras of religious freedom jurisprudence in the Supreme Court of the United States. From 1791 to 1940, the Court offered little First Amendment protection, finding no free exercise or establishment clause violations. From 1940 to 1990, the Court applied the religion clauses rigorously to review the laws of federal, state, and local governments alike, finding numerous violations. From 1990 to 2015, the Court relaxed its free exercise and establishment clause review, favoring statutory and state protections of religion that it enforced strictly. In its most recent cases, however, the Court has begun to strengthen its free exercise protections for religious individuals and groups that have challenged public health, sexual liberty, and educational funding decisions that have discriminated against religion.
The Theology and Politics of the Religion Clauses
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the four major views on religious freedom that dominated the eighteenth-century American founding era. We label these views Puritan, Evangelical, Enlightenment, and Civic Republican. Exponents of these four positions often found common cause and used common language, particularly during the constitutional convention and ratification debates from 1776 to 1791. Yet each group offered its own distinct teachings on religious freedom and had its own preferences for how to implement religious freedom in state and federal laws. Together, these groups held up the four corners of a wide canopy of opinions about religious freedom in eighteenth-century American. The founders’ original intent or understanding of religious freedom cannot be reduced to any one of these four views. It must be sought in the tensions among them and in the general principles of religious freedom that emerged from their interaction.
The Essential Rights and Liberties of Religion
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter distils the six main interlinking principles of religious freedom collectively embraced by the eighteenth-century American founders – liberty of conscience, free exercise of religion, religious pluralism, religious equality, separation of church and state, and disestablishment of (at least a national) religion. It shows the different and sometimes competing logics that the founders used to support these principles, and the expression and application of these principles in the new state constitutions of the 1770s and 1780s. The chapter traces the roots and routes of these religious freedom principles in the earlier Western legal tradition, but also shows how the principles of religious equality for all peaceable faiths and no establishment of any religion by law were largely new creations and distinctive features of the American constitutional experiment.
Modern Establishment Law
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a concise account of the basic procedural and other features of cases involving the First Amendment’s establishment clause. It carefully reviews the clause’s text and describes the various justiciability and other doctrines, including “standing,” that govern the resolution of such cases. The chapter introduces and reviews the variety of approaches the Supreme Court has taken when resolving different factual categories of cases. These approaches include separationism, accommodationism, neutrality, endorsement, coercion, equal treatment, and tradition. This chapter sets up the subsequent three chapters (Chapters 9, 10, and 11) by previewing the evolution and development of the Court’s doctrines in a range of factual contexts.
The Politics of Early Years and Family Policy Investments in North America
Authors: Prentice Susan , White Linda A. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The chapter examines the North American variant of social investment, focusing on early years and family policy investments in the United States and Canada. Political, economic, and institutional factors differentiate both countries from European and even other liberal welfare states. These include a policy paradigm rooted in a liberal welfare state tradition, an electoral system governed by single-member plurality voting that has historically permitted largely centrist-conservative governments to win elected office, a largely two-party and increasingly ideologically polarized party system in the United States (and a more moderate two-party-plus system in Canada), and decentralized decision-making under federalism. The chapter also examines the key factors that contribute to variation between and within Canada and the United States including Québec exceptionalism, stronger social democratic party influence in Canada, along with more influential civil society actors including organized labor unions, women’s groups, and childcare advocacy organizations. In the United States, in contrast, the relatively weaker trade unions and the stronger conservative social movements and organized interests, including conservative family organizations, claim a large part of the policy space.
Culminating Developments
Authors: Jacobs Nicholas , Milkis Sidney M. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the politics of executive-centered partisanship as it played out during the presidencies of Barack Obama and Donald Trump. The pathologies traced in earlier chapters reached a troubling stage during President Obama’s tenure, but it reached a hazardous culmination during the campaign and administration of Donald Trump. These presidencies are defined by their embrace of movement-style politics, administrative unilateralism, and presidential policymaking. Far from realizing the pragmatic, transcendent leadership that presidentialists once envisioned, Obama and Trump demonstrate how the exercise of presidential power now exacerbates the country’s partisan divide. This chapter, while comparative, places greater emphasis on Donald Trump’s administration and offers further evidence of conservative “state-building,” which is especially volatile in the current party system.
Murder Most Foul, 1960–1975
Authors: Johnson Loch K. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 further unspools the historical thread for covert action. It focuses initially on the Eisenhower administration’s adoption of assassination as a means of advancing US interests in Africa. On the heels of a chilling initiative in the Congo came the first major setback for covert action in the modern era, a paramilitary operation at the Bay of Pigs in Cuba during the Kennedy administration. This chapter examines the many CIA assassination attempts against the life of Cuba’s leader, Fidel Castro. All of them failed, even when the CIA hired US mobsters as professional hitmen—a low moral point in the US government’s choices of foreign policy options. The chapter also examines efforts by the Nixon administration to overthrow the regime of Salvador Allende in Chile.
A New Approach to Covert Action, 1975–2000
Authors: Johnson Loch K. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The capsule history of the Third Option continues in Chapter 5. Among the important clandestine interventions probed here are the Reagan administration’s strong embrace of this approach in Iran, Nicaragua, Afghanistan (against the Soviet Red Army), and Poland. Covert actions after 1975 were subjected to new laws and guidelines, most notably the Hughes-Ryan Act. This law required formal presidential approval of covert actions—no more plausible denial—as well as reports to congressional oversight committees. Some semblance of democracy had now entered the secret side of America’s foreign policy activities. Despite these new rules, though, the Reagan administration brought the CIA to its lowest point with the Iran-contra scandal of the mid-1980s.
Legal Foundations
Authors: Johnson Loch K. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
In Chapter 7, the legal foundations for the Third Option are perused: the set of executive orders and statutes that have shaped America’s hidden interventions abroad. At first, these official guidelines were flimsy and based solely on executive orders, until covert action was finally addressed in a series of landmark laws enacted from the mid-1970s to the early 1980s—some three decades after the CIA launched its first clandestine operations in 1947. Even in the aftermath of enacting these unprecedented intelligence oversight laws, ambiguities have persisted over the proper legal boundaries for the Third Option. Moreover, from time to time, presidential administrations have chosen simply to ignore the established statutory limits. These forms of the “imperial presidency” represent a deeply troubling failure of democracy within the most concealed recesses of America’s government.
On Extant Definitions
Authors: Parietti Guido 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the basic terms of conceptual analysis, which will inform the rest of the work, rejecting the widespread tendency to construct concepts instrumentally or teleologically. The chapter examines previous attempts to define “power”— focusing on the works of Robert Dahl, Peter Bachrach and Morton Baratz, Steven Lukes, Michel Foucault, and Peter Morriss, which have all become classics in the “power debate”—explaining how and why they failed to capture our concept. The chapter then defends the relevance of attempting a conceptual definition from possible objections—here chiefly represented by Mark Haugaard—concerning circular definitions and conceptual pluralism, which, if not refuted as they shall be, could render moot the inquiry pursued throughout the book.
Power and Political Theory
Authors: Parietti Guido 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the implications of understanding the concept of power for political philosophy. If political science largely reduces possibility to necessity by employing probability to establish causality, theorists and philosophers show a parallel tendency to use normative teleologies to keep the unpredictability of politics under control. The tendency to reduce power to its negative aspects and oppose it to freedom is discussed and criticized, with particular attention to the conceptual incongruities produced by the prevailing “liberal” (broadly meant) framework. Then, critical theory’s opposite but parallel attempt to write positive normative connotations into “power” is examined through the examples of Habermas and Forst. Both “negative” and “positive” views of power are shown to misunderstand the concept of power and its relation with normativity, ultimately by reiterating different conflation with the idea of potentiality.
#Ebola
Authors: Cottingham Marci D. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Turning to the case of the 2013–2016 Ebola epidemic, this chapter examines how emotions are mediated through news and social media. An emotion practice approach highlights how various, overlapping emotions flow in these digital spaces during a time of uncertainty and risk. Despite the abstract nature of digital interactions, embodied feelings and the threat of real bodily harm remain relevant to how social media users respond. News media can emphasize fear. But Twitter users are not simply passive or malicious. They often follow well-established practices of humor and frivolity by playfully using the outbreak to develop sarcastic and humorous responses that are valued in Twitter’s economy of likes and retweets. These responses can resist a sense of hopelessness amid a crisis and generate energy and community. Looking at digital emotions through the lens of practice theory explains why users turn to humor and frivolity in times of crisis.
The Whirl
Authors: Bivins Jason C. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter chronicles the history of what the book calls the Whirl, the digital atmosphere enabling the circulation of digital outrage and the deluge of information that is inextricably linked to contemporary politics. Set in a larger history of information’s exponential expansion, the bulk of the chapter’s chronicle parallels that of the previous chapter: the middle of the twentieth century to the present. Of particular relevance to Embattlement is how an increase of information has also produced a growth in dissension, paranoia, and conspiracy theory. In anticipation of the book’s case studies, the chapter explores the implications these developments have for discourse, suasion, and public life. Finally, the chapter explores how the Whirl produces emotional states that make it difficult to conceptualize politics meaningfully, which helps explain the appeal of Embattlement’s manufactured outrages.
Worrying about Scars
Authors: Bivins Jason C. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Democracies are rooted in conceptions of personhood shaped by the promise of authenticity. Precisely what authenticity means, however, is rarely questioned, and the result is that Americans have unconsciously assumed it to entail maximal self-expression and personal triumph. This chapter explores the controversies surrounding talk-show host Glenn Beck in order to uncover assumptions about religious authenticity which, when not interrogated, preserve the conditions creating religious outrage. Beck ascended to public prominence during the Obama presidency not only because of a particular social critique but because of his emotional intensity, which was marketed as authenticity. Beck’s tearful claims that America was on the edge of ruin, because of Christianity’s minority treatment, were as fervently embraced as they were denounced. The focus on these claims themselves, though, avoids reckoning with a conception of authenticity shorn of Beck’s connection with the politics and religion of personalism.
Recovering Reputation
Authors: Avgousti Andreas 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Reputation matters. This is the general consensus among social scientists on matters ranging from judgments about the character of political candidates to the image nation-states project to domestic and foreign audiences. And this is as it should be in democratic polities that run on opinion, for reputation is a species of opinion. But reputation is also a cause of concern for democratic citizens. We worry that political appearances are highly artificial, stage-managed affairs and that the rhetoric of people power is mere window dressing for what is in fact rule by elites. Our concerns find an echo in the fourth-century bce democratic Athens and, specifically, in the dialogues of Plato. This book works with and through Plato’s writings to proceed from an initial and rather cynical view of reputation as a concern of the few, to a more optimistic one about its potential in a democratic context. It shows Plato’s interlocutors engage the many by either undermining their judgment or by challenging it. Whereas prominent Athenian citizens such as Socrates in the Apology and Gorgias undermine demotic judgment and diminish its value, marginal citizens such as the philosopher in the Theaetetus and noncitizen residents such as Cephalus of Syracuse challenge the many while still seeking their praise, thereby permitting reputation’s demotic potential to emerge. The non-democratic constitutions Plato outlines also bear witness to the demotic power of reputation, an ancillary to philosophical rule in the Republic and central to the mixed constitution of the Laws.
Cephalus’ Challenge to the Many
Authors: Avgousti Andreas 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 demonstrates how Cephalus of Syracuse, as he appears, acts, and speaks to Socrates in the Republic, acknowledges without dismissing the demotic power of reputation. The Syracusan apes Themistocles, one of the most successful Athenian general-statesmen. A foreign metic, he presents himself as an outstanding craftsman and challenges the collective assumptions of the many about craftsmanship and moneymaking. He also uses the nexus between wealth and kinship to privilege character as the determining cause of whether wealth is beneficial. Cephalus uses character instrumentally, to claim that he warrants a good reputation because of his success. We encounter him in the middle of his sacrifice to Household Zeus, a pious man who agrees that justice is telling the truth and paying one’s debts to men and to gods. His wealth puts him in a reciprocal relationship with men and gods, allowing us to see the ready connection between reputation and wealth.
Demotic Power and the Founder-Citizen in Magnesia
Authors: Avgousti Andreas 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Magnesia, the subject of chapter 6, is a regime that makes reputation a foundational and ongoing feature in its design. It shows how the city of the Laws molds its entire citizenry into athlete-warriors, educating their judgment accordingly. Its citizens are steeped in reputational judgments of praise and blame as each of them struggles to be virtuous and to have a reputation for being such; however, this encourages envy and slanderous practices, thereby risking disobedience to the laws. This destabilizing characteristic of Magnesia can be traced to its origins, and specifically to the sole political actor among the three interlocutors, Cleinias of Cnossos, the regime’s founder and future citizen who must pledge his reputation to it. The Laws teaches that the demotic power of reputation is pertinent to founding and to maintaining alike, and, additionally, that it cannot be confined within institutions when it is made key to their functioning.
Retaining the Old Episcopal Divinity
Authors: Griesel Jake 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
John Edwards of Cambridge (1637–1716) has typically been portrayed as a marginalized ‘Calvinist’ in an overwhelmingly ‘Arminian’ later Stuart Church of England. In Retaining the Old Episcopal Divinity, the author challenges this depiction of Edwards and the theological climate of his contemporary Church. The author demonstrates that Edwards was recognized in his own day and the immediately following generations as one of the pre-eminent conforming divines of the period, who featured prominently in notable theological controversies concerning contemporaries such as John Locke, Gilbert Burnet, Daniel Whitby, William Whiston, and Samuel Clarke. Despite some Arminian opposition, Edwards’ theological works are shown to have enjoyed a warm reception among sizeable segments of the established Church’s clergy, many of whom shared his Reformed convictions. Instead of a theological misfit, this study contends that the anti-Arminian Edwards was a decidedly mainstream churchman. The author’s reassessment has ramifications far beyond the figure of Edwards, however, and ultimately serves as a prism through which to visualize with much greater clarity the broader theological landscape of the later Stuart Church of England, and particularly the place of Reformed orthodoxy within it. It substantially develops recent research on the persisting vitality of Reformed theology within the post-Restoration Church by demonstrating to an unprecedented extent the sheer strength and numbers of Reformed conforming divines between the Restoration and the evangelical revivals. Finally, the author problematizes the idea that the post-Restoration Church developed a fairly homogeneous ‘Anglican’ identity, and argues instead that the Church in this period was theologically and ecclesio-politically variegated.
Edwards’ Early Works and the Socinian Controversy
Authors: Griesel Jake 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter first surveys Edwards’ early works, demonstrating how they were warmly received among his fellow clergy and enjoyed the patronage of some of the most senior English clergy and politicians, as well as the imprimaturs of the Cambridge establishment. It then pays particular attention to Edwards’ contribution to the so-called Socinian controversy of the 1690s, especially his feud with John Locke and his Reasonableness of Christianity, which Edwards accused of doctrinal minimalism and ‘Socinianism’. This chapter shows not only how Edwards was Locke’s chief critic and more responsible than anyone else for Locke’s enduring association with Socinianism, but also that his polemical works against ‘rational religion’ and Socinianism were met with general approbation even though—and to some extent because—they unambiguously made clear his Reformed convictions.