bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fracture Toughness Evaluation of Pre-1980’s Electric Resistance Welded Pipeline Seam Welds
Authors: Bagnoli Kenneth , Neeraj Thirumalai , Pioszak Greger , Holloman Ryan , Thorwald Gregory , Hay Clifford 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In the 1950’s and 1960’s, economic expansion in Europe and North America led to significant growth in transmission pipeline capacity. Thus, many pipelines in operation today were constructed prior to 1980 and result in an aging pipeline infrastructure. An important mechanical integrity threat affecting oil and gas pipelines is the potential for fast fracture of longitudinal seam welds. A major factor affecting fast fracture resistance involves the welding practices used prior to 1980. The most common method was low-frequency electric resistance welding (LF-ERW). Imperfections were more prevalent using LF-ERW compared with modern high-frequency electric resistance welding (HF-ERW), employed for the last 40 years. Another important factor is the steel quality produced during this era. High tramp element levels, particularly sulfur, led to lower and more variable fracture toughness than steels produced after about 1980. To effectively manage the risk of fast fracture a strong statistical understanding of quasi-static fracture toughness in pipeline steels is important but has been lacking. To advance integrity management of existing pipeline systems, the fracture toughness of vintage pipeline materials has been characterized by conducting 550 fracture toughness tests, collecting data from literature sources (25) [1] [2], and test results supplied from a secondary pipeline operator (45), for a total dataset of 620. The testing program included a wide range of manufacturers and fabrication years based on sampling over 30 individual pipelines. The results suggest that it is possible to treat pre-1980 pipeline steels/welds as a single cohort. This is valuable since toughness data for individual pipelines are often insufficient or not available. The test data was analyzed to provide input for either a deterministic or probabilistic analysis. Consideration for the constraint effects of specimen geometry was also investigated to address the transferability of test results to an axially oriented flaw in a thin walled 0.2–0.4in (5–10 mm) pipeline. Constraint was characterized by using J-Q and J-A2 theory in a 3D FE simulation. Finally, analysis of the weld microstructure provided fundamental insight into the operative fracture mechanisms responsible for their toughness properties.
Forced Resonance Imaging for 3-D Mapping of Underground Pipeline Assets
Authors: Xu Tianzong (David) , Bakhtar Khosrow 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Applications of a novel 3-D mapping and visualization technology for mapping underground natural gas plastic/metallic pipelines and improving pipeline assets management beyond the capability of other known technologies are presented. The developed technology is based on combining Radar and Forced-Resonance-Imaging (FRI) principles referred to as the Bakhtar Buried Pipe Detector (BPD) with its original platform developed under US Air Force SBIR programs referred to as “BakhtarRadar”. This extremely low-power (≤ 10 dBm) detection and volumetric imaging technology defines a new rapid and cost-effective approach that uses the ability of casing and related embedded contents to absorption of RF energy in certain quantum emission frequency bands as a means of determining their presence. Furthermore, it uses the absorbed energy to differentiate between buried metallic and plastic pipes and reconstruct 3-D volumetric images from buried targets.
The above-ground survey is conducted by scanning the application-specific sensor head (FR antennae) over the area of interest at controlled speed rate of 5–30 centimeters per seconds depending on the buried pipeline size, collecting sub-surface data, detecting the buried pipeline location followed by constructing 3-D mapping volumetric images in a rapid succession. The results provide uniquely defined high-resolution information on location and alignment, depth, type (metallic and/or plastic pipes), and dimensional details of buried pipelines. The field calibration and blind testing at PG&E’s service territory demonstrate BPD’s capability of collecting, screening, analyzing, managing, as well as integrating pipeline location data from multiple sources, such as utility operators, locating service providers, etc.
A Deep Dive Into the Use of LiDAR Change Detection Analysis for Regional Landslide Monitoring in the Appalachian Basin Region of the US
Authors: Theriault Bailey , Markley Christopher , Metzger Tara 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This paper will provide an overview of a monitoring approach that has proven critical for the long-term monitoring and assessment of high-density landslide areas along pipelines at a regional or system-wide scale: the use of repeat Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) surveys (i.e., LiDAR Change Detection Analysis). The strength of using LiDAR is the ability to “see” through trees and vegetation and produce a bare earth digital elevation model of a given slope. As such, LiDAR is one of the most powerful tools for identifying landslides where tree cover is present, such as in the Appalachian Basin region. Repeated acquisition of LiDAR data over time while encompassing the same area can be used for the identification of new or developing landslides, as well as for monitoring movement within known landslides. LiDAR Change Detection Analysis compares successive LiDAR datasets and shows the apparent changes in elevation between the two datasets. By comparing the ground elevations between two datasets, areas where ground movement has occurred since the previous dataset can be identified. This information can aid in identifying, revising, and prioritizing potential landslide threats over large areas.
A case study will be presented from the Appalachian Basin region of the United States, where there exists a high incidence of landslides. The case study will discuss how LiDAR Change Detection Analysis was used each year over a 4-year period along approximately 1,400 miles of pipeline to monitor for landslide movement and formation. The case study will summarize the total number per year and average number per mile of right-of-way per year, of landslides with indications of movement as well as newly identified landslides. In addition, the case study will explore possible correlations between annual regional precipitation and annual landslide movement.
Development of an Interactive E-Learning Geohazards Training Program for Pipeline Operations Personnel
Authors: Brant Logan , Zawacki Todd , Barnes Jane , McKenzie-Johnson Alexander 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Geohazards on pipeline right-of-way have the potential to threaten pipeline integrity and pose safety and environmental risks. Identification of geohazard sites is a necessary first step in the management of geohazards. Geohazard identification should be accomplished with a multi-dimensional approach that includes a combination of subject matter expert assessment, field observations by pipeline operations personnel, in-line inspections and aerial patrols. Pipeline operations personnel may require additional training to effectively perform this important function.
This paper describes a collaboration between an engineering consultant and a pipeline operator on the development of an hour-long interactive e-learning geohazards training program specifically designed for pipeline operations personnel. The development began by clearly establishing the learning objectives, the target audience, and the delivery format for the training. Topics covered in the training include why geohazards management is important for pipeline operations, common types of geotechnical, hydrotechnical, and third-party geohazards encountered on pipeline right-of-way, signs during field observations that may indicate the presence of potential geohazards and how to document and report field observations of potential geohazards.
The training was illustrated throughout with photographs showing real-world examples of geohazards on pipeline right-of-way. These photographs were contributed by subject matter experts who frequently perform field identification, assessment, monitoring and design mitigation measures for geohazards on pipeline right-of-way. The team prepared written narration read by a professional narrator. Additionally, the team prepared a series of ungraded knowledge check questions incorporated throughout the presentation and a graded 10-question course examination taken after completing the training to confirm participant comprehension. The final step of the development involved transitioning the course to Articulate Storyline software to allow for the course to be taken online. The training has been uploaded and integrated into the pipeline operator’s learning management system.
This paper shares the steps that went into developing this interactive e-learning geohazards training program and the operations improvements expected as a result of the expanded geohazard identification training for pipeline operations personnel.
Influence of Strain Hardening Model on the CorLAS™ Model for Cracked Pipelines
Authors: Zhang Xinfang , Lin Meng , Kainat Muntaseer , Yoosef-Ghodsi Nader , Leung Juliana Y. , Adeeb Samer 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Underground steel pipelines may experience failure due to the occurrence of cracks or crack-like anomalies as a result of internal and external factors such as manufacturing imperfection and geotechnical movement. Metallic materials like steel often undergo strain hardening as deformation increases. The strain hardening characteristics of materials are usually described by strain hardening models. Accurate approximations of the stress-strain curves are essential for numerical simulations. For pipelines containing longitudinally-oriented cracks, a software-based model often referred to as CorLAS™ is widely accepted and commonly used by the pipeline industry to estimate the failure pressures. In CorLAS™, the stress-strain behavior of pipeline steel is modeled based on a simple power-law relationship known as the Hollomon equation. However, the Hollomon model cannot characterize the full-range strain hardening behavior of metallic materials, which is an approximation by design. Additionally, the strain-hardening exponent, n, in the CorLAS™ model is estimated based on an expression using yield strength and ultimate tensile strength. By contrast, the n value in mathematical models such as the Ramberg-Osgood equation, Swift equation, Ludwik equation, Ludwigson equation can be evaluated by using curve-fitting regression techniques, i.e., fitting the experimental true stress versus true strain data to the empirical models. This paper reviews the most frequently used strain hardening formulas and explores the applicability and accuracy of these stress-strain models including the hardening exponent expression in CorLAS™ (Version 2). This is followed by a sensitivity study to investigate the effect of n on the failure pressure predicted by CorLAS™. The holistic accuracy of CorLAS in predicting burst pressure, compared to other widely accepted models, is not explored.
Management System Enabled ESG Performance
Authors: Jean Mark S. , Grant Eric 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Throughout the centuries, companies have faced a wide range of challenges and changes that have caused them to rethink their strategies and redesign their organizations. The recent focus on environmental, social, and governance (ESG) performance is one of the new challenges facing companies today. ESG builds on prior Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) reporting, adding additional structure and rigour to the process for disclosure. It is not the concept of ESG that is challenging, but the speed at which the public and other key stakeholders, including institutional investors and regulators, have endorsed it that creates the greatest issue for companies. It has affected their ability to attract investment, increases costs for borrowing as well as for insurance. This directly impacts a company’s ability to finance and get access to lower-cost capital for their growth and ongoing operations[1].
There are many different disclosure frameworks in place to support ESG improvement and reporting. These include including Global Reporting Initiative (GRI), Sustainability Accounting Standards Board (SASB), Task Force on Climate-related financial Disclosures (TCFD), United Nations (UN) Sustainability Goals, etc. with new frameworks being added and changes being made on a regular basis. While there are many different frameworks, many share a common objective of improved performance in one or more of the ESG pillars. This improvement is not intended to be acute, but rather demonstrate continual organizational improvement over time. To effectively meet ESG requirements, companies will have to demonstrate sustained improvements in defined ESG pillars, supported by:
• Defined ESG strategies;
• Established processes and consistent and progressive practices;
• Measurement, reporting, and leadership oversight; and
• Disclosure/Transparency (e.g. public reporting)[2]
As the recognition of ESG continues to grow, so too has the use of management systems, especially in the pipeline industry. Many companies are developing or have developed a management system to support their organization and operations. This is one of the key tools that companies can use to systematically improve their ESG performance. It provides the structure to support effective ESG risk identification, management, mitigation, and reporting, providing the necessary sustained improvement and governance oversight needed. Through a management system plan-do-check-act (PDCA) approach, ESG initiatives can be effectively planned, executed, reviewed, and reported to support ongoing improvement in both ESG as well existing operations.
The proposed paper will discuss the relationship between management systems and ESG how to leverage a management system to support systematic improvements in ESG performance and year-over-year improvement in ESG related metrics.
Assessing Internal Pitting Corrosion With Encoded Ultrasonic Scanning
Authors: Chen Joe , Li Yanping , Place Trevor , Aulin Axel , Galbraith Logan 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Internal corrosion is one of the main threats to pipeline integrity. For in-line inspection (ILI) based integrity programs, in-the-ditch non-destructive examination (NDE) data quality is imperative for ILI validation. NDE feature misclassification and/or depth inaccuracy can lead to unnecessary integrity actions such as unnecessary excavations, more frequent ILI, or increased risk to system integrity. Therefore, it is critical to ensure the accuracy of NDE data.
Ultrasonic Testing (UT) technology is the primary method to detect, characterize, and measure internal corrosion during in-ditch NDE. While studies have been conducted to understand various NDE technologies and capabilities associated with detecting, sizing, and classifying crack and external corrosion indications, less work has been published regarding field evaluation of internal corrosion indications.
In this study, real cases of liquid pipelines will be used to demonstrate the challenges in detecting, characterizing and sizing internal corrosion using current UT technologies. The cases show that improper NDE technique selection triggered additional excavations or caused internal corrosion to be non-conservatively under-reported. This work also includes various UT technologies, such as encoded zero-degree UT scanning, manual zero-degree UT testing, encoded Phased Array Ultrasonic Testing (PAUT), and Time of Flight Diffraction (TOFD) for characterizing and sizing both natural and machined defects in pipe and plate samples. High-resolution laser scans using Creaform HandyScan technology are used to verify actual feature depth. Depth sizing accuracy of each technology is established using statistical analysis. In order to determine detection limits of the above technologies, tests are performed on pitting and inclusion of various sizes, ranging from 8 mm to 0.5 mm in diameter.
This study will assist in establishing the limitations of current UT NDE technologies and recommendations to develop best practices for obtaining quality field NDE data from pipeline excavations for internal corrosion.
Performance of Five Different Natural Gas and Hydrogen Blending Mixer Designs via CFD
Authors: Botros Kamal K. , Shariati Mohammad , Sandhawalia Swaran 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The aspiration for blending hydrogen (H2) into natural gas (NG) in gas transmission systems is high and is happening globally. However, the mechanics and details of blending the two streams are not well developed or perfected. There is a need to arrive at the best technique and approach to achieve perfect blending to minimize the potential adverse impact on the operation of downstream facilities as well as on the end-users. The challenge is primarily driven by the fact that NG and H2 have vastly different properties, principally densities, that may lead to possible stratification, short circuiting, and pockets of undesirable high concentration of H2 in the blended stream. The paper documents Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) simulation results conducted on five different concepts of mixer/blending designs. These mixer designs are: i) single or multiple side entries, ii) dual spiral ribbon (DSR) type mixer, iii) venturi mixer, iv) hybrid mixer of DSR inside a venturi, and v) NC5 perforated tube bundle type mixer. An example of an NPS 12 (DN300) ultrasonic meter run with an NPS 20 (DN500) header was assumed throughout the analysis. It was found that the venturi mixing concept with a single side entry is the optimum design due to its simplicity, cost effectiveness, and relatively low pressure drop. With this simple design, 99% mixing efficiency is achieved within 13D at maximum flow, where D is the main header diameter downstream of the mixing station. The pressure drop coefficient for this design is estimated to be approx. 3.1, which amounts to ∼6 kPa at maximum flow, which is relatively low. However, mixing will halt at coefficient of variance = 0.2 (80% mixing efficiency) at very low flow rate of a turndown ratio of 20:1. Final selection of a mixer design from the five designs investigated depends on the tradeoff between mixing efficiency, pressure drop and cost.
Research on an Automated Process to Automatically Correlate ILI Features With NDT Laser Scans
Authors: Brush Ron , Westrick Pat , Xiang Wei , Dooley Colin , Huang Terry 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
New Century Software has completed a research and development project in collaboration with TC Energy to automatically correlate ILI corrosion features with corresponding NDT laser scan data to validate ILI depth predictions with raw laser scan pit measurements and generate unity plots.
The research project utilized a process that New Century developed that automatically compares ILI features with NDT 3D laser scan measurements to generate unity plots. This process automatically reads the ILI pipe tally reports and generates GIS graphics representing the pipe surface using actual pipe length and diameter dimensions. The process automatically reads raw laser scan data and overlays this data on the GIS pipe surface. The program automates an optimization algorithm that seeks to align the ILI features with the laser data to account for measurement differences between the ILI tool and the laser scan report. Each ILI feature is aligned and used to calculate the measured maximum depth. The ILI predicted depths and the laser measured depths are represented by a unity plot that illustrates the correlation of ILI-predicted features with 3D laser scan measured features. The goal of this project was to identify the best technical approach to automatically match these data and to provide recommendations to TC Energy through testing the technique on a large amount of data and fine-tuning the configuration settings in the algorithm. Also, quantitative approaches were developed and implemented to evaluate the automatically-generated unity plots.
Automating this process will save significant time and cost over manual correlation methods and provide pipeline operators with information about the quality of ILI inspections from different vendors. It could also be used to create a bias factor for ILI Corrosion Growth Rate assessment as well as inform the pipeline risk assessment model.
Engineering Assessment of Substandard In-Line Isolation Split Fitting
Authors: Zhang Ken , Chune Ron , Cox Frank , Denowh Chantz , Alexander Chris 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In-line isolation fittings used in TC Energy systems typically include a split tee assembly, flange, completion plug and bolt-up hardware, and often form part of an in-line isolation train plugging system during maintenance projects. Due to potential concerns about a few large-size split tee flanges not meeting required strength and toughness properties, TC Energy undertook a fitness-for-service assessment. This assessment involved physical proof testing coupled with high-fidelity continuum finite element analysis (FEA) and engineering critical assessment (ECA), accounting for material deficiencies and hypothetical fracture indications.
Proof testing in excess of 2 times (2 x) maximum allowable pressure (MOP) at a temperature of −46°C was performed, which involved introducing strategically sized, positioned and oriented electrical discharge machining (EDM) notches to approximate hypothetical crack-like flaws. Both the analysis and full-scale pressure proof testing demonstrated that the flanges did not experience any form of crack growth, though mechanical destructive testing showed that at certain locations the Charpy V-notch (CVN) toughness was as low as 3 J. Analysis predicted high plastic strain, which was confirmed in the full-scale testing without causing plastic collapse, burst or propagation of the preexisting flaw introduced by EDM. Test results showed reasonable consistency with the analytical results, supporting the appropriateness of applying the proposed analytical approach to location-specific assessment for current and potential similar future issues.
Based on the assessment, confidence has been gained that for split tee flanges with low toughness and low tensile strength. The testing validated analytical approach adopting sound design parameters with installation specific design loading is reasonable to determine fitness for service. The engineering assessment methods, testing setup, results and findings are summarized in this paper.