bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Legislative Procedures
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter highlights decision-making in the European Union which leads to the adoption of legislative acts. The Lisbon Treaty introduced a clear distinction between legislative and other acts of the Union with the aim of making decision-making at Union level more democratic and transparent. The Treaties now unambiguously use the term 'legislative act' for acts based on a provision of the Treaties and adopted pursuant to a legislative procedure, i.e. under the 'ordinary legislative procedure' or, in specific cases, under a 'special legislative procedure'. The qualification of acts to be adopted as 'legislative acts' has direct consequences for the operation of the institutions, the scrutiny exercised by national parliaments of respect for the principle of subsidiarity, the possibility of delegating powers to the Commission, and judicial review. The EU Constitution had proposed to go one step further and distinguish between legal instruments to be used for legislative acts and non-legislative acts respectively: legislative acts would take the form of a 'European law', or a 'European framework law'. For non-legislative action, institutions were to use a 'European regulation' or a 'European decision'.
CFSP Decision-making
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter reviews decision-making in respect of the Common Foreign and Security Policy (CFSP). CFSP decision-making is subject to the 'specific rules and procedures' laid down in Chapter 2 of Title V of the TEU. In this field, the Contracting Parties never wished to make the national governments—represented in the Council—share their power of decision with the Commission and the European Parliament in the same way as in other fields of Union action. According to Article 24(1), second subpara. TEU, the CFSP is to be defined and implemented by the European Council and the Council acting unanimously and put into effect by the Member States or the High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy. The adoption of legislative acts is excluded. Pursuant to the same provision, the 'specific role of the European Parliament and of the Commission in this area is defined by the Treaties'. It is clear that policy-making and implementation with respect to the CFSP still preserves many characteristics of intergovernmental cooperation.
Decision-making Restricted to Particular Member States
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at areas where decision-making is restricted to the participating Member States. In two policy areas, the Treaties formulate a system of decision-making under which not all Member States take part in the adoption of acts: (1) the area of freedom, security, and justice (Title V of Part Three of the TFEU) and (2) Economic and Monetary Union (Title VIII of Part Three of the TFEU). On top of this, the system of enhanced cooperation affords a general opportunity for European Union acts to be adopted as between a number of Member States only. Whenever decision-making is limited to certain Member States, the Council has to adapt voting requirements accordingly. In principle, the other Union institutions and bodies take part in the decision-making with the same composition and manner of operation as in the case of decision-making involving all the Member States. The rationale is that members of the Commission, the European Parliament, and other bodies do not represent particular Member States. The Court of Justice, too, has the same composition when it adjudicates in disputes on the interpretation and application of acts adopted under these systems of decision-making.
Union Law and its Effects in the National Legal Systems
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates 'Union law', which consists of the rules enshrined in the Treaties and acts adopted pursuant thereto, as applied and interpreted by the national courts and the Court of Justice. Depending on the origin of the provisions, a distinction may be made between constitutive norms which come into being as a result of action on the part of the Member States themselves (primary Union law), rules created by Union institutions and bodies (secondary or 'derived' Union law), and other rules which have been accepted by case law as being general principles of the Union's legal order. Secondary Union law is constituted by the legislative acts and other acts of the institutions, bodies, offices, or agencies, usually in the form of specific instruments of Union law ('autonomous' acts) as well as the international agreements concluded by the Union ('conventional' acts). The case law of the Court of Justice relating to the primacy and the possible direct effect of Union law has made it clear that Union law as such has effect in the national legal system. Both the European Union and the Member States as well as individuals are entitled to enforce the proper application of Union law.
Acts Adopted by the Institutions and Bodies of the Union
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the acts adopted by the institutions and bodies of the European Union, looking at autonomous measures and interinstitutional agreements. The first para. of Article 288 TFEU states that the institutions exercise the Union's competences, by adopting regulations, directives, decisions, recommendations, and opinions. Nevertheless, the institutions of the Union make use of instruments other than those listed in the second to the fifth paras of Article 288 TFEU. Moreover, other bodies of the Union are also competent to adopt legal acts. The Treaties do not offer much guidance with regard to the possibility for the institutions to choose between those different instruments, although they set out a number of formal requirements to be satisfied by acts of the institutions, some of which—pursuant to general principles of Union law—apply to acts of other bodies aswell.
Other Sources of Union Law
Authors: Lenaerts Koen , Van Nuffel Piet , Corthaut Tim 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter studies other sources of Union law. The instruments referred to in the Treaties include acts that are not formally adopted by Union institutions, such as decisions of the Member States' governments, which nevertheless have a close link with Union law. That also goes for some conventions agreed amongst the Member States in connection with the Union's activities. The chapter outlines these instruments, together with other sources of Union law such as collective agreements between social partners and, importantly, the case law of the Court of Justice of the European Union (CJEU). It also explains the still ongoing effects of acts adopted before the entry into force of the Lisbon Treaty in areas outside the pre-Lisbon 'Community' framework, that is to say the pre-Lisbon common foreign and security policy (CFSP) and the area of police and judicial cooperation in criminal matters as well as some other conventions agreed between the Member States.
Conservation and the Genomics of Populations
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon , Antunes Agostinho 
Published: April 2022

AbstractLoss of biodiversity is among the greatest problems facing the world today. Conservation and the Genomics of Populations gives a comprehensive overview of the essential background, concepts, and tools needed to understand how genetic information can be used to conserve species threatened with extinction, and to manage species of ecological or commercial importance. New molecular techniques, statistical methods, and computer programs, genetic principles, and methods are becoming increasingly useful in the conservation of biological diversity. Using a balance of data and theory, coupled with basic and applied research examples, this book examines genetic and phenotypic variation in natural populations, the principles and mechanisms of evolutionary change, the interpretation of genetic data from natural populations, and how these can be applied to conservation. The book includes examples from plants, animals, and microbes in wild and captive populations. This third edition has been thoroughly revised to include advances in genomics and contains new chapters on population genomics, genetic monitoring, and conservation genetics in practice, as well as new sections on climate change, emerging diseases, metagenomics, and more. More than one-third of the references in this edition were published after the previous edition. Each of the 24 chapters and the Appendix end with a Guest Box written by an expert who provides an example of the principles presented in the chapter from their own work. This book is essential for advanced undergraduate and graduate students of conservation genetics, natural resource management, and conservation biology, as well as professional conservation biologists and policy-makers working for wildlife and habitat management agencies. Much of the book will also interest nonprofessionals who are curious about the role of genetics in conservation and management of wild and captive populations.
Effective Population Size
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractWe expect heterozygosity to be lost at a rate of 1/2N per generation in an ideal population because of genetic drift where N is the census population size. The effective size of a population is the size of the ideal (Wright–Fisher) population that will result in the same amount of genetic drift as in the actual population being considered. Heterozygosity is generally lost at a rate much faster than 1/2N in natural populations primarily because reproductive success is much more variable than assumed in an ideal population. Therefore, the effective size of natural populations (Ne) is often much smaller than the census population size (Ne &lt;&lt; N). Predicting the rate of loss of heterozygosity over calendar time in a population requires an estimate of both Ne and the generation interval. Genomic techniques provide a variety of methods to estimate Ne in natural populations.
Quantitative Genetics
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractMost phenotypic traits are the product of many genes as well as environmental effects, and the resulting phenotypic variation is quantitative rather than qualitative. The extent to which traits are under genetic control is termed heritability, and can be estimated by analyzing the phenotypic similarity of related individuals. Quantitative genetic approaches can be used to estimate population differentiation. Selection on quantitative traits produces changes in phenotypes as a function of the heritability, the intensity of selection, and the amount of phenotypic variation within a population. Human activities, such as size-limited harvesting and habitat degradation, can impose selection on natural populations and result in changes in phenotypes, and genetic drift in small populations can erode quantitative genetic variation. Genome-wide association studies can identify genes and markers associated with quantitative trait variation that can then be used to predict phenotypes from polygenic scores.
Demography and Extinction
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractGenetic factors affect the extinction probability of populations in a variety of ways. Inbreeding depression can reduce fecundity and survival, and thereby decrease population growth rate and increase extinction probability. Multiple studies have shown that inbreeding depression can negatively impact populations in the wild. Loss of genetic variation in small populations also decreases the capacity of populations to evolve to changing environmental conditions. Population viability analysis is a modeling approach that integrates information on demography, genetics, threats, and management actions to predict population persistence. Genomics will advance incorporation of genetic factors into predicting extinction risk by improving our ability to estimate inbreeding depression and evolutionary potential.
Genetic Monitoring
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractGenetics plays an increasing role in monitoring demographic and genetic changes in populations over time. One of the most powerful advances in genetic monitoring is the development of techniques to detect trace amounts of DNA in noninvasive samples (e.g., feathers, skin, etc.) and environmental DNA (eDNA) from elusive and rare species in water and soil samples. Individual genotypes from noninvasive samples such as feces and hair can be used to estimate abundance, survival, and other demographic parameters using mark–recapture analysis. Genetic monitoring of heterozygosity, allelic diversity, and effective population size allows managers to detect genetic changes in response to environmental perturbations or management actions. Genomic methods now allow detection and monitoring of adaptive alleles; for example, to test whether these alleles increase in frequency in response to environmental change, demonstrating an adaptive response, stress, or a die-off (e.g., caused by infectious disease pathogens).
Precision and persons in medicine
Authors: Barilan Yechiel Michael , Brusa Margherita 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter characterizes ‘personalized medicine’ as revolutionary because it shifts efforts from ‘technologies of action’ to ‘technologies of information’. An additional shift is from science as a pursuit of knowledge, about the world and human nature, to scientific inquiries into personal data, as modes of profiling and knowing human individuals. Consequently, there is a growing tendency to conflate ‘information’ with ‘knowledge’ and to attribute magical powers of prediction and prescription to this kind of knowledge. Technologies of information push to the fore various ethical challenges, mainly the ethics of ‘information’ as a reified human good, which is ‘donated’ and traded. Because self-knowledge has always been valued as a moral good, the focus on genomics and other ‘omics’ loom large over people’s self-perception and self-esteem.
The historical background of personalized medicine
Authors: Guillén Diego Gracia 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
The efforts of Western medicine have been oriented traditionally to identify the elements of the so-called ‘chain of specificity’. Every disease has a ‘specific cause’, called aetiology, which produces ‘specific disease’ (species morbosa), which medicine should revert through ‘specific treatment’. This traditional way of thinking began to change some decades ago, as a consequence of the developments of molecular medicine. Genes, prima facie taken as specific elements, react differently depending on environmental conditions, epigenetics, mutations, and many other factors. The consequence is that medicine is becoming aware of individual susceptibilities, such as to drugs that hitherto were taken as ‘specific’ treatments. Medicine is changing gradually from the old ideal of ‘specificity’ to the new one of ‘individuality’. This has been the conceptual origin of what is sometimes called ‘personalized medicine’, and sometimes ‘individualized medicine’.
When does precision matter? Personalized medicine from the perspective of public health
Authors: Wilson James 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the nature and value of precision in medicine, and in particular how precision medicine has been interpreted as favouring an ‘P4’ approach—one that is predictive, preventative, personalized, and participatory. It is argued that precision is a more controversial goal in medicine than is often acknowledged. A focus on precision will not always be easy to reconcile with other well-established health system goals, such as maximizing health benefit, improving health equity, or even avoiding iatrogenic harm. Given that precision approaches will often compete for resources with less targeted approaches, it is useful to ask how the model of predictive modelling and early intervention (secondary prevention) competes against rather less targeted interventions to improve the social determinants of health (primary prevention). The chapter argues that primary prevention is in general to be preferred to secondary prevention—both on grounds of equity and of cost-effectiveness—and to the extent that health systems end up cutting back on primary prevention to pursue precision medicine, they do their citizens a disservice.
Islamic Sunni perspectives on the ethics of precision medicine
Authors: Suleman Mehrunisha 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
The Islamic tradition’s engagement with scientific advancements, historically and contemporaneously, reveals that as an institution it has generally encouraged the use of science, medicine, and biotechnology as solutions to human suffering. Nevertheless very little is known about the normative tradition and the practices and views of Muslims globally, in relation to recent advances in precision medicine. This chapter briefly introduces theological, ethical, and historical accounts within the Islamic tradition pertaining to precision medicine, including references to the Quran, traditions of the Prophet Muhammad (Hadith) as well as jurisprudence (Fiqh), and scholarly edicts (Fatawah). This normative account is accompanied by a review of policy, views, and practices as they relate to the implementation and impact of precision medicine within the Muslim world. Themes to be analysed includes Islamic perspectives on genetic ownership, manipulation, and data sharing as well as theological implications of precision medicine including predictiveness and its relation to prayer and Taqwa (reliance on God). Finally, this chapter concludes with a summary of some of the existing challenges and questions that need to be addressed, from within the Islamic bioethics discourse, for the field to be responsive to emerging moral complexities around issues relating to precision medicine including the socio-ethical implications of investment and availability of such advances on the health of marginalized and underserved groups.
Pharmaceutical contributions to personalized medicine
Authors: Perlmutter Roger 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Personalized medicine is the inevitable consequence of an increasingly detailed understanding of factors contributing to health and disease. While preventive measures have meaningfully improved life expectancy around the world, most recent improvements in health outcomes—especially for those who have achieved middle-age—result from the introduction of new pharmaceuticals. This chapter outlines the contribution of pharmaceuticals to improvements in life expectancy. Though progress has been impressive, the author notes that the productivity of the pharmaceutical industry has been declining for decades, raising questions about the viability of these businesses. Future improvements in drug discovery will result from more advanced measuring systems coupled with machine learning approaches to data analysis. The author speculates that the same technological tools that permit improvement in drug discovery will be applied to broader societal problems, permitting reductions in suffering and disease to be broadly realized across all human populations.
Short-pulse electronic absorption
Authors: Cina Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Linear absorption, by a molecule, of pulsed laser light is detailed using time-dependent perturbation theory. Pulse propagators, which describe the transfer and shaping of nuclear wave packets during laser-driven electronic transitions are introduced. The equivalence, in the long-pulse limit, to Heller’s description of linear absorption in terms of wave-packet dynamics is established. The effects of initial thermal equilibrium, spectral congestion, and finite spectral resolution are illustrated with signal calculations on model Hamiltonians.
Transient-absorption spectroscopy: Making ultrashort pulses worthwhile
Authors: Cina Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains measurements in which the effects of prior electronic and vibrational excitation by a vibrationally brief, electronically resonant pump pulse on the spectrally resolved transmission of a variably delayed broadband probe pulse are monitored. Illustrative transient-absorption signal calculations for model systems are presented and interpreted in terms of semi-classically described quantum mechanical overlaps between contributing multi-pulse nuclear wave packets.
Two-dimensional wave-packet interferometry for an electronic energy-transfer dimer
Authors: Cina Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
The application of two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy to an energy-transfer dimer is considered. Site, adiabatic, and exciton bases for the energy-transfer system are defined. Weak (strong) coupling conditions favoring the utility of the site (exciton) basis are found. It is shown how, under conditions of unequal quantum yield for singly and doubly excited electronic states—where excited-state absorption and singly-excited-state bleach fail to cancel—2D-WPI becomes sensitive to the presence or absence of an exciton shift. Demonstration signal calculations for a spatially oriented energy-transfer dimer under conditions of weak and strong energy-transfer coupling are presented and compared.
Is the Macro Grounded in the Micro?
Authors: Glazier Martin 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Let a priority micro pluralist be someone who holds that particles or other microscopic objects are fundamental. Rivals to priority micro pluralism include priority monism (the view that the only fundamental concrete object is the entire cosmos) as well as the Aristotelian view that some ordinary macroscopic objects are fundamental. Although priority micro pluralism is popular, I show that it encounters great difficulty in even the most straightforward cases. For example, this tennis ball is spherical; how is this fact to be grounded in facts about the microscopic realm? I consider a number of possible answers to this question. The most promising proposals attempt to exploit the close connection emphasized by Kripke between objects and their original material constituents. I argue that these proposals fail. I conclude that it is worth seriously considering alternatives to this sort of pluralism.
The constrained politics of local public investment under cooperative federalism
Authors: Bremer Björn , Di Carlo Donato , Wansleben Leon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractPublic investment spending declined steadily in advanced economies during the last three decades. Germany is a case in point where the aggregate decline coincided with growing inequality in investments across districts. What explains the variation in local investment spending? We assembled a novel data set to investigate the effects of structural constraints and partisanship on German districts’ investment spending from 1995 to 2018. We find that the lack of fiscal and administrative capacity significantly influences local investment patterns. Yet, within these constraints, partisanship matters. Conservative politicians tend to prioritize public investment more than the left. This is especially the case when revenues from local taxes are low. As the fiscal conditions improve, left-wing politicians increase investment more strongly and hence the difference between the left and the right disappears. Our findings are indicative of how regional economic divergence can emerge even within cooperative federal systems and show that, even when decision-makers operate under various institutional and structural constraints, partisanship matters for how these actors allocate discretionary spending.