bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Mordvin (Erzya and Moksha)
Authors: Hamari Arja , Ajanki Rigina 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Mordvin, a minority language in European Russia, comprises two closely related languages, Erzya and Moksha, differing from each other mainly in phonology and morphology. The Mordvin languages exhibit a high degree of synthesis in nominal and verbal inflection. The ten cases have indefinite and definite forms; the latter are expressed with suffixation of former demonstrative pronouns. Mordvin has only three tenses, but six moods, most of which have merged from the main verb and the verb 'to be'. In the so-called objective or definite conjugation, the personal suffixes express both the person of the subject and that of the object. Mordvin has a rich system of infinitives, participles, and gerunds, functioning also as kernels of clausal constructions. Noun predicates can be conjugated as verbs. Owing to strong Russian influence the basic word order is now SVO. Russian influence can also be seen in the systematic palatalization of consonants before front vowels.
Udmurt
Authors: Edygarova Svetlana 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Udmurt is a minority language spoken in European Russia in the region between the rivers Kama and Volga. It has an official status in the Udmurt Republic, but especially in the last twenty years, its intergenerational transmission has become clearly endangered. The standard language has a puristic character, whereas spoken Udmurt is characterized by dialectal variation and – since almost all speakers are bilingual in Russian – copious borrowings from Russian, code-switching, and code-mixing. Udmurt shares many features with its closest relative Komi; for instance, it has a similarly rich case system, possession marking, and similar TAM categories. However, Udmurt has specific features that do not exist in the Komi language; some of them due to the influence of Turkic languages. In particular, the second past tense has a morphological negative form that doesn’t exist in Komi. The vocabulary of the modern language contains a great number of loans from Tatar as well.
Ugric
Authors: Skribnik Elena , Laakso Johanna 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Ugric is an umbrella term for Hungarian and the two Ob-Ugric languages or language groups spoken in West Siberia, namely Khanty (in older literature, also known as “Ostyak”) and Mansi ("Vogul"). Traditionally, they have been considered to form a distinct subtaxon in the Uralic language family. However, although some common Ugric features can be found at all levels of language structure, many scholars now claim that these do not necessarily derive from a common Ugric protolanguage but rather reflect Sprachbund-like contact influences between Proto-Hungarian, Proto-Khanty, and Proto-Mansi. Departing from this prehistoric setting, this chapter presents an overview of the structure of the Ugric languages and the possible Common Ugric features in their phonology, morphology, lexicon and syntax, also briefly describing the language contacts which have contributed to the formation of today’s Hungarian, Khanty and Mansi varieties.
North Khanty
Authors: Sipos Mária 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter aims to describe the northern dialect of Khanty, which is an example of geographical dialect continuum, i.e. the variants along the Ob River have no definable boundaries between neighbouring variants, but the northernmost and southernmost subdialects differ to a considerable extent. The description focuses basically on the Kazym Khanty variant, which is a dialect of remarkable countenance, and also used in the Khanty-language newspaper, consequently, it has developed relatively advanced literary norms. Although this chapter describes a certain variant from synchronic aspect, compromise must be made on two issues. Firstly, owing to the dialectal situation just described, the description includes some additions concerning the differences in phonological systems, morphophonological rules, case systems, the use of dual in verb conjugations, etc. of further lects, if necessary. Secondly, as present-day Khanty is spoken mostly by bilingual people, numerous phenomena emblematic of contact-induced language change must be mentioned.
Nenets
Authors: Burkova Svetlana 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The chapter presents an overview of two closely related indigenous languages—Tundra Nenets and Forest Nenets (in older literature often conflated and called "Yurak Samoyed"). It provides sociolinguistic information on these two sister languages, focusing especially on the regional variance in their vitality and endangerment, and also touching upon the debates on their status as two distinct languages. The structure of both Nenets varieties is described, from phonology and morphology to lexicon, syntax, and information structuring, also focusing on the structural differences between Tundra Nenets and Forest Nenets. Special emphasis is put on the phenomena specific to these languages: complex morphophonological processes; the category of evidentiality that displays a rather complicated structure and closely interacts with TAM categories; functional distribution of monofinite and bifinite clause combining, and predominantly verbal means of encoding information structure.
Introduction to Part III
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne , Laakso Johanna , Skribnik Elena 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to Part III, explaining the motivation of this collection of typological case studies from issues of phonology to syntax and information structuring. Overviews of this kind are an innovation; they have usually not been included in previous handbooks of Uralic languages. While the comparative-historical approach has always played a central role in Uralic studies, synchronic typological, areal, and contrastive studies with a cross-Uralic scope have begun to appear in the last decades of the twentieth century, together with the rise of linguistic typology and recent developments in the documentation of endangered and minority languages. Typological research in recent decades has discovered or (re)defined features, structures, and categories that exist also in Uralic languages, but were not properly recognized and described; alternatively, they were described in different, often idiosyncratic terms.
Consonant gradation
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Consonant gradation, or the alternation of certain “strong-grade” consonants or consonant clusters with their “weak-grade” counterparts, is a peculiar morphophonological phenomenon occurring in the north-western (Saami and Finnic) and north-eastern (Nganasan) peripheries of Uralic; whether these two have common roots in Proto-Uralic is still a matter of debate. The Uralic consonant gradation comes in two types. Syllabic or radical gradation affects wordstem-internal consonants and was originally conditioned by the openness or closedness of the following syllable, rhythmic or suffixal gradation affects the consonants at the onset of a suffix and was originally conditioned by the presence or absence of stress on the preceding syllable. These original conditions have in many cases been obscured by sound changes or analogical developments, so that the gradation has been partly or completely morphologized. Its forms vary from language to language according to the quality and quantity of the consonants and consonant clusters.
Word order
Authors: Vilkuna Maria 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses word order in Uralic languages, with the main focus on sentential constituent order. A brief assessment of the facts is also made regarding recent views on Greenbergian cross-constituent ordering generalizations. While constituent-internal order shows a great deal of uniformity across the family, variation is extensive in sentential constituent order. For example, the assumed original (S)OV order, which can be seen to be the basic order in the north-eastern area of the family, exists as an alternative in all the languages where (S)VO clearly prevails, but its discourse motivation differs across languages and constructions. The chapter draws on the more extensive overview in Vilkuna (1998), updating its results and adding information on languages not included in it, namely Ob-Ugric and most Samoyedic languages.
Introduction to superresolution optical imaging
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Optical microscopy is a very successful technique to image objects with visible light down to the microscale. The purpose of this chapter is to explore the limits of optical imaging when dealing with small objects. The first goal of this chapter is to summarize the fundamental limits of optical imaging with conventional microscopes and to explain the physical origin of the so-called diffraction limit for resolution. We then introduce the key ideas that can be used to overcome this limit with a special emphasis on nearfield optical microscopy. We also introduce different techniques allowing to produce images with resolution better than the half-wavelength using far-field measurements. We will emphasize that different optical imaging techniques yield different information (e.g. local spectral reflectivities, topography and permittivity map).
Scattering, Green tensor, and local density of electromagnetic states
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
A powerful theoretical tool to compute the electromagnetic field in the near field is the integral formulation of the field equations. A nice feature of this formulation is that it allows gaining some physical insight into the scattering mechanisms. It proves convenient to introduce the tensor describing the electric field radiated by a point-like dipole, known as Green tensor. Then, we apply these concepts to the study of scattering of light by arbitrary systems. This provides a framework to discuss the possibility of performing super-resolution imaging by using far-field data and solving the inverse problem. The second part of this chapter deals with the analysis of the link between the Green tensor and the local density of electromagnetic states. This quantity plays a key role in the study of spontaneous emission in the presence of nanostructures in the weak coupling regime.
Localized surface plasmons
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Plasmonic-based nanostructures are of considerable interest because of their unique capability of confining light at a deep subwavelength scale, something that cannot be achieved with conventional lenses in 2D and photonic microcavities in 3D which are diffraction-limited. This feature can be used to perform near-field imaging beyond the diffraction limit, to implement nanoscale light sources, enhance the capacity of data storage devices or guide light at nanoscale to name a few examples. The confinement of light comes with another important property: the enhancement of the field. We introduce the main figure of merits of nanoparticle and discuss how they can be designed to control localized electromagnetic resonances at nanoscale.
From nanophotonics to devices
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The chapter reviews selected key technologies for nanophotonics applications in passive or emitting devices. The chapter introduces the scientific principles and the figures of merit of these devices, in which guides, gratings, plasmonic systems, periodic guides of previous chapters are the ingredients. It details the issue of sensing, a very heuristic topic. It then provides clues for a practical, applications-based approach to the design and operation of integrated photonic circuits and their electro-optic functions. In the area of active devices, it deals with the factors that determine the device efficiency. For edge-emitting lasers, it shows how guide and gratings are assembled in the emblematic DFB laser diodes. Vertical emitting lasers (VCSELs) are also discussed, connecting their structure to fundamentals of light-matter interaction and to periodicity. The important issue of light extraction is eventually revisited across several kinds of devices, LEDs of course, but also other specialized emitting systems.
Fluctuational electrodynamics
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to revisit blackbody radiation and show how it can be tailored both in the near and in the far field. We briefly introduce the basic ideas of fluctuational electrodynamics. We then present some unexpected properties of thermal radiation in the near field. Section 2 is devoted to tailoring thermal emission in the far field: it is possible to design incandescent emitters which are directional and/or quasimonochromatic. Section 3 deals with radiative heat transfer at the nanoscale. The complement provides some background on spatial coherence.
Public Utilities
Authors: Haslam Colin , Leaver Adam , Tsitsianis Nick 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, Colin Haslam, Adam Leaver, and Nick Tsitsianis show how those managing seemingly ordinary firms, such as public utilities, can use corporate forms to maximize how the firm integrates financial and productive assets. The authors show how firms dealing with water use global wealth chains to manipulate how profit is accounted for to heighten the power of the firm. Their case focuses on how the firm acts as a conduit between debt markets and financial returns, with extensive use of subsidiaries to coordinate this activity. Lead firms maintain tight control over the financial and legal technologies involved, presenting a mix of captive and hierarchy wealth chains. The authors detail how accounting and financial engineering allows managers to use multijurisdictional corporate forms to concentrate financial control.
Tax Treaties
Authors: Hearson Martin 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, Martin Hearson explains why taxation treaties should be understood as assets that coordinate activity within global wealth chains. Hearson describes how multinational enterprises have changed their use of tax treaties. At first it was to remove the threat of double taxation, while in the contemporary period it is to facilitate advanced tax planning and ease internal transactions within multinational enterprises. Hearson describes how global professional service firms, especially the Big Four global accounting firms, are involved in establishing tax treaties, and how value chain activity is being restructured around wealth chain articulation. This chapter shows how legal forms can be understood as captive and hierarchy forms of wealth chain management, as well as how regulatory interventions to constrain such tax planning are important but not especially effective.
Advance Pricing Agreements
Authors: Matti Ylönen 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, Matti Ylönen explains how Advance Pricing Agreements and Advance Tax Rulings are used to stabilize activity in Global Wealth Chains and lower tax burdens. Ylönen describes how these tax ruling arrangements are used to lower potential tax burdens for multinational enterprises nationally and internationally. The selection of which tax ruling is appropriate depends on the capabilities and scale of the firm, which can be understood as a choice between Modular or Hierarchy forms of Global Wealth Chains. At the national level firms may deal directly with states (Hierarchy) or go through an intermediary, such as a professional tax advisory, to choose from a menu of options (Modular). At the international level the same choice is apparent, with the character of relations between states informing what opportunities are most attractive to firms.
Food
Authors: Grondona Verónica , Burgos Martín 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, Grondona and Burgos explore export mispricing in Argentina’s soybean sector. The key asset strategy here is mispricing internal trades. Argentinian law sanctions the “sixth method” in transfer pricing to counter the mispricing of internal transactions by firms, but regulatory intervention is weak. Grondona and Burgos show the presence of mispricing by comparing the price of internal transactions to the price of the same commodity on a recognized international exchange. By comparing the average prices of soybean exports reported in daily customs registrations with the daily price on the Gulf of Mexico, they demonstrate the systematic underpricing of food exports. With soybean exports accounting for 24 percent of all Argentinian exports the fiscal impact of export mispricing is profound. This is an example of a formally market global wealth chain that has evolved, with increasing market concentration, into a captive global wealth chain where firms execute asset strategies via related entities that span multiple jurisdictions.
Experiencing God in Late Medieval and Early Modern England
Authors: Davis David J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Experiencing God in Late Medieval and Early Modern England demonstrates that experiences of divine revelation were central to late medieval and early modern English religion. The book illuminates previously under-explored notions about divine revelation and the role these notions played in shaping large portions of English thought and belief. Bringing together a wide variety of source materials, the book argues that in the period there was a collective representation of divine revelation as a source of human knowledge that transcended other religious and intellectual divisions. Not only did most people think that divine revelation, through a ravishing encounter with God, was possible, but also divine revelation was understood to be the pinnacle of religious experience and a source of pure understanding. The book highlights a common discourse running through the sources that underpinned this collective representation of how human beings experienced the divine, and it demonstrates a continual effort across large swathes of English religion to prepare an individual’s soul for an encounter with the divine, through different spiritual disciplines and devotional practices. Over a period of several centuries this discourse and the larger culture of revelation provided an essential structure and legitimacy both to contemporary claims of divine revelation and the biblical precedents that contemporary experiences were modelled after. Finally, the book situates the experience of revelation within the wider context of knowledge and identifies the ways that claims to divine revelation were legitimated as well as stigmatized based on this common understanding of the experience of rapture.
‘Wee should bee rapt vp into the third heauen’
Authors: Davis David J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter identifies the discourse of divine raptus as a significant continuity between the late medieval contemplative tradition and the emerging Protestant understanding of biblical prophecy and revelation. Focusing upon the English Protestant commentaries of the book of Revelation from its genesis with John Bale’s The image of both churches to the end of the seventeenth century, the chapter illustrates how Protestant writers both followed the late medieval tradition in how they described the revelatory experience and recontextualized this discourse into new, popular contexts, inviting the larger religious community to pursue, through devotional discipline, the experience of divine revelation.
‘The foundation of all Knowledge’
Authors: Davis David J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the culture of divine revelation in the context of the Scientific Revolution and early Enlightenment, paying particular attention to certain philosophical challenges to the epistemic validity of divine revelation. Highlighting particular challenges from thinkers like Baruch Spinoza, Thomas Hobbes, and Richard Overton, the chapter charts the responses to challenges to the traditional ideas about the human soul and the relationship of human reason to revelation, which were enumerated by England’s leading scientists, philosophers, and churchmen. Rebutting any simple decline of divine revelation as being philosophically warranted, the chapter illustrates that there was a robust defense of divine revelation on offer at the end of the seventeenth century, although it was a defense that relied upon arguments beyond the strictly mechanical and empirical.
The Spiritual Effects of Excommunication
Authors: Hill Felicity 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the implications of excommunication for the afterlife using legal texts, exempla, liturgy, chronicles, and curse formulae. Although theologians and certain legal texts emphasized that excommunication was not a permanent bar to salvation, it is argued here that the information conveyed to the majority of people implied that excommunication meant hell. Miracle stories and the rite of excommunication, in particular, implied damnation. The chapter also argues that legal procedures, which were increasingly emphasized in canon law, did not preclude the use of excommunication by clerics for their own ends. Instilling fear was a crucial part of excommunication’s potential to coerce sinners; it was in the interests of the institutional church and its members to give the impression that hell was the destination of excommunicates when they died.
Exclusion from the Community of the Faithful
Authors: Hill Felicity 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the rules regarding ostracism of excommunicates, who were supposed to be excluded from Christian society. Excommunication was described as a contagious disease. However, there were a number of exceptions to the requirement to shun excommunicates, so that ostracism was not absolute. In fact, there is relatively little direct evidence of ostracism of excommunicates, but those under the ban could have their status used against them. Excommunicates were not allowed to enter churches and lost legal rights, while social shunning could affect their lives in many ways. In extreme cases, excommunication was used to justify even harsher treatment. It could be a steppingstone towards deposition of rulers. Crusades and other violence relied on excommunication as a justification for otherwise inexcusable attacks on Christians. Excommunication could be coopted by communities, who might enforce sentences too harshly or not at all. Those in power were particularly vulnerable to having their exclusion from the church used against them.
Publicity, Reputation, and Scandal
Authors: Hill Felicity 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that the publicity attached to excommunication was its most striking and important feature. The only way of ensuring that people shunned excommunicates was to make sure they knew who was excommunicated and why. Publication was therefore fundamental to how excommunication functioned. Thus it was used to vilify individuals and to condemn causes. In such situations, use of excommunication was seemingly more about publicizing the position of the church and its version of events than it was about getting those excommunicated to capitulate. The chapter discusses various examples to demonstrate that in cases where churchmen were personally involved, excommunications were pronounced far more widely than canon law required. Those on the receiving end of such treatment often felt persecuted; their greatest concern appears not to have been spiritual fears or ostracism, but the impact that excommunication had on their reputations. The publicity attached to excommunication could, however, backfire against churchmen, since it brought attention to petty squabbles and misuses of the sanction.