bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Inclusive fitness as driver of cooperation for mutual benefit
Authors: Boomsma Jacobus J. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractMutual aid cannot evolve unless it offers compensating direct benefits for an actor or indirect benefits for her relatives. This phrase is a gene’s eye version of Darwin’s statement that no adaptation can arise for the exclusive good of another species. Such thinking has inspired studies that explored how Hamilton’s rule can explain adaptation in symbiotic mutualisms. When studies tracked genetics, they converged on the conclusion that interspecific “altruism” is always driven by clonal or family altruism within the partner species, which confirmed Darwin’s insight and earlier conclusions that “altruism between species” is a misnomer. I review the dynamics of cooperation and conflict in symbioses where unicellular partners associate with a multicellular host either by voluntarily horizontal acquisition or in a coerced setting of vertical transmission. I then consider symmetry and redundancy of partnerships and their degree of genetic closure, showing that hosts either maintain societies of symbionts or have a lifetime non-redundant partnerships with a single symbiont. This suggests that the egalitarian MTE origin of LECA can be understood by the same non-redundant closure principle that I used in Chapter 4 to explain the recurrent MTEs towards organismal multicellularity and colonial superorganismality. This explanation includes the origin of meiotic sex and can likely be extended to the origin of the first prokaryote cell. In general, the arguments in this and the previous chapter imply the conjectures that (1) higher grades of organismality did not emerge, they were naturally selected adaptive syndromes (2) their ancestral properties had nothing to do with being relatively big or complex; and (3) non-redundant partnership was essential to suppress conflict over resource acquisition, while reproductive allocation conflicts appear to have been unimportant at MTE origins.
Establishing the existence of a contract to make a will
Authors: Braun Alexandra 
Published: November 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines contracts to make a will and the protection contract law offers to promisees. It outlines the factual and legal requirements that a promisee must meet to establish a claim and considers the nature of the available forms of relief. It shows that it is usually difficult for promisees to establish a contractual relationship because the threshold that they must meet is high. It further illustrates that even if the parties are willing to formalize their agreement, and a contract can be proven, contract law does not necessarily offer the best framework for this particular social practice. While in principle it may be useful for parties to be able to negotiate their testamentary agreement, casting the relationship in contractual terms can be difficult, not least because the length of the relationship is uncertain. Finally, the power-differential between the promisor and the promisee is such that it is unlikely that the promisee can dictate the conditions of the agreement.
Establishing a claim under the New Zealand Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949
Authors: Braun Alexandra 
Published: November 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines the protection offered to promisees by the New Zealand Law Reform (Testamentary Promises) Act 1949, the only legislation directly dealing with the protection of the interests of promisees of informal testamentary promises. It examines what promisees must prove to succeed, before turning to the question of how New Zealand courts quantify an award under the 1949 Act, with a view to establishing the extent to which it is capable of protecting the interests of promisees in an adequate manner. It argues that the 1949 Act is tailored to the context in which testamentary promises are made and thus minimizes many of the difficulties that promisees have otherwise to overcome when seeking redress. At the same time, the analysis also reveals that promisees hardly ever obtain the promised property, that their claim only arises on death of the promisor, and that they are not usually treated as creditors, so that their protection vis-à-vis third parties is somewhat limited. As a consequence, some promisees may wish to seek redress through other means.
Supportive Supervision for Community Health Workers
Authors: Coyle Camille , Travers Áine , Creaner Mary , Haile-Mariam Damen , Vallières Frédérique 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Supportive supervision plays a key role in ensuring high quality service delivery in community health worker (CHW) programs. It emphasizes regular and consistent interactions between CHWs and supervisors, constructive feedback, and joint problem-solving. Moreover, it is associated with increased motivation, better work engagement, higher levels of job satisfaction, and improved performance among CHWs. In this chapter, we analyze supportive supervision through the lens of systems thinking. This chapter uses the WHO’s health system building blocks—health workforce; health information; service delivery; medical products, vaccines, and technologies; health system financing; and leadership and governance—as a framework to identify key factors that interact with supportive supervision. This chapter aims to demonstrate that (i) supportive supervision in primary healthcare programs exemplifies key aspects of systems thinking and (ii) the implementation of supportive supervision, in turn, benefits from a systems-thinking approach.
Responding to Health Needs in War and Armed Conflict
Authors: Birch Marion , Kett Maria , Rowson Mike 
Published: November 2022

AbstractThis chapter covers aspects of systems thinking that could be useful to humanitarian workers responding to health needs in conflict situations. It provides an overview of theories underpinning systems thinking, their use in situations of complexity, and their relevance for conflict and war. It considers how some systems-thinking methods and tools relate to existing best practice for responding to health needs during conflict, and what added benefits these could provide. It includes an analysis of case studies using systems thinking-theories, methods, and practice. Guidelines and principles and codes of best practice have been developed to improve the quality of healthcare and public health provided as part of humanitarian assistance in conflict. However, complex and often rapidly changing circumstances, and the diversity of disciplines and experience needed to respond effectively still present challenges. A greater awareness of systems thinking, and a shared understanding of its potential, could make a valuable contribution to best practice.
Governance in Conflict-affected Fragile States
Authors: Elmusharaf Khalifa , Byrne Elaine , O’Donovan Diarmuid 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Health system actors lack understanding of challenges faced by mothers to access maternal care. One of the reasons is the lack of a platform where actors and community members can meet, exchange knowledge, and debate to make mutually beneficial decisions. Even if there are such forums, the capacity of community members to participate in them is often assumed. Additionally, the capacity of decision-makers to make informed decisions is also equally assumed. So, there are three main areas that need to be developed: 1. The capacity for communities to participate in research and action. 2. The capacity of decision-makers to utilize information to which they have access. 3. Mechanisms where both parties can meet and fruitfully exchange knowledge and trust for action to occur. This chapter addresses these three areas through a systems-thinking approach based on a research done in South Sudan in the period from 2008 to 2014.
The Utility of Systems Thinking in the Context of Infectious Disease Surveillance in India
Authors: James Rosemary , Jammu Anish , Taks Annabel , Adhikary Tapashi , Nazaryan Hasmik , Abraham Sreya , Gaba Upasna , Roohi Zeenath , Humpert Alexandra , Foster Isabel 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter demonstrates the utility of systems thinking in practice by providing an overview of the infectious disease surveillance system in India using general systems theory. System mapping and systems dynamics modelling, in the form of a causal loop diagram, are used to visualize the key policies, actors, and institutions involved. Focus is placed on all six of the World Health Organization’s (WHO) Health System Strengthening building blocks, with an emphasis on service delivery and information. Systems maps of tuberculosis and measles surveillance, which are covered under two separate surveillance systems, provide a deeper analysis of the different and complex reporting processes involved in disease surveillance. Case detection, reporting, analysis, and response are vital steps involved in any surveillance system. Using information gathered from India’s infectious disease surveillance portal, literature, and key informant interviews, systems thinking is applied to analyze and reflect on gaps and opportunities to pave the way for future reforms.
Reasons
Authors: McHugh Conor , Way Jonathan 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces and makes an initial case for a constitutive account of normative reasons as premises of good reasoning. It proposes five desiderata for a constitutive account of reasons, and argues that some prominent accounts of reasons struggle to accommodate them. The chapter outlines the account of reasons as premises of good reasoning and argues that it is well placed to meet the desiderata. It is then shown how the account might be developed to allow for the possibility of epistemic and conative conditions on reasons, and a distinction between objective and subjective reasons. The chapter ends by considering some challenges the account faces, including the objection that good reasoning should be understood in terms of reasons.
Good Reasoning
Authors: McHugh Conor , Way Jonathan 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents and defends an account of good reasoning as, roughly, reasoning which preserves fittingness other things equal. The account is shown to have important attractions, and is developed and refined in response to objections. The development includes a proposal that ‘other things equal’ be understood in terms of normality, and that good reasoning must exemplify a pattern that the reasoner can competently follow in acquiring a new attitude. The chapter then shows how to combine this account of good reasoning with the account of reasons as premises of good reasoning, and addresses some objections and issues that this combined account raises. Two appendices show how a version of the account can be modelled using quantification over possible worlds and how the account delivers plausible results about structural features of reasons.
Style and Necessity in Thucydides
Authors: Joho Tobias 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Ancient literary critics were struck by what they described as Thucydides’ ‘nominal style’, a term that refers to Thucydides’ fondness for abstract nominal phrases. As this book shows, Thucydides frequently uses theses phrases instead of approximately synonymous verbal and personal constructions. These stylistic choices tend to de-emphasize human agency: people find themselves in a passive role, exposed to incidents happening to them rather than being actively in charge of events. Thus, the analysis of the abstract style raises the question of necessity in Thucydides. On numerous occasions, Thucydides and his speakers use impersonal and passive language to stress the subjection of human beings to transpersonal forces that manifest themselves in collective passions and an inherent dynamic of events. These factors are constitutive of the human condition and become a substitute for the notion of divine fatalism prevalent in earlier Greek thought. Yet Thucydidean necessity is not absolute. It stands in the tradition of a type of fatalism that one finds in Homer and Herodotus. In these authors, the gods or fate tend to settle the outcome of the most significant events, but they leave leeway for the specific way in which these pivotal events come to pass. Thus, the Greeks endorsed a malleable variant of necessity, so that considerable scope for human choice persists within the framework fixed by necessity. Pericles turns out to be Thucydides’ prime example of an individual who uses the leeway left by necessity for prudent interventions into the course of events.
Thucydides’ Abstract Nominal Style
Authors: Joho Tobias 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Thucydides draws on four methods to give his style an abstract nominal character: (1) abstract phrases in place of circumstantial participles and subordinate clauses, (2) abstract phrases instead of personal nouns, (3) frequent use of nominal periphrasis, and (4) employment of impersonal passives. These tendencies, however, do not prevail in equal measure in all parts of Thucydides’ work. In his account of stasis at Corcyra, Thucydides juxtaposes two discrete sections that encapsulate the two basic modes of his style: the chronicle of events (3.70–81) is marked by a plain, commonplace idiom, whereas the following excursus on stasis (3.82–3) features a high-water mark of abstract language. In general, the excursus displays a plethora of abstract subjects and of abstract nouns modified by further abstract nouns, while the narrative contains almost no examples of these constructions.
Admissible Evidence
Authors: Roberts Paul 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the core evidentiary idea of ‘admissibility’. Exclusionary rules are the hallmark of common law approaches to regulating evidence, but they do not—as is sometimes asserted or assumed—exhaust the disciplinary domain of evidence law. The first hurdle to admissibility is relevancy; which is assessed by extra-legal considerations of logic and common sense. Irrelevant evidence is always inadmissible. Exclusionary doctrines target particular categories of relevant but ‘suspect’ evidence—information which may be unsuitable for inclusion in criminal trials on epistemic and/or normative grounds. However, exclusionary rules are typically subject to a further normative layer of inclusionary exceptions. Admissibility structures are presented in a simple flowchart. Evidence is also routinely categorized according to whether it is direct, circumstantial, real, collateral, or testimonial. Additional sources of information in litigation include formal proofs, agreed evidence, views and demonstrations, and miscellaneous informal sources of knowledge and observations. All types and sources of information relied on criminal trials should be tested against normative standards of procedural justice (including human rights and fair trial principles).
Vulnerable Witnesses and the Principle of Orality
Authors: Roberts Paul 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter surveys extensive procedural innovation in the treatment of vulnerable or intimidated witnesses (VIWs) in criminal trials in England and Wales, prompting further reflection on the contemporary status and future prospects of the traditional ‘principle of orality’. Given the institutional dynamics of adversarial trial, any witness might be characterized as ‘vulnerable’. VIW-accommodating procedural reform originally focused on complainants of sexual offences and child witnesses, but progressively gathered momentum and expanded in scope and coverage, culminating in the ‘special measures directions’ (SMDs) framework introduced by the Youth Justice and Criminal Evidence Act 1999. The chapter describes the evolution and development of English law’s ‘rape shield’, now contained in YJCE Act 1999, s.41, regulating the admissibility of complainants’ previous sexual history evidence. Legislative drafting and case law applications, including extended discussion of the high-profile Evans case, are critically evaluated. Reforms of children’s evidence date back to the 1980s. Children were the primary beneficiaries of ‘special measures’ under the YJCE Act 1999, including prerecorded video interviews in lieu of examination-in-chief, testifying via Live Link CCTV, screens and the provision of intermediaries. Tailored menus of special measures have been incrementally extended to other categories of adult VIWs. Ongoing policy debates concern the roll-out of prerecorded cross-examination pursuant to YJCE Act 1999, s.28; and the ‘inequality of arms’ experienced by child defendants in accessing equivalent special measures. SMDs were introduced as exceptional adjustments for VIWs. As their range of application expands and is further deepened through technological innovation, however, the ‘exception’ becomes increasingly normalized. We must then confront an existential question: what remains of the traditional ‘principle of orality’ in this transformed model of the criminal trial?
Expert Evidence
Authors: Roberts Paul 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 11 is concerned with expert evidence, a topic traditionally conceptualized as an exceptional category of ‘opinion evidence’ and frequently marginalized in Evidence textbooks. Our approach emphasizes institutional context and epistemological foundations, and centrally features forensic science evidence—which is increasingly influential in modern criminal litigation (and sometimes associated with miscarriages of justice). The supposed dichotomy between ‘facts’ and ‘opinions’ is conceptually dubious but rarely significant in practice. It is more illuminating to think about expert evidence in terms of the epistemic warrant it supplies for criminal verdicts. Building on Ron Allen’s perceptive distinction between fact-finder ‘education’ and ‘deference’, a model of rational reliance on forensic expertise is proposed and tested against doctrinal precedents and principles. Expert witnesses must be competent and objective. However, these elementary qualifications are complicated in practice by the adversarial structure of criminal litigation. Traditional mechanisms of evidence-testing, including cross-examination, are not well-suited to exposing the deficiencies of expert evidence. If radical solutions, such as court-appointed experts, flatter to deceive, more modest procedural reform may increase institutional resilience, viewed in the broader context of criminal proceedings as a whole. Regulatory structures, codes of practice, professional ethics, and pre-trial safeguards might better enhance the quality of forensic science evidence than trial-centric measures. As a doctrinal matter, admissibility of expert evidence essentially boils down to competence (Davie), relevance and ‘helpfulness’ (Turner). Other evidentiary rules are either obsolete (ultimate issues) or fact-specific applications of the general Turner standard. More recently, there is (equivocal) doctrinal flirtation with a supplementary ‘reliability’ criterion, especially in relation to novel forensic science or new technological applications. Further insight is derived from comparative experiences, especially US Daubert jurisprudence and major reports (NRC, PCAST) criticizing the methodological underpinnings of forensic science. In England and Wales, legislative policies animating the Law Commission’s unimplemented Expert Evidence Bill have been partly incorporated into Part 19 of the Criminal Procedure Rules and Practice Directions.
Pentecost
Authors: Maiden John 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines how and why charismatics imagined a ‘New Pentecost’ in the various distinctive social, cultural, geopolitical, and religious contexts of the ‘long Sixties’. By looking at different ‘moments of emergence’ in a range of secular and church settings, it draws out the common themes which shaped the formation of a charismatic eschatological imaginary of the Spirit being poured out. Alongside these broader issues, it also looks in detail at the specificities of two cases: Quebec and South Africa. The coherence of charismatic renewal and its eschatological imagination, this chapter shows, was defined by narratives—such as The Cross and the Switchblade, Arthur Wallis’ In the Day of Thy Power, and Kevin and Dorothy Ranaghan’s Catholic Pentecostals—of experiences of authentic, spiritual power in moments of cultural and personal crisis.
World
Authors: Maiden John 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The chapter explores the ways in which the Spiritscape of charismatic renewal in North America, the British Isles, Australasia, and South Africa, interconnected with a much wider global nexus of charismatic, pentecostal, and holiness movements in the non-English-speaking West, the communist bloc, and the Third World. It shows how from the beginnings of charismatic renewal, a global move of the Spirit was assumed. Increasingly, global reflexes meant that Anglo-world perceptions of the charismatic geography of the Spirit expanded to include the imagined work of God in places such as Argentina, Indonesia, Kenya, and South Korea. Although initially there was little substantial engagement between Anglo-world charismatics and these movements, against a backdrop of Western ‘secularisation’, mutual exchange increased markedly as the 1970s progressed.
Politics and the Urban Frontier
Authors: Goodfellow Tom 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Despite the rise of global technocratic ideals of city-making, cities around the world are not merging into indistinguishable duplicates of one another. In fact, as the world urbanizes, urban formations remain diverse in their socio-economic and spatial characteristics, with varying potential to foster economic development and social justice. This book argues that these differences are primarily rooted in politics, and if we continue to view cities as economic and technological projects to be managed rather than terrains of political bargaining and contestation, the quest for better urban futures is doomed to fail. Dominant critical approaches to urban development tend to explain difference with reference to the variegated impacts of neoliberal regulatory institutions. This, however, neglects the multiple ways in which the wider politics of capital accumulation and distribution drive divergent forms of transformation in different urban places. In order to unpack the politics that shapes differential urban development, this book focuses on East Africa as the global urban frontier: the least urbanized but fastest urbanizing region in the world. Drawing on a decade of research spanning three case-study countries (Ethiopia, Rwanda, and Uganda), Politics and the Urban Frontier provides the first sustained, book-length comparative analysis of urban development trajectories in Eastern Africa and the political dynamics underpinning them. Through a focus on infrastructure investment, urban propertyscapes, street-level trading economies, and urban political protest, it offers a multi-scalar, historically grounded, and interdisciplinary analysis of the urban transformations unfolding in the world’s most dynamic crucible of urban change.
East Africa and the politics of late urbanization
Authors: Goodfellow Tom 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Although comparative urban research has flourished in recent years, existing analytical frameworks cannot adequately explain patterns of urban similarity and difference—even within a region such as East Africa, which has similar urbanization levels between its countries, but substantial differences in urban form and function. This introductory chapter argues that East Africa is the world’s urban frontier in the sense of being the least urbanized but fastest-urbanizing region, which makes it a crucial site for comparative research on urban development and change. It introduces the concept of ‘late urbanization’ to encapsulate some of the shared features of East Africa’s regional trajectory, before explaining the ways in which we need to situate political analysis at multiple scales in order to fully understand urban divergence within the region. The chapter then sets out the book’s empirical ‘puzzle’, previews its argument, and outlines the structure of the book to follow.