bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Abu Dharr al Ghifari
Authors: Baker Raymond William 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Islamic justice is not simply an abstract value. Rather, it is a call to action. The Qur'an teaches that neither the performance of religious rituals nor even the cultivation of a personal relationship with God will in themselves fulfill the obligations of believers. They must act for social justice. Muslims are called to build the righteous community. Abu Dharr modeled bold action to challenge injustice, whatever its provenance. He did not hesitate to challenge the Caliph Osman himself when he saw tendencies toward unjust rule. Abu Dharr directly condemned the use of public funds to build a caliphal palace. The funds would be better spent, he pronounced, to assist the poor. Not even the richest or most powerful should escape accountability. For his bold actions on behalf of the downtrodden, Abu Dharr earned the sobriquet of “lawyer of the poor.”
Sa’id Nursi
Authors: Baker Raymond William 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Sa’id Nursi holds a virtually unchallenged position as the preeminent modern-day Turkish Islamic scholar. Gifted intellectually, Nursi stood out even as a child for his exceptional talent. In his early adulthood, he further distinguished himself as a fighter in World War I in defense of Turkish territories. Nursi seemed destined for the classic Turkish role of warrior turned public figure. He was actively courted by Kemal Attaturk, the secular founder of the Turkish republic. However, when Attaturk’s extreme secular orientation and virulent hostility to Islam became clear, Nursi turned down his lucrative offers of public service. He retreated into a private realm of prodigious scholarship. Nursi’s writings inspired the Nurcu mass movement. Today, Islam is a vibrant force in Turkey, and much of the credit for that by no means certain outcome is given to Sa’id Nursi. For his achievements as an Islamic scholar, Nursi earned the honorary title of “Wonder of the Age.”
Muhammad Ali
Authors: Baker Raymond William 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Muhammad Ali did pronounce himself the “Greatest.” However, he had trouble seeing himself as an intellectual. Ali was acutely aware of how limited his formal education was. Islam came to Ali’s rescue. There are only two requirements for the status of Islamic intellectual. The “caller” to Islam must love Islam and have the communication skills to convey the reasons for that love to others. Ali radiated a profound passion for his adopted faith. He also had mastery of an inventive language all his own to project that love and deflect the racism he faced. Islamic scholars welcomed Ali into their ranks. Even more moving to Ali himself was the way impoverished masses in the poorest of Islamic lands rushed to greet “their hero.” Muhammad Ali’s most compelling story was his lifelong spiritual journey. What made Muhammad Ali distinct was the fact that he waged his moral and intellectual struggles for self-realization as a Muslim on a global stage with a worldwide audience of millions.
Introduction
Authors: Waxman Matthew C. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
New technologies, new geopolitical alignments, new interests and vulnerabilities, and other developments are changing how, why, and by whom conflict will be waged. Just as militaries must plan ahead for an environment in which threats, alliances, capabilities, and even the domains in which they fight will differ from today, they must plan for international legal constraints that may differ, too. The authors in this volume bring to their chapters a wide range of normative perspectives. Common to all of them, however, is the view that the law of armed conflict must continue to adapt if it is to retain its vitality.
Future War, Future Law
Authors: Roberts Adam 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
How people think about war, and especially about its future, is a problem. They often get it wrong. This chapter explores some of the hazards in thinking about future war as well as future law. It looks not only at the making and implementation of international law applicable to military operations but also at cases where there was a lack of applicable law, or a general tendency not to apply such law as existed. This chapter also touches on the work of one political economist of war, I.S. Bloch, who wrote the most famous and perhaps most influential book on the future of war—a book that addressed one of the central themes of the present work—the effect of changing technology on war. The author suggests the value of a historical approach to the future of the laws of war with respect to three questions. (1) What are the hazards in assessing the changing character and technology of war? (2) How well have the laws of war responded to technological change? (3) Is there a case for new treaties, or other forms of lawmaking, to address the new developments discussed in this book
Being More than You Can Be
Authors: Liivoja Rain 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Warfighters are both the strongest and the weakest link of an armed force. The parallel processing capability of the human brain and the agility of the human body are still unmatched by technology. At the same time, as human beings, warfighters require oxygen, water, nutrition, and sleep to survive; they are not adapted to what many other species excel at, and they are susceptible to illnesses and injuries. Armed forces generally attempt to mitigate these factors by means of equipment and training. Biomedical human performance enhancement, however, will increasingly be used to improve the performance of warfighters, raising a range of legal, ethical, and social issues. This chapter considers how human enhancement will affect the application of the law of armed conflict in future warfare. After providing a brief conceptual and technical background to human enhancement, the chapter looks at whether the law prohibits or restricts the enhancement of warfighters, and what consequences the enhancement of warfighters has under the law.
The Future Law of Naval Warfare
Authors: McLaughlin Rob 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Currently, the world is witnessing renewed potential for State-against-State naval engagements at sea. The macro-context is animated by tensions between a number of major powers and blocs of powers. Additionally, there is an evolving acceptance of the legal consequences of more pointed recognition of a “status mixtus” spectrum of overt competition between peace and conflict—not least in renewed appreciations of the power and place of lawfare, and (re)emerging strategic concepts of hybrid warfare and gray zone operations. It is inevitable—indeed already evident—that States will look to increased utilization of lower cost merchant vessels and auxiliaries for some naval operations tasks. This evolution will in turn drive legal appreciations and questions as to naval combatant status and rights, with follow-on consequences that will challenge or even erode existing concepts, notions, and interpretive biases relating to the Law of Naval Warfare (LoNW). This chapter focuses upon status and characterization of vessels in LoNW as indicative of the broader challenges faced when applying LoNW designed for 1907 to naval warfare in the coming decades. To this end, the analysis focuses upon two substantive matters and raises for further discussion another. The first substantive matter is possible maritime militia status within LoNW; the second is the characterization of MAS within LoNW. The third matter—which is merely raised for discussion, rather than resolved in any way—is the future understanding of the concept of “belligerent rights” in LoNW.
The Second Space Age
Authors: Borgen Christopher J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers what space activities are, what they might be in the near future, and the implications for the interaction of space law with the law of armed conflict (LOAC). After an introduction, Section II and III describe the past, present, and possible future of space activities, noting especially the roles of military space and the evolution of private actors. Section IV then turns to two sources of regulation of military space activities: space law and LOAC. Section V surveys certain regulatory challenges, with an emphasis on the interaction of private companies and governments in military and national security space activities. The chapter concludes by noting the importance of core doctrinal questions related to sources of law, state responsibility, and neutrality in clarifying the regulation of military space operations.
Bernard Williams’s Debt to Nietzsche
Authors: Leiter Brian 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Bernard Williams was one of just two prominent figures within the mainstream of Anglophone moral philosophy in the second half of the twentieth-century to devote serious attention to Nietzsche. (Philippa Foot was the other comparably famous figure to do so, and she, unsurprisingly, shared with Williams skepticism about many orthodoxies of analytic moral philosophy during this time.) The author’s aim is to assess the Williams–Nietzsche relationship, the extent to which Williams learned from Nietzsche, and the extent to which he retreated from or ignored Nietzsche’s actual views. The author argues that the alleged influence is mostly superficial and that Williams’s limited engagement with Nietzsche tells us something about the distinctive and conservative nature of Anglophone philosophy over the past century. The author focuses mainly on Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy (1985) and Shame and Necessity (1993), as well as some of Williams’s articles.
Confidence
Authors: Łukomska Agata 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The claim that confidence can be an alternative to ethical knowledge is widely considered to be a rare miss among many hits in Bernard Williams’s Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy. If we understand confidence as the psychological manifestation of conviction, Williams’s critique of ethical cognitivism leaves almost no grounds for being reasonably confident in one’s moral outlook. But it is not the only way we can understand it. The author proposes a model of practical deliberation within which confidence makes sense, suggesting that, by championing confidence rather than conviction, Williams argues implicitly for an unorthodox approach to action, one in which the agent is construed as essentially dependent, in her identity and in her capacity for continued action, on the outcomes of her own decisions. The author argues that such an agent is necessarily committed, on the one hand, to identifying strongly with the preconceptions of her own community and, on the other, to take into account the beliefs, including moral beliefs, of other people. The author suggests that the capacity to continuously enlarge one’s moral outlook in this way is what Williams means by ethical confidence. The author also examines the extent to which his position can be understood as a form of anti-intellectualist moral cognitivism.
Moral Realism with a Human Face
Authors: Rosen Gideon 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter restates and regiments Williams’s main metaethical theses in light of advances in metaethics during the past three decades. It is argued that Williams’s Ethics and the Limits of Philosophy aimed to find a middle way between full-strength realism about ethical judgment and various forms of skepticism and noncognitivism. The author attributes to Williams the claim that while ethical judgments are sometimes simply true and so correspond to genuine facts, ethical judgments are “perspectival” and so enjoy at best a “limited objectivity.” However, according to the author, this view is best understood as an epistemological thesis according to which the warrant for ethical judgments can never be intersubjectively compelling in the broadest sense. Consequently, Williams’s metaethical position is not a metaphysical view and has nothing to do with the mind- or practice-independence of ethical facts.
Free Will and the Tragic Predicament
Authors: Russell Paul 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents an interpretation of Bernard Williams’s significant and substantial contributions on the topic of free will and moral responsibility. Williams’s fundamental objective, it is argued, is to vindicate moral responsibility by way of freeing it from distortions and misrepresentations imposed on it by “the morality system.” Although his earlier work is primarily concerned with the critique of “morality” and its associated understanding of responsibility and blame, Williams nevertheless rejects any extreme or unqualified skepticism. On the contrary, in Shame and Necessity he advances a vindicatory genealogy—one that unmasks the “illusions” and “fantasies” of our current ethical ideas as they relate to agency and responsibility. Any truthful understanding of free and responsible agency, he argues, must acknowledge the ways in which luck and fate are infused into human ethical life. This is the fundamental (“pessimistic”) lesson that we can learn from the ancient Greeks and that Williams seeks to “recover” for us.
Luck and Responsibility According to Bernard Williams
Authors: Heuer Ulrike 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
In his seminal paper, “Moral Luck,” Bernard Williams begins to develop an account of responsibility for unintentional aspects of our agency. It rests on a crucial distinction of success and failure, internal or external to an agent’s project. In this chapter, the author argues that a success which results from conditions that are internal to a project is not a lucky success, nor is a failure which results from something that is internal to the project just unlucky. There is no internal luck. Responsibility-defying luck is always external. An important result of this exploration is that Williams’s view opens a path for understanding responsibility neither as being concerned with reactive attitudes such as indignation or blame, nor in a common rationalist way as being based on an agent’s reason-responsiveness. Instead, responsibility depends on how a person’s actions relate to the exercise of her abilities in the pursuit of her projects and how they are integrated into her life.
Bernard Williams as a Philosopher of Ethical Freedom
Authors: Fricker Miranda 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Interpreting Bernard Williams’s ethical philosophy is not easy. His style is apparently direct yet argumentatively inexplicit and allusive. He is moreover committed to evading philosophical “isms.” This gives the impression that his philosophy is a web of interrelated commitments where none has priority. Against this impression, in this chapter it is proposed that there is a single, unchanging root conviction from which Williams’s ethical philosophy grows. This is argued by reference to three signature theses: internal reasons, the relativism of distance, and the porous borders of philosophy and history. These are represented as the fruits of the conviction that the constraints of universal rationality seriously underdetermine how one should live. This vision of the human condition constitutes the inexplicit yet fundamental presupposition beneath Williams’s ethical philosophy. The object of this root conviction is labeled ethical freedom and thus Williams is portrayed as a philosopher of ethical freedom.
Blame Without Reasons
Authors: Ng Geraldine 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Williams argues that A’s reasons are restricted to facts about actions that would serve A’s subjective motivational set S. A challenge to this internalist perspective on reasons comes from our ordinary conception of blame. We blame A if we think A had reasons to act otherwise. If blame is connected with reasons, this suggests a blame-implies-reasons restriction: blame is restricted to reasons to act otherwise related to A’s S. But this restriction conflicts with our everyday understanding of the scope of blame. To meet this worry, Williams advances a qualified blame-implies-reasons restriction: blame is restricted to proleptic reasons A might have had to act otherwise. The author argues that Williams’s strategy is unconvincing and proposes a practice-based view of blame that is not connected to reasons. By focusing on the practice of blame rather than its function, the practice-based view conserves both internalism and our intuitions about the scope of blame.
Introduction
Authors: Perkoski Evan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces readers to the main question motivating this book: why do splinter groups survive and radicalize to different extents? It begins with a discussion of how conflicts have changed in recent decades, and specifically, how they have become increasingly subnational, fragmented, and complex. It then defines terms like splintering and fragmentation in relation to other organizational transformations. From here, the chapter reviews five widely held myths and misconceptions about splinter groups. Some of these are based in fact, while others are shaped by media bias and political posturing. Finally, the chapter concludes with a review of what we actually know about splinter groups and what is to come in the rest of the book.
How Armed Groups Divide
Authors: Perkoski Evan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter outlines a theory of how armed groups divide and how splinter groups behave. The argument is simple: to understand the extent to which splinters will radicalize and survive, we must understand their motivations for breaking away. The chapter develops this argument by drawing upon a wealth of research from fields like organizational studies and social psychology, and by leveraging analogies to business firms, religious sects, and political parties. More specifically, this chapter reveals that both the number of disagreements and the specific issues motivating splinters to exit their parent critically shape its trajectory by influencing its membership composition. The number of disagreements has ramifications for membership cohesion and therefore survivability, while the specific issues influence its appeal to hardliners and therefore strategic and tactical choices. The chapter concludes with a brief case study of the Basque militant group, Euskadi ta Askatasuna (ETA), and its split in 1974 into ETA-político-militar, and ETA-militar.
Statistically Evaluating How Splinter Groups Emerge and Behave
Authors: Perkoski Evan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the book’s theory quantitatively. It begins by describing a new data set detailing the causes of organizational splits among 300 randomly-selected armed groups between 1970 and 2014. This offers some of the first insight into the different causes of organizational splits and their relative frequency over time. Then, using this new data, the chapter presents statistical analyses of the radicalization and survival of armed groups. It examines how splinters behave in their first recorded year of activity, just after they break away, and throughout their entire existence. Across both periods, the findings support the book’s theoretical expectations. Splinter groups motivated by strategy are highly radicalized and conduct particularly lethal attacks, whereas those forming unidimensionally around single issues are especially durable.
Civil Society II
Authors: Levenson Zachary 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a contrasting account of civil society articulation in the 2012 Siqalo land occupation. In that occupation, participants viewed the municipal state as their antagonist from the outset—not as a partner, as in Kapteinsklip. This was for two reasons. First, most of the occupiers had faced regular police violence in their former living arrangements, with their tenure rights being called into question. And second, they had come from established informal settlements—communities—rather than atomized backyard shacks as in Kapteinsklip. In practice this meant that they mobilized collectively, electing a single leadership to represent the entirety of the occupation, forming a fused group rather than a series. Much as in Kapteinsklip, participants’ prior views of the state determined the organizational form they used to mobilize, or what this book calls civil society articulation.
Rediscovering Party Government
Authors: Santucci Jack 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
As argued in Chapter 2, realigning episodes can be “messy,” as it may not be clear who will govern after the fact. But party organization is a fact of political life. This chapter documents that recognition, pointing to the “messiness” of early reform episodes. These STV adopters faced several problems: voter confusion, non-use of rankings, shifting elite coalitions, and repeal. The national movement comes under new leadership, then responds in two ways. First, it cracks down on larger-than-recommended assemblies. Second, it advises converting reform coalitions into pre-election “good government” organizations. These groups have many hallmarks of party: policy committees, voter-mobilization arms, and public-facing party “brands.”
The Price of Coalition
Authors: Santucci Jack 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at working of “good government” slates. Despite having traits associated with parties, they were mainly coalitions of neighborhood groups whose purpose was to hold down dominant-party seat share. Accordingly, government spending under STV is higher than in reformed cities without STV, as well as in unreformed cities. Campaigns are geographically focused, consistent with experience in non-U.S. contexts. But efforts at “vote management” are imperfect, with slates running as many candidates as there are seats to fill. This is a rational response to the fact that slate-based party systems defy the overarching ones. The “good government” parties bank on transfers from hopeless candidates to deliver seat majorities.
On the Causes and Consequences of Cross-Cultural Differences
Authors: Nunn Nathan 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis review summarizes a recent body of research within economics that seeks to explain contemporary cross-societal differences in culture. One line of research traces the effects of determinants in the distant past and studies how they affect the evolution of cultural traits and their transmission across multiple generations. Another line takes a shorter-term and more micro-level perspective to study how events faced by an individual or group affect their culture. Most recently, this line of inquiry has turned to the question of how cultural traits interact with economic factors, in particular how cultural differences can inform the optimal design of economic and social policy and how such policies can, in turn, shape the evolution of cultural traits.
Dissenting Devotional Taste
Authors: Dumler-Winckler Emily 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Variously called the Age of Taste, of Revolution, of Democracy, and of Virtue, the eighteenth century fueled a series of conversations and disputes about questions of authority. The first three chapters of this book demonstrate Wollstonecraft’s contributions to these debates. The first chapter argues that Wollstonecraft democratizes and radicalizes the neoclassical view that qualified or virtuous judges identify standards of taste. Wollstonecraft’s moral psychology of taste and judgment shares more in common with that of Edmund Burke than either Immanuel Kant or David Hume. Even so, she uses Burke’s metaphor of the wardrobe of a moral imagination to challenge his own tastes. Wollstonecraft scholars who notice the prominence of theology in her work tend to argue that it is either foundational or ornamental to her feminist arguments. Her devotional taste, which integrates theology, religion, ethics, politics, and aesthetics, is better understood as part of the inherited, ever-revisable wardrobe of the moral imagination.