bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Quantitative Evaluation of Microstructure to Support Verification of Material Properties in Line-Pipe Steels
Authors: Martin L. P. , Switzner Nathan , Oneal Owen , Curiel Sophia , Anderson Joel , Veloo Peter 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Federal rule changes governing natural gas pipelines have driven operators in the United States to establish materials verification programs (MVP) for pipelines that lack reliable records. One component of a successful MVP is the use of nondestructive testing (NDT) to assess pipe properties in situ. Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) augments traditional NDT with quantitative analysis of pipe microstructures. The microstructures are acquired non-destructively by surface replication, and are quantitatively evaluated to assess the ferrite grain size and fraction of pearlite. To support interpretation of the data, PG&E has compiled a database of steel line pipes for which microstructures from both destructive cross-sections (cutouts) and in situ surface replicas have been evaluated, and for which mechanical test data are available. The database is currently comprised of more than fifty pipe samples with manufacturing dates between 1931 and 2017, and a variety of grades and seam types.
This work presents a comparative analysis of the different methods used by PG&E to quantify pipe microstructures, and shows that microstructures from surface replicas are generally consistent with those from cutout cross-sections. In addition, semi-quantitative correlations between micro structure and mechanical properties are presented. The data suggest a correlation between grain size and the ductile-brittle Charpy V-notch (CVN) transition temperature, and an inverse correlation between fraction of pearlite and the upper-bound of the CVN upper-shelf energy. In addition, the analysis shows that grain size can provide a lower bound on the manufacturing year (vintage) due to the advent of steelmaking practices that produce refined grain structures. By themselves, the observed trends can provide semi-quantitative bounds for these properties; however, the predictive value of the microstructural assessments may be improved by the development of more sophisticated algorithms that consider additional information, such as composition and hardness.
Design and Finite Element Analysis (FEA) of Bulkheads for a Pipe-in-Pipe Flowline: Application of ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code
Authors: Shekarforoush Mehdi , Hoorzad Hamid , Hothi Jaspreet , Forcinito Mario 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Evaluating a pipe-in-pipe (PIP) system with bulkheads is not explicitly covered by the Canadian Standards Association (CSA) Z662 for oil & gas pipeline systems and refers to the rules in the ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code (BPVC Section VIII, Division 2) as alternative reference code. However, the BPVC does not specifically address the pipeline design. Due to the nonlinear nature of the PIP and bulkhead geometry and loading condition, careful modeling and an appropriate interpretation and application of design criteria by BPVC code are required. The current paper addresses the challenges and recommendations for geometric design of the bulkheads, the appropriate modeling of the problem using FEA method, as well as analysis and accurate interpretation of the results based on the BPVC rules. The bulkhead design was checked per ASME B&PV VIII.2, design-by-analysis, and showed that the assembly has met the criteria for protection against 1) plastic collapse, 2) local failure and 3) failure from ratcheting.
A Comprehensive New Look at Type B Sleeves
Authors: Futch David B. , Denowh Chantz , Wilson Josh 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Type B full encirclement steel sleeves have been used for the past fifty-plus years as a viable repair method for most, if not all, features encountered on a pipeline. A Type B sleeve includes an in-service weld at both ends of the sleeve. The science behind performing these welds in a safe manner has greatly evolved over the past 20+ years. However, many of the original concepts regarding the design and application of a steel sleeve have not been further examined since the original research on the subject.
This paper investigates a series of sleeve circumstances to better understand the long-term integrity of the common repair method. The circumstances examined within this paper include: the effect of a fabricated sleeve vs split pipe, the influence of the Bauschinger effect on fabricated sleeve properties, the effect of filler material applied within a dent, the effect of steel sleeve fit-up, and the influence of a mill groove relief for a longitudinal backing strip. All test configurations examined confirm the long-term integrity of a Type B sleeve, however, the information presented in this paper from the above tests can be used when utilizing a Type B sleeve as a permanent repair.
A combination of sub-scale and full-scale tests were performed to fully investigate the circumstances mentioned above. Sub-scale tests were performed to evaluate the Bauschinger effect, which indicated minimal effect from the fabrication processes of the sleeve. Full-scale tests were performed for the remaining circumstances. Through a series of one-for-one comparison tests, a fabricated steel sleeve performed in an equivalent manner to split pipe. The application of filler material, and the application of a suitable filler material, had a large effect on the load sharing of the repair. During this test protocol, tight fitting sleeves resulted in a life approximately 3.5 times longer than one installed in a loose manner. While a mill groove did not affect the life of the sleeve, it does result in a tighter fitting sleeve, shown to have a significant benefit if the sleeve becomes pressurized.
Pipeline Repair Planning Using a Digital Environment to Improve Integrity Tasks
Authors: Sharman William , Sander Phillip , Hall Owen , Martin Jonathan , Spurlock John 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In the transition to a digital environment for pipeline integrity management, the traditional methods for assessment of in-line inspections (ILI) and subsequent repair planning, are progressing from a manual process of utilizing paper-based information sources and relatively simple spreadsheet calculations, to an all-encompassing digital process.
There have been significant improvements to the management and alignment of pipeline and related inspection / survey data. The subsequent algorithms and procedures used to determine pipeline repairs need to evolve in conjunction to benefit from the extra information readily available. As part of the development of integrity management software, we made advancements in repair planning procedures and this paper describes the challenges encountered and the subsequent solutions adopted.
The traditional approach to repair and dig site planning has been based on the ILI vendor’s dig sheet, reviewed in conjunction with the pipeline listing, allowing an integrity engineer to identify necessary repairs following an integrity assessment and repair rules adopted by the pipeline operator. It can then be determined whether multiple repair locations can be combined into a single dig site, or if a more advanced repair method is required due to the presence of other pipeline features (e.g. an existing pipeline repair). An experienced engineer, provided with sufficient information about the state of the pipeline, should be able to provide an appropriate repair solution that requires only minor adjustment once excavations begin, saving a significant amount of cost and effort for the repairs, at the expense of high efforts on the engineer’s part.
Optimizing Blended Hydrogen Uniformity Within Natural Gas Pipeline Distribution Networks
Authors: Li Guohua , Moyer Michelle , Bidmus Hamid 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Blending hydrogen into existing natural gas pipeline distribution networks is becoming prominent in the alternative energy industry. Non-uniformity of the hydrogen concentration can occur in the blends delivered at the demand locations of these networks. The non-uniformity can significantly reduce the total hydrogen blending capacity of the whole network due to concentration limitations of industrial and household equipment or materials. Thus, maximizing hydrogen uniformity can become a necessity in the modeling and design of some hydrogen blended natural gas distribution networks where multiple supplies exist but hydrogen can’t be injected at each supply site.
This paper introduces a methodology to optimize blended hydrogen uniformity. The methodology is illustrated using a hypothetical natural gas distribution network. A natural gas supply tracing study is conducted to establish the order of priority of the supply sources in a demand area. A hydrogen and natural gas blending and parametric study is then carried out to determine a ranking for priority selection of the hydrogen injection sites. Subsequently, an operational optimization study is performed to minimize the number of hydrogen injection sites and maximize the volume of the hydrogen injected.
Using the hypothetical natural gas distribution network, a cost and benefit analysis is performed. The relationship between the total costs and the total hydrogen injection flow rates, as a function of the number of hydrogen injection sites, are tabled and plotted.
An Automatic Dent Assessment Tool Using Finite Element Method
Authors: Bao Ji , Zhang Shenwei , Zhang Billy , Wang Rick , Zhang Ken 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Dents are permanent plastic deformations of the pipeline that occur during pipeline construction and operations. Stress and strain concentration at dents may initiate cracks, which pose a threat to the integrity of the pipeline. Since formation of dents involves plastic deformation, a traditional depth-based assessment method cannot accurately capture the strain concentration, e.g. a sharp dent. Dent assessment methods have shifted to strain-based approach in recent years.
Engineering Critical Assessment (ECA) procedures are evolving with the development of new methods to calculate the strains associated with a dent. It has been well established that three-dimensional (3D) elastic-plastic Finite Element Analysis (FEA) is the most accurate in the denting process simulation and dent strain calculation. However, FEA modelling of dents interacting with other threats can be extremely laborious and requires high level of FEA expertise. Moreover, continuum FEA is usually computationally expensive and imposes onerous demands for analysis efforts.
This paper describes the process that was used to develop an automatic dent assessment tool via FEA. The tool is capable of simulating the denting process of a plain dent and a dent interacting with other threats (e.g., metal loss or gouge). The dent geometry and curvature in FEA are shown to agree well with captured In-line Inspection (ILI) caliper data. The tool also supports batch processing of numerous dents with a highly intelligent post-processing engine that automatically calculates von Mises equivalent strain, ductile failure damage indicator (DFDI) and strain limit damage (SLD) and outputs the results with visual contour plots. The Rainflow pressure cycling counting algorithm and Miner’s rule are incorporated in the tool to predict the fatigue life of the dent utilizing historical pressure data. Case studies are provided to demonstrate the effectiveness of the tool. The development of the tool greatly facilitates the ECA of dents allowing for accurate and efficient management of dents impacting TC Energy’s pipeline system.
Using Advanced Probability of Exceedance Methods for Defining Remediation Options
Authors: Bubenik Thomas , Hanna Benjamin , Harper William , Ellinger Matt 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The Probability of Exceedance (POE) methodology is used by pipeline operators to manage corrosion. It prioritizes anomalies identified by an in-line inspection (ILI) based on their likelihood of exceeding one or more failure thresholds. Two types of thresholds are commonly used: leak and rupture. The calculations represent the likelihood an anomaly will leak or rupture as a function of time. By assessing the likelihood of such a release as a function of time, an operator can design rational and statistically valid remediation programs.
In this study, the likelihood that an anomaly will cause a leak or rupture was based on the ILI dimensions, the ILI system’s accuracies, and the corrosion growth rate at the anomaly location. The ILI dimensions were adjusted by the mean error as determined using ILI-to-field comparison data. The same ILI-to-field data were used to determine the scatter (standard deviation) in reported dimensions for different categories of anomalies.
The POE (likelihood) of a leak or rupture was taken as a function of the mean and standard deviation of a corrosion growth rate at the anomaly location. Anomalies were “grown” using mean growth rates that were established by performing ILI run-to-run comparisons. By using accurate growth rates and ILI performance characteristics, realistic estimates were made of the POE of an anomaly, pipe joint, pipe segment, and the overall pipeline itself.
This paper discusses improved methods of calculating leak and rupture POEs using realistic assumptions on how anomaly growth occurs as a function of time. Case studies are used to demonstrate the effectiveness of the advanced POE method.
The introduction and select portions of this paper are based, in part, on “Advanced Probability of Exceedance Method Overcomes Previous Weaknesses,” by the authors,1Pipeline Pigging and Integrity Management Conference, February 2–4, 2022.
Chasing Ghosts: An Integrative Approach to Properly Qualify a Pipeline Threat
Authors: Turnquist Michael 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The execution of in-line inspection (ILI) as the primary assessment methodology to manage a specific pipeline integrity threat has become standard practice for pipeline operators. The ability for ILI to properly size and characterize pipeline anomalies is better than ever. However, there are challenges that operators should be aware of when it comes to understanding the limitations of ILI. These challenges can differ depending on the threat being managed.
The threat of cracking in a pipeline longitudinal seam weld can be particularly challenging to manage. Recent improvements in the detection capabilities of crack-detection ILI technology present a challenge for pipeline operators. It is not uncommon for ILI to report several hundred or even several thousand seam weld anomalies on a single pipeline. Managing this large number of features can be very difficult, and the repercussions of excavating features that do not pose a true integrity threat extend well beyond the financial. The elimination of unnecessary excavations will in turn decrease risk related to safety associated with every excavation and allow the operator to focus solely on the features that pose a true integrity threat.
This paper presents a case study in which a liquid pipeline operator was dealing with these exact challenges. A recent ultrasonic crack detection (UC) ILI reported several thousand linear longitudinal seam anomalies on a post-1980 vintage pipeline containing high-frequency electric resistance welded (HF-ERW) seams. To properly qualify the integrity threat, an integrated approach was executed that combined non-destructive evaluation (NDE), destructive material property testing, full-scale burst and fatigue testing, metallurgical analysis, raw ILI data review, and engineering critical assessment.
The results of the integrated testing and analysis identified that a large number of ILI-reported features were mis-characterized due to the presence of excessive internal trim associated with many of the seam welds contained in the pipeline. The analysis provided the necessary technical justification to forego excavations associated with the features that were mis-characterized by the ILI. Integrated testing and analysis provided the operator with a superior understanding of the true nature of the seam weld integrity threat for this pipeline.
Settlement Risk Assessment and Monitoring for Direct Pipe® Construction Beneath Critical Infrastructure
Authors: Campos Urso A. , Robison Jonathan L. , Castleberry Gary W. , Azimi Amin 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Direct Pipe® (DP) is an innovative trenchless construction method that combines aspects of micro-tunneling and horizontal directional drilling (HDD). In the DP method, ground excavation and pipeline installation are simultaneous. In this method, the jacking frame in micro-tunneling is replaced with a pipe thruster and coupling is eliminated. Additionally, reaming the bore hole, which is common with the HDD method, is eliminated. The DP method of construction is typically applied when subsurface conditions beneath a surficial obstacle are not conducive for the HDD method of construction due to final hole diameter, granular soils, and/or high risks of hydraulic fracture leading to inadvertent drilling fluid returns. During tunneling operations, the microtunneling boring machine (MTBM) excavates a space or tunnel that is typically a few to several centimeters larger in radius than the jacking pipe; which is thrust into place continuously behind the TBM. This overcut annular space and the potential, occasional temporary extraction of the MTBM and jacking pipe represent settlement risks during construction. For this reason, the pipeline construction team should consider assessing settlement risks associated with DP construction, and subsequently prepare and deploy a settlement monitoring plan during the pipeline construction phase, particularly where the proposed DP alignment will cross railroad, highway, and/or other sensitive features that may be adversely affected by settlement. This paper presents an adopted settlement risk assessment and monitoring plan for a recent trenchless crossing where the DP method of construction was utilized to install a pipeline section beneath two major interstates and a railroad outside of Washington D.C., United States. The paper also includes a Finite Element Analysis (FEA) using Plaxis software with the purpose of exploring the time variable in settlement analysis. Furthermore, the paper expands on the planning characteristics of settlement monitoring utilized during construction, which consisted of conventional surveying and vehicle-mounted LiDAR scanning.
TMCP Pipe for Sour Service: A New Qualification Approach
Authors: Newbury Brian , Schwinn Volker , Schroeder Jens , Alderton Graham , Prescott Andrew , Wasson Andrew 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Historically, C-Mn steels have been extensively used in line pipe applications for sour service oil and gas environments, i.e. in the presence of hydrogen sulfide (H2S). In the past few decades, the emergence of the Thermo-Mechanically Control Process (TMCP) manufacturing method has further optimized the benefits of increased fabricability, weldability, and large cost benefits over alternate materials for large diameter pipe manufacturing techniques. However, implementation of C-Mn steels in sour service does require increased focus on steel cleanliness and hardness control to avoid susceptibility to hydrogen damage mechanisms such as hydrogen induced cracking (HIC) and sulfide stress cracking (SSC). These additional requirements have been addressed in industry standards such as NACE MR-0175/ISO 15156. Despite these industry practices, recent pipeline projects have experienced failures related to SSC and have found increased surface hardness due to Local Hard Zones (LHZs) in delivered and installed pipe. The LHZ phenomena appears to be a relatively new concern to the industry, and has led to concern over use of TMCP steels after the Kashagan pipeline failure in 2013. ExxonMobil has developed a qualification program based on the requirements of NACE MR-0175/ISO 15156 and new insights regarding the root cause of LHZs. This work reports details on this qualification approach implemented for X65 grade line pipe from recent qualification activities with TMCP plate and line pipe suppliers.
Advanced Non-Destructive Methods for Defect Characterization Under Coating for In-Service Storage Tanks
Authors: Sohail Touqeer , Bohaichuk Katarina , Eley Devin , Hill Mike 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In recent years there has been significant development of non-destructive technologies for on-stream inspection using remotely operated tools. Many operator companies have a keen interest in adopting such technologies to fulfil the integrity, reliability, and regulatory requirements while minimizing the operational impact. There has been substantial development of in-line inspection tools for pipeline defect characterization, but there is an industry gap of such tools for in-service floor inspections of crude oil storage tanks. Further research and development are required to overcome the challenges of sludge removal, sensor data acquisition under sediments, tool navigation in a viscous product, and electrical hazards in flammable and combustible products.
To accelerate industry innovation, Enbridge has designed and constructed a test tank environment which is a small-scale version of a large-capacity crude storage tank with prefabricated floor defects for vendors to evaluate their robotic in-service inspection equipment. This paper will describe the test tank design as well as the stages of the project for evaluating tool performance in different product environments. In the first stage, the tools will be tested in water, and their performance will be compared with conventional technologies used in out-of-service inspections.
Development of CTOA Requirements for Ductile Fracture Arrest in Gas Pipelines: FE Model and Simulations
Authors: Bassindale Chris , Wang Xin , Tyson William R. , Xu Su 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In this paper, an engineering analysis approach is presented to predict fracture arrest CTOA requirements for gas pipelines using finite element (FE) analysis. A model with constant CTOA as fracture criterion was developed using the commercial FE code ABAQUS 2017x-explicit. Dynamic pipe fracture simulations were performed to determine fracture resistance curves (crack velocity as a function of pressure at constant CTOA) for an American Petroleum Institute (API) X80 steel pipe of diameter 914 mm to 1422 mm and thickness 13 mm to 26 mm. The model incorporated a user subroutine and shell elements. Backfill effects were modelled using smooth particle hydrodynamics and the flap pressure profile was modelled using experimental data from previous burst tests. Fracture resistance curves were compared with the gas decompression curve to determine the minimum arrest CTOA (point of tangency) for a given pipeline design (material, geometry, and gas). Results (arrest CTOA) of the given steel grade and design parameters (thickness, diameter, and backfill) are presented and compared with two previous arrest models that use the CTOA as fracture toughness parameter.