bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Contractual Discretion and the Limits of Free Movement Law
Authors: Babayev Rufat 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article explores the interplay between the principle of freedom of contract and free movement law. The former is not only expressed in the freedom to choose with whom to enter into a contract and shape its content, but it is also manifested in the freedom to decide whether or not to opt out of non-mandatory contract law rules. In this regard, the article examines the extent to which the boundaries of free movement law in a contractual context could be considered to be essentially defined by the reach of such forms of contractual discretion. In addressing this query, it draws a distinction in the role of contractual discretion in the context of individual ways of coordination of contractual relationships in the form of individual contractual preferences and national ones in the form of non-mandatory contract law rules. Unlike the former, it is submitted that contractual discretion should not be taken as a decisive factor in determining the scope of free movement law as regards non-mandatory contract law rules. In particular, it is suggested to consider these rules to fall outside the scope of free movement law because of them themselves not having an effect on free movement as such, rather than due to contracting parties’ discretion over their applicability. Résumé: Cet article explore les interactions entre le principe de la liberté contractuelle et celui de la liberté de circulation. La première ne s’exprime pas seulement à travers la liberté de choisir avec qui contracter et de déterminer le contenu du contrat mais elle se manifeste également par la liberté de décider d’être assujetti ou non aux règles non impératives de droit des contrats. À cet égard, cet article étudie la mesure dans laquelle les limites à la liberté de circulation dans un contexte contractuel pourraient être considérées comme étant essentiellement définies par la portée de ces formes de pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel. Au cours de cette analyse, il établit une distinction entre le rôle du pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel dans le contexte des modalités individuelles de coordination des relations contractuelles sous la forme de préférences contractuelles individuelles et des modalités nationales sous la forme de règles non impératives de droit des contrats. À l’opposé, il est soumis que le pouvoir discrétionnaire contractuel ne devrait pas être vu comme un facteur décisif dans la détermination de l’étendue de la liberté de circulation en ce qui concerne les règles non impératives de droit des contrats. Plus particulièrement, il est proposé de considérer que ces règles ne relèvent pas de la législation sur la liberté de circulation parce qu’elles n’ont pas en elles-mêmes un effet sur la liberté de circulation en tant que telle, mais plutôt en raison du pouvoir discrétionnaire des parties contractantes sur leur applicabilité.
The Indirect Effects on Domestic Law of the European Legislation on Payment Systems
Authors: Vardi Noah 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article examines the impact that recent European Union (EU) legislation on payment systems has on domestic rules on payments in general. Given that the Payment Services Directive (PSD), for example, only regulates the payment service contract for the transfer of funds, without considering the underlying debt, the paper tries to assess whether, in the absence of a direct harmonization of national provisions on performance, discharge, and breach of a payment obligation, there is room for an indirect and gradual convergence in commercial practice and in judicial interpretation. Résumé: L’article examine l’impact de la récente législation européenne relative aux systèmes de paiement sur les législations des Etats membres en matière de paiements en général. Dans la mesure où la Directive sur les Services de Paiement, par exemple, règle seulement le contrat de service de paiement pour le transfert de fonds sans considérer l’obligation sous-jacente, l’article vise à évaluer si en l’absence d’une harmonisation directe des règles nationales sur l’exécution, la libération et l’inexécution d’une obligation de paiement, il y a place pour une convergence indirecte et graduelle de la pratique commerciale et de l’interprétation judiciaire.
Indirect Representation According to the Draft Common Frame of Reference
Authors: Kortmann Sebastian C.J.J. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This essay discusses the so-called actio directa and actio contraria, as laid down in the final edition of the Draft of a Common Frame of Reference (DCFR), that is, the possibility of a direct relationship between the principal and the third party in case of indirect representation. In 1998, Arthur Hartkamp wrote an article entitled ‘Indirect Representation According to the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL), the UNIDROIT Agency Convention and the Dutch Civil Code’. All three sets of rules contain a provision for the actio directa as well as one for the actio contraria. Hartkamp shows that the differences between the three regulations are not significant. At the same time, he concludes that the provisions in the PECL are more clear and more consistently drafted than the others. The DCFR also contains an actio directa (Art. III.-5:401) and an actio contraria (Art. III-5:402). These provisions differ substantially from those in the other sets of rules. In this essay, a brief comparative survey is made between the first three sets of rules and the DCFR. In the DCFR, the actio directa is limited to situations in which the indirect representative has become insolvent. The arguments for this limitation are not convincing. Furthermore, the DCFR only provides the third party with an actio contraria if the principal initiates an actio directa against the third party. Thus, the principal is provided with more protection than the third party. There is insufficient justification for such protection. Based on this survey, it can be concluded that the rules in the PECL are more balanced and consistent and lead to more equitable results than the rules in the DCFR.
Fiduciary Arrangements in Civil Law Countries: Framing the Trustees Role and Duties
Authors: Malberti Corrado 
Published: April 2022

This article explores how some civil law jurisdictions – Luxembourg, Italy, and France, which all derive their law from the Napoleonic Code – frame the role and the duties of trustees. Even though influenced by the common law, these countries developed original and independent solutions. Yet, the approaches of these civil law countries to fiduciary arrangements, and to the rights and duties of trustees, are not homogeneous and, in each of these jurisdictions, it may be difficult to clearly define the position of trustees. I suggest that some of these difficulties derive from the complexity of reconciling several key features of common law trusts with some principles existing in civil law jurisdictions. After an introduction, this article analyses the essential features of fiduciary arrangements in three civil law jurisdictions: Luxembourg, Italy, and France. Then, it examines how the role and duties of trustees have been developed in these countries and outlines the respective advantages and limits of the solutions adopted in these legal systems. I conclude by examining the evolution of the legislation on trusts and fiduciary arrangements in San Marino, and finally arguing in favour of the adoption, in civil law countries, of legislation on fiduciary arrangements that is more coherent with the legal framework in which they will operate.
Recognition of a Trust as a Specific Problem in Private International Law
Authors: Tichý Luboš 
Published: April 2022

Recognition of a trust as a legal institution established under foreign legal order is quite remarkable per se because the objective law governs the recognition with exception of the application of the law governing the personal issues. The recognition of a legal institution is a reaction to the ancient theory under which a legal institution may have foreseen legal consequences only in the territory of a country under who’s law it was established. The aim of the recognition of a trust is to allow it to develop its functions under its governing law in the legal context of a country of recognition. This requires to recognize it in terms of transposition of all possible effects enumerated for instance in Article 11 (2) and 3 of The Hague Convention on the law applicable to trusts and on their recognition into the other legal system. This aim should be achieved by transformation into similar legal institution of the country of recognition. The process of recognition faces with two major problems: Depeçage and conflict with the mandatory laws including the legal rule of so called ordre public of the country of recognition. These problems have to be overcome by mainly two instruments, namely qualification (classification) and adaptation which often go hand in hand and are understood and applied in substantive legal sense. The results based on comparative analysis focused on one international treaty and five national laws lead to optimistic results. There is an evident trend towards an amicable understanding of trust the prevalent consensus on the possibility to have a trust governed by foreign law even in the complete absence of the trust regulations in the domestic legal order is of a great relevance. A connection to a trust governed by the foreign law should be single. A single law applicable to the trust should notably govern the trustees’ duties, rights of beneficiaries, trustees’ liability and legal relationships between the trustee and trust creditors. The content and objective as well as the nature of the respective trust shall be undoubtedly decisive. The issues of capacity and of the form of the trust are to be connected differently.
German Case Note on the Penalty Clause Decisions of the UK Supreme Court
Authors: Faust Florian 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Under German law, penalty clauses are generally enforceable. However, unless the debtor is a merchant, the application of the penalty clause under the specific circumstances is subject to judicial review. In the course of this review, a German court would have to address the issues dealt with by the UK Supreme Court. As the special review applies only to penalty clauses, the German court would have to decide whether the clauses in question are penalty clauses or rather liquidated damages clauses or clauses adjusting the parties' primary obligations. If the clauses are to be construed as penalty clauses, a German court would have to decide whether or not the penalties ought to be reduced because they are unreasonably high; this is to be judged as of the time when the penalty was triggered. With regard to Beavis, an issue not discussed by the UK Supreme Court would raise difficult questions under German law: the issue whether the parties really had agreed on the clause. Nach deutschem Recht ist die Vereinbarung von Vertragsstrafen prinzipiell zulässig. Ist allerdings der Schuldner kein Kaufmann, kann das Gericht die Vertragsstrafe herabsetzen, wenn sie bei Berücksichtigung aller Umstände des Einzelfalls unverhältnismäßig hoch ist. Im Rahmen der Entscheidung über die Herabsetzung der Vertragsstrafe müsste ein deutschen Gericht diejenigen Gesichtspunkte ansprechen, die der UK Supreme Court erörterte: Da nur Vertragsstrafen herabgesetzt werden können, müsste das deutsche Gericht entscheiden, ob es sich bei den fraglichen Klauseln wirklich um Vertragsstrafen - und nicht um Schadenspauschalierungen oder die Anpassung der vertraglichen Leistungen - handelt. Falls es sich um Vertragsstrafen handelt, müsste ein deutsches Gericht entscheiden, ob sie unverhältnismäßig hoch sind; maßgeblich hierfür ist der Zeitpunkt der Verwirkung der Vertragsstrafe. Im Hinblick auf Beavis wäre nach deutschem Recht sehr zweifelhaft, ob sich die Parteien überhaupt auf die betreffende Klausel einigten - eine Frage, die der UK Supreme Court nicht problematisierte.
The Potential Implementation of Collective Arbitration in Europe
Authors: García Ana Montesinos 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article analyses the feasibility and the potential implementation of collective arbitration in Europe. Although arbitration has reached a significant success in Europe, up to this date this mechanism has not been used to settle collective disputes yet, as there are many barriers hindering its implementation. But class arbitration is being successful in other parts of the world (especially in the United States) and, therefore, its feasibility should not be rejected. In fact, the EU bodies recommend the Member States to consider the possibility to settle collective disputes by out-of-court proceedings. This article considers both the obstacles and the benefits of this kind of arbitration, and includes some proposals. This work concludes with the only two sorts of collective arbitration systems implemented in Europe: the Spanish Consumer Collective Arbitration System and the German Corporate Arbitration System ruled by the German Arbitration Institution (DIS). Résumé: Cet article analyse la faisabilité et le potentiel de mise en oeuvre de l’arbitrage collectif en Europe. Bien que l’arbitrage ait atteint un succès significatif en Europe, jusqu’à présent aucun recours n’a été fait à ce mécanisme pour régler des différents d’ordre collectif, en raison des nombreux obstacles empêchant sa mise en oeuvre. Cependant l’arbitrage collectif fonctionne avec succès dans d’autres parties du monde (particulièrement aux États-Unis) et, de par ce fait, le bien-fondé du recours à ce procédé ne peut être écarté. D’ailleurs, les institutions Européennes recommandent que les États Membres étudient les possibilités de résoudre les différends de nature collective hors des tribunaux. Cet article considère à la fois les obstacles et les bénéfices de ce type d’arbitrage. Ce travail présente en conclusion les deux seules formes d’arbitrage collectif en exercice en Europe: le Système d’Arbitrage Collectif à la Consommation Espagnol et le Système d’Arbitrage des Sociétés règlementé par L’Institut d’Arbitrage Allemand (DIS).
A Model for the Use of the European Certificate of Succession for Property Registration
Authors: Goossens Elise 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: One of the most controversial elements in the Succession Regulation (SR), is the use of the European Certificate of Succession (ECS) for property registration. Article 69, 5 SR establishes the ECS as a valid document for the recording of succession property in the Member States’ registers, whereas at the same time, it makes a reservation for Article 1, 2, point (l) SR, which excludes the recording of property in the national registers from the scope of the Regulation. This paradox continues to trouble the legal doctrine, especially with regard to the registration of immovable property. The author has attempted to construct a comprehensive model for the interpretation of these provisions, by identifying and resolving the main conflicts that exist in the Member States between the ECS’s legal regime and the national provisions on property registration. Belgium, France, Germany and the Netherlands were used as case studies in this regard. This inductive approach has permitted to develop a model for the use of the ECS for property registration in the European Member States. Résumé: L’un des éléments les plus controversés du Règlement en matière de successions (RS), est l’usage du Certificat successoral européen (CSE) pour l’enregistrement d’un bien. L’art. 69, 5 RS prévoit que le CSE est un document valable pour l’inscription d’un bien successoral dans les registres des Etats membres, alors qu’en même temps, il fait une réserve pour l’art. 1, 2, point (l) RS, qui exclut du champ d’application du Règlement l’inscription de biens dans les registres nationaux. Ce paradoxe continue de perturber la doctrine juridique, spécialement en ce qui concerne l’enregistrement de la propriété immmobilière. L’auteur a tenté d’élaborer un modèle détaillé d’interprétation de ces dispositions, en identifiant et résolvant les principaux conflits qui existent dans les Etats membres entre le régime légal du CSE et les dispositions nationales de l’enregistrement d’un bien. A cet égard la Belgique, la France, l’Allemagne et les Pays-Bas ont servi d’études de cas. Cette approche inductive a permis de développer un modèle d’utilisation du CSE dans les pays membres européens pour l’enregistrement d’un bien.
Public Law by Contract: The Reluctant Creation of Private Markets for Welfare Service
Authors: Hansen Ole 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article conducts an analysis into long-term contractual practices for the outsourcing of social services. Until recently social services in Scandinavia have been provided by public entities on an administrative basis. With the primary aim to increase efficiency and reduce public budgets these tasks are however today to a large extent undertaken by private companies on the basis of long-term contracts entered into with local governments (municipalities). This Nordic model for privatization of public welfare is not unconditionally successful. Municipalities seem to hesitate in giving effect to the rising private market for welfare services. They insist on an almost complete control with the performances of the private service providers in the full length of the contracting period. In the legal literature it has been suggested that there are public law limits to privatization. The analysis of contractual strategies and practices for contracting out public welfare in this article shows that there are limits in private law for the ‘publicization’ of contracts and markets as well. Résumé: Cet article analyse les pratiques contractuelles à long terme de la soustraitance de services sociaux. Jusqu’à récemment, les services sociaux en Scandinavie étaient fournis sur un plan administratif par des entités publiques. Or, dans le but principal d’accroître l’efficacité et de réduire les dépenses publiques, ces tâches sont actuellement exercées pour une large part par des entreprises privées sur base de contrats à long terme conclus avec des pouvoirs locaux (municipalités). Ce modèle nordique de privatisation de l’aide sociale ne connaît pas un succès inconditionnel. Les municipalités semblent réticentes face à l’application aux services sociaux de règles du marché privé grandissant. Elles insistent sur un contrôle presque complet des activités des fournisseurs privés de services durant toute la durée de la période contractuelle. On a suggéré dans la doctrine juridique qu’il y a des limites de droit public à la privatisation. L’analyse de stratégies et pratiques contractuelles de transfert des services d’aide sociale révèle dans cet article qu’il y a aussi des limites de droit privé à la ‘publicisation’ de contrats et marchés.
The Duty of Disclosure in the PEICL: A Scandinavian Perspective
Authors: Anderssen Harald Benestad 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The rules on the disclosure obligations of insurance applicants are key in determining what information an insurer receives at the time an insurance contract is concluded, and thus the insurer’s risk level. All European countries have therefore adopted rules on the disclosure obligations of applicants for insurance. Equivalent rules are found in the Principles of European Insurance Contract Law (PEICL). Provided that the related European political and legislative process reaches a successful conclusion, this optional instrument will offer contracting parties an alternative for the regulation of both national and cross-border insurance contracts. This article examines the PEICL’s disclosure duty rules and compares them with the corresponding rules in current Scandinavian (Norwegian, Swedish and Danish) law. The purpose of the article is two-fold: to investigate the impact of the PEICL on Scandinavian insurance contracts and to comment on the PEICL from a Scandinavian perspective. Résumé: Les règles d’obligations d’informations des demandeurs d’assurances sont d’une importance primordiale pour déterminer ce que l’assureur reçoit comme informations au moment où le contrat d’assurance se conclut, et donc le niveau de risque de l’assureur. Tous les pays européens ont par conséquent adopté des règles sur les obligations d’informations des demandeurs d’assurances. On trouve des règles équivalentes dans les Principes du droit européen du contrat d’assurance (PDECA). A condition que le processus politique et juridique européen qui s’y rapporte atteigne un bon résultat, cet instrument optimal offrira aux parties contractantes une alternative à la réglementation des contrats d’assurance nationaux et transfrontaliers. Le present article examine les règles d’obligations d’informations du PDECA et les compare aux règles correspondantes en droit actuel scandinave (norvégien, suédois et danois). L’objectif de cet article est double: étudier l’impact du PDECA sur les contrats d’assurance scandinaves et commenter le PDCEA dans la perpective scandinave.
Do Fundamental Rights Conflict with Private Law?
Authors: Ramos-Muñoz David 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The relationship of fundamental rights and private law is often filled with mistrust, which results in a framework where (1) the issue of horizontal effect acquires an oversized importance; (2) the relationship is described in terms of the conflict between fundamental rights and private rights; and (3) fundamental rights are seen as a constraint on consent. This article proposes a different, symbiotic, approach, where (1) horizontal effect is given less attention, because, in general, courts refuse to be tied by a single, unifying theory, when they approach the issue; (2) the purported ‘conflict between’ is reframed as an issue of overlapping conflicts between private interests on one level, and fundamental rights on the other, which are resolved through different methods; and (3) party autonomy is a cornerstone of both fundamental rights and private law, and a tool to address the two levels of conflict. With this approach we can identify some ‘false’ conflicts and restrict the ‘real conflicts’ to identifiable scenarios. The analysis is based on the extensive case law of Spanish courts, and the case law by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), using parallels with other jurisdictions for purposes of comparison. Résumé: Les rapports entre les droits fondamentaux et le droit privé sont souvent empreints de méfiance, ce qui aboutit à un cadre où (i) la question de l’effet horizontal acquiert une trop grande importance; (ii) les rapports sont décrits en termes de conflit entre les droits fondamentaux et les droits privés; et (iii) les droits fondamentaux sont considérés comme un frein au consentement. Le présent article propose une approche différente, symbiotique, où (i) l’on attache moins d’attention à l’effet horizontal, parce que en général, les tribunaux refusent d’être tenus par une seule théorie unificatrice lorsqu’ils abordent la question; (ii) le prétendu ‘conflit entre’ est redéfini comme une question de conflits qui s’entrecroisent entre des intérêts privés d’une part et des droits fondamentaux d’autre part, qui sont résolus par différentes méthodes; et (iii) l’autonomie des parties est la pierre angulaire à la fois des droits fondamentaux et du droit privé, et un outil pour aborder les deux niveaux de conflit. Grâce à cette approche nous pouvons identifier plusieurs ‘faux’ conflits limitant les ‘conflits réels’ à des scenarios identifiables. L’analyse se base sur l’abondante jurisprudence des tribunaux espagnols et la jurisprudence de la Cour Européenne des Droits de l’Homme (CEDH), utilisant des parallèles avec d’autres juridictions dans un but de comparaison.