bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The epidemiology of cardiovascular disease
Authors: De Backer Guy , Graham Ian , Lira María Teresa , Hayman Laura L. , Uchmanowicz Izabella 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Cardiovascular disease (CVD) remains the major cause of total mortality in Europe. Important inequalities are evident in that CVD deaths account for more than 50% of all deaths in some countries, compared with less than 30% in others. An important indicator of the burden of CVD morbidity is the hospitalization rate for cardiovascular conditions, which is 30% higher in men than in women, in particular for acute myocardial infarction admissions, although across the lifespan CVD is an equal opportunity disease. Global risk calculation has been considered the best tool for comprehensive cardiovascular primary prevention, to deal with the risk of developing atherosclerotic CVD. Guidelines highlight the importance of identifying asymptomatic patients who would be candidates for more intensive, evidence-based medical interventions that reduce CVD risk. Challenges in cardiovascular risk estimation efforts have included how to estimate risk in vulnerable groups more accurately, such as children and adolescents, young adults, older adults, and immigrants, and how other factors, such as social status or literacy, may influence expected outcomes. The nurse or nurse specialist is uniquely well placed to play a pivotal role in risk estimation and management. Prevention of CVD should take a multidisciplinary, multifactorial, and societal approach including strategies to improve health literacy, empowerment, self-care management, and environmental adaptations. Nurses must take an active part in reducing the burden of CVD through these strategies.
Delivering high-quality cardiovascular care
Authors: Neubeck Lis , Lira María Teresa , Vellone Ercole , Fitzsimons Donna , Dullaghan Lisa , Sanders Julie 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The World Health Organization provides a framework that identifies the core elements of high-quality care which should be safe, effective, timely, equitable, efficient, and people centred. Nurses need to understand the fundamentals of high-quality professional practices and the metrics used to evaluate key performance indicators. Nurses have a central role to play in advocating for and delivering high-quality care across the continuum as the largest healthcare workforce worldwide. The use of patient-reported outcome measures and patient-reported experience measures helps to bring the patient voice into high-quality care. Quality management includes planning, control, and improvement. Measurement and audit are important tools to drive up the quality of care. It is imperative that nurses develop cultural competence. Understanding the barriers to high-quality care can help to develop effective interdisciplinary solutions to ensure that patient well-being is preserved.
Anatomy and physiology of the healthy heart
Authors: Lee Geraldine , McKee Gabrielle , Protopapas Andreas , Jones Ian D. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
A normally functioning heart is essential to create a pressure gradient in the blood vessels that will enable blood flow to the organs. The coronary circulation is adapted to meet the high metabolic needs of the heart because it has a greater blood flow, an extensive capillary network, and greater oxygen extraction than other organs. The heart contains myocardial cells and autorhythmic cells that enable it to conduct electricity and contract, respectively. While the heart possesses its own internal automaticity, its activity is influenced by a combination of factors, the most important of which are neural and hormonal. Heart rate is ordinarily determined by the pacemaker activity of the sinoatrial node, which has the highest intrinsic firing rate of the automaticity cells. The cardiac cycle describes all of the activities of the heart through a single complete heartbeat. The 12-lead electrocardiogram is composed of specific components that reflect the action potential—P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. A 12-lead electrocardiogram should be reviewed in a logical, comprehensive manner examining each of the leads so that rate, rhythm, axis, and any abnormalities can be detected.
Care of the patient with coronary artery disease
Authors: Oriolo Valentino , Cupples Margaret , Angus Neil , Connolly Susan , Astin Felicity 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Atherosclerosis is a disease of ageing that causes coronary heart disease. Coronary artery disease can manifest as acute or chronic coronary syndromes. Rapid and accurate risk stratification and assessment of patients presenting with chest pain improves patients’ outcomes. There is no single diagnostic test for acute coronary syndromes. Accurate interpretation of the patient’s history and presenting symptoms, electrocardiogram changes, and biomarkers form the foundation of clinical decision-making. Patients and those close to them need emotional support to help them through what can be a life-threatening experience. Tailored information and cardiovascular prevention and rehabilitation are needed to help patients to recover and self-manage their medications and lifestyle to optimize health and well-being. The coronavirus disease 2019 pandemic has necessitated rapid changes in the way cardiovascular services are configured.
Endocrinology, Sleep, and Circadian Rhythms
Authors: Brabant Georg , Oster Henrik 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Hormonal signalling is a central component of the regulation of sleep, behaviour, and multiple other physiological processes aligned with external time cues through endogenous circadian clocks. Endocrine feedback to the circadian clock is exerted via key systems and supports the robustness of endogenous rhythmicity. It is challenged by multiple modern lifestyle factors such as shift work, light pollution, or high-calorie diets which may alter this delicate balance and shift physiological set points. The following chapter summarizes current knowledge on the underlying mechanisms controlling this interregulation of circadian timing, sleep, and the endocrine system, and what disorders may be caused by its imbalance.
Principles of Hormone Replacement
Authors: Ross Richard 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The aim of hormone replacement is to replace the missing physiological effects of a deficient hormone. The last century identified most of the endocrine hormones, which can now be replaced when deficient; however, the challenge of the twenty-first century is to optimize replacement. The guiding principle in hormone replacement is replicating the natural levels and rhythms of hormones at different ages but this requires a good understanding of physiology. There is a need for better biomarkers of hormone actions and using these to develop new ways to deliver hormone replacement tailored to the individual. This chapter discusses current approaches to this problem.
Craniopharyngiomas
Authors: Karavitaki Niki 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Craniopharyngiomas are rare tumours with an incidence of around 0.13 cases per 100 000 person-years. There are two histological subtypes with distinct pathological features: adamantinomatous and papillary. Their pathogenesis remains to be elucidated and recent data suggest the implication of Wnt signalling pathway (for adamantinomatous) and activating mutations in BRAF (V600E) (for papillary). They may present with a variety of clinical manifestations attributed to pressure effects on vital structures of the brain (visual pathways, brain parenchyma, ventricular system, major blood vessels, and hypothalamo-pituitary system). Main management approach is surgery combined or not with adjuvant radiotherapy and, in cases of hypothalamic involvement, conservative surgery is advocated. Patients with craniopharyngioma suffer from significant long-term morbidities (mainly endocrine, visual, hypothalamic, neurobehavioural, and cognitive) attributed to the damage of critical neuronal structures by the primary or recurrent tumour and/or to the adverse effects of the therapeutic interventions and requiring lifelong care. The recent data on the pathogenesis of craniopharyngiomas are promising for the development of targeted therapies.
Causes and Laboratory Investigations of Thyrotoxicosis
Authors: Latrofa Francesco , Vitti Paolo 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The term thyrotoxicosis identifies the clinical syndrome caused by elevated circulating thyroid hormones of all sources, while hyperthyroidism includes only the disorders due to an increased secretion of hormones by the thyroid gland. Hyperthyroidism is the most frequent cause of thyrotoxicosis. Unregulated discharge of preformed thyroid hormones due to destructive processes of the gland (destructive thyrotoxicosis) and exogenous ingestion or extrathyroidal production of thyroid hormones (thyrotoxicosis of non-thyroidal origin) are less common causes of thyrotoxicosis. Although careful history taking and physical examination often direct towards the diagnosis of thyrotoxicosis, laboratory confirmation by measurement of thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) and thyroid hormones is always needed. Once thyrotoxicosis is confirmed, laboratory testing and thyroid imaging are required to identify the cause of thyrotoxicosis.
Antithyroid Drugs for Thyrotoxicosis
Authors: Bartalena Luigi 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Antithyroid drugs (ATDs) effectively and conservatively control Graves’ hyperthyroidism, being a valid alternative to the definitive treatments, radioiodine or thyroidectomy, which cause lifelong hypothyroidism. However, ATD withdrawal is followed by a relapse of hyperthyroidism in 30–70% of patients. Relapsing hyperthyroidism should in most cases be managed by a definitive treatment. ATD adverse events are usually minor, but major and even life-threatening adverse events may rarely occur, including agranulocytosis, severe hepatotoxicity, and vasculitis. Major adverse events are more frequent (and dose-unrelated) with propylthiouracil (PTU) than with methimazole (MMI). Accordingly, MMI is the first-choice ATD. PTU maintains a role in the first trimester of pregnancy because of the potential (although rare) ‘methimazole embryopathy’. ATDs represent the treatment of choice in pregnant and lactating women, and the first-line treatment in children and adolescents.
Management of Thyrotoxicosis Without Hyperthyroidism
Authors: Wiersinga Wilmar M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Thyrotoxicosis without hyperthyroidism is due to destructive thyroiditis (a self-limiting condition caused by release of preformed T4 and T3 stored in the colloid space, like in subacute thyroiditis of De Quervain and in amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis type 2), thyrotoxicosis factitia (excess of exogenous thyroid hormone, recognized by undetectable serum thyroglobulin), or struma ovarii. Characteristics are low to absent thyroidal radioiodine uptake, and low to absent thyroid vascularity on ultrasonography. Cytokine-, iodine-, and amiodarone-induced thyrotoxicosis manifest themselves either as thyrotoxicosis without hyperthyroidism, or as thyrotoxicosis with hyperthyroidism in which thyroidal radioiodine uptake is preserved. Both types are discussed in this chapter, along with techniques for their management.
Management of the Single Thyroid Nodule
Authors: Hegedüs Laszlo , Bennedbæk Finn N. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The main concern of patients and physicians alike, when dealing with the solitary thyroid nodule, is to diagnose the few cancers (approximately 5%) as rapidly and cost-effectively as possible and to reduce superfluous thyroid surgery. Very little is known regarding the natural history of thyroid nodules, since data are highly selected and generally concern patients with small nodules without suspicion of malignancy and not causing pressure symptoms or cosmetic complaints. With these restrictions, most nodules appear not to change appreciably over time. The nodules that increase in size are predominantly solid and carry a higher risk of harbouring thyroid carcinoma than those predominantly cystic, being more prone to decrease in size or even disappear. This chapter focuses on the palpably discrete swelling within an otherwise normal gland in the clinically and biochemically euthyroid patient. The toxic nodule is dealt with in Chapter 3.3.11, and thyroid malignancy in Chapters 3.5.4–3.5.7.
Genetics of Adrenal Insufficiency
Authors: Chan Li F. , Ramachandrappa Shwetha 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Adrenal insufficiency is a rare and potentially fatal medical condition. In children, the cause is often genetic. With the increasing availability and reducing cost of next generation sequencing, the number of causative gene mutations that give rise to adrenal insufficiency (isolated or as part of a syndrome) has increased dramatically. Defects in ACTH signalling, steroidogenesis, antioxidant mechanisms, DNA replication/repair, and autoimmunity have all been described to cause primary adrenal insufficiency, while those affecting pituitary development and POMC synthesis, processing, and transcription give rise to secondary forms of adrenal insufficiency. As well as enhancing our understanding of pituitary/adrenal gland biology these discoveries have yield generated important insights into the tissue and temporal specificity of several fundamental cellular processes.
Glucagonoma
Authors: Meeran Karim 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Glucagonomas are rare neuroendocrine tumours of the alpha cells of the pancreas that present with a rash and diabetes. There are under five new cases in the United Kingdom each year. The necrolytic migratory erythema presents to dermatologists. Glucagonomas can be benign or malignant in approximately equal proportions. Despite metastatic disease, the usually responds to somatostatin analogues such as octreotide and lanreotide. Tachyphylaxis occurs, so the dose is often increased over the course of the first 2 years. Patients with the gene for multiple endocrine neoplasia type 1 have an increased risk of neuroendocrine tumours of the pancreas including glucagonomas. Because these tumours often express somatostatin receptors, imaging with Gallium 68 labelled dotatate with a PET scan. Treatment choices should be discussed at a multidisciplinary meeting. Patients with uptake on Gallium 68 scanning can be treated with radiolabelled lutetium 177 labelled dotatate. The 5-year survival for patients with glucagonomas is 50–70%.
Multiple Endocrine Neoplasia Type 2a and 2b
Authors: Kebebew Electron , Wiseman Douglas , El Lakis Mustapha 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Multiple endocrine neoplasia (MEN) type 2a (also referred to as type 2) is an inherited cancer syndrome in which an individual has medullary thyroid carcinoma, primary hyperparathyroidism, and/or phaeochromocytoma occurring either synchronously or metachronously. MEN type 2b (also referred to as type 3) comprises early onset medullary thyroid carcinoma and phaeochromocytoma in addition to phenotypical features such as ophthalmologic abnormalities, skeletal malformations, and a generalized ganglioneuromatosis. MEN 2a and 2b (MEN 2 and 3) are caused by germline mutations in the RET proto-oncogene. The proper and timely diagnosis of MEN 2a and MEN 2b will have a direct impact on patients’ quality of life, disease-specific mortality, and overall survival. It will also impact the life of family members at risk of having MEN 2a and 2b. This chapter addresses the epidemiology, genetics, diagnostic approaches, and management of MEN 2a and MEN 2b. In addition, it highlights the importance of genetic counselling for at-risk family members and optimal surveillance strategies in RET germline mutation carriers.
Hormonal Male Contraception
Authors: Page Stephanie T. , Farrant Maritza T. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Despite a number of contraceptive choices for women, nearly 40% of global pregnancies are unplanned. Men play a significant role in effective family planning, accounting for nearly one-quarter of all contraceptive use worldwide. The development of novel male contraceptive methods that are efficacious, reliable, safe, and reversible could help address unmet contraceptive needs. Male hormonal contraception (MHC) is based on the reversible suppression of the hypothalamic–pituitary–testicular axis. Exogenous androgens form the basis of MHC, but combinations of testosterone plus progestins and/or gonadotropin-releasing hormone antagonists, as well as novel compounds with androgenic or androgenic–progestogenic properties show promise. In efficacy studies of 12–24 months, male hormonal contraceptives have failure rates of &lt;5%, superior to condoms, and comparable to female hormonal contraceptives in real use. Side effects are mild and include acne, modest weight gain, and reduction of high-density lipoproteins (HDL). Studies indicate MHC has a high level of acceptability among couples, although side effects and impacts on long-term disease risk require larger, longer trials.
Environmental Influences on Male Reproductive Health
Authors: Toppari Jorma 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Environmental influences on male reproductive health has been well documented in wildlife and experimental animals, in which mechanisms of action have also been revealed. These examples provide robust evidence of adverse effects of endocrine-disrupting chemicals on male reproductive system. Human effects have been more difficult to pinpoint because of limitations in epidemiological observations, and the best evidence of reproductive toxicity in humans comes from occupational settings and environmental accidents. The general population is exposed to a multitude of chemicals simultaneously—thus mixture effects are of special interest. In utero exposures can cause the most harmful and irreversible effects in postnatal/adult life so that developmental and reproductive toxicities are meaningfully studied in tandem.
The Endocrinology of Anorexia Nervosa
Authors: Miller Karen K. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The endocrine complications of anorexia nervosa are myriad and reflect the effects of chronic starvation on hypothalamic–pituitary axes, adipokines, and satiety pathways. Hypothalamic amenorrhoea is a common, but not universal, complication of the disorder, as are hypercortisolaemia, non-thyroidal illness syndrome, and hyponatraemia. An additional endocrine complication of anorexia nervosa is growth hormone (GH) resistance, characterized by elevated GH and relatively low insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) levels. Levels of some anorexigenic adipokines and orexigenic gut peptides reflect both a predicted response to chronic starvation and dysregulation. Much—but not all—of the endocrine dysregulation observed in this disorder appears to be adaptive to low weight and is functional and reversible. However, endocrine dysregulation contributes to the very prevalent and severe bone loss observed in adolescent girls and women with anorexia nervosa and may also contribute to the very common neuropsychiatric comorbidities observed in such patients.
Use and Abuse of Performance-Enhancing Hormones in Sport
Authors: Sonksen Peter , Holt Richard I.G. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Attempts to make gains in performance through training is part of normal competitive sport but over generations the lure of being a champion has tempted people to explore other performance-enhancing methods outside the ‘fair playing field’ of sport; this includes the misuse of several hormones. Androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS) are the most frequently misused hormones since, when combined with training, they enhance lean body mass, muscle bulk, and strength resulting in improved performance. Growth hormone, insulin, and IGF-I act in synergy with AAS and are frequently misused together in complicated regimes that are often difficult to detect. Erythropoietin by enhancing oxygen delivery to exercising muscles has also been shown to be a powerful performance-enhancing hormone, particularly in aerobic sports. Attempts to control the misuse of substances and methods has had limited success but is a war that is likely to continue with increasingly sophisticated ‘weapons’ on both sides.
Metastatic Disease in Endocrine Organs
Authors: Papathomas Thomas G. , Nosé Vania 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Endocrine organs are classified into primary and secondary based on whether a hormone-secreting organ synthesizes the relevant hormone(s) as a primary function or not. The prevalence of metastatic malignancy varies in the clinical setting, and recognition of metastatic disease in endocrine organs is important for various reasons. This chapter will focus on metastatic disease in major endocrine organs, including adrenals, pituitary, thyroid and parathyroid glands, from malignancies other than haemato-lymphoid neoplasms. Their presence is best regarded as generalized involvement rather than metastatic spread. Herein, this chapter discusses the prevalence and importance of recognition of metastases in endocrine organs and highlight various aspects of endocrine organ-specific metastatic disease.
Planning Obesity Care Pathways
Authors: Finer Nicholas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The development of care pathways aims to provide a continuum of care often across multiple clinical settings with aim of improving quality and outcomes. While most commonly developed for scenarios in which trajectories of care are predictable and occur over short periods of time, they have also been developed for chronic disease management. Care pathways, as opposed to clinical guidelines, have been recommended and patchily developed in England to coordinate the delivery of management across public health, primary care, and specialist settings. However true comprehensive pathways for the individual patient have been poorly implemented by providers and remain rudimentary and often out of step with guidelines.
Genetic Forms of Dyslipidaemia
Authors: Romeo Stefano , Angelin Bo , Parini Paolo 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
While monogenic diseases are typically considered rare, elevated lipoprotein levels due to single sequence variants are fairly common, with, for example, the prevalence of familial hypercholesterolaemia being as high as 1 in 250 in the general population. Identification of such monogenic disorders and formal genetic diagnosis is imperative to tailor treatment and to pre-empt complications in family members carrying pathogenic mutations. Dyslipidaemias may be ‘primary’ and genetic, in which severe dyslipidaemia is the inevitable result of an underlying genetic mutation, and these will be the main focus of this chapter. This chapter also aims to provide an accessible account of known monogenic disorders causing hyperlipidaemia, with a focus on diagnosis and treatment.