bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Writing systems
Authors: Sproat Richard 
Published: May 2022

AbstractIf one defines ‘writing’ as a system of symbols that can record any information conveyable in spoken language, then one inevitably arrives at the realization that any such system must encode a substantial amount of phonological information. This chapter traces the early development of writing and what might be termed the ‘discovery of phonology’. Whereas all ancient systems encoded a mixture of semantic and phonological information, it was eventually discovered that one could write using symbols that were purely phonological in their denotation. The development of purely phonological writing systems has engendered or enhanced phonological theories and these have, in turn, fed back into the design of writing systems. We explore these interactions in this chapter. We end with an examination of Bliss’s attempt to develop a writing system based purely on meaning. This was not very successful, and that in turn underscores the centrality of phonology to writing systems.
The Prague School
Authors: Battistella Edwin 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThe Prague School drew on the work of Baudouin de Courtenay and Ferdinand de Saussure to address the nature of phonological elements and the structure of phonological systems in long-lasting foundational ways. This chapter presents the theory of the phoneme and the methods of analysis developed by it two primary representatives, Nikolai Trubetzkoy and Roman Jakobson. This chapter describes the formation of the Prague Circle, its debut at the First International Congress of Linguists in 1928, and the evolution of the concept of the phoneme in the writings of Trubetzkoy and Jakobson. A particular focus is Trubetzkoy’s Grundzüge der Phonologie, the main theoretical synthesis, which considered phonological oppositions and their relation to both typology and logic. After Trubetzkoy’s death in 1938, the Grundzüge became the point of departure for much later work, and, with its extension and further interpretation by Jakobson, it was the lodestar for early generative phonology.
Representations in generative phonology in the 1970s and 1980s
Authors: Kisseberth Charles W. 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThis chapter attempts to provide a very rough guide through the critical decades of the 1970s and 1980s during which the ‘beads on a string’ view of phonological representations espoused by The Sound Pattern of English was radically reimagined as a complex multi-linear, (partially) independent, (sometimes) hierarchically arranged structure. The chapter devotes a significant portion of the text to Autosegmental Phonology, as the conceptual framework and linguistic arguments employed in advancing its agenda are significantly mirrored in the various developments that follow: the representation of syllables, stress, distinctive features, the internal phonological structure of words and sentences. Most of these advances in phonological representation have remained central to the enterprise of theoretical phonology, even if the abandonment of the SPE model out of which they arose provides new challenges in how they should be implemented.
Inside the Prison School
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 goes inside the prison school to examine what prisoners were taught and the pedagogies employed to teach them. The content of the prison school largely tracked that of the mainstream elementary schools. Curriculum expanded to include writing alongside reading, increasingly arithmetic, and in some prisons, subjects such as history and geography. Yet the direction of travel remained the Bible and the reform of prisoners through evangelisation. Although pedagogies were imported from outside, the penal environment offered fresh insights into the transmission of literacy and was a site of innovation. Official sources suggest that prisoners were, on the whole, willing participants, and were grateful for the instruction their received, though motivations for learning were varied and did not always match those of their instructors. New systems of measurement were deployed to describe the results of education. While it was possible to track the acquisition of skills, it remained virtually impossible to measure the extent of a prisoner’s rehabilitation. The small gains made by prisoners serving short sentences exposed the inability of such punishments to reform. Assessments of recidivists highlighted the fragility of new literacy skills.
Educating ‘the Criminal’
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 examines the impact of mid-century penal and educational reform on the provision of education in prisons. By the 1860s, widespread disillusionment with spiritual reformism and concerns about the replacement of transportation with penal servitude (long-term imprisonment) had encouraged a greater focus on deterrence and punishment in penal policy. Although some reformative technologies were curtailed, prison schools survived, in large part because of the pressure which continued to be exerted by the educational reform movement. Prison education continued to be part of a single process of educational change in English society. However, the competing demands of penal and educational reform, and the survival of some reformatory ambitions in the penal sector, rendered educational provision in prisons incoherent, while the desire to make prisons as punitive as possible undermined provision and limited its rehabilitative potential. This chapter shows how curriculum in prisons continued to reflect that in mainstream elementary schools; how perceptions of prisoner learners were influenced by new definitions of criminality; how education was incorporated into a new system of rewards and punishments for convicts; and how additional opportunities to learn were created through self-instruction outside the prison school.
Object marking in ditransitives
Authors: van der Wal Jenneke 
Published: May 2022

AbstractChapter 3 extends the approach developed in Chapter 2 from monotransitives to ditransitives. It addresses two parameters regarding object marking: symmetry and the number of object markers. The first parameter distinguishes between asymmetric marking in which only the highest object (Benefactive/Recipient) can be object-marked and symmetric marking in which either object of a ditransitive can be marked. This is captured in the features [Person] and [Topic] determining flexible Case licensing by Appl in symmetric object marking. A striking discovery is that low functional heads may differ for this parameter, forming an implicational relation: if higher heads (like Caus) are flexible and allow symmetric object marking, then lower heads (HAppl and LAppl) must do so too, but not vice versa. The second parameter distinguishes between languages that allow only one object marker and languages allowing more – this is captured in the parameter determining whether only v has uϕ features, or Appl too (152).
Subject marking and inversion
Authors: van der Wal Jenneke 
Published: May 2022

AbstractIf low functional heads like Appl can be flexible in licensing, can this be extended to little v? Chapter 4 shows that flexible licensing on v provides a fruitful analysis of subject inversion constructions. In subject inversion, the logical subject is in a low, postverbal position. Subject marking can still be with the subject, it can be default, or be determined by a Locative, Instrument, or Theme preceding the verb. The agreement of T with such internal arguments and their movement over the subject leads to a locality violation, which is circumvented if the subject is already licensed by v and hence no longer a goal for T. The analysis also accounts correctly for the inversion in word order, the licensing and non-topical interpretation of the postverbal logical subject, the agreement and movement of a topical internal argument, and the impossibility of object marking in subject inversion. Nevertheless, flexible licensing on v is not part of the implicational relationship between flexible heads (FLUID), as v’s licensing flexibility is shown to be independent of lower heads.
General Conclusion
Authors: Yip Ka Lok 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This general conclusion recapitulates the main arguments of the book and summarizes its theoretical, methodological and practical implications. Theoretically, it re-connects the law with the social world to shed light on both the meaning of the law and the nature of the society in which it intervenes. Methodologically, it casts doubt on the broad definition of ‘norm conflict’ adopted by the ILC Fragmentation Report for its lack of typology, and challenges the use of ‘legal techniques’ as a one-size-fits-all solution. Practically, it emphasizes the different requirements of different laws on the use of force against individuals in war, not to nullify or bypass any of them, but precisely to preserve and vindicate all of them.
The Travails of Italy Viewed from the Chancery
Authors: Najemy John M. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
In all his major works—The Prince, the Discourses on Livy, the Art of War, and the Florentine Histories—Machiavelli deplored the sufferings of Italy at the hands of foreign invaders, the incompetent rulers of the Italian states, mercenaries, and the Church. As a chancery official in the Florentine republic between 1498 and 1512 and a frequent envoy to the most powerful rulers in Europe and Italy, he had to be circumspect about overt criticism. But he found opportunities to express both his dismay and some initial reflections on the causes of Italy’s parlous state. In the narrative poem called the Decennale, written in 1504, he recounted in verse the travails of Italy in the ten years from the first French invasion in 1494 to 1504. A shorter poem, “Ambizione,” pointed to undisciplined ambition and avarice as the passions behind the rash and risky actions of Italy’s rulers. He directed more specific criticism at the Florentine ruling class in texts written as speeches, possibly to be delivered by high-ranking officials, that castigate the Florentines for their unwillingness to make greater fiscal contributions for defense, for incoherent treatment of the subject cities of Florence’s territorial dominion, and for underestimating the danger of Cesare Borgia. In a second historical poem, the incomplete second Decennale, Machiavelli gloomily narrates the events that led to Venice’s crushing defeat at the hands of the League of Cambrai in 1509.
Mercenaries and Cesare Borgia
Authors: Najemy John M. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 explores Machiavelli’s critique of Italy’s military institutions and mercenaries, especially Cesare Borgia. Prince 12 assails the unreliability of mercenaries and provides a capsule history of how the Italian states came to depend on them, with the damaging consequence of reducing the role of infantry. In the Art of War Machiavelli’s spokesman, Fabrizio Colonna, denounces those who make war their full-time profession (“arte”), citing, among others, Francesco Sforza. Most professional captains came from the class of noble “gentiluomini”—like the historical Fabrizio, whose fictional counterpart only reluctantly acknowledges his part in the “corrupt” system. The second part of the chapter investigates Machiavelli’s perception of Cesare Borgia. In his 1502 legation (diplomatic mission) to Borgia, Machiavelli listened to him alternately threatening Florence and pleading for an alliance. He witnessed the intensifying conflict between Borgia and his own condottieri, who plotted against him until he lured them to their deaths in Senigallia at the end of 1502. But during the legation to Rome in November–December 1503, after the death of his father, Pope Alexander VI, Machiavelli witnessed a helpless Borgia collapse into desperation, incoherence, and rage. His experience of Borgia deepened his conviction that Borgia’s ambitions always exceeded his military resources, making him dependent on his papal father, the French, and his faithless condottieri. The chapter concludes by analyzing the portrait of Borgia in The Prince: far from praising him as a model “new prince,” Machiavelli artfully crafts a picture of Borgia’s inconsistencies, weaknesses, unrealistic ambitions, and ultimate failure.
Faction and Regime
Authors: Najemy John M. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Francesco Guicciardini considered the regime of 1393–1434 the most stable and successful of Florence’s governments, chiefly because well-born men were in charge. Machiavelli disagreed, pointing to several defects, including the excessive influence of private citizens, the exclusion of the people, and rivalries within the ruling elite that sent many citizens into exile, especially the Alberti. Guicciardini regarded the balìa of 1393, controlled by Maso degli Albizzi, as the foundation of the regime’s stability, whereas Machiavelli underscores how, with the witting or unwitting connivance of Vieri de’ Medici, the balìa betrayed the guildsmen who appealed to Vieri to protect them from “destroyers of the common good.” By 1400, Machiavelli says, Florence was incapable of liberty, its alternatives reduced to “servitú” under the elite or “licenzia” under the popolo. Discussing the controversies over the Catasto in the 1420s, Machiavelli highlights Rinaldo degli Albizzi’s extreme plan to crush the popolo, which wanted higher taxes on the wealthy. He portrays Rinaldo as the epitome of the elite’s recklessness in fomenting war against Lucca. The Medici’s strategy of slandering their opponents exacerbated the hostility between the factions; although Rinaldo wanted Cosimo eliminated, he was instead banished (1433). Machiavelli devotes a crucial chapter (4.27) to the speech by Niccolò da Uzzano that explains how Cosimo’s “liberality” propelled men “flying to the principate” (“to tyranny” in the draft). Machiavelli shows Rinaldo willing to use force to expel the Signoria that repatriated Cosimo (1434), and, in exile, urging the duke of Milan to launch a war against Florence.
Regime and Repression
Authors: Najemy John M. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 examines Machiavelli’s representation of Cosimo’s regime. As he acknowledged to friends, writing about the Medici required circumspection. Keeping Cosimo in the background, he underscores the regime’s repressive side: punitive banishments, executions, and the murder of the condottiere Baldaccio d’Anghiari, whose friendship with Neri Capponi Cosimo feared. Machiavelli dramatizes Capponi’s challenge to Cosimo’s support for Sforza and has Cosimo’s “friends” accuse Capponi of wanting to limit his expanding power. Harmful divisions occur with factions and partigiani, Machiavelli says: Cosimo built his faction with private methods; Capponi acquired renown with public methods. Machiavelli emphasizes the alternating success and failure of Cosimo’s faction in remaining united and loyal to him: after twenty years of success in imposing electoral controls, the faction split and lost power in 1455. Former allies, frightened by the popolo’s plan to revive the Catasto, begged Cosimo to retake power, and in 1458 he let Luca Pitti use force to restore controls and impose banishments. In 1465–6 Cosimo’s lieutenants—Pitti, Niccolò Soderini, Dietisalvi Neroni, Agnolo Acciaiuoli—tried to prevent Piero from succeeding to his father’s leadership role. Machiavelli considers the movement a conspiracy, emphasizing personal resentments and private ambition as the chief motives, and its challenge to Piero as a factional struggle. When Pitti broke ranks and accepted a deal, Piero used force to re-impose controls and banish opponents. Piero denounces both the greed of his party and the “betrayal” of the “conspirators.” Machiavelli harshly condemns the regimes that emerged from 1458 and 1466.
Profiles of Risk and Resilience in Chronic Pain: Loneliness, Social Support, Mindfulness, and Optimism Coming out of the First Pandemic Year
Authors: Wilson Jenna M , Colebaugh Carin A , Flowers K Mikayla , Edwards Robert R , Schreiber Kristin L 
Published: May 2022

Abstract

Objective
Individuals experience chronic pain differently, not only because of different clinical diagnoses, but also because of differing degrees of influence from biopsychosocial pain modulators. We aimed to cluster patients with chronic pain into distinct subgroups based on psychosocial characteristics and pain intensity, and we subsequently examined group differences in pain-related interference approximately 1 year later.

Methods
In this observational, longitudinal study, patients with chronic pain (n = 94) completed validated assessments of psychosocial characteristics and pain intensity at the beginning of COVID-19–related social distancing (April to June 2020). One year later (May to June 2021), patients completed a follow-up survey with assessments of pain interference, loneliness, social support, mindfulness, and optimism.

Results
A cluster analysis, using psychosocial factors and pain intensity, empirically produced three patient groups: 1) psychosocial predominant (PSP), characterized by high psychosocial distress and average pain intensity; 2) pain intensity predominant (PIP), characterized by average psychosocial distress and high pain intensity; and 3) less elevated symptoms (LES), characterized by low psychosocial distress and low pain intensity. At the 1-year follow-up, patients in the PSP and PIP clusters suffered greater pain interference than patients in the LES cluster, while patients in the PSP cluster also reported greater loneliness and lower mindfulness and optimism.

Conclusions
An empirical psychosocial-based clustering of patients identified three distinct groups that differed in pain interference. Patients with high psychosocial modulation of pain at the onset of social distancing (the PSP cluster) suffered not only greater pain interference but also greater loneliness and lower levels of mindfulness and optimism, which suggests some potential behavioral targets for this group in the future.
Multisensory sensitivity differentiates between multiple chronic pain conditions and pain-free individuals
Authors: Wang Dan , Frey-Law Laura A. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Multisensory sensitivity (MSS) to nonpainful stimuli has been identified as a risk factor for the presence of coexisting chronic pain conditions. However, it remains unclear whether MSS can differentiate pain phenotypes involving different levels of central sensitivity. Both pain-free and those with chronic pain, particularly fibromyalgia (FM), migraine, or low back pain (LBP) were recruited, with pain comorbidities assessed. MSS was highest in FM, followed by migraine, then LBP, and lowest in pain-free individuals (adjusted between condition Cohen d = 0.32-1.2, P ≤ 0.0007). However, when secondly grouping patients by the total number of pain comorbidities reported, those with a single pain condition (but not FM) did not have significantly elevated MSS vs pain-free individuals (adj d= 0.17, P = 0.18). Elevated MSS scores produced increased odds of having 2 or more pain comorbidities; OR [95% CI] =2.0 [1.15, 3.42], without, and 5.6 [2.74, 11.28], with FM (P ≤ 0.0001). Furthermore, those with low MSS levels were 55% to 87% less likely to have ≥ 2 pain comorbidities with or without FM (OR 0.45 [0.22, 0.88]-0.13 [0.05, 0.39]; P ≤ 0.0001). Our findings support that MSS can differentiate between pain phenotypes with different degrees of expected central mechanism involvement and also serve as a risk and resilience marker for total coexisting chronic pain conditions. This supports the use of MSS as a marker of heightened central nervous system processing and thus may serve as a clinically feasible assessment to better profile pain phenotypes with the goal of improving personalized treatment.
Urban green spaces in the proximity of residences can reduce the effect of socioeconomic inequalities in sports practice among teenage girls
Authors: Magalhães Alexandre , Castiglione Debora , Ramos Elisabete , Pina Maria Fátima 
Published: May 2022

Abstract

Background:
We studied if proximity of urban green spaces to residences reduces the socioeconomic inequalities in sports practice, evaluating 17-year-old girls (n = 722) from EPITeen cohort, Porto, Portugal.

Methods:
The shortest routes from residences to urban green spaces were calculated using the street network from Geographic Information System. Distances were classified as: ≤400, >400 to ≤800, and >800 m. Parental education was used as a proxy of socioeconomic status (SES). We used chi-square test to compare proportions of teenagers practicing sports per SES, stratified by classes of distances to urban green spaces and logistic regression to estimate the association between sports practice and SES through odds ratio (OR) and 95% confidence intervals.

Results:
Strong inequalities were found. Girls from low SES have ≥75% less odds of sports practice (reference: high SES), regardless of the distance to urban green spaces. As distances are lowering the socioeconomic inequalities in the sports practice between girls from high and medium SES diminishes, being the OR 0.42 (0.22–0.80) at ≥800 m, 0.51 (0.24–1.09) at ≥400 to ≤800 m, and 0.63 (0.29–1.37) at ≤400 m.

Conclusion:
At closer distances inequalities in the proportion of sports practice between high and medium SES vanishes, but remain to low SES.
Clinical and Analytical Characterization of the DiaSorin and ScheBo Fecal Pancreatic Elastase 1 Assays
Authors: Wyness Sara P. , Nelson Heather A. , Jensen Ryan , Bird Joseph , Norgyal Tenzin , Hall Hailey , Johnson Lisa M. 
Published: May 2022

Objectives
Fecal pancreatic elastase (PE) assays are screening tests for exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI). We analytically evaluated a new PE assay and retrospectively analyzed data from an academic hospital and reference laboratory to understand the clinical utility.

Methods
Forty stool samples with different PE concentrations were tested on the ScheBo enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) versus DiaSorin LIAISON immunoassay; a simple-to-use extraction device was assessed. The cross-reactivity of porcine enzymes was investigated in the immunoassay. Charts of 207 patients with PE results less than 250 μg/g at an academic hospital were reviewed, and data were analyzed for 5136 patients with repeat PE results from a reference laboratory.

Results
The LIAISON immunoassay gave comparable results to the ScheBo ELISA, with 87.5% agreement of PE results in classifying as sufficient, mild/moderate insufficiency, or severe insufficiency. The extraction device worked well compared with manual weighing, and no cross reactivity with porcine enzymes was observed. In agreement with prior studies, our clinical data suggested that PE assays were most useful in detecting severe EPI.

Conclusions
The new DiaSorin LIAISON immunoassay preforms similarly to the well-known ScheBo ELISA. Pancreatic elastase assays can help identify patients with severe EPI but are not as useful in classifying mild/moderate EPI.