bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Uralic minorities
Authors: Pasanen Annika , Laakso Johanna , Sarhimaa Anneli 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The chapter provides an up-to-date overview of Uralic minority languages in Russia, the European Union, and Norway. The focus is on the current state of Uralic minorities, and the main goal is twofold. Firstly, this chapter will shed some new light on the sociolinguistic and ethnolinguistic aspects of the severe endangerment and the imminent extinction that certain Uralic varieties face today. Secondly, this chapter will focus on successful revitalization measures, especially among the Aanaar Saami, as well as on the forms and achievements of ongoing empowering efforts. Of special interest here are minority languages whose status has until quite recently been contested by diverse political or even linguistic arguments, such as Karelian in Finland, Meänkieli in Sweden, and Kven in Norway.
Graphization and orthographies of Uralic minority languages
Authors: Laakso Johanna , Skribnik Elena 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a concise overview of the standardization of Uralic languages, focusing on the Uralic minority languages and their orthographies. While the first attempts at creating a written form for the Saami languages were prompted by the Reformation in Scandinavia, most Uralic written standards have only come into being in the twentieth century, and in Russia, these processes were typically part of the ambitious ethnopolitics of the early Soviet period. The Saami and Finnic orthographies are mostly Latin-based. In the Soviet Union, alongside Cyrillic or Cyrillic-based alphabets such as the Molodcov alphabet for Komi, Latin-based experimental alphabets were introduced for some Uralic languages in the 1930s; today, most Uralic languages of Russia employ the Cyrillic alphabet, and for representing phonological phenomena unknown to Russian, various orthographic solutions have been developed. The chapter also briefly describes the most important linguistic transcriptions, in particular, the Finno-Ugric Transcription (FUT).
South Saami
Authors: Ylikoski Jussi 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
South Saami, an indigenous language spoken in the central regions of Norway and Sweden, is the westernmost variety of the westernmost (Saami) branch of the Uralic language family. Despite its long history in the immediate neighbourhood of Scandinavian languages, many of the core features of South Saami stand out as constituting a typologically unusual mixture that distinguishes the language from most western Uralic languages. Such features include, for example, a predominantly SOV word order and the marginal role of the copula. Within the Saami language chain in particular, the most remarkable feature of South Saami morphophonology is the complex metaphony in nominal and verbal inflection, while the consonant gradation typical of other Saami languages is absent in that language.
North Saami
Authors: Ánte Luobbal Sámmol Sámmol , Ylikoski Jussi 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
North Saami (known as “Norwegian Lappish” in older literature) is an indigenous language spoken by probably more than 25,000 people in Norway, Sweden, and Finland. North Saami today has an international standard form which is also used in literature, in the media, and in the education system, in areas with Saami majorities even in public and official interaction. Of the endangered Saami languages, North Saami is thus the most vigorous one; it also has a relatively strong research tradition. Taxonomically and geographically, North Saami is situated at the eastern end of the Western Saami subgroup. It is characterized by rich and complex phonology and morphophonology and considerable dialectal variation, which makes the relationship between the standard orthography and pronunciation very complicated. In this chapter, the main features of the structure, grammar, and lexicon of North Saami are briefly described. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
Skolt Saami
Authors: Koponen Eino , Miestamo Matti , Juutinen Markus 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Skolt Saami is an indigenous language originally spoken on both sides of the present-day Norwegian-Russian border. Today, almost all of the 200–300 remaining speakers live in Finland, especially in the municipality of Inari; they are resettled evacuees from the Petsamo region (which was ceded to the Soviet Union in 1944) or their descendants. Skolt Saami is highly endangered, despite promising attempts at revitalization. The written standard, created in the 1970s, is taught at local schools and has some public use. The typology of Skolt Saami has developed from the relatively agglutinative structure of Proto Saami to a rather high degree of fusionality, and its morphology involves complex stem and suffix alternations. In this chapter, the structure of the present-day Skolt Saami and its historical background are briefly presented. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.
North and Standard Estonian
Authors: Metslang Helle 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Estonian belongs to the southern branch of the Finnic languages. Standard Estonian, now the sole official state language of Estonia, was developed mainly on the basis of North Estonian dialects. Estonian has been in contact with many languages and has especially been influenced by German. It has several features that are spread in the Circum-Baltic area. Estonian phonetics and phonology are characterized by three quantity degrees, palatalization, and lack of vowel harmony. The morphology combines agglutinative features with fusional. Existential, possessive, experiential, and resultative sentences display non-canonical subjects. Differential subject and object marking are conditioned by various semantic and syntactic features of the sentence. In addition to inherited and borrowed stems, Estonian language planning has created many completely new word stems.
North Mansi
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne , Sipőcz Katalin , Skribnik Elena 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The highly endangered North Mansi is the only surviving dialect of the four main dialect groups and the basis of the literary language. It is spoken on the western tributaries of the Ob river (North Sos’va, Lyapin, Sos’va, and Upper Loz’va); the census of 2010 gives 938 speakers out of 11,873 ethnic Mansi. North Mansi has a rich agglutinating morphology, especially verbal (including subject and subject-object agreement paradigms, evidentials / miratives and a very unusual passive voice). It’s an SOV language, the clause combining is based on the usage of non-finite verbal forms (infinitives, converbs, and participles with case markers and postpositions). North Mansi has an elaborate system of information structuring, combining the strategies of obligatory topic promotion to subject (discourse topic, passive voice) and object (secondary topic, “dative shift” plus object agreement) with zero anaphora. The chapter includes a glossed text example.
Hungarian
Authors: Kenesei István , Szécsényi Krisztina 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Hungarian is spoken in Hungary and the surrounding countries and has a number of mutually intelligible dialects. The language was standardized in the early nineteenth century. The chapter gives a concise description of the language, focusing on its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Hungarian phonology is characterized by an intricate system of vowel harmony. It is an agglutinating language with complex derivational and inflectional morphology. The finite verb agrees with the subject in person and number and the definiteness of the object. Hungarian word order is based on the discourse and scope properties of constituents, is mostly rigid in the preverbal field, and free in the postverbal domain, leading to the following template: Topics&gt;Quantifiers&gt;Negation&gt;Focus&gt;Verb&gt;Other. Aspect can be expressed with the combination of word order and verbal modifiers. Embedded clauses can be both finite and non-finite, with a number of non-finite forms to choose from, including inflected infinitives in certain constructions.
The Enets languages
Authors: Siegl Florian 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Tundra and Forest Enets, indigenous languages spoken on the Taimyr Peninsula in Northern Siberia by several dozen elderly multilingual individuals, are the smallest Samoyedic languages and severely endangered. Until recently, both languages have been classified as dialects of a single language (in older sources also known as "Yenisey Samoyed"), but against recent data, they are better analysed as separate languages, as there are marked differences in phonology, morphology, morphosyntax, and the lexicon. Apparently, syntactic differences are to be expected too, but owing to the scarcity of published Tundra Enets data, this section inevitably remains impressionistic. As Tundra Enets is insufficiently covered, the description will inevitably focus on Forest Enets. Wherever possible, individual language differences will be addressed given that sufficient data is available.
Nganasan
Authors: Wagner-Nagy Beáta 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Nganasan (in older literature also known as "Tavgy Samoyed") is an indigenous language in northernmost Siberia, now acutely endangered. It is characterized by some interesting morphophonological processes such as a highly complex consonant gradation and suffix harmony. This chapter briefly describes Nganasan phonology, morphology and syntax, with special respect to typologically interesting features such as the rich verb inflection (subject and object agreement, four morphologically marked tenses and fourteen moods), word order, and negation. One of the numerous interesting characteristics of Nganasan is the presence of two different copulas for different types of existential sentences. Predicative possession can be expressed either with a ‘have’ verb or with an existential-like construction.
Palatalization
Authors: Bakró-Nagy Marianne 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Palatalization as a phonological feature occurs in most Uralic languages, but its conditions and phonetic realizations vary. Moreover, all varieties of Uralic are not yet properly described from this point of view, owing also to the scarcity of adequate data and the fact that in many Uralic varieties in Russia, the system may be undergoing a change owing to the strengthening impact of Russian. In this chapter, first a typological classification of the Uralic languages is presented, based on their distribution of palatal and palatalized consonants, and then, the secondary phonological and morphonological palatalization processes are surveyed.
Case
Authors: Kittilä Seppo , Laakso Johanna , Ylikoski Jussi 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
All Uralic languages have cases, but the size of case inventories varies greatly. In some languages, the so-called grammatical cases are used to express not only grammatical roles such as Agent, Patient, or Recipient, but also definiteness or boundedness, the Finnic partitive vs accusative variation being one of the best-known examples. Semantic cases, in turn, are commonly known for multiple tripartite (‘from’—‘at’—‘to’) local case systems in Finnic and Hungarian. However, typological and pan-Uralic perspectives to these topics show that that the partitive vs accusative variation, for example, can be seen as cross-linguistically common types of Differential Object Marking. As regards semantic cases, many branches of less commonly known Uralic languages display an overlooked array of local cases such as prolatives ‘through, along’ and terminative ‘up to’.
TAM and evidentials
Authors: Bradley Jeremy , Klumpp Gerson , Metslang Helle 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Uralic TAM categories, although their markers are often etymologically related, display a wild diversity. Tense systems can be quite simple with just two values (e.g. past and non-past in Northern Mansi) or include also analytic forms with specific temporal or aspectual nuances (in e.g. Finnish). In some languages evidential oppositions are built in only in the past-tense indicative (e.g. direct vs indirect perception in Udmurt), in others they build a separate subsystem (e.g. evidential tenses in Northern Mansi, coded by the finite use of non-finite forms) or interact in a specific way with separate forms of epistemic modality (in e.g. Nenets). Aspect as a systematic morpholexical category is typically not present in Uralic, but morphological means (either suffixes traditionally described as part of word formation, or prefixes/preverbs as an innovation in some Uralic languages) are used to express actionality, in ways which have not yet been systematically described.
Negation and negatives
Authors: Miestamo Matti 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
A characteristic feature of the Uralic language family is the widespread use of negative verbs. This chapter gives a comprehensive typologically oriented overview of the expression of negation in the family. Within clausal negation, attention is directed to standard negation—i.e. basic declarative clauses, the negation of non-declaratives—especially imperatives, the negation of non-verbal predicates, and negation in dependent clauses. Non-clausal negatives such as negative replies, negative indefinite pronouns, as well as negative derivation and case marking, are also addressed. Finally, some further aspects of negation are discussed: the scope of negation, negative polarity, case marking under negation, emphatic negation, and negation in complex sentences. The overview is based on a systematic questionnaire-based survey of negation in Uralic. The perspective is synchronic but some diachronic notes are also made.
Existential, locational, and possessive sentences
Authors: Laakso Johanna , Wagner-Nagy Beáta 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Existential sentences (sentences stating something about the existence or non-existence of something or someone) are non-canonical and typically consist of three major elements: a pivot NP whose existence or non-existence is stated, a verb (‘be’, ‘have’, or a special verb of existence), and, possibly, a phrase expressing the location or condition of the existence or non-existence. In most but not all Uralic languages, predicative possession is expressed with a similar construction. In typological literature locative predication has usually been treated together with existential sentences. Both sentence types contain the same elements, but in locative elements the pivot NP is usually definite. In Uralic, only Hungarian can express definiteness with a definite article; other Uralic languages use other means, such as word order or case marking.
Clause combining
Authors: Skribnik Elena 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Clause combining in Uralic languages shows strong areal differences, mostly due to the language contact. The original Uralic strategy was most probably monofinite (a finite predicate in the main clause, a non-finite in the dependent clause). The languages of the western periphery (Finnic and Hungarian) developed in the long-standing contact with Indo-European languages the bifinite strategy with analytic connectors (conjunctions, relative pronominal connectors, and such). The languages of the eastern periphery retain the monofinite strategy, enriched by additional analytic components (postpositions and particles). The languages of the Volga-Kama areal show influences from Turkic languages in the South (especially in complement clauses built with connectors grammaticalized from the verb of speaking) and Russian.
Basics of electrodynamics of continuous media
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The purpose of this chapter is to briefly summarize the basics of electrodynamics. Maxwell equations are written using a classical and microscopic description of matter. The potentials and their connection to the longitudinal and transverse fields are then introduced. In section 3, a spatial averaging procedure is used to derive macroscopic fields from the microscopic fields. It is shown that these averaged fields obey macroscopic Maxwell equations where additional terms (polarization and magnetization) appears as a result of the spatial average of the microscopic charge and current densities. The key concepts about energy conservation of electromagnetic fields are then introduced as well as the reciprocity theorem. The chapter ends with the description of a few generic topics: radiation treated in chapter 2, propagation and diffraction treated in chapter 4, reflection and transmission treated in chapter 5, scattering treated in chapter 12.
Electrodynamics in material media: Constitutive relations
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The interaction of electromagnetic waves and material media can be characterized by many different phenomena such as absorption, scattering, reflection, etc. Of course, these effects are strongly dependent on frequency and on the nature of the materials. Visible light will be reflected by a metal and transmitted by glass. Glass is transparent in the visible but opaque in the infrared, etc. To account for these effects, it is necessary to include in Maxwell equations the relevant information concerning the materials. This takes the form of a relation connecting the polarization and the magnetization of the material with the electric and magnetic fields. These relations contain all the information of the absorption processes and the dispersion effects. Typical models describing metals, crystals and gases are introduced.
Propagation
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In its simplest one-dimensional form, propagation describes the transformation of a spatial field f(x) at time t=0 over time as a function of time in the special form f(x-vt) where v is the wavevelocity. In this chapter, we generalize this elementary definition to include propagation in a three-dimensional vacuum and discuss the connection with diffraction. We also introduce the concept of evanescent waves. We then consider propagation in a dispersive and lossy medium. This leads to the introduction of a complex refractive index in the frequency domain and to the introduction of a dispersion relation. We discuss several definitions of the velocity. We finally introduce the quasinormal modes in lossy media.
Reflection and refraction at an interface
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In this chapter, we deal with reflection and refraction of electromagnetic waves at a planar interface between two homogeneous media described by a linear and isotropic permittivity and permeability. We will derive the general form of the fields in both media and derive the form of their complex amplitudes, namely the Fresnel reflection and transmission factors. We use complex refractive indices in order to include in the discussion the losses.
Guided modes
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Waveguides are basically a device (‘a guide’) for transporting electromagnetic energy from a source to another defined point, through a structure that is invariant in one or two directions without any loss in wave intensity. The chapter is intended to provide an introductory self-contained treatment of optical waveguide theory. The slab guide serves as a textbook example to examine fundamental concepts such as the discrete modes and their effective indices. The basis of modal structure decomposition is then underlined: mode orthogonality, mode normalization, role of reciprocity. Several complements introduce more subtle aspects, such as the different group and energy velocities and mode orthogonality in lossy/amplifying cases. The elementary case of the perfect metal walls is also discussed, as well as multimode waveguide applications encountered in integrated optics.
Basics of resonators and cavities
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The chapter encompasses a rigorous approach to model the non-Hermitian resonators that leaks energy in open spaces, as well as a simplified phenomenological approach valid in the limit of weak leakage. The rigorous treatment relies on the concept of normalized quasinormal modes. It is detailed for the intuitive example of a Fabry-Perot cavity. The relationship to the key LDOS concept – the local density-of-states – is given. The phenomenological model has an attractive simplicity to describe coupling phenomena through time constants. It addresses a variety of issues such as weak, strong and critical couplings. The correspondence with the classical textbook Fabry-Perot physics and related concepts such as finesse and quality factors is also outlined.
Semiconductors and quantum wells
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The chapter aims at introducing students to the basic of electronic wavefunctions and energy bands in semiconductors. The Bloch mode is the key point, with the band edges and the bandgap. The Fermi-Dirac statistics based on the Fermi level is introduced to account for the population with the help of the relevant density-of-states. Doping is explained. The optical transitions, their rule and their dynamics are outlined. The focus is then more on heterojunctions, notably double heterojunctions and quantum wells, circumventing the textbook description of space charges, as they are suppressed in injected devices. Quantum wells are discussed in relation with laser diodes anr their threshold current, showing why the separate confinement heterostructure (SCH) combining a guide with quantum wells, stands as an early nanophotonic device design. The confinement factor of the optical mode relates this chapter to that on guided modes. Silicon and III-V semiconductors are contrasted throughout.
More confined electrons: Quantum dots and quantum wires
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter aims at introducing structures where the electron is confined in two or three dimensions, the so-called quantum wires and quantum dots. The basics of the density-of-states are explained, as its strong structure distinguishes these systems from higher-dimensional ones, in addition of the large interface/volume ratio. Fabrication routes of different nature are presented, either self-organised or epitaxial, and the tunability of photonic properties that result from variable size and shape is underlined. The semiconductor families and the applications of each route are presented. The emblematic case of InAs growth on III-V substrates provides the key phenomena of interest. The II-VI colloidal quantum dots are the other emblematic case, leading to the evolving uses of quantum dots, e.g. in displays or as nanoprobes. The description of porous silicon as a lower-dimensional version of silicon is used to introduce the reader to more subtle interplays of electronic and photonic properties.
Fundamental concepts of near-field optics
Authors: Benisty Henri , Greffet Jean-Jacques , Lalanne Philippe 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The concept of evanescent waves, which plays a key role in the description of the electromagnetic field at the nanoscale, is introduced in the first section. The second section offers an alternative introduction to near-field optics by examining the radiation of an electric dipole. These two sections can also be viewed as a discussion of the concepts of near field either in Fourier space (evanescent waves) or in direct space (dipole radiation). In the third section, we establish a connection between the quasi-electrostatic and quasi-magnetostatic approximations familiar in the regime of low frequencies and the near-field regime used in optics for TE and TM polarization. Finally, in the last part of the chapter, we highlight some particular properties of the near field. It will be seen that the familiar concepts of phase, Fresnel reflection factor, field structure, polarization need to be revisited in the near field.