bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Compliance Studies and the African Human Rights System
Authors: Biegon Japhet 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the compliance/implementation studies in the African human rights system, in which Frans Viljoen has a proven record of thought leadership. It begins by tracing the evolution of the African human rights system, looking at the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR); the African Committee of Experts on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACERWC); and the African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR). The chapter then identifies five major trends in compliance/implementation studies. These include the increasing usage of empirical research; the seeming preference for in-depth case studies of particular cases or countries; the interrogation of unexamined truisms or assumptions; the redirecting of the analytical lens to sub-regional courts and tribunals; and the evaluation of the mechanisms of the regional bodies for monitoring compliance. The chapter argues for more energy to be channelled towards generating interdisciplinary research, a task that calls for greater involvement of non-lawyers in the enterprise of studying compliance and implementation in the African system. It also suggests that much more attention should be directed at understanding the broader impact of the decisions of regional bodies, that is, the indirect effects of the decisions at the domestic level such as changes in societal attitudes and public discourse.
Compliance with Prohibition of the Death Penalty in Africa
Authors: Chenwi Lilian 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates the issue of death penalty in Africa. The application of the death penalty on the African continent continues to be an issue of debate and concern. Over the years, there has been a growing trend towards the abolition of the death penalty with emphasis on the need to enhance and protect human rights. Arguably, this trend emanates from the recognition of the death penalty’s inconsistency with international human rights law. Although there is no explicit general prohibition of the death penalty in international law, existing human rights instruments have become significant in orchestrating a continent-wide shift. The chapter then looks at the position of the death penalty in international human rights law with reference to key UN human rights treaties – which African states are parties to – and their subsequent interpretation. It considers the extent of compliance with these instruments in the prohibition of death penalty in Africa.
Satire, Sensations, and Slander
Authors: Huxtable Simon 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
‘Criticism and self-criticism’ [kritika i samokritika]—the belief that constant exposure and discussion of errors would help perfect the system—was a flagship Soviet ritual. Within the press it took the form of exposés, critical essays, or satirical feuilletons, often prompted by a letter from a reader. However, as this chapter suggests, even as they proclaimed the importance of criticism, officials also considered the press’s exposure of ‘shortcomings’ to be damaging to communist rule. Focusing on the evolution of press criticism from the end of World War II to the end of 1956, this chapter shows how criticism was both encouraged and punished, its fate depending on the social and political climate and the Party’s diagnosis of the potential harm criticism could cause to the Soviet state. The chapter homes in on a crucial moment following Khrushchev’s ‘Secret Speech’ of February 1956, when journalists at Komsomol’skaia pravda used criticism to eliminate the remnants of Stalin’s ‘cult of personality’ from the Soviet Union. Believing that Khrushchev’s words validated their critical line, journalists printed articles that exposed a range of official misdeeds, ranging from wrongful imprisonment to bureaucratic interference. However, after the Soviet invasion of Hungary in the autumn, officials began to take fright at rebellious moods within the intelligentsia and saw the paper’s stream of critical articles as potentially subversive. The chapter shows how journalists’ attempt to rid the country of corruption and judicial abuse thus ended in reprimands from officials and recriminations within the paper.
Far from Moscow
Authors: Huxtable Simon 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Komsomol’skaia pravda journalists’ attempts to mould a new hero for a new era, focusing in particular on a series of autobiographical writings—diaries, letters and memoirs—published by the paper over the course of the late 1950s and 1960s. Soviet culture, from Stakhanov to Chkalov, had always assigned pride of place to those individuals thought to exemplify the best traits of humanity: heroes. But after Stalinist models had been discredited, what would the contemporary hero look like? By printing the unvarnished stories of young people travelling to Siberia and the Arctic, journalists hoped to create a new, ‘sincere’ hero, quite different from the square-jawed exemplars of the Stalin era. Journalists framed their texts as authentic documents of ‘romanticism’, a term that became ubiquitous during the Thaw, and conveyed the joy of communing with nature, a belief in the future—but also a vague sense of rebellion. Despite journalists’ rosy-tinted framing of these texts, journalists were never quite sure where these ascetic individuals fitted into the values of the Thaw. As Khrushchev and Nixon argued over kitchens in Moscow, these young heroes’ rejection of comfort seemed out of place. As this chapter argues, journalists’ confused reactions to this new cast of heroes reveals some of the aporias of Khrushchev’s new-found commitment to his citizens’ wellbeing.
From Word to Deed
Authors: Huxtable Simon 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Khrushchev’s vision of communism envisaged a key role for grass-roots initiative. Journalists supported energies from below in the belief that smaller collectives were crucial carriers of communist ideas. This chapter focuses on one attempt to build communism from the grass-roots: the Communard Method, a pedagogical movement started by activists in Leningrad and which, with the support of journalists at Komsomol’skaia pravda, became a national phenomenon. The method offered an antidote to traditional Komsomol and Pioneer activities by placing children at the heart of learning: children would decide on activities, take the lead in implementing new ideas, and later debate the effectiveness of their efforts. Adult involvement was kept to a minimum. Journalists at Komsomol’skaia pravda publicised the new method, printing articles that reported on the new phenomenon, devising new rubrics to encourage young people to become involved. This chapter places the Communard Method, and Komsomol’skaia pravda’s involvement with it, within a broader pedagogical and political context, linking it to the ideas of Ukrainian pedagogue Vasyl Sukhomlinsky as well as Khrushchev’s work-based school reforms. However, it also shows how the Communard method challenged the status quo by painting run-of-the-mill youth activities as top-down and dull. After Khrushchev’s ouster in October 1964, the new leadership placed pressure on Communard leaders to return to the political mainstream and forced many of its leading exponents—and their supporters in the press—to leave their positions.
On Believing
Authors: Hunter David 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This book develops original accounts of the logical, psychological, and normative aspects of belief, grounded in ontological views that put the believer at the heart of the story. Hunter argues that to believe something is to be in position to do, think, and feel things in light of a possibility whose obtaining would make one right. The logical aspect is that being right depends only on whether that possibility obtains. The psychological one concerns how that possibility can rationalize what one does, thinks, and feels. But, Hunter argues, beliefs are not causes, capacities, or dispositions. Rather, believing rationalizes because possibilities are potential reasons. Hunter also denies that believing is a form of representing. The objects of belief are possibilities, not representations, and belief states are not themselves true or false. Hunter defends this modal view against familiar objections and explores how objective and subjective limits to belief generate credal illusions and ground credal necessities. Developing a novel account of the normativity of belief, he argues that voluntary acts of inference make us responsible for our beliefs. While denying that believing is intrinsically normative, Hunter grounds the ethics of belief in attributive goodness. Believing something is to our credit when it shows us to be good in some way, and what we ought to believe depends on what we ought to know, and not on the evidence we have. The ethics of belief, Hunter argues, concern how a believer ought to be positioned in a world of possibilities.
On the Nature of Believing
Authors: Hunter David 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that to believe something is to be in position to do, think, and feel things in light of a possibility whose obtaining would make one right. The position is that of an agent when it is up to her how to respond to the reasons she takes there to be. In developing this image, the chapter sketches accounts of agency, action, reasons, and possibility. This view of belief contrasts with standard ones on which believing is a capacity or a disposition. The chapter argues that believing does not make a difference to what a person can do, to the capacities or dispositions she has. Rather, it makes a difference to the reasons she for exercising the capacities and manifesting the dispositions she already has or will acquire. The chapter also argues that a person’s beliefs rationalize what she does, thinks, and feels without causing those actions, thoughts, or feelings. Belief states are not causes and belief properties are not causal qualities. In arguing for this, the chapter develops an analogy between believing and being in a spatial location. The chapter ends by extending the view to non-human believers and by explaining why the view is nonetheless naturalistic.
Believing without Representing
Authors: Hunter David 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This book argues that believing is not a representational state. Chapter 3 argued that the objects of belief are not representations. This chapter argues that while a person is right or wrong in believing something, neither the belief properties they have nor the belief states they are in are true or false. In this sense, beliefs are not mental representations. They do not have representational content. To argue for this, the chapter returns to distinctions drawn in Chapter 2 between propositions, belief properties, and belief states. Propositions are by their very nature representational and so can be true or false. But, the chapter argues, neither belief properties nor belief states can. The idea that belief states are representations is encouraged by the ambiguity in “belief” between what a person believes and their believing it, and by the tendency to treat belief states as if they were entities of the right sort to have semantic properties. The idea that belief states are representational is presupposed by a variety of philosophical projects and claims. The chapter argues that these projects and claims will need to be rethought. It ends by briefly sketching how to extend these points about belief to the psychological state of desire.
Objectivity and Credal Illusions
Authors: Hunter David 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter returns to the puzzle cases discussed in Chapter 3 and shows how they reveal the objective limits of belief. These limits give rise to credal illusions, where a person thinks she believes something when, in fact, she does not. The chapter shows how certain of the familiar puzzle cases involve just such illusions, and considers what the cases reveal about the various grounds or sources of the limits to belief. It first considers credal illusions involving possibilities that are beyond our cognitive reach. It then looks at credal illusions involving future possibilities, illustrated by the so-called Sleeping Beauty puzzle, and then those involving mere possibilities. One point that will emerge is that credal limits are contingent: had things been different in various ways, a person could have believed things that she cannot now believe. But not every theorist agrees that belief is objective in this way, and the very idea of there being such limits is itself puzzling. This chapter argues that while the limits are puzzling, they are not a problem that an account of the nature of believing needs to solve. Rather, it argues, the risk of credal illusions is a price we pay for believing anything at all.
Disability-free Life Trends at Older Ages
Authors: Wolf Douglas A. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Longevity risk, which typically refers the problem of people outliving their assets, can be viewed as both an aggregate and an individual-level issue. A related issue is that of ‘active life,’ an individual-level phenomenon, or ‘active life expectancy’ (ALE), an aggregate phenomenon. During their lifetimes, members of a particular population may alternate between ‘active’ and ‘disabled’ status; the average amount of time spent in the ‘active’ state is, for the cohort, its ALE. ALE does not appear to have consequences for aggregate longevity risk, but it may have major implications at the individual level. A transition from active to disabled status may signal a shorter-than-expected remaining lifetime, with implications for the speed at which one should draw down one’s assets. Moreover, those with severe care needs but lacking access to family-provided care and long-term care insurance may find that they need to draw down their assets in order to achieve eligibility for Medicaid-funded care services. Indeed, Medicaid and family-provided elder care can be viewed as a particular form of ‘public-private partnership’ for sharing the risks of late-life care needs.
Working Longer Solves (Almost) Everything
Authors: Driver Tim , Henshon Amanda 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Research on making it easier for people to work longer has tended to focus on economic security. This chapter links working longer to health and longevity. Purely age-based retirement policies have led to complications and unintended consequences including insufficient retirement resources, possible depletion of social security, and flawed perceptions of older workers. By working longer, older adults are better able to support themselves, remain healthier, and live longer. New data show that, when employed, older adults are as much as four times more socially engaged, offsetting deepening concerns worldwide about the adverse effects of loneliness, particularly on older populations. The very definition of retirement should be reconsidered in light of increasing data suggesting that traditional retirement can be detrimental to financial, mental, and physical health.
Aging in Place
Authors: Hodgson Nancy A. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Declining public resources necessitates collaboration between public and private investors in order to meet the demands of an aging society to ‘age in place.’ Aging in place is a term that has emerged in the past 10 years to describe older people’s desire to stay in their own home and community. This chapter presents an overview of aging in place and the role of public-private partnerships in finding solutions. Examples illustrate the common elements of successful existing partnership models for future replication. Additional opportunities for innovation demonstrate that much more can be done to meet the needs of the aging population and honor their preference to age in place.
Public-Private Partnerships Extend Community-based Organization’s Longevity
Authors: Guishard Dozene , Dionne William J. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Public-private partnerships (PPPs) are essential to the survival of mission-driven nonprofits, especially those in aging services. Aging service nonprofits receive less than two percent of all institutional philanthropic dollars, with a largest segment of their funding provided by government entities. Carter Burden Network (CBN) is an aging services nonprofit organization serving community-dwelling seniors in Manhattan, with a concentration of services in East Harlem, Roosevelt Island, and the Upper East Side. The New York City Department for the Aging (NYCDFTA) and other government sources provide 50 percent of CBN’s budget. The adage that ‘government cannot do it alone’ is exemplified through CBN’s history of developing new programs through private partnerships, and use of skills-based volunteerism to enhance services. PPPs have helped CBN strengthen its capacity to expand its service provision and areas. Equally important is CBN’s commitment to increase return on investment for PPPs by reducing food insecurity and malnutrition, hospitalization, and social isolation—all with a financial benefit to the broader society.
Building on Hope or Tackling Fear?
Authors: Comas-Herrera Adelina 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
In most countries, it is clear that the cost of care, treatment, and support of people with Alzheimer’s disease and other dementias will rise considerably in the next few decades. This chapter discusses dementia as an economic concern and looks at the policy questions addressed by the current literature on the costs of dementia. It then considers the policy responses to concerns about the growing cost of dementia, distinguishing between ‘hopeful’ policies that seek to reduce or contain the costs, and policies to address the capacity of the health, care, and social protection systems to respond to dementia care in a way consistent with public expectations. We conclude that the costs of dementia care do not necessarily equate to dementia care being unsustainable, but they do highlight the need for policy action. Additionally, it is relatively easier for policymakers to adopt ‘hopeful’ policies, such as investment in research to find a disease-modifying treatment for Alzheimer’s or strategies for dementia risk reduction, than it is to tackle the more politically complex decisions needed to ensure that health, care, and social protection systems have the capacity to respond to the challenge of dementia.
New Financial Instruments for Managing Longevity Risk
Authors: Kiff John 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Reduced returns and longevity risk are making it challenging for employers to offer defined benefit pensions. In countries with large defined benefit pension plan sectors, sponsors are transferring these obligations, and the associated investment and longevity risk, to life (re)insurers via buy-outs, buy-ins, and longevity swaps. Nevertheless, to date, there has been no successful longevity bond issuance, although there have been several false starts. This contrasts with the active market for catastrophe bonds that transfer risk associated with catastrophic events from (re)insurers to capital markets. This chapter reviews catastrophe bond and other insurance risk transfer market developments to identify the factors and design features that have resulted in success and failure. Conclusions are informed by an extensive literature review and quantitative survey, plus discussions with market participants including public policymakers. We conclude with suggestions for product design features and public policies that might kick-start vibrant longevity bond markets.
Property Tax Deferral
Authors: Munnell Alicia H. , Hou Wenliang , Walters Abigail N. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Many retirees will not have enough money from conventional retirement programs to maintain their standard of living once they stop working. To help support themselves, they will need to tap their home equity, the major asset for most middle-income older households. Yet tapping home equity is difficult: most people are reluctant to downsize and, even when they do, they rarely reduce their housing expenses. Reverse mortgages are an option, but most households are put off by the enormity of the decision, the complexity of the product, and the high up-front costs. A state-wide property tax deferral program overcomes the hurdles to accessing home equity. Property tax deferral does not provide access to as much home equity as a reverse mortgage, but the offsetting advantage is that some of the house value after the repayment of the loan and interest will be available for a bequest. At the household level, the proposed program is revenue neutral: all taxes owed by a participating household are paid back, with interest sufficient to cover borrowing costs and administrative expenses. But because loans are made well in advance of repayments, the sponsor of the plan must cover start-up costs. In Massachusetts, if the state government simply borrowed money to cover the annual outlays, the state’s ratio of debt to gross state product would rise from 14 percent to 15.1 percent. The alternative is to involve the private sector. This decision would raise the costs to homeowners, but it may nevertheless be necessary in order to get a broad-based program up and running.
The Market for Reverse Mortgages among Older Americans
Authors: Mayer Christopher , Moulton Stephanie 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the usage of reverse mortgages among mortgage borrowers, as well as applicants rejected for new mortgage credit who are age 62+. We find that 17–27 percent of actual and rejected borrowers would have qualified for a Home Equity Conversion Mortgage (HECM) reverse mortgage, or nine to 14 times the size of the actual HECM market. The existence of a large number of seniors with an existing mortgage or taking out a new mortgage with quite high loan to value ratios (LTVs) (57–65%, depending on the product) suggests that many seniors do, in fact, utilize home equity in order to fund their retirement. Yet they choose products that require monthly payments lasting decades into retirement and rising as a share of (declining) income as they age. We consider a number of possible explanations for why seniors in the US do not spend home equity and instead rely on loans with high repayments, including precautionary savings for health shocks, bequest motives, high costs of reverse mortgages, and the lack of brand name institutions in the reverse mortgage business.
How to be a Mereological Anti-Realist
Authors: Brenner Andrew 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Peter van Inwagen’s “special composition question” asks, more or less, “what must some objects be like in order for them to compose another object?” The chapter develops and defends (though falls short of fully endorsing) a theistic anti-realist response to the special composition question, according to which God decides when composition occurs. It is argued that this form of theistic mereological anti-realism is preferable to extant non-theistic variants of mereological anti-realism, and that theistic mereological anti-realism receives some motivation from several other sources (e.g., theistic mereological anti-realism provides some novel resources for responding to the problem of evil).
Creativity in Creation
Authors: Page Meghan D. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
According to the world-actualization model (WAM), God creates by selecting and actualizing a possible world. This chapter argues that WAM is in tension with divine creativity. To flesh out the nature of creativity, three types of creative thought processes described by Margaret Boden are introduced. It is then argued that the God of WAM fails to exhibit any of them. Next, the chapter explores several ways one might try to ease the tension between divine creativity and the world-actualization model, including potential transformations of WAM itself, but none of these appear particularly satisfactory. The chapter concludes with three desiderata one ought to satisfy in creating a creative model of creation; a truly creative God must display originality, purpose, and world-specific intentions in the creation of the world.