bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Infection avoidance behaviors across vertebrate taxa: Patterns, processes, and future directions
Authors: Lopes Patricia C. , French Susannah S. , Woodhams Douglas C. , Binning Sandra A. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractAn infected animal can behave, smell, sound, and look very different from a healthy version of itself. The same is true when comparing habitats, food, or water sources contaminated with parasite infectious stages to their uncontaminated counterparts. All these differences provide cues or indications of disease risk and thus allow uninfected animals to modify their behaviors in ways that alter disease transmission. This chapter focuses on prophylactic behaviors: host behaviors that reduce the risk of infection. It provides an overview of how infection avoidance behaviors are triggered, then summarizes the avoidance behaviors known to occur in vertebrates, giving special attention to non-mammalian taxa, which are less represented in the literature. Repercussions of avoidance behaviors can include fitness trade-offs under some circumstances where predation risk is increased, or opportunities for nutrition, growth, or reproduction are diminished. Thus, like balanced immune responses, optimal behaviors may not be those that provide the greatest pathogen avoidance. The chapter outlines knowledge gaps and future priorities for research in the study of behavioral avoidance across taxa and discusses how trade-offs associated with behavioral avoidance may be altered under global change.
The Defence of Mistake of Law in International Criminal Law
Authors: Coco Antonio 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The adage ‘ignorance of the law is no excuse’ is significantly inaccurate. Ignorance and mistake of law do, under certain circumstances, exclude responsibility both in national and international criminal law. This book updates the existing reviews of law and practice on the topic and aims to go a step further, taking the analysis of mistake of law as a starting point for systematic observations about international criminal law in general. First, the book defines the contours of the defence of mistake of law in general theory of criminal law, distinguishing it from cognate defences and highlighting, most notably, its connection with superior orders. Secondly, it gives an overview of the possible approaches to the defence, offering examples from national law as terms of reference for the subsequent analysis of international criminal law. Thirdly, it surveys the relevant law and practice of international criminal tribunals, with a focus on the International Criminal Court, and it contemplates offences for which a defence of mistake of law may potentially succeed. Fourthly, the book tries to interpret the message that the rules on mistake of law applicable before international criminal tribunals send about the purpose of punishing individuals and the legitimacy of such punishment. Whilst the discourse on international criminal law is more and more concerned with global politics, this book brings the focus back to the appropriateness of imposing a guilty verdict on the individual defendant, a human being who remains a member of society.
Introduction
Authors: Coco Antonio 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This introductory chapter sets the scope of the book’s inquiry, the reasons for the study of mistake of law, the research question it tries to answer, the methodology followed, and the terminology employed. In particular, the Introduction defines the concept of ‘mistake of law’, that is, a defendant’s claim that they did not know or they misunderstood a certain legal rule, and that therefore they should not be criminally responsible. The chapter describes this notion’s relationship with the pluralism and complexity of international criminal law, which make it difficult for individuals to acquire knowledge of this body of rules. The chapter also sets out the book’s objective of clarifying the theoretical underpinnings of the choice to give or deny exonerating value to claims of mistake of law, in international criminal law.
Mistakes of Law Excluding Criminal Responsibility in Domestic Criminal Law
Authors: Coco Antonio 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Several alternatives exist to regulate and/or limit resort to the defence of mistake of law. National systems of criminal law show how these alternatives work in practice—establishing valuable lessons for international criminal tribunals. National law makes clear that the fact itself of having incurred a mistake of law is never sufficient, alone, to exonerate a defendant from criminal responsibility. The chapter establishes the situations in which a mistake of law may, instead, be invoked to exclude that responsibility, focusing on the notions of honesty, reasonableness, and unavoidability of the mistake, and highlighting that—at times—crime definitions contain elements requiring knowledge of the law. Special attention is devoted to mistakes relating to the lawfulness of superior orders, often drawing from national proceedings for international crimes conducted between the two World Wars and after the Second World War.
Conclusion
Authors: Coco Antonio 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This short ending summarizes the findings of the whole study and draws conclusions to be used to spark debate and open up new inquiries. It reaffirms that the current rules on the defence of mistake of law applicable before international criminal tribunals are indicative of a message about the purposes and legitimacy of international criminal punishment. Considering the discourse on international criminal law as more and more concerned with global politics, sovereignty, states, and victims, this chapter signals the objective to bring attention back to the original focus of a criminal trial: the appropriateness of imposing a guilty verdict on the individual defendant.
Bound by Convention
Authors: Owens David 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
How should we assess the social structures that govern human conduct and settle whether we are bound by their rules? One approach is to ask whether those social arrangements (e.g. our family structures) reflect pre-conventional facts about our nature. If they do, compliance will serve our interests because these rules are not just conventions. Another approach is to ask whether following a convention has desirable consequences. For example, the rule which makes the dollar bill legal tender is a convention and the great usefulness of having a medium of exchange ensures that we should follow that convention by accepting paper money in return for things of real value. This work argues that being bound by a convention can also be valuable for its own sake. People need meaning in their lives, and conventions infuse our acts and attitudes with normative significance, rendering them right or wrong, appropriate or inappropriate, required or forbidden. Such rules bind us not just in virtue of their usefulness but also because their absence would impoverish our social world. Appreciating this point is essential to a proper understanding of our cultures of neighbourliness and hospitality, family structures, systems of property rights, conventions around speech, the norms governing how we deport ourselves in public, and even the rules of a game.
Truthfulness
Authors: Owens David 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
To speak untruthfully is to make an assertion that you do not believe to be true. This chapter argues that the wrong of untruthfulness is not the wrong of deceiving or misleading. First, you can do wrong in speaking untruthfully even when there is no danger of your misleading anyone. Second, where you set out to mislead your audience, it makes a difference whether you do so by speaking untruthfully. These facts make sense once we acknowledge the existence of a binding impersonal convention requiring speech to be truthful, one distinct from the pre-conventional interpersonal principle that forbids misleading speech and action. I draw a parallel between the conventions that govern assertion and those around money. Just as the efficacy of money presupposes the recognition of social rules requiring us both to respect the integrity of money (by not counterfeiting, etc.) and to trust money by accepting it in exchange for valuable goods and services, so the efficacy of testimony presupposes the recognition of social rules requiring us both to speak truthfully and trust the assertions of others unless we have specific grounds for doubt. These rules are all impersonal conventions which serve a collective interest by ensuring that any money we come across has exchange value and any assertion we come across has informational value.
Introduction
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter highlights the ‘wicked’ problem of inequalities and its importance to policy and policymaking in EU states and regions. It identifies policymaking rescaling, in which approaches driven by the nation state are now under challenge from global, EU, and substate developments. It introduces the IMAJINE project, which focuses on researching spatial justice and reducing inequalities. We identify three tensions inherent to any such project. First, there is always a gap between policymaker expectations—to make an impact with policy and cooperate across policymaking scales—and actual practices and outcomes. Second, multi-level policymaking is a venue for contestation over defining problems and establishing the responsibility to address them. Third, there are many different ways to define and seek to solve inequalities, and these differences are just as apparent across policy sectors (such as health and education) as policymaking venues.
Mapping Responsibilities to Reduce Inequalities Across the EU
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 explores how to map policymaking responsibilities in relation to inequalities. Our aim is to identify key policy instruments to reduce inequalities to help identify which governments are responsible for their use. This work is essential to understanding how policymakers, at different levels and scales of government, take and share responsibility for the reduction of territorial inequalities across European Union states and regions. It is also essential to policy learning and transfer, since we expect different political systems to distribute those responsibilities in different ways. However, it is not possible to reduce this exercise to a technical report with a clear blueprint for policymakers. Rather, these exercises highlight scenarios in which joint action may be possible, but subject to high uncertainty about which mix of policy instruments to use, whom to hold responsible for their use, and how best to foster collaboration inside and outside of government.
Inequalities Policies in Practice
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the scope for regional (or meso-level, sub-state) policymakers to redesign policy, and pursue differing priorities, within national systems of social welfare. Regional levels of government have increased powers to address inequalities, but their role is contested. There is no such thing as a typical division of responsibilities or one best way to address inequalities. Rather, we use examples from four countries—Belgium, Italy, Spain, and the United Kingdom—to explore how different regional-level governments make sense of inequalities policies. Examples include taxation and spending, social assistance, public service subsidies, minimum income guarantees, and charged, active labour market policies. From the available evidence, it would be an exaggeration to speak of distinct regional welfare regimes.
Strategies to Reduce Inequalities in Education
Authors: Cairney Paul , Keating Michael , Kippin Sean , Denny Emily St. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines how governments define and pursue education equity. There is a broad consensus that reducing unfair education inequalities would be a good thing, but also the endurance of major inequalities, particularly in relation to a highly salient ‘attainment gap’ on leaving school. There is high contestation on the cause of inequalities and the balance between individual, school, and state responsibility, but also a tendency for a ‘neoliberal’ approach to overshadow ‘social justice’ approaches in national policy agendas. In that context, this chapter examines three key aspects. First, how policymakers define and pursue education equity policy. Second, what countries and regions can learn from allegedly leading countries. Third, the spatial dimension of education equity policy, in which there is a general tendency to decentralize policy delivery but centralize accountability, and scope for some regional governments to go their own way. The conclusion relates these findings to the idea of territorial cohesion.
British Colonization in North America
Authors: Clark David S. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2 describes the British colonial period, beginning with a review of the place of Roman, civil, and canon law in English legal history followed by a discussion of what impact those elements plus natural law, particularly through Scotsmen, might have had in America. Self-study and apprenticeship were the avenues to learn law in the colonies. Because the social and physical environment in America was so different from that in England, social factors were very important for the development of law, especially on lawyers and courts. In addition, the religious and cultural diversity that existed in the 13 North American British colonies was relevant to the view of law in different communities. For instance, Francis Pastorius, a Quaker, had studied law in Germany before he founded the first permanent German settlement in the colonies at Germantown, Pennsylvania. Finally, John Adams provides an exemplary legal comparatist in the pre-revolutionary period, as his law practice and political writings amply demonstrate.
The Formative Era: 1791–1865
Authors: Clark David S. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 analyzes the period from 1791 to the end of the Civil War, what Roscoe Pound described as the formative era of American law. Lawyers with knowledge of Enlightenment legal philosophy and Roman and civil law shifted their attention primarily to the task of constructing a system of private law. Nevertheless, comparatists explored penal reform and adopted ideas from European criminology that made Pennsylvania and New York models that French and German jurists then studied. In addition, the expansion of the nation to absorb Louisiana as a territory and later a state provided an important instance of civil law influence, particularly on the matter of legal codification. These decades also saw the beginning of American comparative legal science, which legal education, a growing legal literature—James Kent and Joseph Story stood out—and law libraries amply illustrated. There were other legal comparatists who also made contributions to early comparative law, which is detailed. In particular, the codification and slavery questions had diverse important legal sources stemming from European and earlier Roman law.
Evidence
Authors: Norris Pippa 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
What evidence would allow the general theory of skeptical trust to be tested empirically? This chapter describes the data used to operationalize the book’s typology and analyze how far trust relationships are based on informed calculations, evidence, and logical reasoning, and the conditions most conducive to skeptical judgments. To start, Section I reviews alternative techniques and methods commonly used in previous research to understand trust. Section II outlines the research design at the heart of the book. Section III explains how the core concepts are operationalized from sources of macro- and micro-level data. The study draws on the pooled European Values Survey/World Values Survey, covering 120 societies around the world in the seven waves since the study was established in the early 1980s. Section IV tests the reliability of the survey data using an item-count survey experiment. Finally, the conclusion in Section V summarizes how the research design used in this study differs from many previous studies.
Competency
Authors: Norris Pippa 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Performance in the agent-principal social contract is conceptualized as involving competency, so that agents or agencies fulfill specific responsibilities to their clients, while procedural mechanisms concerning standards of integrity and impartiality hold agents accountable for any general failures to do so. Section I summarizes the thinking guiding the empirical analysis. Section II seeks to explore this issue in more depth, using individual-level survey data to establish how far a range of indicators about the pocketbook household economy predict trust in political authorities, and to determine whether this relationship varies in both open and closed societies. Section III goes on to compare cross-national evidence at the macro level in around eighty nations worldwide to test whether the public’s judgments of political trustworthiness are consistently related to objective indicators of the government’s policy performance. The conclusion in Section IV summarizes the overall results and considers their broader implications and the next steps in the process.
Integrity and Impartiality
Authors: Norris Pippa 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Above and beyond the competent delivery of specific policy outcomes, procedural indicators of performance are expected to be even more important for trustworthy principal-agent relationships, representing the “input” and “throughput” side of the policymaking process. To explore these issues, Section I of this chapter summarizes the theoretical argument. To identify the drivers of trust, Section II examines individual-level data to analyze how far confidence in political institutions is strengthened by subjective perceptions about the quality of governance. For a more rigorous test of the core theory, Section III compares objective performance indicators to see how far independent measures of the quality of government by monitoring agencies predict public judgments of the trustworthiness of core political institutions—and how far such relationships are conditioned by the type of information society and the predominant societal culture. Section IV illustrates the existential risks of excessive credulous public trust in untrustworthy leaders with a case study of the performance of countries in the Covid-19 pandemic. The conclusions in Section V highlight the key findings and considers their broader implications for trust and trustworthiness.
The Specter of Guantanamo
Authors: Herman Rebecca 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter surveys the problem of US basing in the Western Hemisphere in World War II from the perspectives of its various constituents. The United States’ existing military footprint on sovereign soil in Latin America when the war began consisted of the Guantanamo Naval Base situated in southeastern Cuba and various installations inside the Panama Canal Zone. As holdovers from the heyday of early twentieth-century US interventionism and hence lightning rods for anti-US sentiment, these spaces haunted wartime efforts to acquire defense installations in a purportedly new era in inter-American affairs.As US officials reimagined national security as a hemispheric undertaking, they had to confront the fact that two central objectives of US defense planning in the region on the eve of war – basing and goodwill – seemed to run at cross purposes.
Sex, Honor, and Moral Hygiene
Authors: Herman Rebecca 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
When US military personnel fanned out across the defense sites in Latin America, nearby residents encountered US power in the intimate spaces of everyday life, beyond the labor camps and construction sites, bringing inter-American relations squarely into the realm of the interpersonal. The newcomers forged new spaces and modes of sociability—at USO clubs, hotels, movie theaters, and beaches—that upset existing practices. Their arrival also fueled the growth of local sex industries, and US officials improvised new systems for regulating prostitution. The scope of the upheaval that the US presence precipitated varied from site to site, and country to country, but across these spaces, the influx of US personnel sparked concerns among local residents about the impact that the US presence would have on the social norms and moral health of their communities.
A Change in Tune at the White House—and at the Court?
Authors: Kalman Laura 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 shows FDR and members of his administration beginning to speak frankly about why they needed more justices—to stanch the flow of conservative decisions, not to assist the superannuated. It also details the court’s public entrance into a fight that, up to this point, had featured the president versus the Senate. The chief justice released a letter showing that the court needed no help and that additional justices would only slow things down. At the same time, the court upheld minimum wage legislation similar to that which it had struck down in 1936. Whether it changed its tune and, if so, all the clamor over the bill caused it to do so has been debated since 1937. Yet as the chapter shows, the justices’ first dramatic “self-reversal” made little difference to the expectation of victory for the principle of court enlargement, and perhaps for FDR’s bill. As the wild card, however, the court made it difficult to predict the future, and everything would hinge on what it did next.
“Prestige”
Authors: Kalman Laura 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 traces the evolution of the court fight into a war over prestige. The rancor exceeded that of the 1936 election and divided Democrats who had deified Roosevelt then. The battle now revolved around the clash of wills between the president and those opposing him in the Senate. Administration forces and foes made mistakes. The Senate Judiciary Committee report on the bill, released a month after the members’ vote against it, was so scathingly critical of the president that it backfired. Meanwhile, FDR stalled on naming the beloved Senate majority leader, Joe Robinson, as Van Devanter’s replacement, before his pushback became more adroit. After belatedly promising Robinson the nomination, he held an island “love fest” for all congressional Democrats, and some opposing him began to feel ashamed of themselves. It seemed as if a compromise granting Roosevelt up to five new justices was well within his grasp until Robinson unexpectedly died. Even afterward, Roosevelt came close to victory, and defeat did not cow him.
Science and Justice
Authors: McCullom Rod 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Rod McCullom, a reporter who specializes in the intersection of science and society and who writes a column on the science of criminal justice for Undark Magazine, explores the research and science—or lack of it—that underpins the criminal justice system. He stresses the need for innovative and nuanced reporting that looks carefully at data used to justify decision-making in the criminal justice system, that scrutinizes new policing technologies and the research that supports their use, and that asks much-needed questions about how and why certain measures are deployed in the name of keeping the peace. He also notes the crucial role of race in criminal justice and the disproportionate effects of bias in every area of the criminal justice system—policing, courts, corrections—when reporting on science and mass incarceration. It’s important to report new research, he concludes, but it is equally important to find out how it impacts society. Learn to question new technologies and ask, “Who will it help and hurt? How much will this cost?”