bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The structure of the field equations
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 13 is the first of two chapters that look at how Einstein’s equations may be recast as a system of partial differential equations. In this chapter, the Cauchy initial value problem (also known as the Cauchy problem) is considered. This involves specifying as initial data the 3-metric and its rate of change on some initial hypersurface at some initial time and then showing that this allows one to determine the 4-metric at subsequent times. This shows that Einstein’s equations can be considered as a system of evolution equations for the geometry of space-time. The chapter also considers the special case of ‘harmonic coordinates’, which considerably simplifies the mathematics. The chapter also considers the so-called hole problem and the equivalence problem in general relativity and includes a discussion of the status of exact solutions.
The 3+1 and 2+2 formalisms
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 14 adopts a geometrical approach to the Cauchy initial value problem by considering a space-like hypersurface and showing how the space-time metric and connection define the induced metric and extrinsic curvature of the hypersurface. A time function leads to a foliation of space-like hypersurfaces whose geometry can be described in terms of the lapse function and the rate of change of the induced metric. The final step is to introduce a time-like vector field, or fibration, whose integral curves may be used to identify points on neighbouring hypersurfaces and which defines a shift vector. This results in the 3+1 formalism, which allows one to view general relativity as a dynamical theory describing how the metric and curvature evolve with time. The chapter ends with an introduction to 2+2 formalism, which covers the important situation when the foliation becomes null and which leads to freely specifiable initial data.
Maximal extension and conformal compactification
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 18 develops the idea of extending solutions using new coordinates. A manifold endowed with an affine or metric geometry is said to be maximal if every geodesic emanating from an arbitrary point of the manifold either can be extended to infinite values of the affine parameter along the geodesic in both directions or terminates at an intrinsic singularity. Neither the Schwarzschild nor the Eddington–Finkelstein extensions are maximal. However, Kruskal found the maximal analytic extension of the Schwarzschild solution and, moreover, this extension is unique. The Kruskal solution leads to something called the Einstein–Rosen bridge. The chapter introduces the concept of the Penrose diagram, resulting from the conformal compactification of space-time. This enables one to bring in infinity to a finite distance while maintaining the so-called causal structure. Such diagrams are of great importance in understanding the global structure of black-hole space-times.
Linearized gravitational waves and their detection
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 21 starts by looking at the linearized Einstein equations, where one is studying small perturbations from flat space-time. It shows that each component of the linearized equations can be written as a wave equation with the source given by the corresponding component of the energy–momentum tensor. This shows how the motion of material sources generates gravitational waves. An explicit computation is done for two stars orbiting a common centre of mass, and the gravitational energy that is emitted is computed, showing the decay of the orbit and the corresponding change in the period of the orbit. The chapter describes how this effect has been directly observed in a binary system containing a pulsar and demonstrate how the predictions of the theory fit the observations with remarkable accuracy. The chapter ends by considering gravitational wave detectors and describing the first observation of gravitational waves by the LIGO scientific collaboration.
Radiation from an isolated source
Authors: d’Inverno Ray , Vickers James 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 23 looks at gravitational radiation from an isolated source, using the formalism developed by Bondi. The extent to which the results of the linearized theory can be trusted is not clear, and so it is better to investigate gravitational waves from bounded isolated sources. The chapter first looks at the structure of Einstein’s equations when space-time is foliated by null cones, which results in a characteristic initial value problem. The chapter then outlines how this problem is solved, starting from Bondi’s radiating metric. It introduces the Bondi mass and explains how this approach requires specifying some of the initial data in terms of the so-called gravitational news function. This then leads to Bondi’s mass-loss formula, which measures the way in which gravitational waves are radiated out to null infinity. The chapter also includes a discussion of the Petrov classification, the peeling theorem, and the optical scalars.
Frege’s Anti-Psychologism
Authors: Picardi Eva 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Frege’s main critique of psychologism is that it presents a mistaken picture of language which turns the objectivity of sense and the communication of thoughts into a mystery. Contrary to what Hans Sluga and Philip Kitcher have maintained, this chapter argues that Frege’s anti-psychologism does not depend on appealing to a form of Kantian transcendentalism but is rather driven by semantic considerations through and through. In particular, it is predicated on the sharp distinction between sense and representation, and by conceiving of the former first as public meaning, given in a language, and, later, in Der Gedanke, as an abstract entity.
A verticalization theory of language shift
Authors: Brown Joshua R. , Salmons Joseph 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter has two primary goals. First, we examine the field of language shift studies from the past to the present. We review previous approaches used in studying language maintenance and shift situations and, importantly, how those approaches have created foundations for new theories of shift. We then highlight the verticalization model of language shift. Verticalization is anchored in community structure, a focus of this chapter and book, along with how such structure connects down to social networks, families, and individuals. The theoretical section reviews key previous applications of the theory to shift situations and reviews how verticalization is developed in this volume.
Politics and cooperatives
Authors: Johnson Mirva 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter demonstrates how Warren’s (1978) horizontal structures can be applied to cultural communities dispersed across relatively wide geographic distances. Using Keiser’s (2009; 2012) “strawberry vine” terminology, this chapter examines how Finnish-American communities in northern Wisconsin created and maintained social connections to other Finns via workers’ associations and cooperative networks. These networks acted as “gatekeepers,” allowing Finnish-speaking immigrants to buy and sell goods and attend social events in venues within a geographically dispersed but socially and economically more insular Finnish-American community. This chapter offers a case study showing that the degree of Finnish language preservation in two rural Wisconsin communities was influenced not only by the effects of urbanization, but by the strength of their ties to the Finnish-American socioeconomic network.
Introduction
Authors: van Dijk Boyd 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The introduction presents the book’s most important arguments and methodology. It suggests an alternative way of thinking about the Conventions’ history and explains what motivated the drafters to establish the most important rules for armed conflict ever formulated. In making the Conventions, they sought to contest European imperial rule, challenge state sovereignty, fight Cold War rivalries, ensure rights during wartime, reinvent the concept of war crimes, and prepare for (civil) wars to come. This alternative reading of the making of humanitarian law has crucial implications for our understanding of the history and theory of international law in wartime today.
Indiscriminate Warfare: Bombing, Nuclear Weapons, and Starvation
Authors: van Dijk Boyd 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 takes a more overarching view, looking at how the protections to be adopted under the future Conventions might endure the dual threat of bombing and blockade. Although the story of Nuremberg’s silence on air-nuclear warfare is widely known, this chapter adds a new dimension to this history by revealing how Geneva struggled to obtain rules for protecting civilian populations. In the first part of the chapter, the analysis reconstructs attempts to limit aerial bombing and blockade before 1949, which eventually disappeared from the drafters’ radar. The remainder of the chapter demonstrates how international law’s silence on indiscriminate bombing and its conditional acceptance of starvation as a weapon of war was less the result of a strictly drawn legal distinction between “Hague” and “Geneva Law” than a concerted campaign of subversion on the part of a cartel of Western drafters. Unlike some other participants, they believed that limits should be put on the ways in which the central concept of “victims of war” was interpreted. This created a major struggle over whether humanitarian law would become relevant in aerial warfare, with crucial consequences for the Conventions’ future.
Planting Clues
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This book addresses the lack of an appreciation for plants and the common inability to identify them in the context of the law. Forensic botany is concerned with the use of plants as evidence in legal settings, both criminal and civil cases. It cites many examples of forensic botany, which is clear from the discussions with law enforcement officials and in the writings of some of the most prominent current forensic botanists that an appreciation of the value of plants in forensics is often lacking. The book describes specialists that has to be brought in when botanical materials are observed at a crime scene, by which time the scene may be disturbed and key evidence lost. The most critical part of any botanical forensic work is the correct identification of specimens or exhibits with evidentiary value, often from microscopic or degraded fragments.
GETTING CAUGHT UP
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes several cases that illustrate different aspects of Locard’s exchange principle using macroscopic plant data, the utility of plants, plant parts, or fragments of plants that can be seen with the naked eye. Detailed examination of this evidence generally involves using some sort of magnification process, ranging from a hand lens to an electron microscope. It talks about macroscopic evidence in forensic botany, which may be the most obvious application of botanical materials in forensic investigations. The chapter looks at cases involving the seemingly straightforward recovery of plant materials on suspects, their clothing, or their vehicles that help place them at a crime scene. It mentions, for example, part of the evidence that helped convict the serial murderer Ted Bundy that included plant fragments that were caught up under his vehicle.
HIDING IN PLAIN SIGHT
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines different kinds of plant trafficking across international borders, and how forensic scientists try to tackle this illegal trade. Rare, invasive, and narcotic plants are illegally poached and trafficked across borders, representing a major international problem. The chapter talks about activities that are considered ‘plant crimes’ and acts of ‘biopiracy’ when inadequate compensation is given to the country or Indigenous Peoples from which the plant is harvested. The chapter introduces invasive non-native plants that have escaped into new habitats, disrupting and damaging ecosystems, and threatening native species. The spread of these plants is a biosecurity issue, much like the spread of a virus during a pandemic, and everyone must treat it as such.
Rhetoric, Philosophy, Medicine
Authors: Champion Michael W. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyses intersections between Dorotheus’ ascetic education and classical rhetorical, philosophical, and medical discourses. His appropriation of these discourses sits within a larger project which views ascetic paideia as fundamentally transformative for students and their communities. The chapter aims to establish how Dorotheus engaged with rhetoric, philosophy, and medicine, to identify distinctive ascetic emphases, and to map how those discourses are developed in the course of Dorotheus’ interaction with them. The exploration of his appropriation of rhetoric, philosophy, and medicine argues that Dorotheus aims to build a distinctively ascetic programme of education that can be read as a microcosm of the wider culture he would like to construct in part through his adaptation of these classical discourses.
Education and Epistemology
Authors: Champion Michael W. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Education produces hierarchies of knowledge and establishes privileged ways of knowing. Such epistemological concerns are central to understanding Dorotheus’ ascetic pedagogy. So the chapter asks ‘how did Dorotheus think knowledge should be ordered?’ and ‘what ways of knowing did Dorotheus seek to promote?’ It compares Dorotheus’ epistemology to that which may be inferred from contemporary Neoplatonic Prolegomena to Philosophy, highlighting influential intersections between Dorotheus’ project and philosophical ideas of godlikeness and the practice of death. It then analyses how humility, understood as an epistemic virtue, organizes Dorotheus epistemology and generates epistemic practices in the monasteries. It concludes by exploring mechanisms for establishing epistemic authority, highlighting the production and circulation of letters and meditative practices. These aspects of Dorotheus’ epistemic world, like the insistence that humility is an epistemic virtue, highlight the significance of community for evaluating truth claims and generating truthful knowledge, especially in the context of life-long learning.
Two-peakedness in South Swedish and the Scandinavian tone-accent typology
Authors: Myrberg Sara 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter presents the results of a production study with twelve speakers of South Swedish. The results show that South Swedish has so-called two-peak contours in non-utterance-final nuclear accents and in phrase-initial accents (so-called initiality accents). The shape of the two-peak contours is reminiscent of contours reported from East Norway and West Sweden. These results contradict previous assumptions in typological work on Scandinavian, which has categorized South Swedish as a one-peak dialect. The results thus indicate that South Swedish is more closely related to West Swedish and East Norwegian than previously thought. Based on this insight, it is argued that the distinction between one-peak and two-peak systems in the Scandinavian accent typology is not binary, as has been assumed in previous research (e.g. Gårding 1977; Bruce 1977). Rather, a continuum between one-peaked and two-peaked dialects is proposed.
Prosodic asymmetries in nominal vs. verbal phrases in Bantu
Authors: Hyman Larry M. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractInvestigations into phonological differences between nouns and verbs focus almost exclusively on the lexical (word) level, showing that underlying contrasts are more numerous and stable (“faithful”) on nouns (Smith 1998, 1999). This raises the question of whether these (or other) alleged differences in word-level phonology generalize to the nominal vs. verbal phrase. The Bantu family provides an ideal testing ground for such an investigation. Based on Bantu, I show that nouns are more likely to undergo modification at the phrase level than verbs, thereby obeying less “faithfulness” to the input than verbs. Nominal phrases also show more distinct outputs and complex idiosyncrasies than their verbal counterparts. After establishing that there are distinct asymmetric properties in the phrasal phonology of nominal vs. verbal constituents in Bantu, the chapter raises the question of what causes these asymmetries and whether they are general or pertain only to Bantu and other African languages.
Just how metrical is the Autosegmental-Metrical model?
Authors: Gussenhoven Carlos 
Published: August 2022

AbstractA listing of a dozen generalizations governing pitch-accent locations in sentences in Nubi, Persian, and English yields two findings that contradict current assumptions. First, only one of the generalizations has a phonological structural description, φ-based English Iambic Reversal, which refers to a constituent in the prosodic hierarchy. Second, in no case do structural descriptions include reference to a metrical grid, to a metrical tree, or to s-w labelings. The majority have morphosyntactic contexts, while Persian and English share a rule of Post-Focal Deaccenting. The three languages are argued to employ a location marker for the association of tone, ‘accent’ (in the sense of Goldsmith (1976). A parsimonious description assumes default accent assignments to the output of the morphological grammar, deriving the surface accents by means of accent deletions. The conclusion is that the Autosegmental-Metrical model does not distinguish itself from the general model of autosegmental phonology.
Interactions between lexical and postlexical tones
Authors: Kubozono Haruo 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines how lexical and postlexical tones interact with each other in vocative intonation (calling tunes) across several Japanese dialects. The four dialects examined here vary in the organization of lexical prosody from the mora-based multipattern system of standard Tokyo Japanese to the syllable-based two-pattern system of Kagoshima Japanese. While exhibiting word-final pitch fall as a common feature of vocative intonation, these dialects differ in the way the boundary tone is manifested, which can be attributed at least in part to the differences in their lexical prosodic organization. Our data also support crosslinguistic observations reported in the literature: (i) that intonational boundary tones generally win over lexical tones to resolve tonal clash or crowding, and (ii) that one syllable can generally bear up to two tones. They also show that postlexical tonal neutralizations take place to differing degrees across the dialects as lexical tones are overridden by postlexical ones.
Prosodic phrasing, long-distance rise, and structural prominence-marking in Japanese dialects without lexically contrastive tones
Authors: Igarashi Yosuke 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter describes aspects of the prosodic structures of Japanese accentless dialects with a focus on prosodic phrasing, pitch peak alignment, and prosodic focus-marking. The accentual phrases in these dialects can contain more than one phonological word. Hence, there is a tendency for accentual phrases to be long. In some accentless dialects, the pitch peak location in the accentual phrase varies considerably. When it is located around the end of a long accentual phrase, a long, continuously rising contour is observed. Focus is signaled structurally by inserting an accentual phrase boundary at the beginning of the focused word. When a long-distance rise occurs, there is a gap between the focus location and the peak location. This discrepancy between semantic and phonetic salience indicates that prominence in accentless dialects is realized purely structurally, with the left edge of the accentual phrase being the phonologically prominent position.
Prosody of declaratives and questions in Rere (Koalib)
Authors: Chai Yuan , Kunda Titus Kubri Kajo , Rodríguez Alejandro , Rose Sharon 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe prosodic system of declarative sentences and questions in Rere (Koalib), a Niger-Congo language of Sudan, is characterized by pitch raising and lowering, which target boundary positions and particular tones. Declarative utterances are marked by a final L% boundary tone. This has different effects depending on the size of the utterance and the final tone type, lowering a final sequence of high tones and causing a pitch fall on the final syllable. Polar questions are marked by a final low-toned clitic. The low-tone of the clitic blocks H tone lowering found in corresponding declaratives, and a H% raises the rightmost H tone of the question if one is present. Upsweep affects a series of high tones, and pitch raising also marks the boundary between the verb and a post-verbal subject. Finally, a high tone added at the left edge of the verb marks wh-ex-situ questions as well as similar constructions.
Xitsonga tone: The syntax–phonology interface
Authors: Lee Seunghun J. , Selkirk Elisabeth 
Published: August 2022

AbstractPatterns of prosodic-structure-sensitive high tone spread in the Bantu language Xitsonga reveal mismatches between syntactic and phonological/prosodic constituency. A modular account of these mismatches is proposed: Match constraints (Selkirk 2011) are re-construed as spell-out constraints relating the output representation of the morphosyntax to the input representation for the phonology. It’s argued that in Xitsonga the spell-out constraint MatchPhraseLEX relates only phrases with lexical category heads to phonological phrases in the phonological input representation. In the phonology per se, a novel class of prosodic-structure faithfulness constraints interacts with prosodic-structure markedness constraints to produce further constituency mismatches in the output phonological representation.
On the (lack of) correspondence between syntactic clauses and intonational phrases
Authors: Ishihara Shinichiro 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter discusses the syntax–prosody mapping at the clause-level, or the potential absence thereof. In particular, it reexamines the validity and the necessity of the clause-level mapping constraint, MATCHCLAUSE, proposed in Match theory (Selkirk 2009, 2011). First, it will be shown, based on the results of previous empirical studies, that data from embedded clauses in Japanese do not provide positive evidence for MATCHCLAUSE. The discussion includes a critical review of Selkirk’s (2009) analysis of wh-prosody in Fukuoka Japanese. Secondly, it will be claimed, following other recent proposals in the literature, clausehood is irrelevant in what has been assumed to be mapping between so-called illocutionary clauses to intonational phrases (ι). An alternative approach is suggested in which the intonational phrase (ι) is related to speech acts rather than the syntactic clausehood.
Matching and alignment
Authors: Bellik Jennifer , Ito Junko , Kalivoda Nick , Mester Armin 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter shows that both Match and Align constraints are needed to account for an asymmetry in Japanese syntax-to-prosody mapping. In Japanese, four-word left-branching syntactic phrases undergo prosodic rebracketing, such that the first pair and second pair of words form distinct phonological phrases, while four-word right-branching syntactic phrases are matched to isomorphic phonological phrases. Match Theory is shown to be unable to explain this asymmetry, whereas Align constraints do not account for matching effects in recursive phonological phrases. Japanese is analyzed as involving the interaction of Match and Align with binarity constraints favoring phonological rebracketing. This indicates that both Match and Align are present in the universal set of syntax-prosody mapping constraints responsible for phonological phrasing.