bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Sanctions Regime of the African Union in Response to Unconstitutional Changes of Government
Authors: Negm Namira 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The African Union (AU) has established a unique sanctions regime to be utilized in cases of unconstitutional changes of government (UCGs) in an effort to give effect to the rule of law and enforce it without resorting to the courtroom. The AU and its predecessor, the Organization of African Unity (OAU), adopted a set of legal instruments to deal with a UCG. The first instrument was the Lomé Declaration, which provides for a number of sanctions to be imposed by the OAU on the unlawful government. Further consolidating this position, the AU, through the Constitutive Act and the Protocol establishing the Peace and Security Council of the African Union, laid out stages of sanctions to be imposed on the state in which the UCG occurred. These stages, although often the subject of legal argumentation, still leave room for political considerations. This chapter will discuss the legal basis and the different stages of the AU sanctions that can be imposed in incidents of UCGs and examine some cases where states faced sanctions and had to take steps for them to be lifted.
Law and Science in Environmental Governance
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The source of authority and the precise working of international law are highly contested among scholars of international law and international relations. Many agree, however, that legal argumentation takes a distinct form: signaling authority in global politics and leading to a less open display of power. Yet legal argumentation might not be so unique. In the field of environmental governance and environmental law, a similar debate exists about the quality and effects of scientific argumentation. Moreover, the logics of legal and scientific argumentation are oftentimes intertwined in the institutional structure of environmental regimes. This chapter analyzes the dispute around a moratorium on commercial whaling in the context of the International Whaling Commission. Which type of argumentation did states prefer in this multilateral context to contest the moratorium, and with what kind of effects? The chapter shows that in this highly politicized context, legal and scientific argumentation dominates but normative argumentation is surprisingly widespread. Moreover, different types of arguments are used by challengers for different ends and the institutional settings influence how these arguments can be dealt with.
The Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations
Authors: Mathias Stephen , Perez Nicolas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The legal argumentation developed by the United Nations in relation to its privileges and immunities is almost exclusively developed outside the courtroom. Drawing examples in relation to the privileges and immunities applicable to the Organization itself, as well as to its officials, personnel, and contractors, this chapter distinguishes between the legal arguments developed by the United Nations to remind member states of their international obligations and the ones put forward to convince them of the need to adjust the existing legal framework. This chapter identifies the principle of necessity expressed in Article 105 of the Charter of the United Nations and the related Convention on the Privileges and Immunities of the United Nations as the two constants behind the legal argumentation developed by the Organization.
Evangelical America at the Brink of Crisis
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In 1870 most Americans assumed their nation was “Christian,” and the dominant form of Christian was evangelical Protestant. Evangelicals were committed to soul-changing and Bible-based Christianity. They also hoped to continue to shape the nation, as in campaigns for social reform, Sabbatarianism, or prohibition of alcohol. Their outlooks also helped shape the schools and colleges. Common Sense Philosophy was still prominent. The recent advent of Darwinism helped precipitate an intellectual crisis. These issues were debated at the Evangelical Alliance meeting of 1873. In the debates over such issues, one can see the impending division of evangelical Protestantism into a progressive liberal faction and a more conservative faction that anticipated later fundamentalism.
D. L. Moody and a New American Evangelism
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Dwight L. Moody was a Horatio Alger figure who started as a shoe salesman, became active in the evangelical YMCA, and eventually became America’s most famous evangelist and built an empire of related organizations. Moody preached a basic Gospel message emphasizing the prime importance of the salvation of individual souls. He also was influenced by holiness traditions and emphasized personal piety and purity. His outlook reflected the American individualism of the time. He was a premillennialist and saw the culture as getting worse, which was an incentive for evangelism and missions. Though Moody himself was irenic, some of his younger colleagues played major roles in shaping the late fundamentalist movement.
Dispensationalism and the Baconian Ideal
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The dispensational scheme of biblical interpretation reflected the Baconian ideal. In the earlier nineteenth century, many American religious thinkers celebrated the tradition of Francis Bacon, which looked for inductive facts. That was also compatible with the heritage of “common sense” philosophy. Dispensationalists, such as Arthur T. Pierson, Reuben Torrey, or C. I. Scofield, editor of the Scofield Bible that became a fundamentalist norm, adopted such outlooks for interpreting the Bible. They saw the Bible as a set of “facts.” It was also “inerrant.” It just needed a “common sense” set of tools to provide an interpretive scheme that was the key to solving some puzzles. With those, any ordinary reader could trust his or her interpretations.
“The Great Reversal”
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
“The Great Reversal” is a term that has been used for the shift when socially progressive views were prominent in American evangelicalism to when they became rare. In the mid-nineteenth century, Charles Finney’s postmillennialism and anti-slavery views illustrate evangelical social reform. Jonathan Blanchard, founder of Wheaton College in Illinois, held similar views. As late as 1900, James M. Gray preached a progressive social reform sermon, even though later when he was president of Moody Bible Institute his political views were conservative. The broadest explanation for “The Great Reversal” is that after about 1900 the “Social Gospel” became associated with liberal theology. Most later fundamentalists, in rejecting liberal theology, rejected liberal social teachings as well.
Holiness and Fundamentalism
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the varieties of early twentieth-century holiness teachings as they related to emerging fundamentalism. The Pentecostal movement, marked by the Azusa St. Revivals of 1906, grew from earlier holiness movements. Most emerging fundamentalist leaders rejected Pentecostalism in favor of Keswick holiness. Originating in England, Keswick teachings differed slightly from the Methodist holiness teachings. Reuben A. Torrey, a leading Keswick teacher and fundamentalist, attacked Pentecostalism. Keswick teachings became widespread through The Sunday School Times, edited by Charles Trumbull. Keswick teachings were also influential in inspiring foreign missions. B. B. Warfield of Princeton Theological Seminary criticized Keswick from a conservative Calvinist perspective.
Fundamentalism and the Cultural Crisis: 1919–1920
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Fundamentalism took shape as a distinct movement in the midst of the cultural crisis following World War I. The “Red Scare” and fear of Bolshevism was one factor. Fears of doctrinal changes in churches and changing social mores were allied to these concerns. While the concerns confirmed premillennial pessimism, they also led to a rise in emphasis on restoring America’s Christian character. Presbyterians were especially strong in expressing such concern. In 1920 Curtis Lee Laws, editor of the Watchman-Examiner, in mobilizing conservatives in the Northern Baptist Convention called their party “fundamentalists.” Fundamentalists such as William B. Riley increasingly emphasized that the future of America civilization was at stake. A prototypical fundamentalist Baptist activist was John Roach Straton, a pastor in New York City. Straton campaigned strongly for moral reform in the city. His characterizations of America wavered between seeing it as Babylon or the New Israel.
The Fundamentalist Offensive on Two Fronts: 1920–1921
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Fundamentalists fought on two fronts: doctrinal battles in major northern denominations, and battles, especially against biological evolution, in the larger culture. The liberal Protestant formation of the idealist Interchurch World Movement also created alarms among conservatives. The denominational doctrinal battles had begun especially on the mission fields just after World War I. Foreign missions were a central concern for evangelicals, and concern about modernism on the mission fields helped make fundamentalism an interdenominational movement. Curtis Lee Laws in the Northern Baptist Convention expressed many such concerns as he mobilized the fundamentalist party. William Jennings Bryan became prominent in the movement when he entered the crusade against teaching biological evolution in public schools. That also highlighted fundamentalist concerns to restore Christian civilization in America.
Fundamentalism as an Intellectual Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
As Clarence Darrow argued at the Scopes trial, fundamentalism has often been portrayed as simply anti-science and anti-intellectual. Yet many fundamentalists professed to highly value reason and science. It is helpful to see the issue as an instance of “paradigm conflict,” as has been described by Thomas Kuhn. Fundamentalists typically held on to a “common sense” or “Baconian” idea of rationality and truth. Rational inquiry, they believed, could find unchanging truths. Modern thought, such as Darwinism, was built around change. J. Gresham Machen provides an example of trust in common-sense understanding of unchanging facts. Charles Blanchard offered a similar approach. In Blanchard’s view, modern thought was moving toward a sort of collective insanity in denying common sense principles of truth and morality. Evangelist Billy Sunday expressed such views in a more truly anti-intellectual way.
What Is Constitutionalism?
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers a “thin” definition of constitutionalism, as involving majority rule (usually free and fair elections and sometimes other methods of reliably determining majority preferences), some entrenchment of constitutional provisions, judicial independence, and politicians and political parties as vehicles for organizing public expression on policy matters. It argues that a thin definition is more suitable for our comparative inquiry because thicker definitions incorporate requirements that are reasonably contested among constitutional democrats themselves. On the question of entrenchment, the chapter argues against the view that removing existing entrenched veto gates is always an anti-constitutional development. Similarly, the chapter argues that there are many modes of guaranteeing judicial independence, and a shift from one to another mode is not always anti-constitutional. The chapter rests upon a general proposition that there are frequently many reasonable alternative specifications of constitutional fundamentals, which counsels against treating the replacement of one specification by another as anti-constitutional. It concludes by emphasizing the importance of constitutional culture as a guardrail against democratic decline, and stresses that developing institutions to foster such a culture is quite difficult.
The Schola Italica and the Rito Filosofico Italiano (1910–1914)
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 introduces the figure of Amedeo Rocco Armentano, who would become Reghini’s teacher in all things occult. After a brief history of Italian Freemasonry, Reghini’s affiliation to Florentine lodges is documented as representing the main cause for the occultist’s anti-clericalism, nationalism, and irredentist sympathies. This section of the book enunciates the core tenets of Roman Traditionalism, as taught by Armentano to Reghini, and chronicles Reghini’s initiation into the occult order of the Schola Italica, or Italic School, a neo-Pagan, neo-Pythagorean coterie that Reghini will be proud to represent until the year of his death in 1946. Henrik Bogdan’s and Mircea Eliade’s theories on initiation are used to provide a theoretical framework for Reghini’s enrollment into the Schola, while the school’s main ideas and its mnemohistory are explained through the works on the invention of tradition as an epistemological strategy, developed by Eric Hobsbawm and Olav Hammer.
The Great War and “Pagan Imperialism” (1914–1920)
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
After a bird’s-eye view of the historical period, depicting Italy’s sociopolitical climate in the prewar years, the chapter seeks to focus on what the First Conflict meant for the members of the Schola: the reannexation of the eastern regions then under Austrian rule was considered fundamental for an occult rise of Italy as a modern superpower. The majority of the chapter is dedicated to the textual analysis of Reghini’s arguably most important article, “Imperialismo Pagano” (Pagan Imperialism), where his ideas on Pagan Rome, anti-clericalism, reactionary politics, and the magical significance of a unified Italy all coagulate into a strong portrayal of the most important ideals of Roman Traditionalism. Figures like Virgil, Dante, and Mazzini are introduced as precursors to Reghini’s “great Pagan ideal” for the rebirth of a new Italy.
The Ur Group and the End of a Dream (1923–1929)
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The chapter covers the richest five years in terms of literary output by Reghini and chronicles his relations with members of the Fascist party, including a heated journalistic debate with Mussolini himself. The core of this section is formed by the analysis of the most important journals that Reghini founded and contributed to: Atanòr, Ignis, and Ur. The relationships between Reghini and other important names of the Italian occultist milieu, including Giuliano Kremmerz, Julius Evola, and Aniceto del Massa, are scrutinized, and more light is shed on the practical occult rituals performed by the Ur Group, a coterie of magicians, including Reghini, Evola, and Reghini’s disciple Giulio Parise, who practiced rites to enhance the anti-modern traits of the Fascist regime. A textual analysis of the most important contributions closes the chapter.
Silentium Post Clamores (1930–1946)
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter covers the final sixteen years of Reghini’s life, who, after the signing of the Lateran Accords of 1929, had been marginalized by the regime, along with his ideas for a Roman Pagan Renaissance. A historical analysis of the fifteen years, employing the use of never-before-published correspondence, sets up the scene for a textual analysis of Reghini’s last works, still heavily focused on Fascism, Pythagoreanism, and Mathematics, with an occult twist. The final years, especially, those dating 1939 to 1946, are covered thoroughly, and Reghini’s life is enlivened through the use of epistolary exchanges between the Florentine occultist and his master Armentano.
Recognizing Religious Extremism I
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Terror networks fueled by extremist interpretations of Islam, like the Islamic State of Iraq and Syria (ISIS) and al-Qaeda, are, generally speaking, extreme, violent manifestations of religious fundamentalism: that is, a religious form whose adherents feel existentially threatened by powerful secular forces and/or more dominant religious out-groups. This chapter argues that underlying religious extremism is a strong fundamentalist impulse. Drawing upon, inter alia, sociology, social psychology, and evolutionary psychology, the chapter explains how not so much religion per se, but its fundamentalist permutation, possesses extremist, incendiary potentials that could, under certain conditions, turn violent. In the process, the chapter challenges prevailing arguments that the “pervasive and instrumental professions of faith” of terrorist groups are either “propaganda” or a mere rhetorical mask for political and socioeconomic grievances. In short, religion—particularly its fundamentalist form—matters.
Recognizing Extremist Islam in Singapore
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers an examination of Salafabist extremism in the secular, multicultural Singaporean context, using the case of Zulfikar Mohamad Shariff as a reference point. It argues that Zulfikar is best understood as a Salafabist extremist opportunist whose ideolgical commitment to Salafi Jihadism meshed to some extent with his desire for the limelight. Employing the conceptual framework for recognizing religious extremism developed in this study, the chapter lays bare Zulfikar’s Salafabist extremism. The chapter then traces how Zulfikar’s radicalization trajectory occurred, by showing how his exposure to, and immersion in, the Salafabist ecosystem of persons, platforms, and places in both Singapore and Australia helped to shape his eventual hard Salafabist Salafi Jihadi orientation, as exemplified in his very public online support for, and glorification of, ISIS brutalities in Syria. The chapter ends by discussing attempts to identify a contextualized Singaporean Muslim Identity as a bulwark against Salafabist extremism.
Responding to Extremist Islam in Southeast Asia—The 4M Way
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This concluding chapter argues that the overall regional whole-of-society response must be to gradually steer vulnerable Muslim constituencies away from “rigid and fixed” Salafabist extremism toward “flexible and tolerant” Islamic values and beliefs that are both theologically authentic and compatible with the lived realities of the multicultural, globalized societies of Southeast Asia. To this end, the chapter sketches out one potentially useful grand strategy for operationalizing such a response: the 4M Way, which refers to message content, message framing, message dissemination, and message receptivity. The 4M Way seeks to attain two strategic objectives: minimally, to ensure that powerful, culturally authentic alternative narratives gain information dominance over competing Salafabist extremist storylines within each national context, while maximally, fostering among target audiences an essential “independence of mind,” the ultimate antidote to the shared Salafabist fundamentalism that renders both soft Salafabist Islamists and their hard Salafabist Salafi Jihadi cousins, equally concerning.
Qualitative Data Collection and Quantitative Data Collection
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Practitioner/scholars often use more than one type of data collection in order to provide a robust answer to a research problem or question. At times, practitioner–researchers will have very specific quantitative questions, and they will also create additional research questions (utilizing qualitative data collection methods) in order to provide a more well-rounded answer to an overarching research problem or question. This chapter 4 discusses the practical issues of data collection methods. It shows how a study’s research questions should be the driving force behind the choice of data collection methods, and it explains the utility/supportive nature of a variety of qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods resources. Vignettes of practice in using diverse data collection methods are included.
What is ‘Soft’ Law? An Analysis of the Concept of Non-Binding Instruments and Provisions in International Law
Authors: Crawford Emily 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the different types of soft law instrument as identified in the literature, which can be broadly divided into two categories: non-binding norms in binding instruments, and non-binding instruments. This chapter will examine and analyse the arguments that have emerged in the literature, either in support of or opposition to soft law instruments and provisions. Finally, this chapter will also briefly survey how soft law has been received by States and by international judicial organs such as the International Court of Justice, to see what kind of weight and consideration such instruments are afforded by these international actors.
The History of Non-Binding Instruments in the History of International Humanitarian Law
Authors: Crawford Emily 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter will outline the history of non-binding instruments in the law of armed conflict, specifically, those created prior to the non-binding instruments that are the primary subject of examination in this book. The focus will be on whether and how such instruments came to influence and impact on the binding law of armed conflict, the reasons behind the creation of these instruments, and why the non-binding path was chosen (if it was, and, if not, why not). In doing so, this chapter will explore how non-binding instruments have been used in international humanitarian law (IHL) historically and set the stage for the analysis in the next two chapters of current non-binding instruments and provisions in IHL.
Non-Binding Provisions in Binding Instruments
Authors: Crawford Emily 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
There is a long history of production, adoption, and utilisation of non-binding instruments in international humanitarian law (IHL). Whether the instruments were intended as non-binding, or whether their non-binding character was accidental, States have engaged with non-binding IHL instruments alongside binding IHL treaties. Additionally, non-binding standards have been included in binding treaties, most notably in the instruments related to the regulation of conduct in non-international armed conflict. Both Common Article 3 and Additional Protocol II contain non-binding standards that strongly encourage a particular course of action for parties to those instruments. This chapter examines the drafting history of Common Article 3’s ‘special agreements’ provision and Additional Protocol II’s amnesty provision, to explore why they were included in the Conventions and Protocol II, and to assess whether these standards have been implemented, and to examine how and why non-binding standards have been received by States and non-State groups. Of particular interest for this study is whether the inclusion of these non-binding standards within an existing binding treaty made it more likely that the standard would be implemented, and what that says about the nature of non-binding instruments and standards.