bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Chattanooga Embarrassment
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In the 1880s, the Freedmen’s Aid Society and the Methodist Episcopal Church concluded that building an interracial church in the South ought to entail supporting white schools as well as Black. After founding a college for whites in Chattanooga, they soon discovered to their embarrassment that the white faculty felt free to officially exclude Black applicants and practice the etiquette of Jim Crow. The episode sparked a national controversy over what it meant to create schools “for whites” and highlighted a growing tension within the denomination over its commitment to opposing racial caste. While many M.E.C. leaders concluded that opposition to segregation was vain, others regarded it as sacrificing principle for expediency. Chapter 4 analyzes the controversy as a revealing window on the fundamental tensions involved in trying to build a racially inclusive Church in the South.
Our Brothers in White
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
As the self-proclaimed capital of the New South, Atlanta cultivated an image that seemed to promise opportunity for African Americans, and it became a center of higher education for African Americans. Chapter 5 focuses on Atlanta and examines the New South ideal. The Methodist Episcopal Church notably founded Gammon Theological Seminary there in 1883, looking to the school as the pinnacle of their educational system for training the leaders of their people. The seminary also hosted the Stewart Missionary Foundation, created to promote missions to Africa. Seminary president Wilbur Thirkield joined with Black ministers in support of prohibition, but they received little reward for their efforts. Educated African Americans increasingly expected an equal voice in denominational affairs. However, during the 1890s a growing movement in favor of reuniting with the M.E.C., South, foretold that their dream of a national reconciliation between North and South could only be achieved by sacrificing the goal of racial reconciliation.
“What Shall We Do with the Negro”
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 7 covers a period of time in which a rising generation of Black leaders in the Methodist Episcopal Church continued to strive for acceptance and equality, and they set their sights on the goal of electing a bishop of African descent. With support from their white allies, promoting the candidacy of J. W. E. Bowen became the focus of their efforts. Despite his sterling qualifications, which included a prominent role in the famed Cotton States Exposition of 1895, Bowen repeatedly fell short of the votes needed, and his candidacy revealed that a clear majority of General Conference delegates were not prepared to accept an African American in a leadership position with authority over whites. Instead, involvement in missions to Africa came to serve as an alternative route to advancement within the Church. Under the direction of Joseph Hartzell, Alexander Camphor was recruited to bring racial uplift to Liberia as the president of the College of West Africa.
Chinese Approaches to International Security
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter briefly summarizes the Responsibility to Protect (R2P), explaining the underlying paradigmatic shift in the understanding of international security and how it relates to the issue of state control. While China might have been expected to reject this development, the PRC selectively adopted some core elements of the emerging norm while rejecting others. By examining two particular decisions—on the Libyan war in 2011 and the Syrian civil war—the chapter demonstrates China’s contradictory approach. It explains the PRC’s decisions in both cases as a trade-off between different domestic sources of economic and nationalist legitimization, coupled with the dynamics of decision-making within the foreign policy apparatus. The chapter elaborates on the consequences of these findings for the future international order. Two modes of action—an instrumental approach to law and the undermining of core definitions that shape international security policy—translate China’s contradictory R2P policy into systemic influence.
Zen Pathways
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This book offers an in-depth introduction to the philosophy and practice of Zen Buddhism. The author is a philosophy professor who formally practiced Zen in Japan for more than a dozen years and is authorized to teach Zen. During his years studying and teaching philosophy in universities in Japan, he worked closely with the leading contemporary representatives of the Kyoto School. The book lucidly explicates the philosophical implications of Zen teachings and kōans, comparing and contrasting these with other Asian as well as Western religions and philosophies. Throughout it relates traditional Zen teachings and practices to our twenty-first-century lives. In addition to being a scholarly and philosophical introduction to Zen, the book provides concrete instructions for beginning a practice of Zen meditation. Its twenty-four chapters treat such philosophical topics as the self, nature, art, morality, and language, as well as basic Buddhist teachings such as the Middle Way and karma. Several chapters engage in interreligious dialogue with Christianity and other religions, as well as with other schools of Buddhism. The Zen-based philosophies of the Kyoto School are introduced in one chapter and frequently referenced throughout the book. The concluding chapter reviews the path of Zen practice and enlightenment by way of commenting on the beloved Zen classic, The Ten Oxherding Pictures. The book can be read in its entirety as a coherently organized introduction to the philosophy and practice of Zen, or chapters can be read independently according to the reader’s specific interests.
How to Practice Zen Meditation
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides instructions for practicing Zen meditation, zazen. It explains how to attend to place, body, breath, and mind. First, it explains how to set up a good space for meditation, and it discusses when, how often, and for how long one should meditate. Next, it explains in detail how the body should be positioned, either on a chair, in a cross-legged (Burmese, half-lotus, or full-lotus) position, or in a kneeling position. Then it introduces the traditional Zen method of “counting the breaths,” up to ten, one number per breath, as a method for concentrating and calming the mind. It goes on to discuss the importance of maintaining physical stillness as a gateway to mental, emotional, and ultimately spiritual peace, and it explains how to clear the mind by neither chasing after nor chasing off distracting thoughts. It ends by explaining how to practice walking meditation, kinhin.
The Buddha’s Strong Medicine
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
After outlining the Buddha’s Four Noble Truths, this chapter focuses on the first of these—namely, the idea that our life is pervaded by duhkha, a word that often gets translated as “suffering” but is better rendered as “dissatisfaction” or “existential unease.” The Buddha presented himself as a kind of spiritual doctor who could diagnose and offer a prescription for this pervasive dis-ease. Suffering in general is caused by a mismatch between desire and reality. We suffer when what we are or have does not match up with what we want to be or want to have. To relieve suffering we must change either reality or our desire. The law of impermanence is a fact of reality that cannot be changed; everything that comes to be eventually passes away. The Buddha teaches that the path to peace and joy requires that we embrace change rather than pine for permanence.
Zen Lessons from Nature
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Zen’s understanding of the place of human beings in the wider natural world. It begins by explaining how Zen thinks of freedom as “freedom in nature” rather than as “freedom from nature.” It then discusses how samu or “meditative work” was incorporated into Zen practice, and how it brings practitioners into a more intimate relation with nature. Recounting a personal experience of raking and composting maple leaves at a Zen monastery in Kyoto, it suggests that one of the virtues that can be learned from this intimate working with nature is what Zen, and Mahayana Buddhism in general, calls the Perfection of Giving. The chapter ends by commenting on how Zen masters have instructed their students to learn Zen from the sights and sounds of the natural world.
Zen and Language
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Zen’s stress on both the limits and expressive power of language. The intimate relation between sound and silence is presented in haiku by Matsuo Bashō and poetry by Rainer Maria Rilke. Paradoxically, a motto of Zen is “not relying on words and letters” or “not establishing words and letters,” and yet it has produced a vast body of literature, including kōans and kōan commentaries as well as poetry. On the one hand, Zen says that a linguistic teaching is merely a “finger pointing at the moon,” and yet, on the other hand, it affirms some uses of language as what Dōgen calls an “expressive attainment of the Way” (dōtoku). In order to resolve this paradox, the chapter turns in the end to Ueda Shizuteru’s understanding of Zen practice, and human existence in general, in terms of a ceaseless dynamic of “exiting language and exiting into language.”
Introduction
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces John Wesley Gilbert as a pioneering African American scholar, archaeologist, teacher, civic leader, and missionary. The chapter begins with the story of the 1968 Paine College fire that destroyed vital historical evidence and then discusses previous study of Gilbert’s life and work. The chapter provides background information on the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, where Gilbert studied in 1890–1891. The chapter gives an overview of the sources and methods used in the book, gives an outline of the book’s organization, and examines the authorial stance involved in writing a biography.
This Young Man Deserves Special Mention
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s undergraduate studies at Brown University from 1886 to 1888. The chapter examines the previous experiences of black students Inman Page and George Washington Milford at Brown, along with Gilbert’s choice of the school. The chapter explores his housing situation on campus and the reaction of fellow students to his presence, his coursework with Greek professor Albert Harkness and other instructors, and his growing involvement in the black community of Providence, Rhode Island. The chapter pays special attention to Gilbert’s relationship with Harkness, who was one of the most noted classical scholars in the United States as well as a leading figure in the establishment of the new American School of Classical Studies at Athens (American School or ASCSA). The chapter culminates with Gilbert’s hiring at Paine Institute in early 1888, a decision made by Paine’s interracial board of trustees in spite of objections from a white faculty member at Paine.
The American School
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins by examining Gilbert’s classmates at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens, in 1890–1891—Carleton Brownson, Andrew Fossum, John Pickard—and their professor, Annual Director Rufus Richardson of Dartmouth College. It then proceeds to examine Gilbert’s living accommodations at the American School’s new building on the eastern outskirts of Athens. From there, it paints a portrait of the city of Athens in 1890, highlighting the contrasts between old and new in the rapidly growing city. The chapter introduces Greek minister Michael Demetrius Kalopothakes and his Canadian-born wife Margaret who welcomed Gilbert and other Americans to their church and home in central Athens. It also introduces US consul Irving Manatt, a classical scholar who was an avid booster of the American School. Through the lenses of the Kalopothakes family and Manatt, the reader learns more about the politics, culture, and society of Greece in 1890 and gains a better understanding of how Gilbert experienced Greece.
No Stone Unturned
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s experiences during fall 1890 as a member of the American School of Classical Studies at Athens. It examines the American School’s topographical studies of ancient Athens, comparing what visitors to Athens see today with what was visible to Gilbert and his companions in 1890. It also examines the School’s October 1890 hike through northern Attica (the countryside around Athens), including visits to the famous ancient battlefield of Marathon (490 bc), to the temple site of Rhamnus, and to other ancient archaeological sites. The chapter discusses Gilbert’s decision to forego the School’s two-week hike into central Greece in order to focus on his Greek reading list for his Brown graduate studies. The chapter ends with a discussion of Gilbert’s response to the Christian heritage of Greece, specifically the Areopagus or Mars Hill where, according to the Book of Acts, the apostle Paul spoke.
The Demes of Athens
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter reconstructs Gilbert’s thesis research at the American School of Classical Studies at Athens during winter 1890–1891. Gilbert’s thesis on the urban demes (neighborhoods or districts) of Athens would help him earn his 1891 master of arts degree from Brown University, making him one of the first African Americans ever to earn an advanced degree in Greco-Roman classical studies. Although the text of his thesis is lost, the chapter explains why he chose the topic, describes the sources and methods he probably used, and places his research into the broader context of ancient Athenian topographical studies. Gilbert was the first American scholar to write about the urban demes, which played a key role in the political, cultural, and social organization of classical Athenian democracy. The chapter also examines Gilbert’s growing friendship with his American School classmate John Pickard and his relationship with Charles Waldstein, the Permanent Director of the American School, who arrived in Athens in December 1890. The chapter also describes Gilbert’s attendance at the January 1891 funeral services held in Athens for Heinrich Schliemann, the discoverer of Troy.
Excavating Eretria
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on John Wesley Gilbert’s archaeological excavation and survey work at the ancient Greek site of Eretria, on the island of Euboea north of Athens. The chapter begins by explaining the history of Eretria from ancient to modern times and describing conditions in the modern village of Nea Psara (built atop the ancient ruins) when Gilbert arrived there in February 1891. From there, the chapter discusses Gilbert’s participation in the American School of Classical Studies at Athens’s excavations of the ancient cemeteries east of Eretria, especially on a grave that Charles Waldstein would erroneously identify as “the tomb of Aristotle.” The chapter then investigates the archaeological and topographical survey of ancient Eretria’s fortifications that Gilbert and his classmate John Pickard conducted, using their original survey map, essays they wrote from the site, and several preserved photographs. The chapter concludes by examining how the “tomb of Aristotle” fiasco overshadowed the valuable contributions of Gilbert and Pickard’s survey and discusses how African American participation in Greek archaeology might have developed differently had Gilbert excavated with the American School at Corinth in 1895 or afterward, rather than excavating at Eretria in 1891.
Arguing about the Jus ad Bellum
Authors: Hakimi Monica 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Quite a bit of research suggests that international law’s argumentative practice has value insofar as it leads to or affirms some kind of normative settlement. This chapter uses the argumentative practice in the jus ad bellum to counter that view. The chapter’s central claim is that arguments about the jus ad bellum are valuable, even when they do not lead to normative settlement and the law’s content on the issue in dispute remains contested. The reason they are valuable is that they promote certain values that are associated with the rule of law.
Argumentation in the UN Security CouncilInternational Law as Process
Authors: Sheeran Scott P. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the process of international legal argumentation within the UN Security Council context. The Council is the central global stage for mitigating international conflict and for managing cooperation on threats to international peace and security. The Council is relatively unique in that it creates, interprets, and enforces international law. The Council’s processes of decision-making are influenced more by international relations, underpinned by diplomacy and consensus, than the norms of international law. To have influence in the Council, international lawyers must think and argue laterally and embrace law as a social process. The leveraging of extralegal factors—arising from international relations, diplomacy, policy considerations, and international values—ultimately shapes the output of the legal process itself.
Nuclear Non-Proliferation LawWhy Argue and to What Effect?
Authors: Johnstone Ian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Because nuclear non-proliferation is a highly political security issue governed by relatively hard law, it is an interesting case study for legal argumentation. The Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty (NPT) has been the subject of debates over interpretation in variety of nonjudicial settings, from the UN Security Council and International Atomic Energy Agency, to NPT review conferences and the diplomatic back and forth over the nuclear programs of Iraq, Iran, and North Korea. This chapter analyzes the argumentation as an intersubjective activity, with the NPT serving as a shared frame of reference among states and, to a lesser extent, non-state actors. It focuses on interpretative disputes over two provisions of the treaty: Article IV on the right of non-nuclear weapon states to enrich uranium and Article VI on the disarmament obligation of nuclear weapon states. The chapter considers several possible reasons for the argumentation and observes that, regardless of motives, debates about compliance alter the normative climate surrounding the regime and has led to the creation of new law.
Legal Argumentation in the Evolving Climate Regime
Authors: Brunnée Jutta 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the evolution of the UN climate regime and its implications for patterns of legal argumentation. The 2015 Paris Agreement introduced three interrelated shifts. First, it brings a shift from a model in which the treaty serves as centralized forum for inter-state standard setting and accountability practices, epitomized by the 1997 Kyoto Protocol, to a more decentralized model in which the treaty helps orchestrate a range of state and non-state practices, epitomized by the Paris Agreement. Second, it marks a turn toward non-binding substantive terms, supported by binding procedural terms. Finally, the Paris Agreement shifts from legal accountability practices toward non-legal performance assessment. A practice-based, interactional, account of international law suggests that only the third shift stands to reduce the scope for legal argumentation in the regime. The Paris Agreement’s decentralized approach and its increased reliance on non-binding or procedural terms are unlikely to diminish the salience of legal argumentation.
Prologue: The Paradox of Revivalist Fundamentalism
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Dwight L. Moody’s closest associates were evangelists who also became leading proponents of dispensational premillennialism or dispensationalism. The associates included Reuben A. Torrey, James M. Gray, C. I. Scofield, William J. Erdman, A. C. Dixon, and A. J. Gordon. John Nelson Darby was the progenitor of this system. Dispensationalism became one of the foundations for much of fundamentalism. It was a system for interpreting biblical prophesies. It proponents also emphasized personal piety. American revivalism tended to include these emphases: simple ways of interpreting the Bible, warm emotions, and personal piety and purity. Reuben Torrey, who came closest to being Moody’s successor, particularly illustrates this combination of emphases.
The Victorious Life
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The revivalists associated with Dwight L. Moody were also shaped by the nineteenth-century holiness movement. Particularly, they appropriated the Keswick holiness teachings that had been developed in England. That helped build alliances with British evangelicals. The Keswick teachings that Moody’s associates embraced differed from the Methodist or Wesleyan holiness movements in that the former avoided claims of perfectionism. Keswick teachers did expect that converts would undergo an experience of “filling” with the Holy Spirit. “Power for service” would be one of the chief results. These views were exemplified in the teaching of Reuben A. Torrey and A. C. Dixon.
Presbyterians and the Truth
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Presbyterians were used to controversies. Since the early nineteenth century, conservative Presbyterians adopted Common Sense Philosophy as a basis for asserting that truth could be discovered by objective inquiry. Princeton Theological Seminary became the intellectual center for promoting that outlook. Charles Hodge presented a view of the Bible as containing “facts” to be discovered. His successor, B. B. Warfield, developed the view that the Bible was “inerrant.” Warfield believed Christianity could prevail through rational argument. Responding to the rise of liberal theology and biblical criticism in the Northern Presbyterian denomination, conservatives in 1910 succeeded in having its general assembly declare five doctrines concerning biblical inerrancy, the miracles and Christ’s nature, and atoning works as “essential to the faith.”
Would the Liberals Be Driven from the Denominations? 1922–1923
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In 1922 and 1923, fundamentalists had high hopes that they could impose their standards on some major northern denominations. Fundamentalists were strongest in the Northern Baptist Convention and in the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A. At the Northern Baptist Convention meeting in 1922, they hoped to have the body adopt a traditional creedal statement. But the move was soundly defeated. In 1922 Harry Emerson Fosdick, a modernist Baptist filling a Presbyterian pulpit, preached, “Shall the Fundamentalists Win?” That set off a heated controversy in the Presbyterian Church in the U. S. A. Conservative William Jennings Bryan narrowly lost election as moderator for the 1923 General Assembly. But the assembly reaffirmed the five-point Presbyterian essential doctrines. Clarence McCartney, a leading conservative preacher, answered Fosdick in a sermon, “Shall Unbelief Win?” J. Gresham Machen issued Christianity and Liberalism in 1923, arguing that traditional Christianity and modernism were really two different religions.