Ethnic differences in COVID-19 mortality in the second and third waves of the pandemic in England during the vaccine roll-out: a retrospective, population-based cohort study
Authors: Bosworth Matthew L. , Ahmed Tamanna , Larsen Tim , Lorenzi Luke , Morgan Jasper , Ali Raghib , Goldblatt Peter , Islam Nazrul , Khunti Kamlesh , Raleigh Veena , Ayoubkhani Daniel , Bannister Neil , Glickman Myer , Nafilyan Vahé 
Published: February 2022

AbstractObjectivesTo assess whether ethnic differences in COVID-19 mortality in England have continued into the third wave and to what extent differences in vaccination rates contributed to excess COVID-19 mortality after accounting for other risk factors.DesignCohort study of 28.8 million adults using data from the Office for National Statistics Public Health Data Asset.SettingPeople living in private households or communal establishments in England.Participants28,816,020 adults (47% male) aged 30-100 years in 2020 (mean age = 56), who were present at the 2011 Census and alive on 8 December 2020.Main outcome measuresDeath involving COVID-19 during the second (8 December 2020 to 12 June 2021) and third wave (13 June 2021 to 1 December 2021) of the pandemic. We calculated hazard ratios (HRs) separately for males to females to summarise the association between ethnic group and death involving COVID-19 in each wave, sequentially adjusting for age, residence type, geographical factors, sociodemographic characteristics, pre-pandemic health, and vaccination status.ResultsAge-adjusted HRs of death involving COVID-19 were higher for most ethnic minority groups than the White British group during both waves, particularly for groups with lowest vaccination rates (Bangladeshi, Pakistani, Black African and Black Caribbean). In both waves, HRs were attenuated after adjusting for geographical factors, sociodemographic characteristics, and pre-pandemic health. Further adjusting for vaccination status substantially reduced residual HRs for Black African, Black Caribbean, and Pakistani groups in the third wave. The only groups where fully-adjusted HRs remained elevated were the Bangladeshi group (men: 2.19, 95% CI 1.72 to 2.78; women: 2.12, 95% CI 1.58 to 2.86) and men from the Pakistani group (1.24, 95% CI 1.06 to 1.46).ConclusionPublic health strategies to increase vaccination uptake in ethnic minority groups could reduce disparities in COVID-19 mortality that cannot be accounted for by pre-existing risk factors.What is already known on this topicEthnic minority groups in England have been disproportionately affected by the COVID-19 pandemic during the first and second waves.COVID-19 vaccination uptake is also lower among many ethnic minority groups, particularly Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, and Pakistani groups.There is a paucity of research into whether ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality have continued into the third wave and the extent to which differences in vaccination uptake contribute to differences in COVID-19 mortality.What this study addsUsing linked data on 28.8 million adults in England, we find that rates of COVID-19 mortality have remained higher than the White British group for most ethnic minority groups during the vaccine roll-out, notably for the Bangladeshi, Black African, Black Caribbean, and Pakistani groups.After adjustment for geographical factors, sociodemographic characteristics, pre-pandemic health status, and vaccination status, the only groups with elevated rates of COVID-19 mortality during the third wave were the Bangladeshi group and men from the Pakistani group, suggesting that increasing vaccination uptake in ethnic minority groups could reduce ethnic disparities in COVID-19 mortality.