bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
When Conflict Recurs
Authors: Blank Laurie R. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Conflict classification is essential for determining when the law of armed conflict applies and the concomitant protections, rights, and obligations. What happens, however, when a conflict ends or appears to end but violence and hostilities bubble up again? The complexity of conflict identification and classification and the challenges of analyzing the facts and actors in such new violence raise difficult questions regarding how to assess whether and when such new violence constitutes an armed conflict. This chapter analyzes the appropriate analytical tools and thresholds for identifying and characterizing conflict when violence recurs. Given the low threshold for international armed conflicts, a quicker identification of armed conflict when violence recurs after an inter-state conflict is unlikely. However, such scenarios pose challenging questions whether actions by a proxy group or other entity could constitute an international armed conflict and whether the threshold for such determination might be easier to satisfy after a recent conflict between the two states. In non-international armed conflicts, one overarching question is whether the Tadić factors of intensity and organization are the correct approach when violence recurs after conflict, or whether a lower threshold or “accelerated analysis” is more appropriate. Similarly, the nature of the armed group engaged in the resurgence of hostilities, or the location and nature of the hostilities, could all be consequential, such that the thresholds or framework for hostilities recurring with the same group or in the same location may not be the same as that for new or reconstituted groups or different locations.
Using Law as a Weapon against Nuclear Proliferation and Terrorism
Authors: Kittrie Orde F. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes and analyzes the aggressive US financial lawfare campaign which resulted in Iran agreeing to curtail its nuclear program pursuant to the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA). Section I discusses the pre-JCPOA US financial lawfare against Iran in conceptual context. Section II describes and analyzes the key nexus between US financial lawfare and Iran’s nuclear weapons program and state sponsorship of terrorism: Iran’s use of the international financial system to advance those objectives. Section III provides an overview of key innovative elements of the pre-JCPOA US financial lawfare against Iran. Section IV describes and analyzes the impact of this US financial lawfare, including persuading most major foreign banks to curtail business with Iran, costing the Iranian economy tens of billions of dollars and imposing billions of dollars in penalties on foreign banks which persisted in trading with Iran. Section V systematically describes and analyzes how the US government implemented this financial lawfare against Iran. Section VI discusses lessons learned and the future of US financial and other economic lawfare.
National Security Policymaking in the Shadow of International Law
Authors: Dickinson Laura A. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes how the norms and values embedded in international human rights law (IHRL) are sometimes adopted, not as a matter of formal law at the international level but rather as a matter of governmental policy and practice. The chapter analyzes two Obama administration counterterrorism policies and describes both their legalistic character and the advantages and disadvantages of the policy approach. Such policies can preserve flexibility while moving in the direction of IHRL as a matter of practice, providing interoperability benefits with more human rights–oriented allies. In addition, such policies implement human rights–oriented norms in practice even as they impede acceptance of these norms as a matter of legal obligation. The chapter concludes that the emergence of such legalistic policies is evidence of international law’s constraining impact and that national security policymaking can be a pragmatic and effective alternative to formal international lawmaking, even though it also may sidestep the process of creating robust new international law rules. In addition, the persistence of such policymaking across administrations illustrates the power of institutional path dependence, the role of lawyers, the constraint of interoperability with allies in multilateral military actions, and the way norms get embedded in government organizations.
Emerging Transnational Self-Defense Norms and Unrealized Liberal Values
Authors: Dehn John C. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter critiques emerging norms regarding the use of alleged defensive force by powerful states against violent non-state groups located in the territory of other, typically “weaker” states, sometimes called “transnational self-defense.” Although the contemporary international legal system now formally and universally embraces basic liberal values of sovereignty, equality, and liberty/autonomy, emerging transnational self-defense norms effectively perpetuate a system of de facto inequality traceable to an earlier era. The use of armed conflict paradigms and war measures against “terrorist” groups, including targeted killing in what is effectively preemptive or preventive self-defense, perpetuates a discriminatory international system wherein sovereignty and humanity are deemed equal only between so-called “civilized” nations and peoples. Properly understood, the self-defense principles of necessity and proportionality require that states: (1) resort to defensive measures only when necessary to protect lives and property from relatively certain, significant harm, and (2) use only the amount of force which is strictly necessary to neutralize the threat that is reasonably believed to exist at the time force is used. Because self-defense principles constrain both the resort to force and the nature of any force used, the alternate norms posited here do not implicate contested issues involving the extraterritorial application of international human rights law.
From Armed Conflict to Countering Threat Networks
Authors: Huntley Todd , Regan Mitt 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In recent years the United States has emphasized reliance on a range of measures to address transnational terrorism. In particular, there are indications that the United States is moving away from the idea that non-state armed groups can be defeated once and for all. This evolution is reflected in US adoption of an approach to terrorism known as “Countering Threat Networks.” One example of this approach is Joint Publication 3-25 of the Department of Defense. This publication emphasizes monitoring potentially hostile networks and using a variety of nonkinetic and kinetic means to deprive non-state armed groups of the resources they need to pose a serious threat to the United States. JP 3-25 acknowledges that completely defeating a threat network is unlikely; the focus is on continuously applying pressure with all the tools of the US government to keep it as weak as possible. As this chapter describes, social network analysis provides a powerful analytical tool in support of this approach. As artificial intelligence progresses, it likely will enable more rapid analysis to guide identification of threat networks and anticipation of their activities. This shift in emphasis toward focusing on threat networks offers a potentially promising alternative to engaging in intensive violence under the armed conflict paradigm. At the same time, it poses the danger that the United States may use force to prevent, rather than preempt, armed attacks by attempting to reduce risks to the United States as much as possible at the expense of populations elsewhere.
Introduction
Authors: Gutacker Paul J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The introduction presents the major themes of the book, beginning with the question of biblicism and authority. In scholarship on American religion, the nearly complete absence of references to Christian history suggests its irrelevance to American Protestants; what is more, the leading interpretations of nineteenth-century Protestantism are premised on its supposed rejection of history and tradition. However, this depiction is challenged by American reading and citation of religious histories. This chapter describes how eighteenth-century historiography—books by Johann Lorenz von Mosheim, Edward Gibbon, David Hume, Joseph Priestley, and Joseph Milner—was widely read, taught, and cited by educated American Protestants. This study revises scholarly understanding by analyzing hundreds of historical references in religious print, with the aim of recovering how American Protestants thought about and argued over the meaning of Christian history.
Overturning the Past
Authors: Gutacker Paul J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 traces how the most widely read histories provided important justification for distancing civil government from religion. Eighteenth-century historiography presented the Christian past as a fall from apostolic-era purity into medieval corruption, and blamed this on the post-Constantine establishment of Christianity. Thomas Jefferson and James Madison commended these histories and used arguments from the Christian past in their most important works on religious freedom; likewise, Isaac Backus and John Leland appealed to Christian history in their sermons and political speeches. American religious disestablishment was achieved in part because of a compelling historical narrative: to disestablish state churches would overturn the great error of Christendom and allow for the recovery of pure, apostolic-era Christianity. As disestablishment progressed on the state level, the same narratives appeared in new American tellings of religious history.
Restoring the Past
Authors: Gutacker Paul J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2 shows how upstart Baptists, Methodists, and Restorationists succeeded in part because they tapped into widely held narratives about the history of Christianity. In New England, Baptists published arguments from the Christian past to gain converts from Congregationalism and, after decades of historical controversy, realized the need to invest institutional resources to teaching church history. Likewise, American Methodists required their ministers to study their own denomination’s interpretation of Christian history. Leaders of the Stone-Campbell movement, in turn, wrote criticisms of religious historiography but also urged their constituents to study the Christian past. For early Restorationists, church history was of immediate significance for the religious and national renewal they sought. Rather than the past becoming irrelevant in a time of innovation, history proved vital to the democratization of Christianity.
Protecting the Past
Authors: Gutacker Paul J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 turns to Christian history and the education of the Protestant ministerial class. During the first half of the nineteenth century, seminaries navigated a tension between long-standing Protestant historical narratives and newly emerging historiography, some of which appeared more sympathetic toward the Catholic past. This tension can be seen in the careers of three professors: Samuel Miller at Princeton Theological Seminary, James Murdock at Andover, and Philip Schaff at Mercersburg and Union seminaries. Controversies over historical education reflected concern over the future of the nation, particularly in light of rising Catholic immigration. As Catholics built churches and schools, leading Protestant ministers frequently pointed to the Christian past to demonstrate the incompatibility of Catholicism and American liberty. In this context, the next generation of clergy needed just enough church history to bolster their Protestant convictions.
Rewriting the Past
Authors: Gutacker Paul J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 explains how the recovery of women’s place in Christian history shaped the development and contestation of women’s rights. In 1835, Lydia Maria Child published a history of women that offered a new female-centric interpretation of the Christian past. Child’s argument was enlisted by Sarah Moore Grimké, Lucretia Mott, and Margaret Fuller, who used it to argue for women’s rights. At the same time, advocates of domesticity picked up the narrative of women in Christian history for their own purposes. Across the North Atlantic in the 1840s and 1850s, authors increasingly put forward examples of godly motherhood in order to encourage women in their domestic callings. These two diverging interpretations of women in the Christian past were exemplified in works written in the 1850s by Child and Sarah Josepha Hale, respectively. By the middle of the century, scholars and popular authors alike recognized the place of women in Christian history, even as the implications of this past were disputed.
When Does Pressure Become Propaganda?
Authors: Gruffydd-Jones Jamie J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter tests whether the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) is more likely to pass on news of foreign pressure to its public when it appears most hostile. It uses two original databases: of international pressure on China’s human rights after 1978 and articles about this pressure featured in the People’s Daily, the CCP’s mouthpiece. As predicted, the newspaper has been far more likely to report on pressure that comes from the United States, particularly at times of bilateral tension; that touches on issues of territorial integrity; and that addresses existing CCP policies or repeats well-worn criticism. The chapter explores how Chinese media has sometimes hidden high-profile international criticism of domestic crises but also widely discussed instances of quite obscure foreign condemnation, to show that this behavior cannot be merely explained by people’s growing access to sensationalist foreign news.
Implications for China and Beyond
Authors: Gruffydd-Jones Jamie J. 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers the book’s implications for the international community’s efforts to improve human rights in China and around the world. Using case studies of Uganda, Zimbabwe, the United Kingdom, and Hong Kong, it argues that regimes can most successfully use international pressure to their advantage in places where the “hostile forces” narrative is resonant, and where they have the media control to manipulate that narrative. The chapter explores how citizens’ support for authoritarian and nationalist policies might grow in the face of a liberal international system and finishes with a discussion of the implications for activists, governments, and international organizations. When public condemnation is used, the chapter suggests practical measures that activists, governments, and international organizations could take to minimize negative consequences on public opinion in the target state.
Virgil's Cinematic Art
Authors: Freudenburg Kirk 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This book concerns the rhetoric of visual manipulation that provokes readers to envision what is written on the page, treating visual details in ancient epic not as mere scene-setting information or enhancements to any given story, but as cues for performing specific imaginative processes. Through a series of close readings centered primarily on Virgil’s Aeneid, the book aims to show that the experiential effects that Virgil puts into play do serious narrative work of their own by structuring lines of sight, both visual and emotive, and shifting them about in ways that move readers into and out of the visual and emotional worlds of the story’s characters. Whereas most studies of narrative visualization concern seeing, this one concerns watching. And listening. And trying to keep up. Informing the book’s theoretical approach are recent cognitivist and constructivist studies of how audiences watch narrative films and make sense of what they are being given to see. By looking to the world of narrative films, where directors use shots craftily edited to cue audiences to “fill in” for what the camera itself cannot show, the book locates new narrative content lurking in old places, brought to life within the imaginations of readers. The end result is a new approach to the question of how ancient epic tales convey narrative content through visual means.
The “Seeming” of the “Seen”—Narrative as Vision in Ancient Epic
Authors: Freudenburg Kirk 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The book’s introduction makes a case for a new approach to the problem of visualization in ancient epic, arguing that visual details function not as mere scene-setting information or decorative enhancements to the story being told, but as cues for performing specific imaginative processes. Connections are made with recent film theory, with standard techniques of film editing, and with cognitive studies of visual perception, all of which emphasize the viewer’s own role in creating full visual coherence from limited visual input. Parallels are drawn between devices that film directors commonly use to imply focalization by specific characters, and those used by epic writers, such as Virgil and Homer, for whom such devices serve to draw their readers/listeners not only into specific fields of vision, but into the thoughts and emotional lives of the characters to whom such specific ways of seeing belong.
Seeing as Telling
Authors: Freudenburg Kirk 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers a fresh take on the temple ecphrasis of Aeneid 1, which is one the most studied passages in Latin literature and the first large-scale ecphrasis of the entire work. Through a close analysis of the visual workings of the ecphrasis, it is argued that the whole of it is presented to us as quoted sight; that is, Virgil taking us into Aeneas’ head, letting us experience how Aeneas reckons with what he sees. Not simply “what is there,” in other words, but a particular, highly motivated distortion of what is there, summoned into existence by the specific story elements that Aeneas pounces upon and agonizes over as he tours his way through the continuous narrative picture on the temple walls. Rather than the story on the temple wall, it is the story that Aeneas spins from the story on the temple wall: a selective, reactionary view of the painted frieze, as agonized over by him. By rescuing smaller worlds of pathos and defeat from the singular big triumph that the temple frieze depicts, Aeneas lets us see that there are other, opposite, in fact defiantly oppositional ways of seeing and valuing the very same thing. The chapter concludes with a look at the “match cut” transition that Virgil uses to bring Dido onto the scene at the end of the ecphrasis, comparing it to a similar “lust at first sight” transition in Catullus’ poem on the marriage of Peleus and Thetis.
Introduction
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the main themes, arguments, concepts, and intellectual contributions of the book. It situates the Polish case within the historical literature on the global sixties and stresses the centrality of transnational imagination to youth in Poland, where opportunities for personal travel and interaction with international actors were limited. Instead, imagining the world played a critical role not only in shaping collective desires and actions of young people, but also in defining the broader relations between state and society, and the trajectory of oppositional politics in the years to come. The introduction provides a basic chronology of the sixties in Poland, from the time of the Thaw until the heyday of consumer socialism in 1974, when many aspects of the sixties youth rebellion became part of the official ideology.
Youth as Modernity
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
By the late 1950s, youth had become a prominent topic in media and expert debates across Europe popularizing the sociological concept of “youth culture.” Chapter 2 traces how this process unfolded in Poland and became a centerpiece of the regime’s efforts to address the challenge of the Thaw. Looking at public projections of youth identity in popular writings, sociological research, and sex education manuals, this chapter shows how the idea of youth came to embody a new type of socialist modernity that promoted moderate consumption, educated leisure, and moral values. Some of the main actors in this chapter are sociologists, writers, educators, and journalists, who served as mediators between the state and young people. Their writings often revealed unexpected progressive and feminist ideas. For example, publications on sexual education stressed the role of ethics and emotions while at the same time promoting female moral autonomy and reproductive rights.
Tensions of Transnationalism
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The challenge to the communist state’s monopoly on defining Marxism culminated in students’ and youth’s demonstrations in March 1968 and the state’s violent reaction. In contrast to dominant narratives that depict 1968 in Poland as primarily shaped by the domestic political context, this chapter shows Polish students not simply as protestors against a “totalitarian” regime but as active participants of a contemporary global search for a new kind of leftism. In the process, both the young people and the state projected different visions of transnational solidarities and were influenced by crises happening elsewhere, including the Vietnam War and the Six-Day War in the Middle East. The communist regime eventually deployed and weaponized the transnational imagination against the protestors by launching a powerful antisemitic campaign. Stigmatizing protestors as Zionists and foreign agents, the campaign solidified a racialized understanding of the “Polish nation,” which had lasting political consequences.
The Counterculture
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
While political groups tended to turn inward after 1968, the search for transnationalism survived in the hippie communities that emerged in Poland in the late 1960s. This chapter follows the hippie counterculture, from the creation of unique personal styles and formation of communes to experimentation with sex and drugs. At the heart of this chapter are the subjective perceptions of being a hippie in Polish society, including interaction with a variety of actors ranging from the security apparatus and the Church to parents and the older generation. Polish hippies searched for an alternative way of life to both communism and traditional national culture, while also distancing themselves from any anticommunist or reform movements. This chapter also uncovers the astonishing influence of the counterculture on the wider society, including youth styles in the early 1970s and state-sponsored acts of cultural diplomacy, for example the international festival of avant-garde theater in Wrocław.
Conclusion
Authors: Fidelis Malgorzata 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The conclusion sums up the preceding chapters and takes the reader to the post-1974 era, discussing the impact of the sixties movements on later developments in Poland, including the formation of the anticommunist opposition, and exploring the ways that Poles’ perceptions of global connections changed during the 1970s and 1980s to become less politicized and more oriented toward the global market and consumerism. At the same time, dissident politics became explicitly anticommunist, while their evocation of international human rights often served to enhance nationalist thinking at home. This influenced the nature of the transition to democracy and Poland’s relationship to the outside world in the years that followed. Ultimately, the collapse of communism in 1989 was not a rapid break from the past but a continuation and reworking of earlier trends in a post–Cold War environment, from youth culture to modernity and globalization.