bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Questions We Answer
Authors: Stivers Tanya 
Published: May 2022

AbstractIn asking a polar question, questioners set the topic, agenda, and terms of the response. While these can be resisted, whatever follows will be understood vis-à-vis the question because there is a shared social norm that when asked a question a recipient should respond. This chapter reveals that although often relatively little conscious thought is put into how speakers design questions, they are nonetheless finely calibrated for question recipients. This calibration is the work questioners do to ensure that questions receive an optimal answer response. At the broadest level, the two dimensions that questioners rely on are action and design. Questioners are accountable for offering or requesting (for instance) what they can reasonably expect their recipient to accept and for designing questions in ways that are well suited to their recipients in terms of polarity, prefaces that position the questions relative to ongoing interaction, and lexical choices.
Responding with a Non-Answer
Authors: Stivers Tanya 
Published: May 2022

AbstractWhile questioners’ sometimes face no response at all from their interlocutors, this is rare. Yet, the range of responses varies widely in the degree of cooperation that recipients give questioners. This chapter explores differences between responses that answer questions and those that fail to answer. It begins by identifying the primary types of non-answer responses before showing evidence that non-answer responses are dispreferred relative to answers. In the response possibility space, non-answer responses are fundamentally disaligning because they inhibit progress in the questioner’s project through her question. Whether a specific response is understood as a more egregious form of disalignment depends on the context in which the question is asked, of whom it is asked, and the reasonable ability to expect the recipient to answer. Questioners hear, and question recipients produce, non-answer responses in a context where answering is an alternative response whether affiliative or disaffiliative, equivocal or wholehearted.
Interjections
Authors: Stivers Tanya 
Published: May 2022

AbstractInterjection answers provide affirmative or negative valence but give away nothing about the question’s proposition—no hint about what is being confirmed or disconfirmed. This property helps them communicate just an answer to the question. Both the distinctiveness of interjections and the degree to which they accept all aspects of the question will be important in this chapter on confirming interjections. This is the basis for a typology of interjections, unmarked and marked, of which the latter subdivide into upgraded, downgraded, and acquiescent interjections. The chapter describes how each type of interjection is used and starts to sketch how the types of interjections help speakers to position themselves in the answer possibility space. This allows one to start to consider why the possibility space has the shape that it does and what the affordances and consequences of answering with one or another interjection might be.
Transformations
Authors: Stivers Tanya 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Both interjections and repetitions accept the proposition entirely. Sometimes, though, question recipients put forward a different proposition than the one in the question and do so as their answer. This chapter explores two main types of transformations—those that modify the terms of the question’s proposition, and those that modify the agenda of the proposition. The chapter argues that with transformations, speakers can answer questions that they otherwise would have to offer non-answer responses to; and they can confirm questions that they might otherwise have to give disconfirmations to. In this way, question recipients can rely on transformations to be more affiliative than they might be able to be if they relied only on the other alternatives in the response possibility space. However, the chapter also shows that when speakers could have provided a more direct repetition or interjection, the answer can be disaffiliative.
The Modular Response Possibility Space
Authors: Stivers Tanya 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers the full range of responses, focusing on answers. It shows that the major permutations of the answer possibility space reflect interactants’ primary preoccupations with alignment, autonomy, and affiliation, which give the response possibility space its shape. The chapter considers each answer type and their subtypes in terms of where they are positioned in the possibility space. It then argues that the response system is best conceptualized as modular, where the various modules work to fine-tune the communicative import of a response within the response possibility space. These modules include not only the answer types, but also regular features of the answer turn design, including timing and prefaces. Finally, this chapter argues that the precise stance a speaker takes with their answer turn also draws on the details of their answer design, including lexical choice, prosody, and embodied conduct, to help manage ongoing social relationships.
On the way to organized institutions: Social rules
Authors: Bratman Michael E. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins the effort to characterize the modest and modular place of shared intention in human organized institutions by bringing the plan-theoretic framework together with an H. L. A. Hart–inspired emphasis on social rules and the rule-guided infrastructure of organized institutions. It highlights the connection between social rules and forms of criticism and demand; and it articulates the problem of social rule content. It sees Hart as providing two interrelated design specifications for the kind of social rule central to organized institutions. This sets the stage for a shared policy model of the relevant social rules, a model that realizes this pair of design specifications.
A shared policy model of social rules, part 1
Authors: Bratman Michael E. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents an initial proposal that the internal aspect of our social rule in favor of social pattern R is realized by a shared policy in favor of our R-type social pattern of action. Such a shared policy consists in public, interdependent, and interlocking policies of each in favor of our conformity to this R-type social pattern by way of subplans that mesh. There is a cognitive dependence between such public policies and the actual social pattern. This chapter explains why it is important to appeal to the interpersonal interrelations characteristic of shared policies in part because of the role of such interrelations in social rationality. And it explains how this shared policy model can understand the criticisms and demands associated with Hart-type social rules—where this involves drawing both on norms of plan rationality and on normally present normative reasons for conformity.
A Davidsonian challenge
Authors: Bratman Michael E. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
An objection from Donald Davidson’s theory of mind is as follows: (1) Dense holism about an individual’s intentions, grounded in Davidsonian interpretation. (2) Extension of this dense holism to any system that has intentions. (3) Normal failure of institutions to satisfy constraints of dense holism, given pluralistic disagreement. So, institutional outputs of an institution’s social-procedural rules are normally not intentions of that institution. Differing views of Christian List, Kirk Ludwig, Philip Pettit, Carol Rovane, and (indirectly) Cass Sunstein (concerning incompletely theorized agreements) tend to focus on (3). This chapter instead rejects (2). In understanding the intentions of an institution, it adds to the resources of Davidsonian interpretation of individuals further, plan-theoretic, constructive resources. This supports a model of institutional intentions without institutional densely holistic subjects. This chapter also notes an alternative approach to agency due to Harry Frankfurt, one that will be important for institutional agency.
The Free Exercise of Religion
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter reviews the Supreme Court’s free exercise decisions and doctrines from its 1990 ruling in Employment Division v. Smith until the present. The Court moved away from a pro-exemption position to one that emphasized government neutrality and, in 1990, ruled that religious objectors are not constitutionally entitled to judicially created exemptions. Almost immediately, however, the Court emphasized that the First Amendment’s free exercise clause does not permit discrimination on the basis of religion, and this prohibition has increasingly been treated by the Court as a requirement that regulations must be carefully reviewed. Recent cases involving funding for religious schools, public-health restrictions on religious gatherings, and conflicts between antidiscrimination law and religious freedom rights are presented. Also discussed is the continuing application of a strict scrutiny standard of review under state and federal statutes, including the Religious Freedom Restoration Act and the Religious Land Use and Institutionalized Persons Act.
Religion and Public Education
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter and the one that follows (Chapter 10) discuss the Supreme Court’s cases addressing the intersection of religion and education. This chapter focuses on public education. It addresses the case law concerning prayer and moments of silence in schools and school-related activities, Bible reading during school hours, religious expression by students and teachers, and the teaching of creationism and evolution. It addresses the Court’s diverging approaches, from “separation” of religion and education to, more recently, an approach that ensures equal access for religious actors and activities to public facilities, forums, and funds. While there are clear limits to governmental promotion of religion in public schools, recent cases also make clear that private religious expression may not be excluded as such or discriminated against and that religious actors enjoy equal access rights.
The Freedoms of Religious Organizations
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the role and religious freedom rights of religious organizations and institutions, including schools, hospitals, and social-welfare agencies. It explains the fundamental principle of religious liberty that religious organizations retain the rights to govern themselves, select their own leaders, and resolve their own disputes. An important, long line of cases describes principles that govern religious property disputes - which permits the use of neutral principles of law by courts, but still insists that matters touching upon religion must be decided by the religious organization, not the secular courts or civil authorities. The chapter also explores an important set of cases regarding labor, employment, and discrimination, including the 2012 Hosanna-Tabor case, which hold that religious organizations (including religious schools) are exempt from certain non-discrimination requirements. Finally, it explores other areas of intersection between the government and religious organizations, such as the regulation of social services and taxation.
Concluding Reflections
Authors: Witte John , Nichols Joel A. , Garnett Richard W. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This concluding chapter describes and evaluates the current state of religious liberty and church-state relations in the United States. It looks back to the key principles from America’s founding and links them to present cases and controversies and makes concrete recommendations encouraging readers and scholars to strike again the constitutional balance that promotes religious freedom while resisting the imposition of a particular religion on citizens. While realistically naming signs of trouble for religious liberty – including secularization and political polarization – the chapter returns readers to the enduring principles of America’s founding. With those principles in view, it promotes new applications of those principles so that the First Amendment continues to have vitality in the 21st century.
Legacies of Universalism
Authors: Horn Alexander , Kersbergen Kees van 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The Scandinavian welfare states stand out when it comes to future-oriented social investment policies and the associated social and economic performance (e.g., human capital formation, equality, inclusive growth). This chapter first explains how the inclusive social investment approach in Scandinavia came about. In the second part, it asks, is Scandinavia able to politically maintain this historical path and uphold its widely praised qualities and inclusive social investment approach? To answer this question, the authors offer an overview of the political conditions under which social investment had emerged as a political and policy paradigm and how this policy legacy structures the contemporary politics of social investment. Universalism/inclusiveness and social investment are two components of the same political-normative sequence that has generated unusually broad cross-class and cross-gender support for the social investment state. An empirical analysis of party manifestos shows that the different parts of the entire political spectrum are connected to form an unusually broad support structure for universalism and social investment. The authors assess if this coalition can be upheld and adjusted so as to be able to cope with new political challenges.
Loud, Noisy, or Quiet Politics?
Authors: Busemeyer Marius R. , Garritzmann Julian L. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter develops a theoretical model for the conditions under which parties, public opinion, or interest groups, respectively, affect public policymaking. It argues that the influence of public opinion, parties, and interest groups depends on the salience of the respective topic and on the degree of agreement in public opinion. Public opinion has the greatest influence in a world of “loud” politics when salience is high and the public’s attitudes are coherent. In contrast, when an issue is salient but attitudes are conflicting, public opinion sends a “loud but noisy” signal and party politics have a stronger influence on policymaking. Finally, when an issue is not salient (i.e., “quiet” politics), interest groups are dominant. Empirically, the chapter studies the politics of social investment reform in Western Europe. Based on an original survey of public opinion in eight Western European countries as well as on process tracing analysis of policy reforms, the chapter demonstrates how the influence of public opinion, parties, and interest groups on social investment reforms depends on the salience of the respective topic and on the coherence of public opinion.
Reforming Without Investing
Authors: Ronchi Stefano , Vesan Patrik 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates the political dynamics that hinder social investment reform in Southern Europe. It does that by providing an in-depth analysis of the Italian case. Between 2013 and 2018, a window of opportunity for social investment opened up in Italy, when center-left governments sought to garner support among upper-middle classes. However, the final reform output was a mix of non–social investment strategies: market liberalism (labor market deregulation) and social protectionism (compensatory cash transfers took priority over policies to enhance human capital or work–family reconciliation). The turn away from a social investment strategy was driven by two political supply-side factors: EU pressures for internal devaluation and national party competition favoring compensatory measures for lower-middle classes in the presence of a divided center-left and rising challenger parties. After the 2018 elections, the League and the Five Star Movement formed a government that promoted full-blown social protectionism.
An Increasing but Diverse Support for Social Investment
Authors: Hong Ijin , Yeh Chung-Yang , Lee Jieun , Lue Jen-Der 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The agenda of social investment (SI) has been gaining ground during the 2000–2020 time frame in Northeast Asia, especially for family policies. Because of a similar policy legacy of developmentalism, Japan, South Korea, and Taiwan might have more room to pursue equally bold SI strategies. Nevertheless, they took different directions, and, specifically, South Korea was the boldest SI “path shifter,” in comparison to “slow-moving” Japan and Taiwan. By analyzing welfare attitude data sets, we found that South Korea in the early 2000s was in a favorable position for SI-oriented family reform, with high public demand, high policy salience, and a lighter policy legacy; but the same did not happen for Japan and Taiwan. In Japan, family policy seems to have become more politicized in the 2010s, and only recently the time might have grown ripe for more SI-oriented policy reforms. Taiwan potentially has a constituency of young and female voters who support family policy, but the salience of work–family reconciliation has been delayed, inciting a very dynamic state of affairs in family policy reform only very recently. As a consequence, SI-oriented reforms in family policies took a different shape in these three economies. This chapter argues that public demand for SI policies is a relevant trigger for government responsiveness but only in the context of a favorable policy legacy and a high policy salience.
The Politicization of Social Investment in Latin America
Authors: Salvador Peralta J. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Social investment in Latin America is increasing in some countries but not others. Has social investment gained any traction in the region? If so, how does it vary across Latin America? Also, how salient are social investment reforms? To answer these questions empirically, this chapter maps welfare reform strategies across four countries: Colombia (1992–2017), Costa Rica (1986–2017), Nicaragua (1985–2017), and Uruguay (1985–2017). The authors find that compensatory reforms (basic income and social protection) are more salient than social investment. They also find that most social investment reforms to create human capital are stratified (benefiting the middle class), most reforms to mobilize human capital are targeted (incorporating previously neglected groups into the labor market), and only a few reforms preserve existing skills by providing vocational training and parental leave benefits (mostly for women). They also find that right-wing governments in Colombia implemented the most social investment reforms among the cases under study.
How Democracies Transform Their Welfare States
Authors: Palier Bruno , Garritzmann Julian L. , Häusermann, and Silja , Fioritto Francesco 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The chapter maps the development of welfare state reforms in Western Europe and Northern America, central and eastern Europe, North East Asia, and Latin America. It identifies specific trends such as the focus on demographics in Asia, new instruments to fight poverty in Latin America, a novel human capital perspective in the Baltic region, the focus on activation and family policies in Continental Europe, and de-universalization in Scandinavia. It provides systematic comparative analyses of social investment politics in democratic context throughout the world. It identifies four main political coalitions behind the various types of social investment reforms: two social democratic coalitions based on the alliance between representatives of the educated middle class and the working class, with a Nordic version leading to inclusive social investment and a Latin American version leading to targeted social investment; a conservative coalition, where the middle class is allied with employers, leading to stratified social investment favoring human capital mobilization typical of Continental Europe or North East Asia; and a liberal coalition, where the same middle class–employers alliance emerges, but in the context of liberal welfare regimes it leads to social compensation retrenchment substituted by some targeted public social investment policies (and private ones publicly supported via fiscal exemption) as in North America and the Baltic countries. It also identifies a social protectionist coalition, when social protection legacies are strong and when the educated middle class is not large enough to constitute an appealing electoral constituency, as in Southern Europe and the Visegrád countries.
What Happened to the Vital Center?
Authors: Jacobs Nicholas , Milkis Sidney 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
How did a country once praised or blamed for its pragmatism came to be so sharply divided? What Happened to the Vital Center? demonstrates that American politics has become so rancorous because it has been unable to heal wounds opened up by 1960s-era protest and institutional change. As various chapters document, this tumultuous decade resulted in the joining of presidential power, social activism, and high stakes battles over domestic and foreign policy. Surveying the course of American history, the book further shows that previous social divides had been negotiated in a constitutional system buttressed by strong partisan organizations. But beginning in the 1960s, both Democrats and Republicans came to embrace the myth of presidential grandeur, sacrificing collective party responsibility on the altar of executive aggrandizement. While many scholars suggest that the answer to our current predicament is greater presidential power, this work shows that doubling down on the myth of transcendent presidential leadership is likely to exacerbate, not heal, our wounds. Instead, the authors recommend that a reconstituted party system may once again permit political leaders to act as “gatekeepers” to the system, and prevent the worst excesses to democracy that now routinely roil the country.
The Third Option
Authors: Johnson Loch K. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Covert action, often called the Third Option, refers to efforts by the United States to secretly influence international affairs through propaganda as well as political, economic, and paramilitary operations. It is a dimly lit world of secret agents; poison-dart guns; vials of curare, cobra venom, and shellfish toxins; barrels of ink for propaganda tracts; weaponry of all makes and calibers; heavily armed drones and high-powered missiles; speed boats, bombers, and explosives; masks and fake prosthetics; CIA crafted political campaign buttons, bumper stickers, and TV ads written in foreign tongues for use in elections overseas; counterfeit foreign currencies—a largely invisible realm of clandestine activities governed by the best of intentions, yet sometimes yielding the worst of results; a world that merits the thoughtful attention and judgment of every citizen. The purpose here is to offer a frank assessment of this obscure but vital component of America’s foreign policy.
A Shadowy Foreign Policy, 1947–1960
Authors: Johnson Loch K. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks into the rearview mirror at America’s covert actions during the opening years of the Cold War, from 1947 to 1960. After the war, Truman turned to nonmilitary forms of power to thwart further communist expansionism. Eisenhower focused on a more limited program of anti-Soviet propaganda. The questions addressed in the chapter include these: What was the evolutionary arc for covert action during the inaugural years of the Cold War? What nations and groups were targeted for secret interventions? Toward what purposes? How have the methods of covert action—“tradecraft”—changed over the years?