bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Social Production in a Capitalist World Market
Authors: Cammack Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter sets out Marx’s ‘general law of social production’ and addresses its implications for the world of work and for gender, household, and family relations. Marx and Engels understood production to include the production of life itself and of individuals from day to day. At the same time, they thought that the development of industry on a global scale would transform social relations in ways that previous forms of production did not, as technological innovation led to increased division of labour and demanded versatile, flexible, and mobile workers. They were acutely attentive to the impact of these changes on families and households, but in their own lifetimes this was relatively limited. A comparison between gender relations, families, and households in their day and today shows how these have been transformed as capitalism has developed, and suggests, contrary to the arguments of some ‘social reproduction’ theorists, that capital tends without limit to penetrate and transform the ‘domestic sphere’. As women enter the labour market in increased numbers, they postpone or reject childbearing, while the ‘male breadwinner’ and the ‘nuclear family’ become increasingly uncommon. The proponents of the politics of global competitiveness embrace these changes, as they make for more competitive labour markets and a larger and more productive workforce.
The OECD and the World Market
Authors: Cammack Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Since its founding in 1961 the OECD has consistently sought to extend the world market, encouraging developing countries to compete with advanced economies in industrial markets, and condemning protectionism on both sides. Despite its restricted ‘advanced country’ membership, it looked forward in the last decade of the twentieth century to a ‘new global age’—a time when China and other emerging economies would dominate the global economy. Throughout, it valued competition in the world economy because it pressured all participants to pursue social and structural reforms to enhance their own productivity and competitiveness, and so promoted the development of global capitalism overall. In the present century, it has focused primarily on promoting the reform of welfare in the advanced economies with the objective of ‘making work pay’, and increasing the proportion of working-age populations in paid work. It sees the pursuit of competitiveness as a permanent and essential feature of global capitalism, and counsels states on means of managing the social disruption that welfare and related reforms and recurrent crises will inevitably generate.
The Social Politics of Global Competitiveness
Authors: Cammack Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter documents the codification of the politics of global competitiveness in core documents published by the OECD and the World Bank in 2019 and 2020: the OECD’s Employment Outlook 2019: The Future of Work, and the World Bank’s World Development Report 2019: The Changing Nature of Work, and World Development Report 2020: Trading for Development in the Age of Global Value Chains. These documents confirm the commitment of the two institutions, even after the major setback arising from the global financial crisis originating a decade earlier, to a global regime of competitiveness in labour and product markets, underpinned by policies aiming at the distribution of production around the world in accordance with the maximisation of profits, and a constant focus on the development of productivity-enhancing skills. They develop further the need to move away from inflexible and costly labour contracts, and argue for a common system of labour regulation and forms of social protection that incentivise paid work, and selective deregulation to boost the transfer of workers from the informal economy to the formal sector.
War and Peace
Authors: Apor Péter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Wars of liberation brought together the ‘Second World’ with Africa and Asia in the postwar period. This chapter traces how both sides recognized commonalities of purpose: how the memory of struggle of the Soviet Red Army, the Yugoslav partisans or even the nationalist Polish Home Army during the Second World War was integrated into a professed commitment to defend a hard-won anti-fascist and anti-imperialist world. Weapons were provided by Eastern Europeans as expressions of solidarity,and later as business opportunities; training camps for liberation movements were established across the region and beyond; its militaries took part in peace missions (e.g. following Vietnam), engaged in reconstruction efforts (e.g. Algeria) or resettled populations after other conflicts (e.g. Korea). Third World leaders sought to represent their own struggles as models to be supported by their Eastern European partners, whilst also identifying with the manner in which Europeans had overcome conflict on their own continent. Nevertheless, violence which had once been accepted as legitimate by a generation that had lived through the Second World War was more and more associated with the supposedly excessive demands of liberation movements, or with the threatening terrorism of Islamic groups. By the last decades of the Cold War, Eastern European Communist states were increasingly divided on these questions—whilst the Soviets and the GDR still saw revolutionary violence as acceptable in some circumstances, other elites preferred to propagate peace, solutions based in international law, and trade.
Culture
Authors: Betts Paul , Vučetić Radina 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Cultural relations were decisive for making real these Second–Third World connections. Hot war and hard power of course continued to shape Eastern European–Third World encounters, but not exclusively so. Equally as significant were peace initiatives, soft power and cultural relations forged in the name of equality and exchange. In the case of the smaller Eastern European states, socialist fraternity with strangers abroad was identified as a means to escape political isolation (e.g. GDR, and Hungary after 1956); to gain Third World support with a view to protecting sovereignty and postwar European borders (e.g. Poland);, as well as to create distance from Moscow and Beijing in the name of distinctive national identities (e.g. non-aligned Yugoslavia and Romania). For cultural missionaries from the global South, these links with Eastern Europe advanced their broader understanding of nationalism, internationalism and socialism. In these cultural exchanges, anti-imperialism became the main ideological bridge between the Second and Third Worlds, serving as a Cold War socialist version of 1930s Popular Front activism. Cultural diplomacy, modernization, and even the defence of tradition became flashpoints in these exchanges. This chapter shows how the appeal of modernization paradigms lay in their combination of economic uplift with a respect for the recovery of national traditions and histories. Moreover, the defence of progressive tradition and religion, or the common appreciation of repurposed high European cultural forms, engendered far-flung socialist ‘imagined communities’ of mutual recognition that were pitted against the culturally destructive potential of western-led capitalist developmentalism. Such exchanges often brought these cultures together, but also sometimes heightened their differences..
Rights
Authors: Betts Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
While the field of human rights has greatly expanded in recent years, comparatively little attention has been paid to the Communist understanding of such rights, especially in an international setting. Rights issues were hotly debated themes in Eastern Europe from the very beginning, reflecting shifting ideals regarding the relationship between the socialist citizen and society. From the 1950s through the 1980s human rights became a surprising point of convergence for Eastern European and African representatives at the UN and elsewhere to build new associations beyond superpower antagonism. Different versions of human rights provided these regions with a newly minted language of socialist solidarity and cross-cultural understanding. International organizations served as key forums for exchanging ideas and building new alliances in the international community around rights advocacy. This chapter shows how representatives of recently decolonized states in Africa and Asia formed new coalitions that often included smaller Eastern European countries, fighting for the right to self-determination and against racial and religious discrimination in the 1960s, and then for gender rights in the 1970s. It then explores how the universalized idea of human rights fractured in the 1970s, in part due to the fading international appeal of common social and economic rights. Just as some outside Europe turned to the idea of e.g. African or Islamic rights, so European socialists’ rights work was increasingly focused on collective security in the European sphere, as their commitment to collective justice and anti-racist work at international institutions went into steep decline.
Health
Authors: Iacob Bogdan C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union were significant actors in the dynamics and development of post-1945 regimes of global health. This chapter explores how expertise in disease eradication and basic health services that had been developed in interwar Eastern Europe—often with the assistance of the League of Nations—became part of new socialist health interventions on a global scale at the World Health Organization (WHO). The region’s predominantly rural character in the first decades of the twentieth century and socialism’s self-definition as the solution to backwardness helped establish their medical initiatives as models for overcoming disease and deprivation in the post-colonial world in Africa and Asia too. The export of such blueprints of modernity was achieved through involvement in WHO schemes (e.g. eradication programmes for malaria, smallpox, poliomyelitis), through humanitarian assistance, or in aid to national liberation movements. Such interventions were presented as humane alternatives to liberal medicine, but were challenged by Chinese and Cuban regimes. For them, European socialist medicine reproduced civilizational hierarchies , as became particularly apparent with the erosion of its commitment to rural medicine outside Europe. From the late 1970s, the profile of Eastern European medical internationalism changed: pharmaceutical multi-nationals from the region grew in the South and healthcare was increasingly commercialized, whilst states provided only limited support during major international health crises such as the successive famines in East Africa. By the late 1980s, Eastern Europeans forfeited their alternative medical modernity as they embraced Western-inspired privatization and abandoned their pioneering role in public healthcare in the developing world.
Overview
Authors: Zhang Luping 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the resolution of disputes in international civil aviation. Section B introduces the significance of the topic by presenting a summary of the history of air law, the structure of the aviation market and special features of aviation, as well as setting out the main research question. The first question is targeted at answering questions about the nature of the dispute settlement power of the ICAO Council. The second question explores the issue of whether the current dispute resolution mechanisms in international civil aviation should be reformed. Section C provides an overview of the existing literature, with a particular focus on the ways in which these two core questions have been examined. Section D discusses the limitations of the study with a definition of the scope of this research.
Means of Dispute Resolution in International Civil Aviation
Authors: Zhang Luping 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 distils the empirical data gathered from Chapter 2 and Chapter 3 and boils down two means of dispute resolutions—the political and legal means as two sets of toolkits for resolving disputes. This chapter first highlights the role of ‘aeropolitics’ in the resolution of disputes in international civil aviation under Section B. It starts with defining the notion of aeropolitics and analysis of diplomatic channels in the resolution of international civil aviation disputes in subsection B.1. The notion of aeropolitics is considered from two angles in subsections B.2 and B.3. Subsection B.4 explains the discrepancy between the text of treaties and State practices. Section C focuses on judicial powers in the aviation industry. In subsection C.1, it first defines judicialization in an international context by discussing quasi-judicial powers and their boundaries. In subsection C.2, it analyses how international civil aviation can move towards judicialization. In subsection C.3, even though there is not yet a perceived trend towards judicialization in handling disputes under bilateral air services agreements, it argues that institutionalizing dispute resolution mechanisms is still beneficial in this context. Section D concludes that there are two means of dispute resolution mechanisms in international civil aviation by focusing on two processes that are closely interlinked: the political aspect of dispute resolution, and the legal dimension thereof. This pendulum movement demonstrates an ever-evolving dispute resolution system in the aviation industry, which serves as the third cornerstone for Chapter 5.
Reforms of Dispute Resolution Mechanisms in International Civil Aviation
Authors: Zhang Luping 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 responds to the deficiencies from empirical data in Chapters 2 and 3, as well as theoretical analysis in Chapter 5 systematically. In Section B, it first discusses evolutionary trends in international dispute resolution: the first stage is the proliferation of international courts and tribunals; the second stage is the fragmentation of international courts and tribunals; the final stage is the exit or withdrawal of membership from international courts and tribunals (subsection B.1). Under subsection B.2, it reviews proposals that have been made in the past for the reforms of dispute resolution mechanisms in international civil aviation. In Section C, it argues that of all the proposed options, the reform of the ICAO Council is the optimal choice. It offers two frames for reforms by first assessing past proposals based on two pieces of the foundation. The first piece is a sectorized demand for dispute resolution mechanisms in international civil aviation (subsection C.1). The second piece is the possibility of establishing a new international judicial institution for civil aviation disputes (subsection C.2). Following the analysis of different models, past proposals, and the foundation of a sectorized demand in dispute resolution mechanisms, it sets two feasible frames for reforms: one is a procedural reform in the ICAO Council without creating new organs in subsection C.3, the other is establishing an arbitration institution in the ICAO Council with corresponding expertise, procedure, and a tailor-made arbitration policy in subsection C.4.
An Important Compendium
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the most important compendium Herbart ever wrote: his Lehrbuch zur Einleitung in die Philosophie. It considers Herbart’s definition of philosophy as the Bearbeitung der Begriffe and how it differed from competing account of philosophy. It also treats Herbart’s aesthetic approach to ethics, his attitude toward a skepticism, and his idea of god.
Return to Göttingen
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the last period of Herbart’s career, which is marked by his return to Göttingen in 1833. It considers the most important works of this period: Umriss pädagogischer Vorlesungen, Über Willensfreiheit und Determinismus, and the Analytische Beleuchtung des Naturrechts und der Moral. The final section considers Herbart’s participation in the controversy surrounding the protest of the seven Göttingen professors against the king’s abolition of the new progressive constitution.
Standards of Living in an Age of Transition
Authors: Larson Peter L. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Modelling a peasant budget shows that a tenant with 30–36 acres would be secure in times of low prices while still living comfortably, allowing for adding to the holding or investing in capital equipment. Those with 15–20 acres could do well in some years but needed to restrict consumption in bad years. Diet largely remained the same into the sixteenth century, with more beef, wheaten bread, and ale; in the sixteenth century, an increasing number of spices and luxury foods became cheaper and more readily available. Likewise durable consumer goods including table linen, pewter, brass, featherbeds, and more became common items in parish homes. Altogether this was an evolution more than a consumer revolution. However, the disparity of wealth grew greater, showing two Durhams: one wealthy and prospering, one poor. Comparison of wealth recorded in probate inventories puts Durham ahead of other counties including Kent until the mid-seventeenth century.
The Expanding and Evolving Economy
Authors: Larson Peter L. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Durham’s agriculture evolved to meet increasing needs; some farmers in the two parishes focused on grain, others on livestock. Durham had ample pasture from unenclosed waste but the three villages also had several closes and fields in severalty. Larger scale enclosure began in the 1580s, individually and collectively. Evidence of changing practices is seen in the bishop’s courts, both increasingly large herds and departures from communal agriculture. Individualism was tolerated as long as the animals and crops of others were not damaged. The parishes remained rural and agricultural; despite earlier references to it as a town, Sedgefield did not urbanize and there were few full-time artisans in the parishes. Spinning wool was common, and some farmers made malt in commercial quantities. Servants were common in the villages and while information is scarce, they appeared to be paid the same as servants elsewhere in England. Economic growth was made possible by local and regional credit networks, and in the seventeenth century yeomen were taking out loans of several hundred pounds and repaying them swiftly.
Individuals and Communities
Authors: Larson Peter L. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Village and parish communities persisted despite agricultural, religious, and political upheaval. Families stayed in the general area but moved to different villages and back again; this included villages in other neighbouring parishes. The reason these strong communities persisted despite changes that radically reshaped communities elsewhere lay in the leadership. In each village there was an oligarchy of wealthy peasant and then yeomen families who had been in the parish for generations; they served as manorial court jurors and churchwardens; these were also the men most likely to focus on commercial agriculture and more ‘individualistic’ practices. There was scope for individual actions, but there were also boundaries. This can be seen in reactions to the rebellion in 1569 and the English Civil War; conformity was key.
Self-Help and the Court of Star Chamber
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2 turns to records of the Star Chamber, a court that straddled equity and common law, but one that ultimately entrenched coverture’s restrictions on married women’s rights at law. Star Chamber ostensibly had no business dealing with marital separations but heard many cases that provide evidence of the ways in which people sought to deal with failed unions on their own. It also heard the 1602 case of Hercules Foljambe, a man with three wives, a case that induced the clearest statement from authorities that whatever some Protestant reformers urged, separations for adultery would not allow remarriage. While the case receives brief mention in many surveys of divorce’s history, we provide here the first detailed examination of the original court records.
Bigamy and Adultery
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 turns to the records of parliament, examining measures that crossed the thin line between litigation and legislation. Parliament passed acts both private and public that honed its ability to end failed marriages through death, either civil and fictive or all too real. The chapter focuses on the developments that followed the Foljambe decision of 1602 in trying to resolve the disagreements and differences that had arisen around divorce. It addresses the so-called Bigamy Act of 1604 that criminalized marriage of a second spouse in the lifetime of the first, putting it in the context of other, failed measures to make adultery a capital offence. Turning to look more directly at adultery and bigamy as discussed in parliament—the body claiming to be the highest court of the land—lets us see from another angle the ramifying effects of coverture and of jurisdictional pluralism on marital separations in post-Reformation England.
Private Litigation and Parliamentary Divorce, c.1660–1700
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 examines attempts made in the Restoration era to reverse the changes of the revolutionary decades. The reactionary retrenchments of the 1660s saw heated attacks on what some elite men perceived as dangerous new liberties for married women through the unduly generous provision of alimony. Coverture received strong reassertion in the infamous case of Manby v Scott (1663); the later decision in Whorwood v Whorwood did much the same for the primacy of the restored church courts. Even so, Chancery retained and developed a role in protecting separate estates for married women and offering some recourse to women and men in failed marriages. More and more couples relied on negotiated settlements and trusts to secure adequate maintenance for wives during marriage and in the event of widowhood, but these same arrangements could operate during separations. And divorce did become possible in these post-revolutionary decades, though not in the ways Archbishop Cranmer and others had envisioned in the heady early days of the Reformation. The spirit of the Adultery Act revived, when parliament began to offer a select few men private divorce acts, acts that evaded the problem of coverture not by wiping it away but rather by treating the adulterous wife as if she were dead at law.
Afterword
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The Afterword traces briefly the connections between the post-Reformation story told in the preceding chapters and the better-known nineteenth-century reforms to divorce law and coverture. The civil death upon which parliamentary divorces and coverture were premised continued, and if anything legal patriarchy tightened, in the years between 1700 and the divorce and property law reforms of the 1800s. Drawing upon eighteenth-century work by Sarah Chapone and William Blackstone, the Afterword then turns to the writings of Caroline Norton to help sketch the changes that helped propel the Divorce Act of 1857. It briefly alludes to the links between the history examined in the book and continuing inequalities within marriages and related legally-regulated conjugal partnerships even today.