Global maps of soil temperature
Authors: Lembrechts Jonas J. , van den Hoogen Johan , Aalto Juha , Ashcroft Michael B. , De Frenne Pieter , Kemppinen Julia , Kopecký Martin , Luoto Miska , Maclean Ilya M. D. , Crowther Thomas W. , Bailey Joseph J. , Haesen Stef , Klinges David H. , Niittynen Pekka , Scheffers Brett R. , Van Meerbeek Koenraad , Aartsma Peter , Abdalaze Otar , Abedi Mehdi , Aerts Rien , Ahmadian Negar , Ahrends Antje , Alatalo Juha M. , Alexander Jake M. , Allonsius Camille Nina , Altman Jan , Ammann Christof , Andres Christian , Andrews Christopher , Ardö Jonas , Arriga Nicola , Arzac Alberto , Aschero Valeria , Assis Rafael L. , Assmann Jakob Johann , Bader Maaike Y. , Bahalkeh Khadijeh , Barančok Peter , Barrio Isabel C. , Barros Agustina , Barthel Matti , Basham Edmund W. , Bauters Marijn , Bazzichetto Manuele , Marchesini Luca Belelli , Bell Michael C. , Benavides Juan C. , Benito Alonso José Luis , Berauer Bernd J. , Bjerke Jarle W. , Björk Robert G. , Björkman Mats P. , Björnsdóttir Katrin , Blonder Benjamin , Boeckx Pascal , Boike Julia , Bokhorst Stef , Brum Bárbara N. S. , Brůna Josef , Buchmann Nina , Buysse Pauline , Camargo José Luís , Campoe Otávio C. , Candan Onur , Canessa Rafaella , Cannone Nicoletta , Carbognani Michele , Carnicer Jofre , Casanova‐Katny Angélica , Cesarz Simone , Chojnicki Bogdan , Choler Philippe , Chown Steven L. , Cifuentes Edgar F. , Čiliak Marek , Contador Tamara , Convey Peter , Cooper Elisabeth J. , Cremonese Edoardo , Curasi Salvatore R. , Curtis Robin , Cutini Maurizio , Dahlberg C. Johan , Daskalova Gergana N. , de Pablo Miguel Angel , Della Chiesa Stefano , Dengler Jürgen , Deronde Bart , Descombes Patrice , Di Cecco Valter , Di Musciano Michele , Dick Jan , Dimarco Romina D. , Dolezal Jiri , Dorrepaal Ellen , Dušek Jiří , Eisenhauer Nico , Eklundh Lars , Erickson Todd E. , Erschbamer Brigitta , Eugster Werner , Ewers Robert M. , Exton Dan A. , Fanin Nicolas , Fazlioglu Fatih , Feigenwinter Iris , Fenu Giuseppe , Ferlian Olga , Fernández Calzado M. Rosa , Fernández‐Pascual Eduardo , Finckh Manfred , Higgens Rebecca Finger , Forte T'ai G. W. , Freeman Erika C. , Frei Esther R. , Fuentes‐Lillo Eduardo , García Rafael A. , García María B. , Géron Charly , Gharun Mana , Ghosn Dany , Gigauri Khatuna , Gobin Anne , Goded Ignacio , Goeckede Mathias , Gottschall Felix , Goulding Keith , Govaert Sanne , Graae Bente Jessen , Greenwood Sarah , Greiser Caroline , Grelle Achim , Guénard Benoit , Guglielmin Mauro , Guillemot Joannès , Haase Peter , Haider Sylvia , Halbritter Aud H. , Hamid Maroof , Hammerle Albin , Hampe Arndt , Haugum Siri V. , Hederová Lucia , Heinesch Bernard , Helfter Carole , Hepenstrick Daniel , Herberich Maximiliane , Herbst Mathias , Hermanutz Luise , Hik David S. , Hoffrén Raúl , Homeier Jürgen , Hörtnagl Lukas , Høye Toke T. , Hrbacek Filip , Hylander Kristoffer , Iwata Hiroki , Jackowicz‐Korczynski Marcin Antoni , Jactel Hervé , Järveoja Järvi , Jastrzębowski Szymon , Jentsch Anke , Jiménez Juan J. , Jónsdóttir Ingibjörg S. , Jucker Tommaso , Jump Alistair S. , Juszczak Radoslaw , Kanka Róbert , Kašpar Vít , Kazakis George , Kelly Julia , Khuroo Anzar A. , Klemedtsson Leif , Klisz Marcin , Kljun Natascha , Knohl Alexander , Kobler Johannes , Kollár Jozef , Kotowska Martyna M. , Kovács Bence , Kreyling Juergen , Lamprecht Andrea , Lang Simone I. , Larson Christian , Larson Keith , Laska Kamil , le Maire Guerric , Leihy Rachel I. , Lens Luc , Liljebladh Bengt , Lohila Annalea , Lorite Juan , Loubet Benjamin , Lynn Joshua , Macek Martin , Mackenzie Roy , Magliulo Enzo , Maier Regine , Malfasi Francesco , Máliš František , Man Matěj , Manca Giovanni , Manco Antonio , Manise Tanguy , Manolaki Paraskevi , Marciniak Felipe , Matula Radim , Mazzolari Ana Clara , Medinets Sergiy , Medinets Volodymyr , Meeussen Camille , Merinero Sonia , Mesquita Rita de Cássia Guimarães , Meusburger Katrin , Meysman Filip J. R. , Michaletz Sean T. , Milbau Ann , Moiseev Dmitry , Moiseev Pavel , Mondoni Andrea , Monfries Ruth , Montagnani Leonardo , Moriana‐Armendariz Mikel , Morra di Cella Umberto , Mörsdorf Martin , Mosedale Jonathan R. , Muffler Lena , Muñoz‐Rojas Miriam , Myers Jonathan A. , Myers‐Smith Isla H. , Nagy Laszlo , Nardino Marianna , Naujokaitis‐Lewis Ilona , Newling Emily , Nicklas Lena , Niedrist Georg , Niessner Armin , Nilsson Mats B. , Normand Signe , Nosetto Marcelo D. , Nouvellon Yann , Nuñez Martin A. , Ogaya Romà , Ogée Jérôme , Okello Joseph , Olejnik Janusz , Olesen Jørgen Eivind , Opedal Øystein H. , Orsenigo Simone , Palaj Andrej , Pampuch Timo , Panov Alexey V. , Pärtel Meelis , Pastor Ada , Pauchard Aníbal , Pauli Harald , Pavelka Marian , Pearse William D. , Peichl Matthias , Pellissier Loïc , Penczykowski Rachel M. , Penuelas Josep , Petit Bon Matteo , Petraglia Alessandro , Phartyal Shyam S. , Phoenix Gareth K. , Pio Casimiro , Pitacco Andrea , Pitteloud Camille , Plichta Roman , Porro Francesco , Portillo‐Estrada Miguel , Poulenard Jérôme , Poyatos Rafael , Prokushkin Anatoly S. , Puchalka Radoslaw , Pușcaș Mihai , Radujković Dajana , Randall Krystal , Ratier Backes Amanda , Remmele Sabine , Remmers Wolfram , Renault David , Risch Anita C. , Rixen Christian , Robinson Sharon A. , Robroek Bjorn J. M. , Rocha Adrian V. , Rossi Christian , Rossi Graziano , Roupsard Olivier , Rubtsov Alexey V. , Saccone Patrick , Sagot Clotilde , Sallo Bravo Jhonatan , Santos Cinthya C. , Sarneel Judith M. , Scharnweber Tobias , Schmeddes Jonas , Schmidt Marius , Scholten Thomas , Schuchardt Max , Schwartz Naomi , Scott Tony , Seeber Julia , Segalin de Andrade Ana Cristina , Seipel Tim , Semenchuk Philipp , Senior Rebecca A. , Serra‐Diaz Josep M. , Sewerniak Piotr , Shekhar Ankit , Sidenko Nikita V. , Siebicke Lukas , Siegwart Collier Laura , Simpson Elizabeth , Siqueira David P. , Sitková Zuzana , Six Johan , Smiljanic Marko , Smith Stuart W. , Smith‐Tripp Sarah , Somers Ben , Sørensen Mia Vedel , Souza José João L. L. , Souza Bartolomeu Israel , Souza Dias Arildo , Spasojevic Marko J. , Speed James D. M. , Spicher Fabien , Stanisci Angela , Steinbauer Klaus , Steinbrecher Rainer , Steinwandter Michael , Stemkovski Michael , Stephan Jörg G. , Stiegler Christian , Stoll Stefan , Svátek Martin , Svoboda Miroslav , Tagesson Torbern , Tanentzap Andrew J. , Tanneberger Franziska , Theurillat Jean‐Paul , Thomas Haydn J. D. , Thomas Andrew D. , Tielbörger Katja , Tomaselli Marcello , Treier Urs Albert , Trouillier Mario , Turtureanu Pavel Dan , Tutton Rosamond , Tyystjärvi Vilna A. , Ueyama Masahito , Ujházy Karol , Ujházyová Mariana , Uogintas Domas , Urban Anastasiya V. , Urban Josef , Urbaniak Marek , Ursu Tudor‐Mihai , Vaccari Francesco Primo , Van de Vondel Stijn , van den Brink Liesbeth , Van Geel Maarten , Vandvik Vigdis , Vangansbeke Pieter , Varlagin Andrej , Veen G. F. , Veenendaal Elmar , Venn Susanna E. , Verbeeck Hans , Verbrugggen Erik , Verheijen Frank G. A. , Villar Luis , Vitale Luca , Vittoz Pascal , Vives‐Ingla Maria , von Oppen Jonathan , Walz Josefine , Wang Runxi , Wang Yifeng , Way Robert G. , Wedegärtner Ronja E. M. , Weigel Robert , Wild Jan , Wilkinson Matthew , Wilmking Martin , Wingate Lisa , Winkler Manuela , Wipf Sonja , Wohlfahrt Georg , Xenakis Georgios , Yang Yan , Yu Zicheng , Yu Kailiang , Zellweger Florian , Zhang Jian , Zhang Zhaochen , Zhao Peng , Ziemblińska Klaudia , Zimmermann Reiner , Zong Shengwei , Zyryanov Viacheslav I. , Nijs Ivan , Lenoir Jonathan 
Published: December 2021

AbstractResearch in global change ecology relies heavily on global climatic grids derived from estimates of air temperature in open areas at around 2 m above the ground. These climatic grids do not reflect conditions below vegetation canopies and near the ground surface, where critical ecosystem functions occur and most terrestrial species reside. Here, we provide global maps of soil temperature and bioclimatic variables at a 1‐km2resolution for 0–5 and 5–15 cm soil depth. These maps were created by calculating the difference (i.e. offset) between in situ soil temperature measurements, based on time series from over 1200 1‐km2pixels (summarized from 8519 unique temperature sensors) across all the world's major terrestrial biomes, and coarse‐grained air temperature estimates from ERA5‐Land (an atmospheric reanalysis by the European Centre for Medium‐Range Weather Forecasts). We show that mean annual soil temperature differs markedly from the corresponding gridded air temperature, by up to 10°C (mean = 3.0 ± 2.1°C), with substantial variation across biomes and seasons. Over the year, soils in cold and/or dry biomes are substantially warmer (+3.6 ± 2.3°C) than gridded air temperature, whereas soils in warm and humid environments are on average slightly cooler (−0.7 ± 2.3°C). The observed substantial and biome‐specific offsets emphasize that the projected impacts of climate and climate change on near‐surface biodiversity and ecosystem functioning are inaccurately assessed when air rather than soil temperature is used, especially in cold environments. The global soil‐related bioclimatic variables provided here are an important step forward for any application in ecology and related disciplines. Nevertheless, we highlight the need to fill remaining geographic gaps by collecting more in situ measurements of microclimate conditions to further enhance the spatiotemporal resolution of global soil temperature products for ecological applications.