bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Re-Imagining Corporate Accountability
Authors: Bruner Christopher M. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyses the nature and scope of corporate accountability through multiple lenses. First, Bruner assesses the nature and scope of directors’ accountability through the composition of the board, considering systems where non-shareholder constituencies (notably, employees) have some measure of direct board representation; initiatives aimed at increasing the diversity of directors in publicly traded companies; and speculation that boards of directors might be augmented, or even replaced entirely, by emerging technologies such as artificial intelligence. Next, the chapter considers the degree to which legal responsibility for the impacts of global value chains ought to flow up to entities at the top of those chains, whether they are organized through corporate parent-subsidiary relationships or through nominally arms’-length contractual relationships. Finally, the chapter assesses a striking national effort to reimagine corporate governance along more sustainable lines—the corporate governance system of post-apartheid South Africa, which provides a vivid case study through which to assess pitfalls and opportunities that may arise in pursuing greater sustainability through corporate governance.
Introduction
Authors: Allen Michael S. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces Niścaldās’s magnum opus, The Ocean of Inquiry, offering evidence of its popularity in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and exploring the reasons for its subsequent neglect. The chapter also introduces the framework of “Greater Advaita Vedānta,” which highlights the spread of Advaita Vedānta not only through Sanskrit philosophical works but through vernacular works, narratives and dramas, and “eclectic” works blending Vedānta with other traditions. It is argued that a study of Greater Advaita Vedānta is necessary if we are to understand where, when, how, and why Advaita Vedānta came to be viewed as (in the words of A. L. Basham) “the standard philosophy of intellectual Hinduism.”
Conclusion
Authors: Allen Michael S. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This concluding chapter argues for the relevance of Indian scholasticism to the emergence of modern Hinduism. The chapter begins with a summary of the “construction of Hinduism” debate, before turning to a study of the final chapter of The Ocean of Inquiry, in which Niścaldās presents a synthesis of various philosophical schools and theological sects typically identified as “Hindu,” with Vedānta at their summit. It is argued that this presentation, which might seem distinctively modern, can in fact be traced to the work of earlier, premodern thinkers. The chapter suggests that the scholastic method itself—with its aims of synthesizing, harmonizing, and removing doubts—contributed to the gradual systematization of an expanded Vedic canon. The unification of traditions that would later come to be labeled as “Hindu” can thus be understood, at least in part, as a natural result of the kind of inquiry embodied in Niścaldās’s magnum opus.
British Pasts
Authors: Pryce Huw 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on accounts of the history of the Welsh (usually referred to as Britons), written (mostly) in Latin, from the sixth century to the eve of the first Norman invasions of Wales in the 1070s. After briefly considering how Bede and other early medieval English historians portrayed the Britons and Welsh, it assesses the significance of Gildas’s De Excidio Britanniae (‘The Ruin of Britain’), possibly datable to c.540, which interpreted the Britons’ loss of territories in Britain to the English as divine punishment for their sins. Attention turns in the rest of the chapter to the collection of historical texts extant in British Library, Harleian MS 3859: Historia Brittonum (‘The History of the Britons’, 829/30), the Harleian chronicle or A-text of Annales Cambriae, and the Harleian genealogies. The discussion highlights the strong identification with a wider Brittonic world revealed by these works and their use of a wide range of sources, including texts from England, Ireland, and the European Continent.
Saints, Kings, and Princes
Authors: Pryce Huw 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the increasing quantity and variety of Welsh history writing produced between the late eleventh and late thirteenth centuries. Much of this responded to political changes, both attempts by Welsh rulers to expand and consolidate their power, and foreign conquest and settlement that led to the creation of marcher lordships and to attempts by kings of England to assert their overlordship over Wales which culminated in the Edwardian conquest. It begins by focusing on accounts of the ancient and early medieval history of the Britons of Wales written between the late eleventh and mid-twelfth centuries: saints’ Lives and Geoffrey of Monmouth’s hugely popular Historia Regum Britanniae (‘History of the Kings of Britain’), a cornerstone of medieval Welsh historical writing. This section concludes by examining the reception of Geoffrey of Monmouth in the writings of Gerald of Wales and Welsh translations of Geoffrey’s History. The rest of the chapter turns to narrative works in which secular rulers occupy centre stage. It begins with the only surviving medieval biography of a medieval Welsh ruler, the Latin Life of Gruffudd ap Cynan (d. 1137), before discussing Latin chronicles, especially those underlying the Welsh-language chronicles known as Brut y Tywysogyon (‘The Chronicle of the Princes’). After addressing some of the textual problems these pose, the chapter assesses how the chroniclers portrayed Welsh rulers and the extent to which they promoted the idea of a united Wales.
From the Universal to the Local
Authors: Pryce Huw 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the different frameworks adopted for narrating the history of Wales in works composed between the mid-sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries. First, it analyses the treatment of Wales in the world chronicle written in Welsh and completed in 1552 by Elis Gruffudd, a member of an impoverished Flintshire gentry family, while serving in the English garrison in Calais. This is followed, second, by an assessment of the scope and purpose of the first works conceived as histories of Wales, both written in English by Welsh Renaissance scholars who adapted the medieval narrative framework of Brut y Tywysogyon in accounts focused on the period from the late seventh century to the Edwardian conquest: Humphrey Llwyd’s Cronica Walliae (1559) and the first printed history of Wales, David Powel’s The Historie of Cambria (1584), an edited and expanded version of Llwyd’s work. Third, the chapter turns attention to histories of families and counties by members of the Welsh gentry, including chorographical accounts (influenced by similar works in England) such as George Owen of Henllys’s Description of Penbrokshire (1603), and highlights their greater readiness than Llwyd and Powel to cover events from the Edwardian conquest of Wales down to their own day.
A New Beginning?
Authors: Pryce Huw 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This final chapter outlines the main changes in the nature and scope of Welsh history writing since the 1960s and assesses the impact of those changes on broader understandings of the history of Wales. In important respects the unprecedented quantity and diversity of the historical writing produced in these decades marked a new beginning that sought to recover large swathes of Welsh history excluded or marginalized in previous accounts. Distant origins lost their final vestiges of explanatory power, while the modern period attracted unprecedented attention. Rather than adapting frameworks inherited from medieval and early modern historiography, scholarly writing on Welsh history has been increasingly situated in an international world of professionalized history and sought to address issues of concern to other fields of historical scholarship: women and gender, ethnic minorities, and transnational approaches to Wales’s history are important cases in point. There have also been numerous efforts to cater for public interest in the Welsh past. However, the writing of this period has not marked a complete break with earlier assumptions. New approaches have been used to address old questions, not least the perennial theme of what made the Welsh who they were and are.
All Gone? Change and Persistence in the Impact of Social Cleavages on Voting Behavior in Germany since 1949
Authors: Elff Martin , Roßteutscher Sigrid 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
From the perspective of traditional cleavage voting, the chapter explores the long-term changes in voting behavior that have culminated in the electoral turmoil of the last elections. Looking at the trajectories of the two major parties, Christian Democrats (CDU/CSU) and Social Democrats (SPD), it explores how traditional cleavage voting and the parties’ outreach to new groups of voters explain both the rise and the fall of these parties’ electoral support since 1949. Both parties were at first highly successful in mobilizing their core voter segments, i.e., unionized workers and churchgoing Catholics but also in attracting voters from new social groups. However, this initial success in combing the “old” with the “new” did not persist. A counterfactual simulation shows that it is not the shrinking of core voter groups that brought about the two parties’ electoral decline but their inability to retain these groups’ support.
Do Televised Debates Affect Voting Behavior?
Authors: Maier Jürgen , Maier Michaela , Faas Thorsten 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Although televised debates between party leaders nowadays are a staple of German electoral campaigns, their behavioral effects are still unclear. Based on quasi-experimental data for the 2009, 2013, and 2017 German federal elections, the chapter demonstrates that debates had significant direct (i.e., through personal exposure) and indirect effects (i.e., through exposure to follow-up communication). Direct effects were most likely for politically low involved voters and predisposed voters who perceived that “their” candidate had lost the debate. Indirect effects affected politically unsophisticated voters and voters who were influenced by personal debate exposure. Debates and post-debate communication were particularly helpful for undecided voters whose shares dropped substantially. Debate exposure benefited the parties participating in a debate, whereas follow-up communication helped parties that were excluded from them.
Constitutional Ratification without Reason
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This book focuses on constitutional ratification, the procedure in which a draft constitution is submitted by its creators to the people or their representatives in an up or down vote determining implementation. Ratification is increasingly common and routinely recommended by experts. Nonetheless, it is neither neutral nor inevitable. Constitutions can be made without it and when it is used it has significant effects. This raises the central question of the book: should ratification be recommended? Put another way: is there a reason for treating the procedure as a default for the constitution-making process? Surprisingly, these questions are rarely asked. The procedure’s worth is assumed, not demonstrated, while ratification is generally overlooked in the literature. In fact, this is the first sustained study of ratification. To address these oversights, this book defines ratification and its types, explains the procedure’s effects, conceptual origins, and history, and then concentrates on finding reasons for its use. Specifically, it builds up and analyzes the three most likely normative justifications. These urge the implementation of ratification because the procedure: enables the constituent power to make its constitution; fosters representation during constitution-making; or helps create a legitimate constitution. Ultimately, these justifications are found wanting, leading to the conclusion that ratification lacks a convincing, context-independent justification. Thus, experts should not recommend ratification as a matter of course, practitioners should not reach for it uncritically, and—more generally—one should avoid the blanket application of concepts from democratic theory to extraordinary contexts such as constitution-making.
Ratification beyond (and before) Constitutions
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores ratification outside of constitution-making, specifically in agency law, international law, and labor law. In each, ratification or its cognates is used to describe a procedure of a similar form. This is no coincidence, the chapter reveals, for all types of ratification descend from a common procedure in the private law of Ancient Rome. The procedure entered early modern agency law, then treaty-making, then written constitution-making, and finally into collective bargaining practices. This chapter describes the history and use of ratification in each of the non-constitutional areas and explains the procedure’s evolving functions. In agency law, ratification serves the purpose of fixing a broken (illegitimate) decision-making process by transforming false agents into real ones. In early treaty law, ratification served as a means of pronouncing judgment on the behavior and credentials of ambassador agents. In current treaty law, ratification serves as the site or a site of sovereign decision-making. And, in collective bargaining settings, ratification is thought both to add to the legitimacy of a contract and give the union a strategic advantage in negotiations. In later chapters, these functions help generate potential justifications for constitutional ratification.
Ignorance and the Constituent Power
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter finds that the Berkshire Constitutionalists’ unique site justification is unpersuasive because of voter ignorance. According to this justification, a ratification referendum should be implemented because it serves as the sole site of constituent power, meaning that it uniquely enables the people to create a constitution and make it their own. However, a ratification referendum can only play such a role if individual voters are able to make a meaningful choice on the constitution, i.e., a choice based on a basic understanding of the document, its implications, and available alternatives. Unfortunately, one should expect the average voter, for no fault of their own, to be too uninformed to make such a choice, and therefore the unique site justification fails. This chapter backs up this claim by appealing to the voter ignorance literature and extrapolating its implications for constitution-making. The remainder of the chapter clarifies this finding by considering and rebutting three objections: that the standard of meaningful choice is too high even for framers; that citizen ratifiers can overcome ignorance by relying on information shortcuts and other voting heuristics; and that targeted education campaigns can sufficiently inform voters. The chapter concludes by arguing that constituent power cannot be used to justify ratification, and suggesting that the concept more generally is too unspecific to assist in ex ante constitution-making design.
Representation through Accountability
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates the representation justification of ratification, the claim that ratification should be implemented because it helps foster desirable representation within the constitution-making process. First, the chapter defines the concept of political representation and explains its purported role in constitution-making. Next, it argues that ratification can only play a role in representation by serving as an accountability mechanism, meaning it would be responsible for giving constituents control over their framers and allowing them to assert their presence in the constitution-making process. However, the chapter goes on to show that ratification cannot provide accountability because of the problem of double duty. This arises whenever there is a divergence between how a ratifier evaluates their representative framer and the draft constitution. The representation justification therefore fails. This chapter ends by addressing several objections to this conclusion and questioning whether the concept of representation is appropriate for the constitution-making process more generally.
Small Populations and Genetic Drift
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractAll populations are finite in size so that genetic drift will occur in all natural and managed populations. Genetic drift causes both changes in allele frequencies and the loss of genetic variation. Loss of heterozygosity and loss of alleles are t^ghe two primary measures of the loss of genetic variation in populations. Matings between related individuals (i.e., inbreeding) is more common in small populations, and this will lead to inbreeding depression in small populations. Understanding the effects of genetic drift is especially important for conservation because loss of genetic variation and inbreeding depression can reduce the probability of population persistence.
Conservation Units
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractIn this chapter, we discuss the importance of and methods for delineating conservation units, including species and intraspecific units (e.g., evolutionarily significant units and management units). It is essential to conserve all levels of biodiversity, including genes, populations, species, and ecosystems, for effective biodiversity conservation. Phylogenies—evolutionary trees that depict the patterns and timing of branching events in the evolutionary history of taxa—are an essential concept and tool for delineating species. Genetic and genomic data also play a key role in defining populations and the relationships among individuals and populations within species. Genetic relationships can be depicted using a variety of population- or individual-based analyses. Phenotypic and environmental data should be integrated with genetic and genomic data for robust inference of conservation units.
What 21st century medicine should be—history, vision, implementation, and opportunities
Authors: Hood Leroy , Price Nathan D. , Evans Simon J. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
P4 medicine will employ longitudinal, high-dimensional analyses of individuals, integrating molecular, digital, electronic health record, and self-monitoring data. This will classify patients, diseases, and drugs, and continually convert data into knowledge through iterative hypothesis testing to inform systems approaches to both wellness and disease. Two preliminary trials have been carried out to validate this approach, one involving 100 individuals over nine months in 2014 and a second recruiting 5,000 individuals over four years from 2015 until 2019. These trials (i) validated scientific (quantitative) wellness, using personal, high-dimensional data to improve one’s wellness, and (ii) demonstrated the power of longitudinal data clouds to bring fundamental new insights into wellness and disease. These led to a vision of 21st century n = 1 medicine which optimizes the health trajectories of each individual. Each health trajectory has three states: (1) a wellness state that will be extended and optimized through scientific wellness and healthy ageing; (2) a wellness-to-disease transition state where early biomarkers will be identified and used to design therapies employing the identification of the earliest disease-perturbed networks to reverse disease before it manifests as a clinical entity; and (3) a progressive disease state for which physicians and scientists will use data-driven systems approaches to find therapies that ameliorate or reverse disease. This chapter discusses the promotion of a million person genome/phenome project with a major healthcare system to initiate the implementation of 21st century medicine in the US healthcare system. The challenges and opportunities associated with the realization of 21st century medicine are also discussed.
Genomics and precision medicine
Authors: Moazam Farhat 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Increasing knowledge of the human genome is providing useful insights into genetic contributions to human illnesses and the management of certain diseases. Some within scientific communities suggests the need for radical transformation of the ‘traditional’ understanding of human health and illness into genomics-based systems of precision medicine resting on large genetic banks, ‘big data’ and data clouds, and pharmacogenomics. This will require a radical shift in the focus and trajectory of biomedical research and standards of care in medicine around the world. Those contesting this view note compelling scientific evidence that the health of populations is related to social determinants rather than to genetic make-up of individuals. In these discussions there is a paucity of voices from developing countries, which are home to two-thirds of the world’s inhabitants. This chapter offers perspectives of a physician from the trenches in Pakistan, a low- to middle-income country. It highlights the need for attention to the implications of personalized medicine and genomics-based research and medical practice within global contexts rather than narrow parochial interests. I discuss the ethical challenges faced at professional, national, and global levels related to fairness, equity, justice, and solidarity in healthcare when balancing rights of individuals versus duties and responsibilities to society. In a world with limited resources, increasing inequalities and expanding North–South power differentials, precision medicine raises troubling questions about the ethos of healthcare professions, the trajectory of scientific research, and who will be in the saddle when these decisions are made.
Personalization, individuation, and the ethos of precision medicine
Authors: Barilan Yechiel Michael 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter explicates key elements in the ethos of personalized medicine by tracing its conceptual and historical background. It distinguishes between individuation, identification, and personalization, and draws on modes of individuation from other contexts, such as identification numbers, screening tests, and ‘scientific management’ in industry. The allure of personalized medicine comes from close metaphorical association with medieval natural law on one hand and pragmatic utilitarianism on the other. This attractive coalition may be misleading because personalized medicine is founded on individuation rather than personalization; it also contains elements that risk undermining the person as an autonomous agent in society. This may happen at several levels. Society might treat persons from the perspectives of a medicalized and risk-oriented method of individuation. Second, the technologies of personalized medicine and its commitment to ‘efficiency’ might influence people’s notions of wellbeing and the good life, rather than merely serve them. Third, the expected long list of preventive and therapeutic personalized interventions might overwhelm the capacity of people to manage their healthcare responsibly.