bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Covert Action in the 1950s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter refers to the CIA’s covert action program, which became a gradually evolving disaster as it alienated the majority of the world’s nations and destroyed America’s claim to moral leadership. It explains how the covert action program undermined the domestic standing of the CIA and its leaders’ ability to promote an intelligent understanding of world affairs. It also mentions the architects of the “dirty tricks” policy who saw themselves as having good intentions that conformed with American tradition and the law. The chapter highlights the popular image of the OSS that was almost synonymous with covert operations as the CIA undertook operations in parallel with America’s enemies, friends, and companion institutions. It looks at projects launched in America’s peacetime program of covert action, such as the overthrow of left-leaning democracies in Iran and Guatemala.
Intelligence in the 1950s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how the CIA did its intelligence job, for example, by asking traveling businessmen and tourists to photograph military installations while on flights over Russia. It talks about memories of Pearl Harbor that had helped to dictate the demand for the CIA to avert another surprise attack. It also points out the difficulty of avoiding surprise events such as the communists’ blockade of West Berlin from 1948 to 1949 and North Korea’s attack on South Korea in 1950. The chapter mentions intelligence veteran and philosopher Willmoore Kendall, who warned the CIA against the compulsive preoccupation with prediction and the elimination of surprises from foreign affairs. It highlights reforms of the CIA in 1952 that created an Office of National Estimates under Sherman Kent, a leading intelligence theorist who worked toward higher standards.
Bay of Pigs, 1961
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter recounts the Bay of Pigs fiasco, which was triggered by Fidel Castro’s seizure of power in Cuba, which overthrew the regime of Fulgencio Batista in 1959. It explains that the dictatorial President Batista ran Cuba as a compliant friend of the United States and partner of US mobsters who took a significant stake in the island’s flourishing casino and brothel industries. It also discusses Washington’s treatment of Castro as a communist, which started after he abolished the vice trade and announced land reforms that affected US interests. The chapter details the Bay of Pigs invasion that took place from 17 to 20 April 1961. It goes on to discuss the Cuban Missile Crisis of October 1962 and the possible links between the CIA’s program to assassinate Castro and the assassination in 1963 of President John F. Kennedy.
Vietnam: The Roles of the CIA
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter analyzes the pessimistic tendency in CIA’s reports of the Vietnam War, in which the assumption was that the war was unwinnable. However, the chapter discusses how the CIA embraced the principle of “intelligence to please” and showed itself vulnerable to manipulation. It recounts how the CIA loyally helped the Johnson and Nixon administrations to prosecute the Vietnam War, in which it did not believe, and how it killed people contrary to its own counterinsurgency principles. It discusses the intelligence dimensions of the Gulf of Tonkin incident that drew America into the war, the Rolling Thunder bombing campaign, the order-of-battle controversy that preceded the Tet Offensive of 1968, and Nixon’s Vietnamization program.
From Reformation to Counter-Reformation in the 1970s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter talks about a multipronged political attack that endangered the CIA’s standing, resulting in reforms in 1975 and the restoration of popular faith in the agency. It explains the causes of the attack in terms of factors such as détente, Watergate, and the outbreak of controversy about the CIA’s alleged complicity in the overthrow of democracy in Chile. The chapter considers the work of the Church inquiry into the CIA and the debate over the use of assassination as a way of achieving foreign-policy goals. It lists the likely causes of the subsidence of the “intelligence flap”. It reviews the evidence for the proposition that the 1970s reforms such as congressional oversight were hollow and impermanent and suggests that the reforms did restore the CIA’s standing.
The Collapse of Soviet Communism in the 1980s
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter traces the history of the CIA in the 1980s, which is inseparable from the demise of communism in Europe and the end of the Cold War. It analyzes the victory hypothesis, and details how the CIA penetrated the darkness beyond the Iron Curtain and estimated that Moscow was intensifying its military preparations. It also discusses the United States’ escalation of its defenses against Moscow, particularly with the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI). The chapter explains that SDI was a space- and laser-based system for destroying incoming enemy missiles before they hit their targets. It refers to Moscow’s planned escalation on SDI in response, which did not happen, as the Soviet Union proved to be unequal to the challenge of matching US spending.
Iran and Iran–Contra
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter tells the story of individuals within the US governing establishment who supplied Iran with weapons and diverted the profits to finance the Contras in Nicaragua, an activity that the US Congress had specifically outlawed. It recognizes the Iran–Contra scandal as the latest example of a long-running, disastrous strain in US foreign policy. The chapter explains that Washington’s opportunistic relationship with Iran stretches back to 1953, when the CIA played a part in terminating Iranian democracy with what it regarded as its wayward tendencies. It emphasizes how Iran, together with Israel, at first comprised a building block of US power in the volatile Middle East. Things came unstuck with the fall of the shah and the seizure of the Tehran US embassy staff as hostages by Islamic militants.
Existential Issues, 1990–7
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter reviews how the CIA continued to operate throughout the 1990s and supply assessments based on hard-won information that policymakers in Washington were at liberty to heed. It mentions the CIA’s ability to monitor Saddam Hussein’s armed forces, although the agency had no means of penetrating the political establishment in Baghdad. It also details how the CIA warned President George H. W. Bush about the possibility of Iraqi aggression toward Kuwait. The chapter reviews the role of the CIA in the Balkan crisis. It outlines the campaigns, led by Senator Daniel Moynihan, to abolish the CIA and advance the principle of transparency. It assesses attempts to remove the glass ceiling and achieve a more representative workforce, and shows how a return of public confidence allowed the CIA to survive the end of the Cold War.
Battling al-Qaeda with Assassination and Torture
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter details how the CIA resorted to torture and assassination in a routine manner during the administration of President George W. Bush. It recounts how the 9/11 attacks brought the CIA to the forefront of the campaign to deal with a far-flung panoply of terrorism. It also talks about Operation Greystone, which the Bush administration had launched after 9/11 and which was intended to down bin Laden and other al-Qaeda leaders. It mentions how President Bush authorized the CIA to achieve and exploit the isolation of captured al-Qaeda suspects in black sites or secret interrogation camps. The chapter points out how the issue of torture became a domestic political issue.
Back to Work
Authors: Jeffreys-Jones Rhodri 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter discusses Thomas P. Bossert, who was the guest for a virtual seminar organized via Zoom by the International Spy Museum in Washington, D.C. Bossert had been President Donald Trump’s original selection as homeland security adviser. It points out how Bossert conveyed his concern about the state of American preparedness and called the nation’s network of nineteen spy agencies a “screwed-up system”. The chapter highlights the need for the CIA of a change in regime and return to political stability, and discusses the contributions of President Biden to that end. It looks at an intelligence report released in March 2021 which confirmed that Russia tried to discredit Joe Biden and his son Hunter in the course of the 2020 campaign and spread false rumors about the election being stolen through ballot rigging.
‘The Great Surrender Made’
Authors: Snape Michael 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the role played by Anglicans in shaping the culture of Remembrance in Great Britain, the Dominions, and the United States in the formative years after the First World War. In doing so, it highlights the defining role of the King James Bible and the 1662 Book of Common Prayer in the idiom of Remembrance, questioning assumptions as to its innately ‘secular’ quality. It also illustrates Anglican influence on the work of the Imperial War Graves Commission and how this was accompanied by the phenomenon of post-war Anglican ‘pilgrimage’ to the battlefields of 1914 to 1918. Besides considering the significance of the practical demands and iconography of Remembrance and memorialization, it also examines the political overtones of Anglican-sponsored Remembrance, especially its quest for social harmony and its affirmation of loyalty to the Empire. The chapter explores the inter-war multiplication of regimental chapels in the cathedrals and major churches of England and Wales, their place in the vaunted regimental system of the British Army, and their potency as symbols of Anglican identification with the service and sacrifice of local communities. The chapter concludes with a consideration of how these tendencies persisted after 1945, especially with the creation of the Battle of Britain Memorial Chapel in Westminster Abbey and in the imperatives which drove the transformation of St Clement Danes in London into the Central Church of the Royal Air Force in the 1950s.
Afterword
Authors: Snape Michael 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This Afterword offers some reflections on the legacy of the issues raised in this book, and especially their implications for the Church of England, the still-established mother Church of the Anglican Communion, as the twenty-first century unfolds. Against the background of the Church’s waning influence and membership, it considers the evolution of just war theory in Anglican circles since 1945 and the effects of political shifts among its clergy, the post-colonial dynamics of the Anglican Communion, and the civilianization of Church and society around the turn of the twenty-first century. After surveying responses in the Church of England to more recent conflicts, it concludes by reflecting on the future of Remembrance in the Church of England and the manner in which the Church’s role in past conflicts is widely perceived and understood.
The Woman President
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractToo much attention is paid to the absence of women leaders around the world rather than their presence, leaving a gap in our understanding of the difference women leaders make on the lives of fellow women. With women leaders an under-studied group and with the law profoundly important in advancing women’s rights, The Woman President brings together these two domains to become the first-ever comparative study of women’s leadership and the law. It offers the legal and political science scholarship new ways for understanding the impact of female presidential leadership on women’s everyday lives by analysing the legal legacies of four women presidents: Corazon Aquino (1986–1992), Gloria Macapagal Arroyo (2001–2010), Megawati Sukarnoputri (2001–2004) and Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga (1994–2005). The book relies on aninnovative methodology, which includes the use of new the Gender Legislative Index. The findings challenge and expand our understanding of what constitutes a woman’s issue, bringing within its analysis labour law reform, democracy, anti-corruption, poverty-alleviation and pro-peace interventions, alongside more oft-considered terrain such as gender-based violence, reproductive rights, gender equality quotas and women’s rights at work. This book also offers important insights into the institutional and social mechanisms that enable women leaders to lead for women, including women’s movements, women legislators, women bureaucrats and global networks of women presidents and prime ministers. The Woman President offers new tools and sharpens old ones to provide an essential comparative contribution to our knowledge about the dynamics and impact of female presidencies, drawing from the realities of the Asia region.
Analysing the Legal Legacies of Women Leaders
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractChapter 2 lays out the key elements of the framework that underpins this study of women leaders and the law. First, the law and legal systems are presented as one of the major levers in the advancement of women’s rights. A three-pronged definition of what constitutes a ‘legal legacy’ is offered. Second, the chapter identifies the considerations behind the selection of three South and Southeast Asian countries for this comparative study. The geographic patterns in women executive’s participation, shared histories of colonial rule and their gendered impact, and a dynamic of highly influential religious actors, help explain the choice of Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka as three nations on which to base The Woman President’s assessment of the footprint of female presidents on the law. This framework is completed with the complex task of defining ‘women’s interests’ or ‘women’s issues’ in a way that seeks to challenge the monolithic notion of ‘women’ and bring within this book a diversity of women’s movements and activists, from conservative to radical.
How Presidents Shape the Law
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractKey distinctions exist between presidential, semi-presidential and parliamentary systems. Despite these, and the additional differences in how each of these political systems operate in practice at the national level, there have been a breadth of scholarly efforts to quantify executive power, particularly within presidential systems. Chapter 3 explores the sharp criticisms directed to some of these dominant methodologies and why challenges emerge when we attempt to quantify and aggregate what are, in practice, distinct uses of executive power. In exchange, this chapter offers a taxonomy for understanding how president’s influence legislative outcomes. Applying this taxonomy, the chapter elaborates on the concrete powers that the four presidents exercised over the law in Indonesia, the Philippines and Sri Lanka as well as at different moments in history. In order to do this, the analysis brings to the discussion such issues as electoral promises, the importance of the State of the Nation Address (SONA) and how other formal political institutions were engaged, such as women’s machinery. Brief notes are made regarding presidents and their cabinet appointments, applying a particular gender lens.
The Instrumentalization of Gender By, For and Against the Woman President
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe sex and gender of The Woman President is a constant subject of political debate. Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati were not immune to the gendered crossfire that conditioned the contexts in which all four women led. Yet gender cannot only be understood in negative terms: women leaders enjoy distinct and unique opportunities to positively avail themselves of gendered norms to advance their rise and leadership when compared to their male counterparts. Chapter 5 revisits the gender of female presidents, presented here as a double-edged sword. While the four women made distinct ‘use’ of male associations for political gain, they too had extensive connections with fellow women that, to a degree, paralleled the networks and connections of male politicians. Status as elite women is a common mark of female executive power, but these marks of privilege, at times, undermined their leaderships’ legitimacy. While women have historically risen on an image of piety and incorruptibility, the framing of political agendas around socially beneficially outcomes created heightened expectations of a scrupulous leadership which proved difficult to meet. The tail-end of the chapter considers the gendered expectations on the shoulders of women leaders to leader for women. We are left with a sense that the international women’s rights standards used to assess the footprint of the four women leaders are neither too onerous nor too radical when we consider the woman leader’s gender as both an obstacle and an asset.
Leading for Women
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractHistory apportions little credit to Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati for the advancement of fellow women. In contrast, Chapter 6 focuses on the positive legislative footprint of the four women leaders on women’s lives. A study of what is sometimes referred to as ‘women-friendly’ policies and legislation or ‘women’s issues and interests’ requires an acknowledgement that women are not a monolithic category. Hence the first part of this chapter identifies what constitutes ‘women’s interests’. It does so by situating the four leaders in the broader landscape of global and national women’s rights advocacy. Subsequently, each leader is studied in turn, starting with their inherited ‘gender machinery’ before exploring how the woman president brought legislative change in favour of women. The chapter navigates across a range of women’s issues often considered core to women’s rights: gender-based violence, women’s reproductive rights and women’s rights at work, including non-discrimination and maternity leave. The chapter demonstrates the notable degree to which the four women presidents played a role in the enactment of legislation that filled a significant gap in the domestic legal landscape.
Roadblocks for Women
Authors: Vijeyarasa Ramona 
Published: August 2022

AbstractAn evaluation of a leader’s legacy naturally results in both ticks and crosses. Chapter 7 focuses on the negative legislative footprint. It begins by considering the socio-cultural parameters that, to varying degrees, shaped the decision-making of Presidents Aquino, Kumaratunga, Macapagal Arroyo and Megawati and the environments in which they led. With this context in mind, key issues are studied to act as a litmus test about the gendered expectations and impact of women leaders. Specifically, the chapter explores calls for law reform to advance women’s reproductive health and women’s representation in politics, revealing the extent to which women’s sexual and reproductive health rights were a political bargaining chip across the three countries. What emerges is a sense that leaders often blocked or hindered reform and much desired changes for women were not delivered. Simultaenously, this chapter considers what are often ‘undue’ expectations that are shouldered by women leaders. We see a tendency post-tenure to give limited credit to women executives for the passage of the gender-responsive laws, on the one hand, but to show little hesitation to lay blame, almost entirely, on the Woman President for failed attempts at law reform.
Relativity Principles and Theories from Galileo to Einstein
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: August 2022

AbstractMotion is always relative to something. Is this thing a concrete body like the earth, is it an abstract space, or is it an imagined frame? Do the laws of physics depend on the choice of reference? Is there a choice for which the laws are simplest? Is this choice unique? Is there a physical cause for the choice made? These questions traverse the history of modern physics from Galileo to Einstein. The answers involved Galilean relativity, Newton’s absolute space, the purely relational concepts of Descartes, Leibniz, and Mach, and many forgotten uses of relativity principles in mechanics, optics, and electrodynamics―until the relativity theories of Poincaré, Einstein, Minkowski, and Laue radically redefined space and time to satisfy universal kinds of relativity. Accordingly, this book retraces the emergence of relativity principles in early modern mechanics, documents their constructive use in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century mechanics, optics, and electrodynamics, and gives a well-rooted account of the genesis of special and general relativity in the early twentieth century. As an exercise in long-term history, it demonstrates the connectivity of issues and approaches across several centuries, despite enormous changes in context and culture. As an account of the genesis of relativity theories, it brings unprecedented clarity and fullness by broadening the spectrum of resources on which the principal actors drew.
THE SPACE–TIME–INERTIA TANGLE
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: August 2022

AbstractNewton introduced the absolute space and time for which his laws of motion are valid. At the same time, he derived relativity theorems that made it impossible to distinguish empirically between absolute space and a space in uniform translation. Huygens privately rejected Newton’s absolute space and replaced it with a class of operationally defined inertial frames. Leibniz departed even further from Newton by making space a purely relative concept, concerning the order of coexistence of things. Most later authors endorsed Newton’s concept or applied it uncritically. A first exception is Kant, who replaced Newton’s absolute space with a class of a priori equivalent spaces, all belonging to the same “external intuition.” In the nineteenth century, a few critics of the foundations of mechanics reinvented Huygens’s concept and one of them, Streintz, came close to the modern idea of a Galilean space–time. In contrast, Mach rejected the inertial frames and traced mechanical inertia to an effect of remote masses.
THE ELECTRODYNAMICS OF MOVING BODIES
Authors: Darrigol Olivier 
Published: August 2022

AbstractElectrodynamics early implied the relative motion of bodies through Faraday’s induction phenomenon. Faraday’s rules and the German theories of electrodynamics all assumed the full relativity of electrodynamic phenomena in their very foundation. In contrast, the Maxwellian field theories implied effects of the motion of bodies with respect to the ether. Maxwell, Hertz, and Heaviside retrieved the relativity of induction by assuming the complete drag of ether by matter, against Fresnel. They still imagined effects of motion through the ether, for instance, a diminished repulsion for charges traveling together through the ether. Toward the end of the century, Lorentz reconciled the electromagnetic field theory with optical relativity by having atoms, ions, and electrons freely move through a stationary ether. He relied on transformations that formally related the states of an electrodynamic system carried by the earth through the ether to the state of the same system at rest in the ether.