bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Great-Power Debut, 1865–1914
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
In the five decades after the Civil War the American economy became the largest in the world and the country took part in the first great age of globalization. Its population grew rapidly, especially through immigration from Europe, and Americans in large numbers settled the lands acquired before 1861. All this gave the United States the basis for becoming a great power in the world. During that time America established a sphere of influence in Central America and the eastern Pacific Ocean. It also began to act as a great power in East Asia: American warships opened Japan to international commerce and American merchants pursued commercial opportunities in China, taking advantage of Britain’s victory in the Opium War. The American government issued the “Open Door” note in 1899 in order to preserve these opportunities. The United States acquired a formal empire in the Philippines and an informal one in Cuba through its victory in a war against Spain in 1898. In the early years of the twentieth century two presidents presented contrasting visions of America’s great-power foreign policy. Theodore Roosevelt, like Alexander Hamilton before him, put sustaining a stable balance of power at the center of his outlook. Woodrow Wilson, following in the footsteps of Thomas Jefferson, emphasized the need to transform international politics so as to make them more peaceful.
The Offshore Balancer, 1914–1933
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
At the outset of World War I the United States sought to remain neutral but because of Germany’s unrestricted submarine warfare ultimately entered the conflict on the side of Great Britain and France. American troops contributed to the Allied victory in 1918. At the postwar Paris Peace Conference the American president Woodrow Wilson orchestrated the creation of an international peace-keeping organization, the League of Nations, but the United States Senate rejected American membership in it. In the postwar period the United States attempted to support peace through naval arms control in the Pacific and to stabilize the European economies by adjusting Germany’s reparations payments to France and Great Britain, but the Great Depression brought severe economic hardship to Europe and North America and in East Asia Japan seized part of China despite American protests.
The Arsenal of Democracy, 1933–1945
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The German leader Adolf Hitler’s aggressive policies in Europe, and Japanese imperial conquests in China, brought the post–World War I peace to an end. After the outbreak of war, President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to keep the United States out of the fighting while providing assistance to Great Britain and China. With the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor in Hawaii, America was drawn into active combat. Allied with Britain and the Soviet Union, American forces made a dramatic landing at Normandy in France and proceeded to defeat and occupy Germany. American forces also defeated Japan, with the Pacific war culminating in the attacks on the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by American atomic bombs.
Back to the Future, 2001–2015
Authors: Mandelbaum Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Terrorist attacks on New York City and Washington, D.C., on September 11, 2001, launched the United States into three wars: a global war on terror; a war in Afghanistan; and a war against Saddam Hussein’s regime in Iraq. In both Afghanistan and Iraq American efforts to install stable, democratic, friendly governments encountered opposition, and the United States found itself fighting against insurgencies in both places. In 2008, a severe financial crisis struck America, which led to a prolonged global recession. By the end of this period, Russia, China, and Iran had begun to mount serious challenges to American interests in Europe, East Asia, and the Middle East, respectively. This brought an end to the fourth age of American foreign policy.
From Concept to Movement
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter moves up to the 1980s and beyond and explores how sustainability became fully integrated into politics and international policy. Special attention is placed on the institutional history of sustainability within the United Nations and other international organizations and accords. The key documents reviewed include the Rio Declaration and the Brundtland Report (Our Common Future). The chapter also explores the contested nature of sustainability, between those advocating for market-based solutions and those critical and sceptical of growth and the private sector.
Sustainability Today
Authors: Caradonna Jeremy L. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at sustainability as it has existed since the year 2000. Special attention is placed on growing aware of and concerns about climate change and how it has made the sustainability movement more urgent, mainstream, and impactful. The chapter takes an episodic look at how sustainability has affected different social and economic sectors, including the built environment, transportation, business and economics, food, academia, energy (focusing on the shift to renewables), and public policy. The chapter also includes a comprehensive analysis of the key metrics, measures, and methods that are used within the diverse fields of sustainability.
The Good Hegemon
Authors: Park Susan 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Powerful international development organizations like the World Bank recognized that they contributed to ecosystem destruction and a loss of land and livelihoods for people in developing countries in the 1990s. Pressure from activists and the United States led the World Bank to give affected people recourse through an inspection panel. Within a decade other similar multilateral development banks would follow suit. This book argues that these accountability mechanisms embody a norm of “accountability as justice,” which has now spread globally. It makes three arguments for why the norm was created, how the accountability mechanisms operate, and whether they hold the banks to account. First, the United States promoted this norm during debates over how to maintain the efficiency and effectiveness of the multilateral development banks in the 1990s. As the banks’ premier shareholder, the United States built on its history of using “accountability as control” to establish the “accountability as justice” norm of for all the banks even when pressure from activists was absent or muted. It was able to do so using its “power of the purse,” its “vote,” and its “voice” in the banks. Second, the banks resisted the norm, leading the United States to invoke the same practices to demand the banks reformulate the mechanisms in egregious cases. Finally, the book shows how the accountability mechanisms have become more accessible, transparent, independent, responsive, and effective. Despite these gains, the banks adhere to the accountability as justice norm as a corrective to their operations rather than to preempt harm.
US Hegemony for What?
Authors: Park Susan 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines how providing recourse to people harmed by MDB financed projects was promulgated by donor shareholders, pivotally the United States. It traces how the demand for accountability resulted from dissatisfaction with MDB performance and activist campaigns revealing large-scale harm. The US history of using accountability as control for the MDBs is articulated, to which concerns of justice were added. The design of the World Bank’s Inspection Panel reflected US demands for accountability as justice. The United States used its power of the purse, vote, and voice to press for the accountability as justice norm in the Inter-American Development Bank, the Asian Development Bank, and the World Bank Group, the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development, and the African Development Bank. The banks sought to compromise over the norm. Outside the high-profile campaigns against the World Bank and World Bank Group, the MDBs designed accountability mechanisms with limited independence.
Accountability as Justice in Practice
Authors: Park Susan 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyzes how the accountability as justice norm has been enacted since the mechanisms were created. The chapter provides an overview of the operations of the mechanisms to demonstrate the difficulties of achieving justice through problem-solving and compliance investigations. The mechanisms are part of the internal accountability processes of the banks to check their behavior and are “last resorts” for project-affected people. Yet projects generally continue during an investigation, and remedies such as stopping the harm and rectifying damage remain with bank management. It then documents the banks’ ongoing resistance to the norm that limits the provision of recourse.
Changing the Banks and Strengthening Accountability as Justice?
Authors: Park Susan 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter outlines how the accountability mechanisms have improved in providing recourse over time and how the norm has strengthened: The mechanisms have become more independent, transparent, and accessible. It then turns to examine how the operations of the accountability mechanisms have had a piecemeal effect on the banks’ operations, policies, and procedures. This reveals how little the norm affects bank operations, given that it was created to provide recourse as a corrective to harm rather than to prevent it. The accountability as justice norm does not interfere with the bank’s technical and apolitical lending culture.
Norm Diffusion within the MDBs and Insights beyond the Banks
Authors: Park Susan 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter recounts the main findings of the book to make three points: First, that the banks used a range of strategies for resisting a norm that threatened their autonomy and lending-imperative culture. This included compromise over the design of the accountability mechanisms, acquiescence to periodic accountability mechanism reviews, avoidance in designing the mechanisms and responding to investigations, defiance in rejecting allegations of wrongdoing, and manipulation over the process, staff, and project affected people. Despite bank (and sometimes board) resistance, the norm is now a feature of the banks’ governance structures. Second, that persistent efforts by the United States using the power of the purse, voice, and vote may be used to shape the practices of other international organizations but ideas remain paramount to their likely success. Third, that once a process had been instituted to establish and oversee the accountability mechanisms, the review process enabled other actors like the accountability officers and activists and consultants to help strengthen the norm. This demonstrates a powerful state not just pushing for a norm but also enabling others to work to improve it over time.
The Transnationalization of Legal Education on the Periphery
Authors: Burgis-Kasthala Michelle 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores how colonial legal relations continued to shape legal education and institutions in Africa after independence. It outlines the nature of legal education within the context of postindependence policies that span from the periods of optimism to the radical degeneration in the higher education sector until the mid-1990s. It also highlights how Africa lags at the bottom of certain higher education globalization indicators, possessing extreme degrees of internationalization through the mobility of its students or dependence on foreign funding and epistemic resources. The chapter argues that the idea of Africa provides a critical lens in rethinking the role of legal education in the twenty-first century in a context of widening material and epistemic inequality. It considers the role of international donors with their renewed support for higher education from the 1990s.
Legal Education in South Africa
Authors: Madlalate Ralph 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter traces the development of South African legal education and situates it in the context of globalizations in the past and present. It argues that, in the field of legal education, the precursors to contemporary globalization established in the colonial era have foreshadowed current trends in transnational interconnectivity. It provides a vignette of the larger narrative of racial oppression in South Africa from the vantage point of legal education, capturing the indignity of life for the “colonized” and accounting for the African law that operated prior to the colonial encounter. It also demonstrates the embeddedness of racial oppression that is rooted in the colonial project within the South African legal system. The chapter examines the colonial-apartheid context arguing that it is crucial to understanding the development of South Africa’s legal education system and its contestations in the apartheid’s wake. The chapter concludes by outlining some of the contemporary challenges facing legal education in South Africa amid state-led efforts to facilitate demographic and substantive transformation.
Isolation and Globalization
Authors: Law David S. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
There may be no place in the contemporary world where the global collides more acutely with the local than the Kingdom of Bhutan. On the one hand, it is keen to preserve its culture and traditions both as an end in and of itself, and as a means of underwriting social and political stability. On the other hand, it has drawn extensively on foreign inspiration and models in constructing its legal system and its inaugural law school. Given that the very idea of a legal system for dispute resolution sits uneasily with longstanding traditions of community-based mediation, the introduction of foreign models of legal education cannot help but occupy treacherous ground. Nor is there a clearer example of globalization at war with itself. The "global" does not speak with a unified voice in Bhutan: from the training of lawyers in India to the funding of legal education by US law firms, the influences are disparate, and the process of integrating and reconciling them has barely begun. The globalization of legal education in Bhutan cannot be described as imposed: it occurs free of a colonial legacy, under steady-handed, high-legitimacy local leadership. Nevertheless, the case of Bhutan highlights the extent to which globalization is not a matter of choice but of necessity. In the absence of raw materials for constructing a system of law or legal education that could plausibly described as autochthonous, resistance to foreign models is not an option, and necessity is the mother of imitation.
“Have Law Books, Computer, Simulations—Will Travel”
Authors: Menkel-Meadow Carrie 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter chronicles the “transnationalization” of some of the law professoriate. It highlights the extent to which both faculty and students can study law in more than one country and legal system, transforming their knowledge of the world and their ability to be well-educated professionals by learning, teaching and developing transnational legal knowledge in different venues and with different teaching modalities. It also suggests that the globalization of legal education can occur domestically by study of international and transnational law in one’s own country, provided that classes, teaching materials, and modalities of education are diverse, both demographically and intellectually. Nevertheless, truly authentic transnational and comparative legal understanding should provide for some education to occur outside of one’s own home. The chapter reflects on the author’s own experiences of teaching in twenty-six countries, on five continents, and in several of the United States’ largest LLM programs. The chapter explains and illustrates how transnational legal education takes many forms, such as study abroad programs for students, domestic courses with diverse student bodies (including foreign graduate and undergraduate students, e.g. LLMs and JDs in the same class), faculty exchanges, international research projects and graduate law programs. Description of some programs are provided, such as Georgetown’s Center for Transnational Legal Studies (in London), INCAE (graduate program for legal studies in Central America), study abroad programs sponsored by more than one law school (e.g. in Argentina) and courses in transnational or globalized law in countries with many international (or “foreign” to the host country) students (e.g. NUS in Singapore and many others). The article concludes with a plea for contextually rich and professionally diverse transnational legal education. Transnational legal education is not only legal, it is cultural.
The Ritual of Black Armed Resistance
Authors: Gaskew Tony 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at police abolition through the perspective of the Black Radical Tradition. It frames the Black Radical Tradition as both an intergenerational birthright and a spiritual inheritance. The transitional moment from childhood that the chapter recounts is, quite explicitly, a rejection of the ideology (and myth) that independence is the measure of a person. Indeed, the chapter embraces the principle of interdependence—not independence—as a core moral virtue and a powerful means for liberation. The chapter argues that African Americans have little choice but to use violence to protect themselves against systematic state repression. This argument for armed self-defense explicitly takes on the tradition of Black nonviolent resistance as ineffective and too accommodating, noting that armed resistance has long been an important feature of the civil rights movement.
Is Violence the Answer?
Authors: Ryckman Kirssa Cline 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyzes whether collective violence can be justifiable, whether violence might be the answer. To be sure, the adoption of violent tactics invites greater costs. There is a significant likelihood of being killed in an armed battle against the state, and research consistently shows that violent movements generate higher levels of repression than their nonviolent counterparts. However, nonviolence raises its own ethical dilemmas. This begs the question of whether nonviolent resistance is worth the short-term costs of repression, given that protesters have no weapons with which to resist state violence. Moreover, is it worth the potential long-term costs of failure? To unpack this dilemma, the chapter first considers why nonviolent action is presented as both the morally and strategically superior approach to achieve the movement's long-term goals. It then suggests that violence should not be a proactive strategy, but may be a tactic of last resort.
Allies Out Front
Authors: Myers Daniel J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the question of gender identities and the perceived legitimacy of allies in leadership roles of organizations. Reflecting on his experiences as a lifelong activist for LGBTQ rights, the author recounts a period of time as an “ally in leadership” for Queer Nation when a student, and how these experiences helped with an understanding of how to be a better ally. Legitimacy in social movements depends heavily on endorsement from the membership, and such endorsements depend, in turn, on identity markers. In the context of LGBTQ rights movements, these identity markers are necessarily gendered. Because the Queer Nation movement needed people to claim their identities as queer folks, having straight leaders with gender markers of privilege and advantage would have undermined the purpose of a social movement designed to empower and defend the rights of those whose gender identity markers rendered them marginalized and oppressed within a wider society.
Organizing Dilemmas across U.S.-Based Social Justice Movement Spaces
Authors: gill alicia sanchez 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines how funding from influential donors can play a pivotal role in activism, while also introducing risks. These risks include the co-optation of the mission, the sidelining of experiential knowledge and activist voices, and the dilution of the core message. Focusing on INCITE!, a network of radical feminists of color, the chapter picks up the conversation around the gendered dilemmas of leadership in movement spaces. The chapter invites a series of essays, in the style of self-reflective narratives, which elevate the stories of leaders who live at the intersections of many marginalized identities. In the crucible of their struggles, it presents the internal conflicts faced by movement leaders with intersectional identities as they are confronted with competing needs and demands from the many marginalized groups with whom they identify.
Dilemmas in Action Where Rule of Law Conflicts with Justice
Authors: Hurwitz Deena R. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the lived-experience dilemmas that emerge from working alongside vulnerable communities. The work of human rights advocates and lawyers—who work in places where the rule of law is compromised, whether in a country ruled by a dictator or an ostensibly liberal democracy governed by national security or military law—presents a number of ethical dilemmas that arise when advocates encounter the manipulation of law for political ends. These are dilemmas of personal conscience and of professional responsibility, of moral accountability and complicity—and how that is defined, by and for whom. What happens when a vulnerable local partner asks a human rights lawyer or advocate to carry sensitive documents, letters, notes, or photographs? How forthright should one be with the security forces and border personnel of a rights-abusing state? Should one answer truthfully as a matter of principle, although it may compromise the safety of colleagues, clients, friends? These questions strike at the core of two major themes of this book, as those seeking social change balance the well-being of the vulnerable people they hope to serve with the realities of state violence and the constraints of oppressive institutions.
Threading the Needle
Authors: Verdeja Ernesto 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the wicked problems at the heart of international mass atrocity prevention work. Today this is characterized by a complex assortment of human rights NGOs, governments, and regional actors like the United Nations, African Union, European Union, and many other institutions. Drawing on interviews with practitioners, prior scholarship, and prevention practice, the chapter sketches a general ethical framework for atrocity prevention. This exercise highlights key ethical dilemmas: challenges concerning representation (who speaks for the vulnerable?), practical issues around the use of force to protect civilians, and compromising with perpetrators in order to stop massacres. The chapter concludes with a set of general reflective guidelines that help limit the scope of these dilemmas, even if they cannot be eliminated.