bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Smith Christian 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This concluding chapter emphasizes the importance of sociological realism in understanding religious change, showing that significant transformations, including the obsolescence of traditional religion, arise from long-term trends and institutional forces. It also challenges traditional secularization theory as explaining the current case, arguing that while traditional religion has declined, new forms of spirituality and occult practices have emerged that are anything but secularist. This conclusion then questions the notion of cyclical religious revivals, arguing that contemporary forces are accelerating traditional religion’s decline rather than reversing it. Religious institutions are caught in many no-win situations, struggling to adapt without appearing insincere or outdated, making it unlikely that traditional American religion will regain prominence anytime soon. This situation may present an opportunity for traditional religion to undergo profound self-reflection and transformation, although such efforts would be risky and may lead to further losses.
Tropical Leviathan
Authors: 9780192550965  , Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Planters in Jamaica, as in other slave societies, faced formidable problems of security. This study is the first to examine the role of the colonial fiscal-military state, the ‘tropical leviathan’, in the slave society of Jamaica during the age of revolutions between 1770 and 1840. Bringing together separate historiographies of state formation and slavery, it offers for the first time the study of a complete early modern fiscal-military state which recognizes the interactions between its different components, and the role of political structures in regulating this process and in mediating between the state and colonial society. Building on new models of the economy and politics of Jamaica under slavery, it argues that planters and other interests created a colonial state that successfully addressed their terror of slave resistance and their need for security by sowing fear among the Black population. Looking at policing, contracting, and the use of force, it shows how new structures were developed to fight a ‘tropical way of war’ in the interior, and to control the influx of White and Black refugees and prisoners of war after the Haitian Revolution in 1791, and the fiscal and financial expedients that were required as spending grew beyond precedent. Engaging with recent work on the end of slavery, it concludes that this process eventually bankrupted the island, bringing about the fall of the colonial state and triggering emancipation in the British empire in 1833.
Introduction
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Previous work on state formation in early modern Britain and Europe has largely ignored the colonial experience, largely because it is focused on the rise of large bureaucratic institutions for fiscal-military business. Examining instead the various other ways that the planters in Jamaica exercised power is a more productive way of understanding the process of state formation. Examining this in its wider contexts, both as a complementary part of the British fiscal-military state within a wider British Atlantic, and as an ‘entangled’ part of its immediate neighbourhood, likewise helps to clarify why the colonial state in Jamaica developed the way it did. In particular, the colonial state in Jamaica was shaped by the fact of slavery, and provided the means of suppressing resistance. However, recent studies of ‘slavery’s capitalism’ understate the complexities and expense of doing so, and the way that this use of violence incorporated other groups into the ruling elite. Studies of emancipation and the end of slavery have similarly failed to consider the role of the colonial state.
The Purposes of Power
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter outlines the nature of White and Black, free and enslaved society in Jamaica, before addressing the role that fear played as a driver of white actions, especially after 1791. Like the other plantation societies in the early modern Americas, society in Jamaica was built on racial differences, between a small free White elite, a growing number of free people of colour, and a vast number of enslaved Black people. This was a society based on fear: White elites were terrified of Black revolts. Both the frequency and magnitude of these intense moments of terror increased after 1770, particularly after the Haitian Revolution in 1791. This fear served to maintain White solidarity and cohesion, and to unify them around a set of policies which aimed to prevent black resistance by creating fear in turn, through the exercise of brutal violence but also through the mere threat of violence. They also used small privileges and crumbs of preferment which could be exploited to generate frictions and fissures within communities, disrupting social and political solidarity and therefore disrupting rebellions. The tropical leviathan, the colonial fiscal-military state, was the instrument used for this purpose.
The Levers of Power
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The colonial state in Jamaica was an aspect of wider colonial society and its political structures, the ‘levers’ of power. Interest groups made their needs known through petitions and the public sphere, but mainly through political representation. In the colonial assembly, members attempted to reconcile these various aims and to find consensus, which could then be embodied in the legislation which raised manpower and money. Increasing amounts of legislation after 1770, and the greater efficiency with which it was produced, were therefore the basis of the expansion of the colonial state. The process even fed back on itself, with members refusing to exercise their powers until they could guarantee their control, and even leveraging their grants to demand that guarantee from imperial authorities. Building a colonial state therefore reflected the creation and maintenance of a colonial political consensus.
The Sinews of Power
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The growing scale of the colonial state can be judged by the rise in taxation and spending, the ‘sinews’ of colonial power. Revenues rose almost fivefold after 1770, based on higher taxes and then on greater borrowing, all driven primarily by the need for internal and external security. The impact can be judged by considering public spending and taxation as a changing share of national income, which in turn requires the reconstruction of the economy of Jamaica for selected dates between 1730 and 1850. This indicates that the economy grew up to 1800, then stabilized in real terms, and only declined after 1830. However, the burden of taxation upon the economy continued to rise, even after 1815, until by 1830 it exceeded in real terms the burden in 1800. The colonial state therefore remained essentially upon a wartime footing up to 1832, which was felt by planters and other inhabitants as growing tax burdens and reduced profits or earnings.
Intermezzo I
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The development of the colonial state in Jamaica after 1770 was fundamentally shaped by the need for security, against internal rebellion and external invasion. Until 1815 this was something on which both imperial and colonial interests could agree, reflecting the strong and to some extent exaggerated fears of planters, and they cooperated to build a colonial state that could meet these aims. Yet their aims never wholly overlapped, and although the Haitian Revolution in 1791 temporarily brought them together, areas of disagreement had already begun to emerge by the time the war ended in 1815. Thereafter, imperial authorities increasingly viewed Jamaica as a strategic backwater and political embarrassment, but the paranoia of planters and their fears of Haiti continued to grow, so the colonial state remained upon a wartime footing, despite the rising financial costs of security. Fear therefore fundamentally shaped the nature of the Jamaican colonial state.
Supplies
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The assembly would have been unable to create a workable colonial state without the assistance of contractors, making it as much as ‘contractor state’ as a ‘fiscal-military’ one. Key functions, especially the construction of fortifications, the supply of provisions as part of the island pay, and the management of the military labourers or pioneers, were all managed by contractors. This enabled the assembly to tap into the knowledge, credit, and connections of local merchants, both for themselves and on behalf of the imperial state, to deal with the challenges of warfare in tropical conditions. Examining the efforts of contractors shows how the assembly and the colonial state developed mechanisms to oversee the contractors, in part because of growing pressure from constituents to prevent corruption and waste. On the whole, contractors appear as a result to have managed their business relatively honestly and efficiently, enabling the colonial state to make the most of its growing spending.
Fiscal
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The increase in spending after 1770 forced the assembly to reassess its ‘fiscal constitution’ or the compact between taxpayers and the state. Taxpayers proved willing to shoulder the increased costs of the colonial state, but only if the money was spent for their own security, and in a transparent and equitable way. The years after the American Revolutionary War were therefore marked by a period of ‘economical reform’, mirroring that in Britain, as the assembly began to overhaul its fiscal structures to meet popular demands. It proved difficult to overhaul the collection of direct taxes, since that brought the assembly into conflict with the parish vestries, and even more difficult was the reform of indirect tax collection, which brought the assembly into conflict with the imperial government. Military spending therefore drove fiscal reform, often along bureaucratic lines, but was also shaped by the limits of the assembly’s political power in the face of other groups.
Public Credit
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
As tax revenues began to fall short of spending, the balance was increasingly made up by borrowing. This was initially short-term and piecemeal, but after the American Revolutionary War this debt was formalized, and many of the ‘economical reforms’ were aimed at improving the financial standing of the assembly. This enabled it to provide a ‘credible commitment’ to its lenders in Jamaica, based mainly upon the performance of credibility rather than the creation of formal institutions. This was then revived in 1796 after the Second Maroon War, and supported the colonial state into the 1830s. Its credibility remained rooted in informal measures, however, as the assembly found in 1832 when it attempted to borrow money to fund itself after the Baptist War. Neither its creditors nor the imperial government, whom it then approached for a loan, found its informal commitment credible, and the planters had to manipulate the British government to obtain the funds to bail them out.
Conclusion
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Although the passage of the Emancipation Act in 1833 abolished everything that the colonial state in Jamaica had sought to preserve, it revived rapidly, not least because imperial and colonial interests recognized that they once again had a number of shared interests. The colonial state was used to control the newly emancipated population under the end of forced labour or apprenticeship in 1838, especially through the creation of a rural constabulary to impose labour discipline. As with the imperial garrison, this became a bone of contention between imperial and colonial interests, and the planters once again leveraged their political and financial powers to wrestle control of the force away from the governor. This points to important continuities and broader principles in the process of state (re)formation. In particular, it demonstrates the importance of viewing state formation as a political process, shaped by the capacity to build a consensus by political means between groups with different but overlapping interests and aims.
Resilient Forest Management
Authors: 9780198833000  , Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Forests long have been important to humanity and other species of the planet, providing timber and non-timber resources, innumerable ecosystem services, and supporting biological diversity. The technical determination of requirements for a sustained yield of timber was a revolutionary achievement, which has since been extended to the sustainability of other aspects of forests and diverse human endeavors. Yet the expectations of stasis and constancy make sustainability difficult in a world undergoing rapid changes, necessitating a paradigm shift that accommodates uncertainty and embraces change. Resilience theory and the principles of complex adaptive systems provide a foundation for a resilient and adaptive approach to forest stewardship. The many services, uses, values, and expectations of forest often conflict with each other, requiring bundling into protection, multi-purpose, and timber zones. Applying resistance, recovery, adjustment, reconfiguration, or transformation strategies for resilient forest management is a place-based exercise, addressing local attributes, vulnerabilities, and priorities. Climate change and its stimulation of forest disturbances are priority challenges for which resilience planning and management is needed. The diversity, disturbance regimes, biological legacies, and spatial patterns of natural forests inspire an ecological forestry approach that has the greatest potential for supporting forest resilience, and ultimately the resilience of forest enterprises and forest communities. A long history of deforestation and forest degradation often requires forest restoration to make forests more resilient. With many unknowns and much uncertainty, resilient forest management takes place in an adaptive management context. Resilient forest stewardship is ultimately about people management and must take place within a supportive governance and sociocultural framework.
The Evolving Scope of Forest Management
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Forest management refers to the purposeful human manipulation and regulation of lands dominated by trees. Forested land has expanded and contracted over history, showing a natural capacity to recover and persist where climate is suitable. People have variously exploited and conserved forests for multiple goods and ecological services over time, with constraints often applied in response to local resource shortages. The formal determination of sustainable levels of timber available for harvest was an important breakthrough in resource management that has since been applied to many aspects of society. Different countries and regions around the world differ in the priority they place on forest protection, timber production, non-timber values, or forest multiple use. Forest area in parks and reserves has grown in recent decades, yet deforestation continues, and many remaining forests are degraded and are being replaced by simplified plantations. Forests can make important contributions to attaining the UN Sustainable Development Goals, but their stewardship must address the many facets of global change and growing socio-economic uncertainty in order to do so. In particular, with the planet now experiencing a joint crisis of biodiversity loss and a warming climate, a new paradigm for forest management is needed.
Forest Values and Zoning
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Forests are valued, appreciated, and depended upon for a wide range of ecosystem services that fill provisioning, supporting, regulating, and cultural roles. People vary in the priority they place on utilitarian or biocentric values and immediate or long-term considerations; such preferences can reflect culture and personality as well as local economic conditions. Forest planning and interventions tend to emphasize the tangible economic value of fiber resources, because they are the primary source of revenue associated with forest management. Yet biodiversity conservation, recreation, watershed protection, or non-timber forest products may be more important in the long run, or to a significant local constituency of stakeholders. As a primarily consumptive resource use (although potentially sustainable in the long run), commercial logging may or may not be compatible with a variety of other non-consumptive and intangible forest uses. Forest zoning following a triad template can reduce much of this conflict by assigning some lands to full protection and some to enhanced timber-production zones, while most land is variously managed for compatible multiple uses. Robust and inclusive governance models and stakeholder engagement can help generate creative zoning and forest management approaches and the social license to implement them.
Resilience Concepts
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Resilience refers to the ability of a social, engineered, or ecological system to absorb and recover from disruptions. Forests and forest species exhibit a wide array of attributes to exhibit resilience under their natural disturbance regime, but they may not persist if the natural range of variability in disruptive events is exceeded. Mechanisms of resilience include features that promote resistance, recovery, adjustment, restructuring, or eventual transformation. Buffering and regenerative capacity, flexibility, and component substitution or reconfiguration feature prominently along a gradient of resilient responses to stress and disruption. Those strategies vary in their importance during difference phases (growth or exploitation, conservation, disruption or release, and reorganization) of the adaptive cycle that characterizes development and change in so many socio-ecological systems. Guided system transformation into an alternative state can still sustain selected functions and values. Resilience is facilitated in complex adaptive systems by diversity, self-organization, novel opportunities, and a balance of modularity and connectedness. Examples of resilience and its promotion in many different disciplines provide templates for their application in forest management.
Fostering Climate Change Resilience
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Forests can provide important nature-based solutions to climate change by retaining and sequestering large amounts of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. But they will also have to adapt to the inevitable consequences of a warming atmosphere, which will threaten the health, productivity, and stability of many forest regions. In protected areas and most multipurpose forests, maintaining a continuity of species and habitats over time and space will facilitate the inherent capacity of ecosystems to adjust through dispersal and adaptive filtering. Prioritizing high-carbon reservoirs (old-growth forests, peatlands) for protection, especially in locations expected to persist under a changing climate, can support both climate mitigation and biodiversity conservation. Ecosystem transformations in response to the changing climate may be acceptable, although domination by invasive exotic species is generally undesirable. Tree-species diversification has many benefits in all forests. Stand thinning likewise has broad utility in reducing moisture stress, improving habitat value, and reducing wildfire risk. Artificial regeneration in both multiple-use and production forests can practice climate-smart forestry by utilizing source materials (seeds, seedlings, cuttings) from locations currently experiencing climate expected to prevail locally in the future. Assisted migration of species as well as populations is also an option, especially in production forests. Using tree species to be harvested on short rotations or having more assured regeneration through vegetative sprouting are risk-reduction strategies for timber-production lands. A combination or gradient of resilience strategies can be applied in most forests, depending on local conditions and thresholds of acceptable change expressed by stakeholders.
Resilience to Forest Disturbances
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Ecological disturbances of various sizes are natural to all forests, but are increasing owing to climate change. Wildfires, windstorms, and outbreaks of herbivorous insects are especially widespread sources of damage to trees and timber supplies, but also leave biological legacies important to biodiversity. Disturbances can sometimes trigger a cascade of additional disturbances or can remove the fuel or food for further disturbance. Most disturbance management consists of resistance-enhancing approaches, such as fuel-reduction treatments and the installation of fuel breaks for wildfire risk reduction. Selective thinning (favoring retention of more fire-resistant trees), pruning, and the use of prescribed burning under cool conditions are common fuel-reduction treatments. Windthrow frequency can be reduced by selective thinning, retaining deep-rooted trees, shorter trees, or those with greater bole taper. Avoiding large clearcuts where adjacent stands are on exposed terrain, keeping cutblocks small, feathering their edges, and designing retention patches to face their narrow side into prevailing winds can also reduce wind damage. Tree losses to eruptive insect populations can be offset by maintaining mixed-species stands. Other potential treatments include stand thinning to aid natural tree defenses against bark beetles, and the application of biological pesticides (for example, Btk) to limit defoliation by lepidopteran larvae. Disturbances can break the inertia of mature, closed forest communities, allowing the recovery process to be populated by species and genotypes better suited to the new climate. Retaining advance regeneration and carefully selecting plant material for artificial regeneration can facilitate adjustment, reconfiguration, and transformation responses to forest disturbances.
What Resilient Forest Management Looks Like
Authors: Burton Philip J. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Several case studies feature progressive forest management approaches that are expected to be resilient in the face of socio-environmental change and uncertainty. Examples are presented for lands managed primarily for protection, multiple use, and timber production, supplemented by ecologically focused guidelines for resilient plantation management and the promotion of woodlands in urban and agricultural landscapes. Other cases highlight the return of cultural burning to public land co-managed with Indigenous people, and the use of reduced-impact logging and other forward-thinking policies in the management of tropical forest concessions. The examples highlighted are drawn from Australia, Canada, Gabon, Sweden, and the US; the approaches demonstrated should be widely applicable under similar circumstances elsewhere following place-based analysis and priorities. Common features among these case studies include adaptation to greater incidence of wildfire, drought, and storms, for which fuel-reduction (often through the use of prescribed fire), stand-thinning, and stand-conversion practices are employed. Forests often need to be restored to remedy long histories of exploitation and degradation, with an emphasis on promoting a diversity of vegetation and native tree species that are also adapted to a warmer climate. Diversity is also valued through planning in a landscape context that promotes wildlife and biodiversity as well as human health, safety, and well-being.