bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Finite Element Analysis of Cold Field Bends for Sour Service Applications
Authors: Ripoll Ismael , Sicilia Carlos , Williams Kevin 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
In onshore pipelines, cold field bends are regularly used for planned and in-situ pipeline route adjustments. The cold field bending operation consists of curving permanently a straight pipe until the desired change of alignment is achieved. The bends are achieved by locally bending the pipe against a die using a pipe bending machine. Bending against the die imposes a transversal plastic deformation over a short distance, many such local deformations are made to form the required cold field bend. Thus, cold field bends experience plastic strains from the formation process and residual stresses are left in the finished product.
The onshore pipeline industry typically disregards residual stresses from cold bending as these are difficult to evaluate; mainly, because the main pipeline stress software packages used by the industry do not capture them. This empirical approach has provided a good record of pipeline service reliability for many years; although, international codes such as ASME B31.8 transfer the ultimate responsibility to determine whether such stresses should be evaluated to engineers (projects).
For applications in sour service environments, where additional plasticity during operation generally needs to be avoided, the influence of these residual stresses may be significant, and the robustness of the current practice should be considered.
In this context, this paper presents a comparative finite element analysis (FEA) using ABAQUS to evaluate the impact of the residual stresses from cold field bending on the overall stress state during operation. Analyses are performed using a representative single 14″ × 19.05mm × 80D × 14.7° cold field bend which is buried in a non-cohesive soil. To bound the range of local curvatures that the bend has to withstand during the formation process, models are run with a bend uniformly bent to 52D which relaxes to 80D, and a bend with 24 short sections bent to 17D (die radius) which relaxes to an average of 80D with a non-constant curvature along the bend length. To capture the impact of the type of element over the ovalisation and capture the influence of the residual longitudinal and hoop stresses, models are run with pipe, elbow and shell element models.
Based on the results of these analyses, this paper recommends additional modelling and testing requirements for cold field bends for more sensitive applications such as sour service. These requirements intend to complement the approach currently adopted by the industry and ensure the fitness for service of cold field bends.
Adapting Existing Quantitative Risk Assessment Tools for the Energy Transition
Authors: Horn Matthew , Franey Tara , Fontenault Jeremy 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The energy transition from fossil fuels to renewable or cleaner energy sources is upon us. There is also a global focus on reducing atmospheric carbon dioxide emissions. Several major companies are placing an emphasis on solutions such as hydrogen and carbon capture and sequestration or reuse. While this will provide new business opportunities for the pipeline industry, there are inherent risks, especially as they are scaled up to meet societal demand. Therefore, there is a need to assess the potential for harm to people and the environment.
Hydrogen is a flammable gas with the potential for both fire and explosion. Carbon dioxide is an asphyxiant at high concentrations and can dissolve in water, having unintended environmental effects. Traditional oil dispersion models have been used by the oil and gas sector and pipeline industry for decades to investigate overland, downstream, and in water movement, behavior, and potential effects of hypothetical and real-world releases. Atmospheric dispersion models have been used to assess vapor transport, resulting potential impacts (e.g., asphyxiation and or toxic effects) to humans and the environment, and risk of fire and explosion.
Based upon our experience with the current regulatory environment, the scrutiny placed upon operators by regulators and intervenors (especially with other products such as oil), and the large amount of time required to plan, permit, construct, and operate pipelines, we believe these comprehensive and quantitative assessments will be at the forefront of decision making. The use and potential adaptation of these existing modeling tools will be crucial in assessing risk from transport, storage, and use to ensure safety of each project through all phases of its life cycle (e.g., prior to permitting, construction, operation, and decommissioning) during this energy transition.
Improvements to Strain Hardening Exponent and the Implications to Failure Pressure Predictions
Authors: Brady Emily , Kornuta Jeffrey , Anderson Joel , Steiner Adam , Veloo Peter 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Federal rule changes governing natural gas pipeline operation and safety have driven operators in the United States to establish materials verification programs (MVP) for pipelines that lack reliable records. The ongoing MVP at the Pacific Gas and Electric Company (PG&E) developed an extensive database of laboratory (destructive) tensile testing on over 144 coupons from pipe samples to quantify, in addition to yield strength and ultimate tensile strength, strain hardening exponent (n). A material’s strain hardening exponent quantifies the stress-strain behavior in work hardening and is also used in fracture mechanics-based tools, such as CorLAS™, for assessing flaws in cylindrical bodies, such as pipelines.
There is limited strain hardening data for pipeline steels in available literature. This led to the development of a correlation utilizing the ratio of yield stress to ultimate tensile strength (R-ratio) as part of NG-18 research in the 1970s. The original publication for the CorLAS™ model, by Jaske and Beavers in 2002, used this correlation to propose a quadratic relationship between n and R-ratio; however, this relationship was based on a total of four data points each from a different grade of line pipe. As a result, the uncertainty of this empirical relationship is large.
A more robust relationship that would be applicable across multiple grades and vintages was sought. Using the PG&E’s materials verification database, this paper presents an improved relationship for strain hardening exponent based on 58 pipe features ranging from the 1930’s to the 2010’s and grades ranging from Grade A to X70. Several case studies highlighting the impact of this change on downstream failure pressure evaluations using CorLAS™ are provided. In some instances, the authors have found that using this new model for the strain hardening exponent in conjunction with CorLAS™ can result in differences of approximately 10% in the calculated failure pressure.
Assessing Soil Corrosivity for Buried Structural Steel: Field Study
Authors: Beauregard Yannick , Lehew Julie , Mah Andrea , Hansen Lexya , Neuner Matthew 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The corrosion of steel structures in soils has been a topic of industrial research for many decades. Research has shown that the corrosivity of a soil is highly variable and a function of numerous interconnected parameters including soil resistivity, moisture content and pH. Despite the complexity of the soil environment, methods have been developed to evaluate soil corrosivity and guidelines for corrosion control during the design phase and lifetime of a steel structure. An opportunity exists to apply this understanding to optimize the corrosion protection and capital expenses for new projects. For example, the identification of regions of low corrosivity where coatings are not required could lead to cost savings without compromising the long-term integrity of the structure.
This paper presents work conducted to assess the applicability of three soil-corrosivity standards, AASHTO R27-01 [1], DIN 50929-3:2018 [2], ANSI/AWWA C105/A21.5 [3] for this purpose. A field study was conducted which involved collecting buried structural steel samples and soil samples from eight pipeline meter stations and one light industrial facility located across Alberta. The corrosion damage of the buried structural steel samples was assessed through visual examination and pit depth measurements. The soil corrosivity was determined with the three soil-corrosivity standards using soil properties (e.g., pH, resistivity, sulphide and chloride concentration) collected in the field and measured in the laboratory. The corrosion damage was compared to the soil corrosivity predictions to evaluate the standards.
The results demonstrate that these standards provide a conservative assessment of soil corrosivity, with a tendency to overpredict corrosivity at the locations studied. Practical and economic considerations for the application of these standards to decisions on the need to coat buried structures are discussed.
Experimental Investigation Into Bulk Performance of Three Different Style Inline Separators on Natural Gas at High Pressure, Different Liquid Loadings and Gas Flows
Authors: Botros Kamal K. , Chan Nic , Geerligs John , Leong Keith , Hickey Brendan , Gong Ivan 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Inline vertical separators are commonly employed on natural gas transmission facilities (e.g., receipt stations) to primarily filter out liquid contaminants such as compressor oil, glycol, free water, etc. However, these contaminants have been found invariably in the piping system downstream of these separators, indicating the separators are not performing as required. The potential consequences of not removing such contaminants includes lower gas quality, impaired gas metering accuracy, corrosion and damage to equipment/instrumentation and adverse impact on industrial or residential end users. Historically, separators’ performance claims and guarantees in terms of efficiency of liquid removal are often of the order 98–99% of liquid droplet sizes ≥ 8μm. However, there is a lack of ability to verify these claims due to difficulties in quantifying liquid injection rates and droplet characteristics vs. liquid collected while in operation. Extensive testing was undertaken at TC Energy’s Gas Dynamic Test Facility in Didsbury, Canada on three different separators from different manufacturers, two are mesh vane type (MV-1 and MV-2), and the third is dual cyclonic type (DC). The tests were conducted in the range of 4–5 MPa and flow velocity in the range of 1.3–13 m/s in the DN150 inlet nozzle to the separator, i.e., at 10:1 turn down ratio. The injected liquid was industrial compressor oil, typically used in the gas transmission industry, and was injected at a loading in the range of 0. 06–1.8%. Four different spray nozzles were used to atomize the injected oil to a range of particle size distributions (PSD), characterized by median diameter size, D50, in the range of 50–90 μm. Test results revealed that the performance of these separators varied between 90–99.8% independent of liquid loading. The effective Souders-Brown K factor also varied between 0.15–0.27 m/s. Tests were also conducted following a batch of solid injection to determine the effects on liquid separation efficiency on MV-2 separator. It was found that the separation efficiency decreased by approximately 9% following a 7.075 kg batch of solid injection, likely due to the accumulation of solids in the vane-pack.
Case Study of Progressive Cleaning for Challenging Pipeline With High Debris and Low Flow Rate
Authors: Al-Muslim Husain , Al-Otaibi Senhat , Aldosary Ibrahim , Alqahtani Abdulrahman , Aljundi Taher , AlNasser Mohsen 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
A critical step in ensuring that a pipeline is fit and healthy for operations is continuous scraping “cleaning” and frequent scraping inspection. If scraping activities are not properly performed, pipeline integrity can be at risk. Running effective cleaning scrapers through pipelines will remove accumulated solid debris and leftover liquids as well as smoothen the pipe wall. This will reduce pipeline pressure, increase product flow as well as maintaining product specs. Moreover, it is a pre-requisite step before conducting in-line inspection as the different technologies either magnetic flux or ultrasonic have minimum cleanliness specifications for the sensors to perform properly and achieve a successful inspection. In typical cases, few cleaning runs with proper design. In typical cases, one or two cleaning runs are sufficient before the In-Line Inspection (ILI) to meet the requirements. However, in other cases, the cleaning may become more challenging and require careful designing and planning of “progressive cleaning”. In this paper, a specific case study will be discussed where the pipeline has not been cleaned since construction due to its low velocity, which has been improved recently to meet the minimum operating parameters requirements for cleaning and ILI scraping activities, associated with a long distance of over 200 km. This led to the expected accumulation of debris left over from construction phase as well as the potential for additional debris from operations. At the beginning, operating parameters simulation was performed to ensure that the required parameters for the scraping activities was achieved. Consequently, the progressive cleaning starts with evaluation foam tool followed by non-aggressive cleaning (without brushes and magnets) then gradually to more aggressive with brushes and magnets. A gate-stage criteria was developed to move between the phases that included review of the scraper data during the run, condition of the received tool, amount of debris received and encountered operational challenges. The scraper tool design was selected based on rigorous review between the operator and the vendor to account for the expected challenged. For example, the tool was equipped with brush discs and high-resistance guide discs to compensate for the expected wear and use of a unidirectional design after confirming the safe passage of the entire pipelines by a Bi-Di cleaning scraper. Moreover, the tool was equipped with a tracking mechanism with enough signal strength considering the amount of debris, and maximum possible battery life considering run duration and anticipated challenges. The overall progressive cleaning plan, the different tool designs, and the results of each cleaning phase will be described in the paper.
Preparation and Performance Evaluation of Erosion Resistant Lining of Bimetallic Composite Pipe
Authors: Dong Jianwei , Wang Deguo , Guo Yanbao 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Erosion widely exists in oil and gas production and transmission pipelines, which seriously affects the service life of pipelines. Ordinary carbon steel pipe can meet the strength and pressure of oil and gas transportation, but it has the disadvantages of poor erosion resistance, short service life and frequent replacement. The cost of using erosion resistant metal pipe is high, which is not suitable for comprehensive popularization and application. Bimetallic composite pipe includes outer layer and inner layer. It is formed by two different metals through a variety of processing technologies, which has the advantage that a single material does not have. It not only has the strength and toughness of the outer pipe, but also has the erosion resistance of the inner pipe. The service life of bimetallic composite pipeline can be 4–6 times longer than that of traditional carbon steel pipeline, and the manufacturing cost is relatively low, the service time is long, and it has good economy. Therefore, it is more and more widely used in oil and gas production and transportation. However, the common problem of bimetallic composite pipe is that the bonding interface between outer pipe and inner layer is not fully bonded and there has gaps. Or the interface binding force is not enough. When the composite pipe is eroded by the fluid in the pipe, the stress concentration at the interface will lead to the separation of the inner layer and the outer pipe, leading to the reduction of the service life of the pipe. Therefore, how to prepare the bimetallic composite pipe with good quality and strong erosion resistance has become an urgent problem to be solved. In this paper, carbon steel cemented carbide bimetallic composite pipe was prepared by electromagnetic heating through the application of centrifugal force and molten metal fluidity. The joint surface of the prepared bimetallic composite pipe was observed and analyzed, and the erosion test of the inner layer was carried out. The micro morphology of the erosion sample was observed and analyzed by shape analysis laser microscope. The erosion rate was accurately calculated according to the mass loss of the sample before and after erosion. The results show that the bimetallic composite pipe prepared by the above method has good interface bonding quality and no obvious defects. In the same erosion environment, the bimetallic composite pipe has stronger erosion resistance, lower erosion rate and higher service life than carbon steel pipe. Therefore, through the exploration of the preparation method of bimetallic composite pipe, this paper improves the preparation process of bimetallic composite pipe, improves the comprehensive mechanical properties and erosion resistance of bimetallic composite pipe, and promotes the application of bimetallic composite pipe in industrial production.
Progress of Assessment Model Development for Determining Remaining Strength of Corroded Pipelines
Authors: Zhu Xian-Kui , Wiersma Bruce 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
A technical review is presented of corrosion assessment models for determining the remaining strength of pipelines containing metal loss or corrosion defects. Initially, burst pressure prediction models for defect-free pipes, including strength and flow theory determined burst solutions and their experimental validations were considered. Next more accurate burst pressure predictions that cover a wide range of pipeline grades were discussed by comparing thick wall burst solutions and machine learning models with full-scale burst data that cover a wide range of pipeline grades up to X120.
Corrosion assessment models were categorized into three generations with respect to the reference stress. The 1st, 2nd, and 3rd generation models correspond to the flow stress, UTS, and both UTS and strain hardening rate. Seventeen corrosion models were evaluated and compared with full-scale burst data for a wide range of pipeline steels from low to high grades. The focus was on validating two recently developed 3rd-generation models that can determine more accurate burst strength for corroded thin-wall pipes. As the 4th-generation models, three typical thick-wall corrosion assessment models and machine learning models were introduced to predict more accurate results for corroded thick-wall pipes.
After that, advances in corrosion model development were discussed, including constraint effect, bulging factor and defect width effect. Finally, major technical challenges in development of corrosion assessment models were discussed with regard to full-scale experimental tests, numerical simulations, material failure criteria and real corrosion defect assessment.
Into the Void: Understanding the Impact of Hydrotests on Flaws in ERW Welds
Authors: Futch David B. , Dotson Rhett , Holland Mark 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Manufacturing flaws are common on low frequency electric resistance welded pipe (LF-ERW), such as hook cracks and lack of fusion. One less commonly identified flaw is a lamination that terminates at the ERW weld. This interaction results in a unique flaw geometry, occurring mostly at the pipe’s mid-wall thickness but can vary in severity along the length of the affected pipe joint. This paper discusses the significance of this flaw geometry, the method of formation, and the impact of typical operations (fatigue cycling and hydrostatic testing) on the strains along the indication. First, a comprehensive set of metallurgical examinations were performed, including metallography along the flaw. Examination included light microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, electron dispersive x-ray spectroscopy, and sub-load hardness testing (HV0.5) along the flaw. This set of examinations helped identify the flaw and how it formed.
Second, several tensile straps were prepared across the indication to better understand how the feature behaves during the operation of the pipeline. Each tensile specimen was monitored using a digital image correlation (DIC) system with a focus on the ERW seam weld. Tensile straps were prepared and tested to understand the influence of a hydrotest on normal operations by completing the following three phases of simulated operations: (1) normal operations with fatigue cycling at stress ranges equivalent to operating pressures between 6% SMYS and 56% SMYS (MOP), (2) a spike hydrostatic test at stresses equivalent to an operating pressure of 80% SMYS, and (3) normal operations with fatigue cycling at stress ranges equivalent to operating pressures between 6% SMYS and 56% SMYS (MOP). This sequence of testing permitted comparison of the strains at the flaw before and after the simulated hydrotest conditions. The comparison between the strains recorded via the DIC system showed an increase in strain of approximately 40% across the feature in the sample subjected to the spike test, which included an irrecoverable strain of approximately 0.06%. The evaluation process described in this paper provided a valuable understanding of the impacts of a hydrostatic test on manufacturing flaws. This type of evaluation can be used to better understand the effect of spike hydrostatic testing on other common planar flaws including ERW hook cracks, ERW lack of fusions, and stress corrosion cracking.