bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
July
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
July is the warmest month of the year in Durham. While July is the second sunniest month after May, thunderstorms are not uncommon during the month. There are a few occasions when rainfall has resulted in flooding in the area, in some cases causing erosion. Occasionally, wind speeds can rise, especially when accompanied by rain, but high winds are not common. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, and fog at Durham during the month of July. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month.
Winter
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
By long convention, the year is divided meteorologically into four seasons, each comprising three calendar months. Winter is the coldest season of the year. Throughout the chapter, winters are dated by the January year. With this in mind, in the northern hemisphere, therefore, the winter of 1962/63 (December 1962 to February 1963 inclusive) is referred to as ‘winter 1963’. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the winter season. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of various notable weather events during the December–January–February period.
Spring
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Spring is very much a season of transition. Like a longer version of March, spring comes in like a lion and goes out like a lamb, but the journey is sometimes a disappointing one: warm weather raises expectations, only for hopes to be dashed by spells of cool—even cold—weather. Spring marks the transition from snow and frost to the warmth of high summer, as the days lengthen, and the temperature rises. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the spring season. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the March–April–May period.
Autumn
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Just as spring, autumn is a season of transition. It often starts with hot, summery days but can end with snow; strong winds and rainstorms are likely at some stage in between. But there can be calm conditions and fog, too, redolent of John Keats’ ‘season of mists and mellow fruitfulness’; temperatures fall steeply during autumn. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall and fog at Durham during the autumn season. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the September-October-November period.
Barometric pressure extremes in Durham
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Durham’s barometric pressure record is by far the longest digital pressure record in northern England. This chapter examines Durham’s extremes of barometric pressure over the period 1843 to 1960, considering both high and low barometric pressure on individual days and by monthly means, for each month of the year and for the near 120-year record as a whole.
The role of functional heads in syntactic change
Authors: Egedi Barbara , Hegedűs Veronika 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis introductory chapter presents an overview on how formal syntactic studies interact with the theory of grammaticalization. Making a clear distinction between changes in the lexical and in the functional domains, the study focuses on the role of functional hierarchies, extended projections, and syntactic phases in structural changes, specifically in grammaticalization and reanalysis. These general considerations are connected to the case studies addressed in the subsequent chapters of the book. The problem of what syntactic changes are possible, predictable, or impossible is also addressed from various perspectives including the issues of unidirectionality and economy principles. Finally, a brief summary of each chapter of the volume is given, presenting their major assumptions and claims.
Changing patterns of clausal complementation in Latin
Authors: Danckaert Lieven 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter offers a unified account of two (at first blush independent) instances of syntactic change in Latin. Both developments are related to the system of clausal complementation. First, whereas Classical Latin typically uses infinitival clauses (so-called AcIs) to express embedded declaratives, these structures are later replaced by finite clauses, usually introduced by a complementizer. The opposite happens in the case of causatives, where a non-finite (infinitival) strategy is innovated. I propose that the key aspects of these two changes can be reduced to a single, more general, parametric change affecting Latin clause structure, namely the way in which the clausal EPP-requirement is satisfied, a change which affected possible patterns of subject placement (Danckaert 2017). The main mechanism needed to account for the observed facts is reanalysis of the Primary Linguistic Data by the language acquiring child.
The diachronic path ofsenão
Authors: Martins Ana Maria , Pereira Sandra , Pinto Clara 
Published: August 2022

AbstractEarly Old Portuguese exhibits a type of exceptive construction that soon vanished from the extant texts, but nevertheless demonstrates how exceptive subordination can evolve into exceptive coordination, and furthermore pinpoints a word order change. The exceptive construction consisted of a conditional structure associated to negation, in a discontinuous configuration of the type [se … NEG]. Adjacency between se and NEG was disrupted by constituents receiving information focus prominence, corresponding to the exceptive phrase. These exceptive conditionals signal that in 13th-century Portuguese two structural positions where available for elements with information focus prominence: a clause-final position, which can still be found in Contemporary Portuguese and a position at the left periphery. With the loss of this left-peripheral position, thus of focus fronting as a strategy to assign information focus, the word order pattern exhibited by discontinuous [se … NEG] was also lost, leading to the emergence of senõ/senão as a single lexical unit.
On Italian relative complementizers and relative pronouns
Authors: Sanfelici Emanuela , Garzonio Jacopo , Poletto Cecilia 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter explores the syntactic status of relativizers, i.e., what are standardly referred to as relative complementizers and relative pronouns, in Old and Modern Italian varieties. We propose a unified analysis for both types of items: both relative ‘complementizers’ and ‘pronouns’ have the same categorial status, i.e. they are wh-items, through the history of Italian. The diachronic change in the relativizer system from Old to Modern Italian varieties cannot be as an instance of a grammaticalization process in terms of van Gelderen’s Head Preference Principle, which assumes that heads are preferred over full XPs for economy reasons. We argue that the grammaticalization process that the relativizer undergoes can be considered as the reflex of the well known cartographic assumption that each projection expresses a single feature (see Cinque and Rizzi 2010b) but this feature can be realized by its specifier and not only by its head.
Tense recursion, perfect doubling, and the grammaticalization of auxiliaries
Authors: Larsson Ida , Brandner Ellen 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe chapter deals with some notable differences in the construal of the perfect within the Germanic languages. Whereas German shows auxiliary selection between HAVE and BE, allows positional past adverbials, and has so called perfect doubling (where a perfect is construed with an additional participle of the AUX and which may induce—in addition to a pluperfect reading—an interpretation where the target state does not hold any more at speech time), English/Swedish have neither of these properties. It is suggested that nevertheless all the Germanic languages build the perfect by using a bi-clausal structure (with two T-projections) and the differences are due to different grammaticalization stages of the auxiliaries: German has developed a temporally impoverished HAVE, lacking the prepositional AT-component, cf. Kayne (1993) and thus allowing more flexibility in its use.
General Introduction
Authors: Dimmock Matthew , Hadfield Andrew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The introduction provides an overview of the anthology and explains the key concepts in the volume. Travel, it is argued, was valued because it was thought to provide new knowledge based on experience but it also exposed the traveller to dangers, in particular, of losing their identity through an excessive enthusiasm for other cultures and so maintaining a firm religious conviction was vital. English travellers often carried racial and religious prejudice but they were also open to new ideas as the extracts included here demonstrate. Concentrating on specific situations is vital if we wish to understand how the variety of ways of thinking about peoples could be activated in very different forms.
Europe
Authors: Dimmock Matthew , Hadfield Andrew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the ways in which English travellers observed Europe, its people, culture, and institutions. In the early sixteenth century the English court was painfully aware of its cultural inferiority to the most advanced states of Europe and accordingly intellectuals as well as ambassadors were sent abroad to bring back useful information to help England become more sophisticated, a practice that became much more complicated after the Reformation. England considered itself intimately connected to Europe as well as isolated from it. The chapter includes Robert Dallington’s survey of French practices and institutions; Thomas Coryat’s observations of Venice, Germany, and Switzerland; William Harborne’s account of his journey back from Constantinople; Sir Charles Somerset’s diary of his European travels to Paris and Florence; Fynes Moryson, the first professional English traveller, on Italy and Ireland; and William Lithgow’s harrowing account of his imprisonment by the Inquisition in Spain.
The North
Authors: Dimmock Matthew , Hadfield Andrew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter includes material written by sailors on voyages to the Arctic, most eager to discover the North-West Passage which would have revolutionized English trade routes into the Pacific, as well as established a Northern Empire, as John Dee, the man who probably invented the term ‘British Empire’, urged. Fishing emerges as a significant issue as well. The explorers learned that the north-west was very different than they had imagined, full of ice and people of very different cultures who resisted Anglicization. Passages in this chapter include George Abbot’s overview of the northern regions; Fynes Moryson on his visit to Denmark; Giles Fletcher the elder on his voyage to and travels in Russia; George Best’s account of Martin Frobisher’s voyage to Baffin Island; Sir George Peckham’s account of Humphrey Gilbert’s voyage to Newfoundland, which provides a fascinating insight into the ways in which colonial occupation was undertaken; and John Davis on his encounters with the Inuit in Greenland.
Africa
Authors: Dimmock Matthew , Hadfield Andrew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The chapter provides an overview of English voyages to and knowledge of Africa. While Africa was to feature largely in the English imagination later, especially in Victorian times, in this period it was often imagined as two distinct locations: a cultured, Islamic North and a wild, pagan South. These assumptions had a deep influence on travellers’ experiences and accounts. Africa was to assume greater importance as the Atlantic slave trade developed, but at this time the trade was dominated by the Spanish and Portuguese. Representations were largely based on the history of Africa by Al-Hasan ibn Muhammad al-Wazzan al-Fasi, known to English audiences as Leo Africanus. As the extract included here demonstrates, his history was largely concerned with North Africa. Also included are extracts from Sebastian Munster on the islands of East Africa; Sir John Hawkins, notorious as the first English slave trader; Richard Madox on Sierra Leone; a translation of the voyage of the Portuguese adventurer, Duarte Lopez, to the Congo; and the traveller, George Sandys’ account of his journey to Egypt.
Islamic West Asia and the Eastern Mediterranean
Authors: Dimmock Matthew , Hadfield Andrew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This area, from the Black and Caspian Seas to the Mediterranean, was dominated by Islam and the Ottoman Empire, which had expanded impressively in the later Middle Ages, especially under the imperial rule of the powerful Sultan, Suleiman the Magnificent, whose Pan-Ottoman strategy absorbed a range of diverse peoples under his sole rule. The English were eager to trade with the Ottomans and to forge an alliance with the empire in particular to counteract the hegemony of Spain in Western Europe and a number of trade missions were sent which are reproduced here. The increased prominence of Ottoman power then led English dramatists to produce stage figures caricaturing the bombastic Turk. This chapter includes extracts from Anthony Jenkinson on his journey to the Caspian Sea through the lands of the Tatars; Thomas Dallam, who travelled to Istanbul to deliver an organ to the emperor, Mehmed III; Anthony Sherley, a wily and self-serving diplomat who was entrusted with establishing relations in Persia; Fynes Moryson on the nature and characteristics of the Ottoman Empire; and George Sandys, Henry Timberlake, and William Lithgow on the Jews in Ottoman Palestine and Jerusalem.
Sexual Violence Against Men in Contemporary Warfare
Authors: Žarkov Dubravka 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
While there has been an increased acknowledgment of the fact that males are subjected to sexual violence, these crimes are rarely acknowledged as gendered, and there is still a need to identify the full range of gendered harms experienced by males and to ensure accountability for these crimes. This chapter analyses sexual violence and more specifically rape as a war practice from the perspective of the male victim. It focuses on the violated male body and argues that there are different meanings of war rapes for male and female victims and their different (in)visibilities indicate differences in the ways modern masculinities and femininities are produced. The author argues that war and armed conflict—and sexual violence therein—are social processes in which these differences come to the forefront.
Children, Gender, and International Criminal Justice
Authors: Atiba-Davies Gloria , Nwoye Leo C 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Insufficient attention has been paid within international criminal law (ICL) to the distinctive features of gender-based crimes against children, although the Office of the Prosecutor (OTP) of the International Criminal Court’s (ICC) 2016 Policy Paper on Children makes significant strides in this direction. This chapter examines international jurisprudence on crimes against children and considers strategies to better uncover and recognize the role of gender in those crimes.
Reproductive Crimes in International Criminal Law
Authors: Grey Rosemary 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Although some states have taken concrete steps to protect reproductive autonomy within their borders, there is no international consensus on the issue and as a result, no international instrument that criminalizes reproductive crimes. This chapter seeks to incentivize greater attention to reproductive violence in international law going forward. This chapter starts by explaining the concept of reproductive violence and its links to gender, race, and other identities. It then traces the process of ‘surfacing’ reproductive violence in international criminal law (ICL), taking into account broader debates about global ‘over-population’, women’s empowerment, and human rights. This historic overview gives a sense of the political challenges to protecting and promoting the value of reproductive autonomy in international law. Finally, the chapter explores strategies for prosecuting violations of reproductive autonomy in the International Criminal Court (ICC) and other international courts. This includes a discussion of genocide, forced pregnancy, enslavement, sexual violence, persecution, outrages on personal dignity, torture, and inhumane acts.
Using International Criminal Law to Curb Discriminatory Practices Against Females
Authors: Mulvey Antonia 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
A number of discriminatory acts and practices against females are ordered or tolerated by many states. These might include domestic or family violence, as well as harmful practices such as female genital mutilation (FGM). This chapter discusses the broader potential of the crimes against humanity category to address state-ordered or tolerated regimes of discrimination against females in peacetime, using FGM as a case study. This chapter seeks to redefine FGM as the crime against humanity of torture in some contexts. In doing so, it looks to reshape the way the legal community, and society more generally, considers and responds to FGM. It also explores the potential benefits to the international community, society and victims of redefining FGM and other discriminatory practices as torture.
Fragmentation Fears or Interaction Opportunities?
Authors: O’Rourke Catherine 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Article 21(3) of the Rome Statute allows for potential interaction between international human rights law (IHRL) and international criminal law (ICL), especially in the area of gender jurisprudence. However this interaction has been limited and the International Criminal Court (ICC) has interpreted article 21(3) narrowly. This chapter sets out to do three things: first, it illuminates the Court’s narrow approach to article 21(3) in its gender jurisprudence through the case study of the ICC’s child soldier jurisprudence emerging from the conflict in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC); second, it contextualizes these findings within broader debates on fragmentation and women’s rights in conflict under international law; and third, it proposes strategies for the pursuit of more productive interactions between ICL and IHRL in order to enhance the overall protection of women’s rights in conflict under international law.
Being Realistic about Kant’s Idealism
Authors: Rosefeldt Tobias 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter deals with the question of whether Kant’s transcendental idealism is realistic in the sense of allowing for an explanation of the a posteriori aspects of mental content by the properties of empirical objects. The author first shows that a phenomenalist interpretation has severe problems with assuming that we perceive an object as being red or as being cubical partly because the perceived object is red and cubical, and then presents an interpretation that allows us to save the realistic intuition behind these claims. According to this interpretation, Kantian phenomenal properties are understood as response-dependent properties of extra-mental objects that also have to have some response-independent (in-itself-) properties. This interpretation is well supported by Kant’s remarks about the transcendental object in the A-edition of the first Critique and it also makes intelligible why Kant took explanations of mental content by means of empirical properties to imply an explanation by means of noumenal properties without thereby violating his own doctrine of noumenal ignorance. This not only allows us to establish a realistic reading of Kant idealism but also to discern the true kernel in Adickes’s infamous talk about Kant’s theory of double affection.
Relation to an Object
Authors: Allais Lucy 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to address one part of Kant’s argument in the Transcendental Deduction of the categories: why he thinks that the application of the categories is necessary for thought to have “relation to an object.” At the center of the Deduction is the idea that having a unified self-consciousness that one can be aware of as such requires having thoughts about a world of objective particulars. I take this to be an answer to Humean/empiricist skepticism about a priori concepts. Kant thinks that in representing something as objective we represent it as constraining our representations of it; but also that the spontaneity of combination means that combination is not given. Kant takes this to create a problem with how we could manage to represent objects as that which is opposed to our cognitions being determined at pleasure or arbitrarily. His solution is the transcendental concept of an object in general: representing objects’ properties as having necessary connections with each other enables us to represent objects as constraining our cognition. This addresses a problem about concept application faced even by the realist empiricist who takes us to be presented with empirical particulars and accepts Kant’s account of the spontaneity and generality of conceptual thought. Thinking that there are objects which, independently of us, are spatiotemporal causal unities is not enough to explain what it takes for us to have successful concept application in which we think of objects as such.
How Does Kant Conceive of Self-Consciousness?
Authors: Emundts Dina 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the question of how to best understand Kant’s conception of self-consciousness. Is it something that exists or is it a conceptual construction? If there is an existing Self, what can we say about it? If it is a conceptual construct, what kind of construct is it? The first section sketches out three interpretations of Kant’s concept of self-consciousness. In the second section it is argued that self-consciousness is best understood to involve a consciousness of a real, existing thing as opposed to a consciousness of a merely intentional object or “thought-thing.” This idea is further developed and discussed in the third and fourth sections. These sections are particularly concerned with the questions of how Kant can claim this, even though—by Kant’s own standards—this cannot be a case of knowledge or cognition.
Kant’s Derivation of the Moral “Ought” from a Metaphysical “Is”
Authors: Marshall Colin 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that Kant can be read as holding that “ought” judgments follow from certain “is” judgments by mere analysis. More specifically, an interpretation is defended according to which (1) Kant holds that “S ought to F” is analytically equivalent to “If, as it can and would were there no other influences on the will, S’s faculty of reason determined S’s willing, S would F” and (2) Kant’s notions of reason, the will, and freedom are all fundamentally non-normative. Not only does this reading have significant textual support, but it also sheds light on why Kant takes freedom and morality to mutually imply one another. Moreover, while Kant does take there to be a gap between moral judgments and empirical descriptive statements, that gap is consistent with the analysis in question. The author concludes by arguing that this rejection of the is-ought gap is not as philosophically implausible as it might seem, with a focus on G. E. Moore and Hume’s arguments for certain “gaps” between the normative and the non-normative.