bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Obligatory Social Beneficence
Authors: Fleck Leonard M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Sufficientarianism reflects the reasonable ethical insight that society must accept limits for providing health care resources required as a matter of justice. What is beyond justice? Is there a role for obligatory social beneficence? If so, how can obligatory social beneficence be constrained so that it is not arbitrary and a threat to justice? Should gene therapy at $2 million for sickle cell disease or muscular dystrophy be a matter of health care justice as opposed to obligatory social beneficence? Should there be age cutoffs for extremely expensive, marginally beneficial targeted cancer therapies? Did the United Kingdom make a moral mistake when it created the Cancer Drug Fund to pay for expensive targeted therapies not approved by the National Institute for Clinical Excellence? Should artificial hearts at $500,000 each be part of a basic benefit package or left to social beneficence? These are the central questions in this chapter.
Precision Medicine, Precision Health
Authors: Fleck Leonard M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Precision medicine and precision health should complement one another. However, they might also be competing for the same resources. Precision health is about preventing cancer or attacking it in its earliest stages. The key tool for accomplishing that is the “liquid biopsy,” a blood draw that captures cancer cells in early stages. If all adults in the United States had a liquid biopsy annually, the cost would be $160 billion. Some advocate taking that money from end-of-life targeted cancer therapies to fund these liquid biopsies. Should the democratic deliberators endorse that idea as just for their future possible selves? Should the deliberators endorse trading off identified lives (metastatic cancer patients) for the statistical lives they hope to save from cancer? Should whole genome sequencing be used early in life to identify individuals at greater risk for cancer, socially fund liquid biopsies for them, but deny social funding to everyone else?
Quod nescis quomodo fiat id non facis
Authors: Scribano Emanuela 
Published: September 2022

AbstractPost-Cartesian Occasionalism argues that the power to cause an effect depends on the knowledge of the means by which the effect can be produced. This argument is used to deny finite beings any power to act. Arnold Geulincx expresses this thesis through the principle Quod nescis quomodo fiat id non facis, whose origins lie in Galen’s De foetuum formatione, a work translated into Latin only in 1535. Galen’s text is discussed in important works of early modern philosophy, such as Campanella’s De sensu rerum. The Quod nescis principle is completely foreign to Descartes’ physics and metaphysics, given their rejection of finalism. This point is confirmed by a comparison between the Cartesian theory of animals as machines and the theory of animal behavior developed by Pierre Chanet, a philosopher who accepted the Quod nescis principle.
Introduction
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis introductory chapter summarizes the "insurgent's dilemma," namely the difficulty of defeating the state and sustaining power without suffering devastating retaliation along the way. Whereas this militarized form of insurgency was seen frequently during the Cold War, the instances of success via this strategy are now rare. In the face of this dilemma, insurgents can be expected to adapt. Three main strategies are explained: the entrenchment of localized insurgency in areas where the state is weak; the infiltration of democratic governments so as to claim power from within; and the shift to a virtual, ideational strategy that polarizes and subverts, but gives the state no targets which to strike. In outlining these future forms of insurgency, this introductory chapter explains both the importance of this topic and its methodological pitfalls. It explains the structure of the book and provides a breakdown of each chapter.
Unraveling the Dilemma
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractFor insurgents across the world, military confrontation against the nation-state has become a far less salient road to power, and change is therefore in the air. This chapter lays out the backdrop for this evolution. It begins with a discussion of what insurgency is and has been. Seeking to counter the tendency to militarize the treatment of insurgency, the chapter reframes this phenomenon as defined primarily by its political and social essence. On this basis, the chapter surveys the collective experience of insurgents, during the Cold War and more recently. The analysis traces the evolution of insurgent strategy, and of counterinsurgency response, to indicate a gradual shift in outcomes benefiting the state. The reasons for this shift relate to a process of urbanization, the greater military capacity of states, the reduced state support for insurgency, and a normative environment less forgiving of movements of armed liberation. Casting insurgency as a reflection of the political and social context in which it unfolds, the chapter demonstrates how these factors have changed in ways that make insurgency less successful than it was during the Cold War. As traditional avenues to state capture are closing, producing an insurgent's dilemma, strategic adaptation becomes necessary.
Ideational Insurgency
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter explains the emergence and logic of ideational insurgency, which uses online spaces to organize, recruit and attack. The advantage of this approach is that it provides few physical targets that the state can strike. Social media also generates alternative realities that extend in-group loyalty even without in-person contact. Underlying each ensuing attack is a political competition for influence and control, spearheaded by an online counter-state spinning out of cyberspace and making itself known "in real life" (or IRL). In this manner, through intimidation and by altering the narrative, political and social change becomes possible. In tracing the evolution of this approach, the chapter begins with the dawn of a global internet in the mid-1990s and the early pioneers of ideational insurgency. The chapter then reviews the use of ideational insurgency by both ISIS and far-right violent extremists (the so-called "alt-right")--two movements whose ideological differences belie a shared approach. These case studies, and the underlying theory, are used to illustrate the serious challenges of ideational insurgency to societal stability, coherence and norms. Given the continued sophistication of online existence, there is reason to expect that the potency of the approach will grow.
Mind the Gap
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractIn localized insurgency, the group fixes its struggle in areas where the state is weak or uninterested in control. This approach reduces the signature of the insurgent project and, therefore, the likelihood of a concerted military response. Instead, states double down on developed areas and leave the rest behind, or--at most--launch aggressive yet strictly palliative raids. This response is inauspicious, because it does not stem--and indeed accelerates--the fragmentary effects of the localized approach. This chapter considers policy options for states faced with localized insurgency. For rural struggles, it reviews the lessons from the Sri Lankan and Colombian counterinsurgency campaigns. For urban struggles, it reviews counter-gang operations in Rio de Janeiro, El Salvador, and Haiti, as well as operations launched in Sadr City, Iraq. In all instances, a key condition for success is the political will to fuse broken states and reintegrate lost populations. As this condition is so seldom met, the chapter considers alternative political orders to the Weberian ideal of a state. These arrangements emphasize political decentralization, informal governance and shared sovereignty, and may offer a more realistic, if still challenging, path to counter localized insurgency.
Dueling Narratives
Authors: Ucko David H. 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThe challenge of ideational insurgency is that it does not provide the state with a physical target, an aim for its response. De-territorialized, the insurgency spreads out like a mist, until it is everywhere. The result is not a cataclysmic defeat of the state, but more like a death by a thousand cuts, as societal norms and values shift to accommodate an increasingly unassailable force. This chapter presents options for state response. Three major categories of response are discussed--disruption through law enforcement; suppression through online censorship; and the fostering of individual and societal resilience, be it through counter-messaging, preventive interventions, or education on media and digital literacy. This chapter lays out these three approaches, pointing to the U.S. context and its targeting by both the ISIS and alt-right ideational insurgencies. The implications for state response are vast and touch upon freedom of speech, disinformation, trust, as well as societal cohesion and resilience. In turn, ideational challenges force a major rethink of what is meant by counterinsurgency.
An American Pathology
Authors: Zug Charles U. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter concludes the book by suggesting that, paradoxically, an understanding of democratic politics that regards demagoguery as necessarily evil, as a practice to be castigated wherever it occurs and ultimately banished from the community, becomes the cause of the very thing it wishes to obliterate. Demagoguery is an American pathology, and we have become a community of demagogues because we claim to hate demagoguery.
Old and New Directions in the Study of State Repression
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 outlines in detail exactly where the near 30-year empirical exploration of state repressive behavior has gone. Specifically, we outline the predominant theoretical argument and then outline how well it is has done with regard to explaining the phenomenon that it set out to explain. The chapter maintains that not only has existing theory been somewhat unclear and underdeveloped but rigorous empirical work has not done that well in accounting for state repression. What follows is the identification of puzzles that remain within the literature and in an attempt to address these limitations, the chapter introduces the ‘juggernaut’ theory of repressive spells. This identifies the basic logic of why governments use state repression across the different phases of a spell. Such an argument provides insights into what most likely hinders or completely stops human rights violation.
Recurring Spells
Authors: Davenport Christian , Appel Benjamin J. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 provides the first empirical investigation of what (if anything) impacts the recurrence of a repressive spell. Again, the analysis identifies the influence of the standard variables employed within the literature. Following this, the chapter moves to explore those variables that emerge from the domestic context (i.e., those used by actors within the territory in question) and those variables that emerge from the international context (i.e., those used by actors outside of the territory in question). The big findings here include pacifying influences of electoral democratization, economic development and progovernment intervention but inflammatory influences of population as well as neutral military interventions. This reveals that there are different factors influencing distinct parts of the Death/Life repression cycle and that some factors that were believed to reduce state repression (such as intervention) have mixed influences depending upon the specific type of policy enacted. The chapter investigates what drives the variable/policy that wields the biggest impact on onset: political democratization. Chapter 6 ends with what has been learned about spell recurrence.
More than History Repeating Itself
Authors: Berridge Willow , Lynch Justin , Makawi Raga , de Waal Alex 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter puts today's uprising and transition in historical perspective, comparing its dynamics to those of the 1964 October Revolution and 1985 April Intifada. It identifies a core set of actors within the military and urban elites that have charted the course of a “conservative transition” in 1964, 1985, and 2018–2020. At the same time, it highlights several factors that may explain why the events of today are taking a different path to those of 1964 and 1985. Notably, these include the potential eclipse of Islamist politics, the shifting relationship between center and periphery, and the increasing significance of women's revolutionary roles.
A Revolution in Cyber Affairs?
Authors: Moore Daniel 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThere are several significant developments in computing, networks and information security that may affect the balance of offensive cyber operations (OCOs) over the coming years and decades. These changes are more likely to be evolutionary rather than revolutionary, by intensifying the existing characteristics of OCOs rather than altogether supplanting them. This chapter assesses the impact of artificial intelligence (AI), autonomous platforms and augmented and virtual reality (AR/VR) on OCOs by examining current development trajectories and their potential significance. These developments all demonstrate the increased reliance of human society on information networks and therefore represent potentially deepening vulnerabilities. Developments in artificial intelligence may both increase efficiency in scaled offensive operations while creating new vulnerable centers of gravity. Autonomous vehicles (drones)--and swarms thereof--may represent an increase in safe military lethality, but the complexity in controlling them remotely may similarly create an exploitable vulnerability. Considering the tendency of humanity to innovate first and worry about security later, there is significant need for continuous, active monitoring of these trends.
Elixir Sulfanilamide
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
In the fall of 1937, patients began to die soon after consuming a new therapy called the Elixir Sulfanilamide. In response, the fledgling agency known as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) jumped into action. The agency recovered the remaining 700 bottles and saved the lives of an estimated 4,000 Americans. The FDA also advocated for the landmark Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, which, among other major steps, authorized the FDA to establish the world’s first advance review for safety of medications. The story of the Elixir Sulfanilamide exemplifies how much in public health has been shaped by crisis. Strong preparation, a well-managed response, and astute legislative strategy made all the difference in turning crisis to opportunity. If, as Louis Pasteur has famously said, chance favors the prepared mind, then the story of the Elixir Sulfanilamide shows that crisis favors the prepared agency.
Thalidomide
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
In 1962, the United States found itself transfixed by a crisis involving the medication thalidomide. Marketed widely in Europe for a variety of ailments, including nausea during pregnancy, thalidomide turned out to be a severe teratogen, causing thousands of severe birth defects in Germany alone. Yet as a result of diligence by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA), thalidomide was never approved for marketing in the United States.). When the close call came to light, Congress responded by granting the agency new authority, including the unprecedented power to require medications to be proven effective before sale. A key to turning tragedy into progress was the decision to highlight the central role of the FDA reviewer Dr. Frances Oldham Kelsey in protecting the nation.
The Swine Flu of 1976
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Early in 1976, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention proposed and President Gerald Ford approved a plan to vaccinate the country against swine influenza, a new infection that had only recently appeared on a New Jersey army base. While agency leaders imagined themselves rising to the challenge of a crisis, mismanagement and poor communication led to a debacle for public health. Problems included logistical difficulties in manufacturing the vaccine, disputes with Congress, and the inability to revise the vaccination goal in light of the fact that the disease never returned. When people who were vaccinated fell ill with neurological complications, the vaccine effort ended, but not before causing grave damage to confidence in public health agencies.
Recognizing a Crisis
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The first order of business in crisis management is figuring out that there is a crisis. Once a brewing crisis is recognized, health officials can organize a coherent response, limit its impact, and even make an early pivot to achieve long-lasting change. Unfortunately, spotting a crisis early is far easier said than done. It’s the rare crisis that announces itself with a phone call 12 hours in advance. Most crises go unnoticed even as clues emerge, lost in the stream of the daily activity of an agency or hidden by biases, assumptions, and wishful thinking. To be successful, officials and their agencies should pursue a proactive strategy to identify crises early. There are three elements of effective crisis detection: spotting signals, pulling in data and assessing the situation, and developing a space and culture to put the pieces of the puzzle together.
Preventing the Next Crisis
Authors: Sharfstein Joshua M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
In a crisis and its aftermath, public health officials may have the opportunity to achieve lasting, positive reforms. There are three steps to such success. First, by responding swiftly and effectively to the immediate challenge, agencies establish credibility with key audiences. Second, at the right moment, backed by thoughtful analysis, leaders are able to provide a coherent explanation of what happened, revealing the need for further action to prevent the problem from recurring or growing worse. Third, officials jump into the fray to make the case for change. Successful advocacy can involve calling key decision-makers, working with journalists, writing op/eds, and developing alliances with key advocates in the public and private sectors.
The New Frontiers of Crime in South Africa
Authors: Ellis Stephen , Randrianja Solofo , Bayart Jean-François 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes crime in contemporary South Africa and traces its roots to Apartheid and the struggle against it. The Apartheid state made little attempt to police ordinary crime in black urban communities and townships consequently saw the growth of fearsome criminal gangs. By the late 1970s, both the ANC and the National Party recognised that these gangs could be their allies, and, in some cases, deliberately trained, armed, and encouraged them to foment disorder. When the ANC and National Party finally settled their differences, these groups' violent activities returned to being more overtly criminal, but in enhanced form. In addition, during the years of apartheid, the South African security forces were overwhelmingly focused on countering what they saw as the Soviet-backed threat of the ANC and SACP. This left them ill-prepared to cope with the massive growth in international cross-border criminality that accompanied the end of the Cold War.
Mind the Gap
Authors: Smeets Max 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter offers an historical overview of states' developments in the cyber realm using the definitions set out in the previous chapter. This chapter first discusses how countries have prioritized cyber policy over time, paying particular attention to the institutional developments in the offensive realm, and second highlight what we know about countries' offensive cyber activities. The chapter finds that over forty countries have publicly established a military cyber organization. However, the chapter also explains that relatively few countries have conducted cyber effect operations.
The Effect of Experience
Authors: Smeets Max 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter draws on business strategy literature's concept of experience curve effects, to analyze the components that could enhance effectiveness in offensive cyber capability development and deployment. Experience curves are based on the premise that the more often a task is performed, the more effectively the task will be completed. This chapter examines three components of experience effects: learning, scale and technology. The chapter explains that states can become more effective in capability development and deployment over time. Developers and operators can not only become better in writing code but also improve their communication skills. Infrastructure acquisition and use can benefit from scale advantages. And improvements in tooling can make various aspects of the cyber-attack process more effective. That said, the chapter also reveals that states face several obstacles to enhance their operational effectiveness in the cyber domain. Not least, organizations will continue to find it difficult to hire, train, and above all, retain qualified personnel.
Unintentional Interstate Capability Transfers
Authors: Smeets Max 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter discusses four forms of unintentional state-to-state transfer. First, unintentional transfer can result from the (successful) execution of offensive cyber operations, as the target or other actors can learn from the instance. Second, a state may directly or indirectly collect intelligence on a state's capability, and then integrate adversarial tooling or infrastructure in their own operations. Third, through leaking, hacking tools of (advanced) cyber actors may end up on the streets - and "picked up" by other actors. Fourth, government employees or other talent from one country might be hired by the military or intelligence agency of another government.
Elements of Our Hybrid Existence
Authors: Dix Alan , Gill Steve , Hare Jo , Ramduny-Ellis Devina 
Published: September 2022

AbstractThis chapter introduces the core elements of physicality that will form the structure of the central parts of the book: the body and physiology, material artefacts and design, space and spatial arrangement, and digital artefacts and virtual physicality. Humans have always shaped their lives and the world from stone and metal tools to steam and electrical machines; digital technology is in some ways just another step but it is also different in the way that it is both embedded everywhere and yet also has an almost numinous or ghost-like nature. This chapter explores how human–computer interaction and industrial design have emerged as separate disciplines and yet are now converging in the study of these hybrid digital devices with physical form.