bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Northern Ireland
Authors: Hayward Katy 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 by Katy Hayward examines in depth the political and sociological situation of Northern Ireland. In her contribution, Hayward explores the identity cleavages in Northern Ireland, tracking electoral preferences from the Brexit referendum to the entry into force of the Protocol. As Hayward underlines, in Northern Ireland religion remains a proxy of political preferences. As she points out on the basis of opinion polls conducted over the period between 2016 and 2021, while Northern Ireland had by majority voted against leaving the EU, Unionist parties in Ulster had mostly supported Brexit. Similarly, all Unionist parties are now opposing the Protocol, which is instead largely favoured by Republican parties. In this context of political polarization, however, Hayward emphasizes the growing demographic importance of the non-aligned groups, meaning the political forces and voters who do not identify either as Catholic/Republican or Protestant/Unionist, and suggests that their current support for the Protocol will be likely to tip the balance in favour of retaining it at the next consent vote in 2024.
Non-discrimination
Authors: O’Donoghue Aoife 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 by Aoife O’Donoghue focuses on Article 2 of the Protocol, entitled ‘Rights of Individuals’, and examines its significance, particularly with regard to non-discrimination. As O’Donoghue points out, Article 2 of the Protocol makes an explicit reference to the Rights, Safeguards, and Equality of Opportunity provisions of the Belfast Good Friday Agreement, and as such reaffirms its legal validity and the commitment by the UK to ensure no diminution of rights. At the same time, Article 2 of the Protocol also refers to several human rights bodies established by the Belfast Good Friday Agreement—including the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, the Equality Commission for Northern Ireland, and the Joint Committee of representatives of the Human Rights Commissions of Northern Ireland and Ireland—and confirms their continuing importance in securing individual and social rights in Northern Ireland. Moreover, as O’Donoghue makes clear, Article 2 of the Protocol entrenches in Northern Ireland a number of EU non-discrimination laws, which are listed in an Annex 1 attached to the Protocol, thus extending the protections afforded by EU law to Northern Ireland after Brexit.
The Common Travel Area
Authors: Maher Imelda 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 by Imelda Maher examines Article 3 of the Protocol, entitled ‘Common Travel Area’ (CTA). Maher explains how the CTA is a long-standing arrangement which has allowed Irish and UK citizens to move freely between the two islands, and she underlines how Article 3 of the Protocol essentially enables the two countries to continue this practice, provided it respects the rights of natural persons conferred by EU law. At the same time, Maher shows how the CTA is a largely uncodified arrangement, which relies on multiple sources of law, including international agreements, bits of immigration legislation in the UK, and several memoranda of understanding (MoUs) on travel, access to health, and education. In fact, Maher stresses how the first legally binding recognition of the CTA could arguably be found in Protocol 20 to the EU Treaties, which exempted Ireland and the UK from joining the Schengen free movement zone, because of their CTA. While this provision of primary EU law will have to be removed at the next round of treaty revisions, according to Maher the CTA has today found a legal protection in the Protocol on Ireland/Northern Ireland. Yet, the CTA remains mostly a political commitment between the two governments, which suggests that its future remains somewhat uncertain.
Cross-border Cooperation
Authors: O’Connell Rory 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 7 by Rory O’Connell looks at the provisions of the Protocol on North-South cooperation, zooming in on Article 11 of the Protocol, entitled ‘Other areas of North-South cooperation’. O’Connell maps the complex historical relations between Ireland and Northern Ireland since the time of partition, and explains the functioning of North-South institutions established by the Belfast Good Friday Agreement. He then underlines how the Protocol foresees the continuation of North-South cooperation in a vast array of areas, including on environment, health, agriculture, transport, education and tourism, energy, telecommunications, broadcasting, inland fisheries, justice and security, higher education, and sport. However, O’Connell also discusses the political controversies that the Protocol has created, including the decision of the DUP leadership to boycott the North-South Ministerial Council, and reviews the recent High Court of Northern Ireland decision to declare this boycott unlawful. In conclusion, O’Connell raises some cautionary remarks on cross-border cooperation after Brexit, identifying several political preconditions which will be necessary for this to continue.
Protection of the UK Internal Market
Authors: Barnard Catherine 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 9 by Catherine Barnard focuses on Article 6 of the Protocol, entitled ‘Protection of the UK Internal Market’ and offers a critical perspective on this concept. In fact, as Barnard points out, the idea of a UK internal market is relatively new: while one may trace antecedents of it as long ago as in 1706, in the Act of Union between England and Scotland, the concept of a UK internal market is very much a Brexit-related creation, as the UK government first started speaking about this in the context of the withdrawal negotiations. Nevertheless, as Barnard explains, the UK internal market is not quite as strong and effective as the EU internal market—on the one hand because it is law-given, rather than based on a higher law, and on the other because Northern Ireland is not part of it. Indeed, owing to the operation of Article 5 of the Protocol, regulatory checks are required for goods moving between Great Britain and Northern Ireland, and these are posing hurdles to unfettered market access.
Consent
Authors: O’Leary Brendan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 12, by Brendan O’Leary, focuses on one of the key legitimating provisions of the Protocol, namely the ‘Democratic Consent in Northern Ireland’ of Article 18. This clause, which was introduced in the Protocol as part of the October 2019 renegotiation, allows the Northern Ireland Assembly to vote, in 2024 at the latest, on whether to retain the Protocol’s economic provisions (Articles 5 to 10), or whether to discard them—and, as such, plays a key role in ensuring ex post democratic backing to the most contentious elements of the Protocol. In his critical contribution, O’Leary dismisses a number of false claims about the Protocol, namely that it was imposed on the UK, or that it undermines the Belfast Good Friday Agreement. Instead, O’Leary claims that the Protocol reflects the reality of the UK constitution, based on parliamentary sovereignty, and does not infringe on devolved competences of Northern Ireland. As such, he maintains that Unionist forces in Northern Ireland do not have a veto on the operation of the Protocol, as the mechanisms of cross-community consent foreseen in the Belfast Good Friday Agreement do not apply to this law. As the chapter underlines, the consent mechanism of Article 18 of the Protocol will probably lead to Northern Ireland endorsing its continuing application in 2024, but without cross-community consent.
Class
Authors: Kerr Douglas 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter is about ‘the road from Mandalay to Wigan’, and the way Orwell’s developing ideas about social injustice grew, for better or worse, out of his experience of Burma and his disgust with the ‘despotism’ he had served. The analogy between empire and the British class system was, however, an inexact one. He had been brought up—‘an odious little snob’ –to think of the working class as hostile; it was a painful education to think of them differently. He remained acutely conscious of class and its subdivisions, not least in his hostility to smaller septs like bourgeois socialists or the Anglo-Indians themselves (he belonged to both tribes).
Women
Authors: Kerr Douglas 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Orwell was not at ease with women, and is not popular with most feminists. His views of women were formed against his very masculine and unexpressive Anglo-Indian, public-school, and colonial-police background. There are disturbing images and episodes of the subjection and exploitation of women in his fiction, especially Burmese Days, and the rape victim in Down and Out is orientalized. A Clergyman’s Daughter adopts the point of view of a woman trying and failing to escape the bondage of family, class, and church. Both Orwell’s wives, however, were sexually emancipated modern women. Julia in Nineteen Eighty-Four is a free spirit, but a sexual and not intellectual force. This chapter shows, however, that a rich cluster of feelings, and all the important positive values of that novel, coalesce, as if in atonement, around the figure of the mother, perceived only in dream and distant memory.
Police
Authors: Kerr Douglas 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
In England, and in Orwell’s English novels, the policeman was a benign and trusted figure. Orwell thought this made the British dangerously complacent. For five years in the Imperial Police in Burma, he had been part of the ‘machinery of so-called justice’ in a period of widespread racial tension and anti-British agitation, imposing discipline and punishment often against his better instincts. Burmese Days is in part a police story. In Homage to Catalonia, however, the boot was on the other foot, and as a POUM soldier in Barcelona in 1937, Orwell found himself on the run in what was rapidly becoming a police state. These experiences make their way into Animal Farm, where Napoleon’s dogs are both police force and murder-squad, and Nineteen Eighty-Four, where the Thought Police are everywhere and there is no law. In 1949, he was to write, ‘half the world is ruled by secret police forces’.
Grounding Friendships
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to offer an account of the grounding of deep friendships within the context of virtue ethics that, while drawing on Aristotle’s justification of ‘character friendships’, goes some distance in reconciling Aristotle’s highly moralistic view with a prevalent counterview (represented e.g. historically by Montaigne and in recent times by Telfer and Nehamas) according to which we are drawn towards close friends for reasons that are essentially aesthetic, amoral and arational. It is argued that there are resources within Aristotelian virtue ethics (while not exploited by Aristotle himself) that enable us to overcome some of the difficulties of his exclusively moralistic view and bring it into better harmony with common-sense conceptions; yet preserving fundamental aspects of Aristotle’s view, such as that vicious people cannot form truly deep friendships. What the chapter aims at could be called an ‘individuality-adjusted moralised view’ of the grounding of deep friendships: a conciliatory view that still remains closer to an amendment of the moralised view than to a middle-ground synthesis.
Friendships for Utility
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Can (Aristotelian) friendships for utility have moral value? There is an assumption in much of the literature on Aristotelian friendships that his ‘lower forms’ of friendship, especially friendship for utility, do not merit the label ‘genuine friendship’ and thus do not ‘qualify as morally valuable’. Rather, friendships for utility are just considered to be about taking advantage of one another in amoral or immoral ways. This chapter offers counter-arguments, going beyond the letter if not necessarily the spirit of Aristotle’s own texts, based on delineating two different levels of utility friendships and showing that the higher one (with non-instrumental while extrinsic value) can have moral worth in combatting moral despondency, incontinence and even vice. A personal illustration is given from the moral utility value of friendships in Facebook support groups for patients with a rare disorder.
Online Character Friendships
Authors: Kristjánsson Kristján 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter adds ammunition to recent arguments for the possibility of online character friendships in the Aristotelian sense. It does so, first, by examining carefully recent arguments for and against online friendships as virtue enhancing and finding the latter arguments wanting. It then does so, secondly, by exploring sustained and deep email correspondence or epalship as a potential venue for the creation, development and maintenance of character friendships, and by drawing an analogy with a historically famous example of penpalship: that forged between Voltaire and Catherine the Great. It is argued that epalships allow for various technological extensions in the cyberworld of today that were not available to Voltaire and Catherine, and that augmented with those extensions, there is even more reason for seeing epalships as potentially making the grade as true character friendships than traditional penpalships. However, despite being potentially categorisable as character friendships, mature epalships are vulnerable to the same problems and pitfalls as other examples of character friendships, and perhaps even more so.
Thinking About Tears
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
A crucial period for the birth of the modern subject, France’s ‘long eighteenth century’ (approximately 1650–1820) was an era marked by the formulation of a new aesthetic and ethical code revolving around the intensification of emotions and the hyperbolic use of weeping. Precisely because tears are not a simple biological fact but rather hang suspended between natural immediacy, on one side, and cultural artifice, on the other, the analysis of crying came to represent an exemplary testing ground for investigations into the enigmatic relations binding the realm of physiology to that of psychology. Thinking About Tears explores how the link between tears and sensibility in France’s long eighteenth century helps shed light on the process through which the European emotional lexicon has been built: from viewing tears as governed by the sphere of ‘passions’ and ‘feelings’, thinkers began to view crying as first a matter of sensibility and then of sensiblerie (a pathological excess of sensibility), thereby presupposing an intimate connection with the category of ‘sentiments’. For this reason, this book examines not only or even primarily the actual emotion of crying, but also the attempt to think about and explain this feeling. Drawing on a wide range of early modern philosophical, medical, religious, and literary texts—including moral treatises on the passions, medical textbooks, letters, life-writings, novels, and stage-plays—Thinking About Tears reveals another side to a period that has too often been saddled with the cursory label of ‘the age of reason’.
From Heaven to Earth
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins by briefly describing the transcendent conception of weeping that dominated antiquity and the Middle Ages to then map the process through which weeping was ‘secularized’ in seventeenth-century France. Mythological and ancient tears belong to a thoroughly transcendent sphere. These are ‘vertical’ tears with the power to establish a relationship between the human being and a higher, unknowable dimension. This aspect is further accentuated in the Christian view of the phenomenon of crying: in the Bible, tears are primarily associated with a supra-human dimension (such as the tears of angels, Christ, or God himself) or, at any rate, humans who are extraordinary. This sacred vision of crying dominated Western culture until the mid-seventeenth century, at which point there was an unprecedented attempt to take the phenomenon of weeping from the heavens and bring it down to earth. Naturally complex and gradual, this process was particularly noticeable in French culture where the treatment of lachrymal secretions developed in two specific literary genres, consolations and traités des passions. The analysis of these texts shows the unfolding of a process that could be described as the ‘secularization’ of crying: from this moment, scholars began to analyse weeping not only as a biological phenomenon characterizing human beings as such but also as a possible tool for understanding how passionate dynamics and emotionality affect moral conduct.
Tears and Humours
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter highlights how the moral assessment of crying typical of the seventeenth century led to a profound reformulation of the physiological explanation for tears, carried out within the humoral paradigm as proposed by Hippocrates and revisited by Galen. Galen’s fundamental contribution consists in proposing an emotional therapy that is not only medical but also philosophical: man, naturally humoral and therefore unable to realize the ideal of apathy, can achieve a balance between passions and virtues only by acting on both the will and the body. As a paradigmatic example of the revival of the Galenic doctrine of temperament, the chapter then analyses the ‘masks’ of Democritus and Heraclitus, popular incarnations of two visions of reality that correspond to laughter and tears, respectively, showing how these two emotions—formerly seen as rivals—were considered sympathetic in the seventeenth century. The figures of Democritus and Heraclitus are also used in the investigation of the role of emotions in the diagnosis and treatment of melancholy, the humoral disease par excellence. The last section of the chapter explores the first text dedicated exclusively to systematically analysing the physiological-moral value of tears: De lacrymis libri tres, published in 1661 by Pierre Petit. A physician, Petit realized that physiology is not sufficient to explain emotional tears and, although without yet having adequate conceptual tools, sought to combine medical-scientific investigation with philosophical and classical literary culture.
The Tears of the Soul
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers the clash between René Descartes and Marin Cureau de la Chambre regarding the origin and specificity of human lacrimal secretions to show that this was an emblematic moment in the progressive shift from the physical-passive paradigm of passion to the moral-active one of emotion. First, it shows that Descartes’s explanation of crying—presented especially in Passions de l’âme—sets out to systematically dismantle the link between natural and moral philosophy that characterized earlier traités des passions texts by positioning the analysis of emotions in a mechanistic framework whose physical and mechanical kinematic classifications were capable of explaining all of reality. Second, it suggests that Cureau de la Chambre’s Charactères des Passions—above all the final volume eloquently titled Les charactères des larmes—can be considered the founding contribution to the ‘moral’ conception of crying that ended up enjoying such success in the following century. Finally, the chapter shows how the difficulty of articulating the physiological and moral aspects of crying can be seen in a text all but unknown to present-day readers, namely Christian Warlitz’s Scrutinium lacrymarum (1705).
Physical and Moral Tears
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the link between the moral evaluation of crying and the question of sensibility, one of the main themes of investigation in eighteenth-century France. Starting from an analysis of the most important dictionaries of the time, the chapter shows that sensibility included both sensation (the receptive faculty) and sentiment (the emotional and affective faculty). As proof of the interdependence between the physiological and moral dimensions, tears were re-evaluated together with the affective and irrational dimension. This moral re-evaluation of the act of crying went hand in hand with a new physiological explanation, namely the epigastric theory according to which tear secretions are caused by the movements of the fibres of the diaphragm and not by the brain. This theory stemmed from a holistic and dynamic vision of human beings promoted by French medicine in the mid-eighteenth century that replaced the Cartesian model of man–machine with that of ‘homme sensible’, linked to the vitalistic paradigm. In light of this constitutive link between tears and sensitivity, the last part of the chapter is dedicated to analysing two main philosophical assumptions of the doctrine of sensibility: pathetic and sympathy. While the doctrine of pathetic guaranteed the legitimacy and effectiveness of tears in the fields of aesthetics and rhetoric, the idea of ‘sympathy’ provided a more purely moral and political foundation for the act of crying, a foundation that proved fundamental for transforming emotions into an object of ethical investigation.
The homme sensible
Authors: Menin Marco 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 focuses on the most evident and historically influential formulation of the moral conception of crying, that of Jean-Jacques Rousseau, the formulation destined to become the manifesto of the new sentimental philosophy based on the circulation of emotion. Rousseau identified even the fundamental principles of natural law in two emotions—self-love and pity—and asserted the pre-eminently social and moral character of tears. Lacrimal secretions coincide, according to Rousseau, with the essence of human morality. In fact, emotional tears—the fruit of piety, a conscious and altruistic impulse—constitute the first and most effective form of human communication, allowing the development of a sympathetic morality. Rousseau’s writings (especially Nouvelle Héloïse) marked the solidification and rising popularity of the anthropological model of homme sensible, but this model also appears in the work of Antoine François Prévost. Thanks to characters such as Cleveland and Chevalier Des Grieux, indeed, Prévost contributed to ‘inventing’ male crying as public crying, a behaviour not only accepted but actually put on display. Through the example of correspondence between Rousseau and Diderot during the bitter quarrel they waged in 1757, the last part of the chapter shows that male crying had come to be considered a precise moral and philosophical code used in real life in a way that was actually quite similar to the literary mode, and also more similar than one might expect.