bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Against presidentialism
Authors: Ganghof Steffen 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter uses the book’s insights about semi-parliamentary government to articulate a systematic instrumentalist case against presidentialism. It discusses major justifications of presidential government to be found in the academic literature and shows that virtually all of them concern the separation of powers, not executive personalism (i.e. the constitutional concentration of executive power in a single human being). Moreover, executive personalism tends to undermine the benefits of powers separation, either directly or by requiring problematic constitutional safeguards, such as presidential term limits. Explicit justifications of executive personalism are neither well developed nor supported by systematic empirical evidence. Semi-parliamentary government is superior to presidential government because it can achieve the benefits of powers separation without the perils of executive personalism.
The Conversion of Isaac Da Costa
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In 1822 Isaac da Costa converted to Christianity, together with his wife Hanna Belmonte (1800–1867) and his friend the physician Abraham Capadose (1795–1874), who is well-known for his battle against vaccination. Da Costa presented his conversion as a quest for personal truth, which individuals have to appropriate for themselves. His own conversion narrative ultimately resolved the dialectics between free personal conversion and the outer personal and socio-political circumstances and constraints (the death of his father, the emancipation of the Jews in the Netherlands) in favour of the authenticity of the individual decision. From a structural point of view his choice of the ‘religion of my fathers’ was also a conversion to modernity. After his conversion Da Costa became a public figure in the Netherlands and he played a leading role in the early nineteenth-century Dutch revival movement, the Réveil.
Allard Pierson’s Farewell to Christianity and His New ‘Agnostic’ Worldview
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
According to an obituary written by a colleague, Allard Pierson (1831–1896) had epitomized Dutch intellectual history for almost forty years. Like Pierson, the writer had started his career as a minister in the Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk (Dutch Reformed Church) but resigned when he could no longer come to terms with his religious doubts. After his resignation, Pierson still obtained a teaching position at the theological faculty in Heidelberg, but he ended his career as a professor of art history in Amsterdam. Nevertheless, he remained fascinated by religion and especially the religion of his childhood. His admiration for the Réveil milieu and its sincere and intense piety seems to have been barely diminished by his criticism of its theological presuppositions. This longing for a distant past may explain his lasting attempts to come to terms with the religion of his youth. It took a great effort to arrive at his new ‘agnostic’, humanistic worldview, which broke radically with the supernatural and with infallibility.
Dutch Protestant Modernism
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
‘Modernism’ is not to be confused with the term ‘modernity’ and the process of modernization mentioned above, but it is also a contentious notion. Although the term has a more restricted sense, it is also used in different domains in a variety of ways. In the arts and philosophy, the term generally refers to innovative movements and individuals, although who actually belongs to the avant-garde is a matter of dispute. It is frequently used to characterize modern culture as opposed to religion. Yet it may apply to the religious and theological sphere too, indicating new theologies and the critical interpretation of the Bible, which demythologizes Scripture. In the present book the term is primarily used to refer to the Protestant movement that aimed at a synthesis of liberal Protestantism and modern culture. The chapter presents an overview of the various meanings of the term, in both a general and a religious sense. Alongside terminological issues, the main protagonists are introduced, debates within Dutch modernism are analysed, and a brief description of the movement is given. Finally, the chapter gives an explanation of the decline of liberal Protestantism in the Netherlands in the twentieth century, by referring to the Dutch system of pillarization. The liberal idea that Protestant religion was an integrative force in Dutch society was severely frustrated in a situation where their counterparts organized themselves into separate confessional organizations that came to dominate the public sphere.
Abraham Kuyper’s Critique of Theological Modernism
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In a popular address of 1871, Kuyper famously spoke of modernism as ‘a fata morgana in the Christian domain’. It was Kuyper who made the term ‘modernism’ (modernisme) current at the time. His argument was more along the lines of philosophy of religion than of dogmatic theology. In fact, Kuyper compared worldviews and argued for the superiority of his own system of thought, which was allegedly geared to reality, whereas modernism to him represented a dishonourable compromise with the spirit of the times, based on a superficial understanding of reality. Modernism was in his view a heresy, denying special revelation. The rhetorical power of the 1871 speech lies predominantly in the suggestion that modernism (although a necessary phase in the course of history) would perish and ‘we’ would prevail. The speech turns on the double meaning of ‘real’ and ‘realism’. Kuyper argued that by making a compromise with the predominant ‘realism’ of the nineteenth century, modernists actually bypassed reality: no real God, no real prayer, no real sin, and no real church.
Historical-Critical Analysis of the Bible and the Rise of Science of Religion
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The main intellectual developments discussed in this chapter are the rise of the historical-critical study of the Bible and the science of religion in the Netherlands in the second half of the nineteenth century. Both developments concern the historization of the field of theology itself, the use of historical and comparative methods to study religions. The influence of the natural sciences and Darwinism on theology was not particularly strong in the Netherlands. The first section addresses the ground-breaking work of the Old Testament scholar Abraham Kuenen, especially in relation to the publications of Julius Wellhausen and William Robertson Smith. The second section is devoted to the Dutch Radical School, which emerged at the end of the nineteenth century. The third section focuses on the new 1876 Higher Education Act, which introduced history of religions and philosophy of religion (often considered to be the two main branches of the ‘science of religion’) as part of the theological curriculum. The fourth section briefly introduces the work of two Dutch ‘pioneers’ of the science of religion and their views on theology in relation to it. Cornelis Petrus Tiele originally hoped for a complete transformation of theology into a science of religion that could fulfil the tasks of theology in a scholarly fashion, whereas Pierre Daniël Chantepie de la Saussaye aimed at a new phenomenology of religion that would remodel the study of religion, including Christianity.
The Companies
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on how biotechnology companies are founded and the process by which they raise funds. Developing new pharmaceutical products is incredibly expensive, so the search for a continuing supply of cash resources has been an essential component of the biotech industry. The chapter looks at the primary ways that these two critical biotech industry components—molecules and money—manage to get together. Since many of the molecules have their origins in government grant-funded research, this chapter will follow the ownership of that technology as it goes through the technology transfer process and thus moves from universities and other not-for-profit research organizations into for-profit companies that have the potential to attract investors. The chapter then describes the capital-raising process through various venture capital stages and ultimately, for some companies, an initial public offering of stock.
The Biotech Entrepreneur
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the principal challenges facing entrepreneurial biotech CEOs and offers insights into how they may choose to address them. In particular, the chapter focuses on the entrepreneur’s critical role in fundraising and discusses how to make an effective venture capital pitch. It describes biotech CEOs’ impressively diverse backgrounds, which include scientists, physicians, and pharmaceutical executives, as would be expected. But these backgrounds also include historians, lawyers, regulatory experts, investment bankers, and a range of other professions. The chapter identifies some of the personal characteristics often shared by entrepreneurs in a way that may help prospective biotech entrepreneurs consider the attractiveness of that career path.
Segments and Body Regions
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
There are limits to the current understanding of arthropod segment formation, in large part linked with the superabundance of information from one particular model system, that of Drosophila, and a paucity of work on other arthropods. Segmentation exhibits multiple levels of genetic control. Various types of genes that control segment formation have been identified. Conceptual models or evolutionary scenarios have tried to make sense of this critical process: the naupliar/post-naupliar/merosegmental model, the arthropod pattern theory, the tagmosis model, and the idiosyncratic periodic table of articulata. These models are not hypotheses suitable for testing; rather, they form scenarios (stories) of evolution. None of these processes are effective toward generating explanatory scenarios, so the focus on producing testable hypotheses will continue.
Phylogeny and Classification
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The production of phylogenies and taxonomies has long been based on personal interpretation rather than rigorous character analysis. The introduction of Hennig’s phylogenetic systematics (cladistics) has markedly improved the situation. However, not only is the amount of data derived from whatever sources (anatomy, development, and molecules) important but also the need to employ comprehensive taxon samples is critical. Any phylogeny represents one opinion (hypothesis) until tested against alternatives. A rigorous phylogeny can lead to more reliable classification schemes. Even so, phylogenies and taxonomies are only hypotheses that must remain open to consideration of alternative hypotheses. This chapter provides the framework for the structure of the rest of the book.
Mystacocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Mystacocarids, or brush shrimp, are a small group, both literally (1 mm or less) and taxonomically (13 species). They live interstitially in marine sands or muds. Once thought to occupy only Atlantic and Mediterranean shores, they are now also known to occur in Chile and Western Australia. Differences between species are subtle in the extreme. They feed on bacterial films that grow on sediment grains. Their sperm evokes that seen in ostracods. Development begins with a metanauplius and passes through seven stages to the adult. Their locomotory abilities are limited, so their wide distribution indicates great age—as does their possible links to the Cambrian Skaracarida.
Skaracarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Skaracaroda contain three species from distant separated localities: two species from Gotland (Sweden) and one species from Hunan Province (southern China). In addition to the Swedish site, with S. anulata and S. minuta, and the Chinese species S. hunanensis, S. minuta apparently occurred in Poland. Hence, examples of Skara are widely spaced not only across the current-day geography but also in Upper Cambrian terms. Because of the great detail preserved on the Orsten fossils, they can be analyzed in a vigorous comparative manner to modern forms. The genus Skara generally resembles mystacocaridans but has fewer pairs of limbs. No gonopods are preserved on available specimens, but consensus seems to favor an adult condition for the largest specimens. Their phosphatic preservation allows insight into fine anatomical details.
Copepoda
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Copepoda constitutes a separate infraclass within Class Multicrustacea—a superclade with approximately 12,500 species. Some authorities have claimed that despite the domineering positions of insects and nematodes in the numbers sweepstakes, there are more individual copepods in the world than any other animal group. The free-living copepods conform to a 5–7–4 body plan (head–thorax–abdomen somites). However, the group is marked with rampant parasitism, with some taxa so modified that they are barely recognized as crustaceomorphs. Ortho-and metanauplii yield a total of six stages. With so many species with such divergent anatomical plans, the use of molecule sequences has and will continue to play an important role in soring copepod relationships. Until then, multiple alternative trees must be considered.
Ascothoracida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Within the Hexanauplia, the copepods are the sister group of infraclass Thecostraca, a group also marked by a high degree of parasitism. Among the thecostracans is a small parasitic group, Ascothoracida, which infests anthozoans and echinoderms. The body plan of forms such as Ascothorax reveals a 5–7–4 array of tagmata. However, a form such as the starfish parasite Dendrogaster elaborates the carapace into many extensions, with the lobes reaching into the five arms of the host’s coelom. First infectors of a host develop into females, and subsequent arrivals become males. Phylogeny within the group is not clear, and species are grouped into families on the basis of the hosts they infect, but they are currently viewed as a sister group of Cirripedia.
Tantulocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Tantularida is a truly “small” group: There are few species, and the size ranges down to 83 µm in length. They are all parasites on other crustaceomorphs and exhibit one of the most complicated life cycles, having both parthenogenetic and sexual phases. Although the bodies are segmented and an abdomen is present, many appendages (e.g. on the head) are absent. Limited molecular data ally the tantulacarids as a sister group to the cirripedes within the thecostracans. Although pedomorphosis has been invoked to explain limb evolution in tantulocaridans, it is likely progenetic rather than neotenous. Caution must be exercised in this regard.
Phyllocarida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Phyllocarida, a distinct infraclass of the subclass Malacostraca within the class Multicrustacea, has a deep history extending into the Paleozoic; its fossil diversity exceeds that which we find in the modern fauna of approximately 39 species. A pleon of seven segments marks the group. Great variation occurs in external anatomy, and habitats extend from the deep-sea hydrothermal vents, through pelagic deep and shallow marine, and into anchialine cave waters. The earliest taxa are present in the Cambrian, but the greatest diversity occurs in the Devonian. Although much is not known about the basic biology of the phyllocarids, even of the living forms, most now seem satisfied with the infraclass Phyllocarida as a sister group to the infraclass Eumalacostraca.
Stem Eumalacostracans?
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Eumalacostraca is by far the largest and most diverse clade of Multicrustacea. Both cohorts, Caridoida and Hoplocarida, extend back to at least the middle of the Paleozoic. Others among these species eventually might be assigned to actual crown taxa when understanding of their anatomy becomes clearer, as indeed has happened in one case. However, many of the earliest fossils are incomplete in their preservation, and what is known of their anatomy requires that they be treated cautiously. Thus, they are best characterized as “stem forms” rather than being squeezed into some higher taxon. These groups do illustrate aspects of the earliest eumalacostracan radiation.
Stomatopoda
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Stomatopoda constitute the largest radiation in cohort Hoplocarida, with the living mantis shrimp, Unipeltata, and a series of “stem forms,” archaeo- and palaeostomatopods. They exhibit a long list of autapomorphies, of which the most important are a series of subchelate maxillipeds (the second modified as a “ballistic,” either a spearing or a crushing terminus) and an elongate pleon with gills on the bases of the pleopod exopods. They are obligate carnivores with murderous habits, and they have remarkable optic systems to assist in hunting. The Paleozoic fossils clearly reveal the evolution of the ballistic maxillipeds and the distinctive shield-like telson.
Aeschronectida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Aeschronectida is a sister group of Stomatopoda within the cohort Hoplocarida, although it shares many apomorphies with the mantis shrimp. They have a shrimp-like habitus, moderate to large in size. The compound eyes were stalked and elevated on the anterior cephalon, with those of Kallidecthes richardsoni indicating dorsal and ventral lobes separated by a mid-band. Based on the hoplocarid features on the aeschronectidans (the enlarged pleon with gills on the pleopods, triflagellate antennules, an articulated rostrum over a probable cephalic kinesis, and thoracopods with three-article protopods and four-article endopods), it was concluded that the hoplocarid morphotype is very ancient and completely distinct from that of other eumalacostracans. That justified their treatment as a separate cohort of Malacostraca.
Bathynellacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In 1882, Bathynella natans was described, but the higher affinities presented problems. Calman offered that they were allied with an Australian shrimp, Anaspides, and placed both within superorder Syncarida, coequal with other eumalacostracan superorders. This was widely accepted until Serban placed Bathynella and allies into a separate superorder Podophallocarida. Recent cladistic analyses agree. Preferring groundwaters, aspects of their distribution clearly bear the marks of vicariance and indicate very ancient origins on Paleozoic paleocontinents. Either two or three families of bathynellaceans are recognized. The more primitive Bathynellidae have paragnaths, scaphocerites, untoothed labrum, prehensile mandibular palps one to three segments long, thoracic exopods always as a single segment, and only one or at most two pairs of pleopods. In contrast, Leptobathynellidae and Parabathynellidae have no paragnaths, no scaphocerite, a toothed or setose labrum, non-prehensile mandibular palps of a single segment, thoracic exopods with one or more segments, and pleopods absent or highly reduced.
Anaspidacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The first species of syncarids described in 1847 were actually fossils from the Coal Age. More fossil species were described, but after 45 years, the first living syncarid was recognized in 1894. Molecule sequences revealed that mountain shrimp have little to do with bathynellaceans. They are classic caridoidans except for the lack of a carapace. Their biogeography indicates a Gondwana pattern—for example, Stygocaris has species in Victoria, New Zealand, and Chile. The fossil Anaspidacea (palaeocaridaceans), largely Carboniferous, were once thought of as a separate order, but recent cladistic analyses locate them within the living order. A Triassic species and a Cretaceous taxon provide a minuscule post-Carboniferous fossil record.
Lophogastrida
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Lophogastrida are a very small group of animals; currently, there are only approximately 53 species, which are known from deep-water and benthic habitats. Their jaws are among the most specialized of all eumalacostracans, while the circulatory system is primitive. The sixth and seventh ganglia of the pleon fuse during development to form one structure. No clear consensus prevails concerning phylogeny within the group or for relationships within Peracarida. A comprehensive cladistic analysis of the group based on morphology and molecular sequences is required because until this is performed, one cannot assess the status of family-level and generic relationships and thus achieve consensus on the taxonomy of Lophogastrida.
Pygocephalomorpha
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Pygocephalomorpha have been long known as characteristic fossils of the Carboniferous. They were long thought to be macrurous decapods, until Karl Beurlen placed them in their own order. Although they might look like clawless crayfish, their biramous limbs, male cones on the eighth thoracic sternite, and possession of oöstegites show clear affinities to Peracarida. Their tail fan bearing one or two pairs of lobes and a single terminal lobe mark them as unique. Most Pygocephalidae are characterized by branchiostegal serrations, anterolateral spines, and gastric spines on the carapace; a carapace marked with a cervical groove that is split or posteriorly directed; and the presence of telson terminal processes or a pointed telson spine.
Spelaeogriphacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Four living species of Spelaeogriphacea have been described since 1957. These all occur in either cave waters or groundwater aquifers. Fossils include an apparent proto-spelaeogriphacean from the Carboniferous of Canada and lacustrine fossils from the Jurassic/Cretaceous of Jehol, northeastern China (and possibly from central Asia) and the Cretaceous of Spain. The body of spelaeogriphaceans is elongate, slender, and circular in cross section, although the living animals themselves are small (a few mm). For a group with so few species, there are some notable variations in the external morphology. Not a great deal is known concerning the internal anatomy of this order. As with Mictacea, the Spelaeogriphacea are a jumble of primitive features.