bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
What Is Public Space?
Authors: Low Setha 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2. What Is Public Space? answers the question from a personal, cultural, and urban design point of view. It begins by defining public space by what it does or accommodates and explores the many ways that spaces are made “public” by people, meanings, and practices. The muddled distinction of public/private, however, requires a critical rethinking of the term. An alternative perspective purposes a multidimensional definition based on public space characteristics—physical aspects, ownership, governance or management authority and funding, control and influence, symbolic/historical meanings, and political activity. Public spaces can be scored along various scales (high to low, large to small, open to closed) and then defined by their specific characteristics. A brief review of the prehistory of public space that traces its origins back 12,000 years concludes the chapter by highlighting its significance in early human settlements as well as in the present.
Place Attachment and Cultural Identity
Authors: Low Setha 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8. Place Attachment and Cultural Identity: Monuments, Parks, and Neighborhood Public Space in San José, Costa Rica, and the Statue of Liberty and Battery Park City in New York City identifies place attachment and cultural identity as significant aspects of public space use. Culture-related activities such as music, dance, festivals, and celebrations reinforce cultural values, beliefs, and meanings. The removal of monuments and symbolic icons of an oppressive and violent past—and the struggle over these decisions—is essential to recognizing and respecting all people’s cultural histories and collective memories. Symbolic and material aspects of public space also play a crucial role in a community’s response to a crisis or disaster. The examination of the symbolism of the Statue of Liberty and the post-9/11 use of public space at Battery Park City deepen our understanding of how cultural expressions, identities, and continuity are essential aspects of public space.
Natural Hedonism
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores Epicurean hedonism and its justification. Epicurus considers it obvious that we pursue pleasure and avoid pain by nature, just like every other animal. From the moment of birth, we have a brute desire for secure comfort that never leaves us. In fact, Epicurus thinks our desire for pleasant tranquility motivates our every action. That might strike us as false. We often think we act from a sense of duty or obligation, against what we consider most pleasant. We might also wonder why we are so consistently displeased if, as Epicurus claims, we always pursue the greatest pleasure. Epicurus contends that we choose even unpleasant actions for the sake of long-term pleasure, despite our insistence to the contrary. We fail to achieve stable pleasure because we lack hedonistic prudence, a developed capacity to calculate the short and long-term psychological effects of competing options.
What Do You Want?
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces Epicurus’ taxonomy of desires and explores the relationship between unfulfilled desires and anxiety. Epicurus sorts desires into three categories: those we should embrace as necessary for our life and happiness, those it’s fine to have if we don’t get invested in whether we satisfy them, and those we should cut out of our soul root and branch. In his terms, there are “natural and necessary” desires, “natural and unnecessary” desires, and “unnatural and unnecessary” desires. For current purposes, we will call them necessary desires, extravagant desires, and corrosive desires. Unfortunately, Epicurus himself offers very little in the way of examples, though he does supply some criteria to guide classification. This chapter offers an account of what Epicurus considers necessary for happiness, what he considers desirable but unnecessary for happiness, and what he thinks we should stop desiring altogether.
Why Can’t We Be Friends?
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the central role of friendship in the Epicurean way of life. Epicurus writes that “of the things which wisdom provides for the blessedness of one’s whole life, by far the greatest is the possession of friends.” Critics, however, claim that Epicurean hedonism precludes genuine friendship because Epicureans enter and leave friendships with their own interests in mind. If friendship requires selflessness, then it seems Epicureans cannot be friends. Critics also claim that an Epicurean will desert a friend who ceases to be pleasant, and genuine friends are not fickle. This chapter offers an Epicurean response to these concerns. It argues that Epicureans are more likely to have stable, long-lasting friendships characterized by trust, support, and intimacy than those who instead pursue friendship from the mistaken conception that they need nothing from others.
Let Me Be Frank
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the Epicurean commitment to “frank speech,” especially in the context of friendship. Frank speech, done well, involves giving and receiving the kind of constructive feedback necessary for moral or practical improvement. Epicurus acknowledges that we find it painful to have our ethical and intellectual deficiencies brought to light, and he thinks we should not relish causing such pain to others. Given that frank speech requires causing and suffering pain, and hedonists think we avoid pain by nature, the Epicureans need an account of when and how frank speech leads to greater pleasure overall. This chapter explores what it means to “do frank speech well” and why we are often so bad at offering and accepting helpful correction.
Wealth and What It Costs
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the Epicurean arguments against desiring great wealth. Epicurus acknowledges that money is instrumental to satisfying necessary desires, and he calls what we need for happiness “natural wealth.” Desiring more than natural wealth, however, undermines our tranquility. Epicurus considers the desire for great wealth “corrosive” (in his terms, “unnatural and unnecessary”). Corrosive desires extend without limit—there is always more to want, and a person can never be “too wealthy.” For that reason, corrosive desires cannot be satisfied, and unsatisfied desires put tranquility out of reach. Epicurus also thinks accumulating great wealth usually requires injustice, pandering to the whims of others, and destabilizing one’s community, all of which also undermine tranquility. While Epicurus grants that some people can accumulate wealth justly and preserve their integrity, he thinks they strengthen their well-being by freely sharing their wealth with their community.
Of Sex, Love, and Harmless Pleasure
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the Epicurean attitude toward sex and love. Epicurus reportedly claimed that he could not make sense of life’s goodness without appeal to sensory pleasures, including the pleasures of sex and of beauty. One of Epicureanism’s advantages is that it does not encourage shame about perfectly natural and harmless desires. Yet many scholars maintain that Epicurus and his followers were in fact opposed to sexual desire, especially romantic love. This anti-sex interpretation seems reasonable considering the many ways that sexual desire can cause harm, ranging from minor embarrassment to jealousy and violence. Nevertheless, we have reason to think Epicurus believed both sexual desire and loving relationships pursued with the proper attitude can produce joys consistent with tranquility. That so many people fail to pursue sex without undermining their tranquility only shows that engaging in harmless sex is rarer than we sometimes recognize.
Experiencing Death
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the Epicurean approach to death and dying. As a hedonist, Epicurus thinks we are only harmed by experiencing physical and psychological pain. For that reason, Epicurus argues that we should not fear “being dead” because the state of being dead is neither pleasant nor painful. Nevertheless, he recognizes that the process of dying can be painful. While we do not “experience” being dead, we do “experience” the pains of dying, which might seem like a legitimate cause for anxiety that threatens Epicurean tranquility. This chapter explains Epicurus’ argument against the fear of being dead and discusses some common objections to the argument. It also addresses the fear of dying and how Epicurus thinks we can best prepare for and manage the end of life.
Pandemics and Other Comforting Horrors
Authors: Austin Emily A. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores how we should respond, both psychologically and practically, to shared catastrophes like pandemics. Lucretius abruptly ends On the Nature of Things with an account of a virulent plague in Athens, a city he characterizes as wealthy and proud, whose inhabitants are nevertheless secretly anxious, hostile to science, superstitious, and enslaved to their unlimited desires. Lucretius implies that the Athenians would have handled the plague far better had they been Epicureans. Some readers suggest, not without reason, that Lucretius draws a perverse comfort from observing others in the grips of psychological struggles he does not share. Nevertheless, he does seem correct that pandemics and similar crises reveal our underlying values and test our resilience.
Macbeth
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The background to the career of the historical prince Mac bethad begins with his ancestors—immigrant warriors from Ireland who came to Britain. They were violent and tenacious from necessity. They were unwelcome newcomers to northern Britain but found that a fast sword and a little luck could yield a kingdom. As the Scots triumphed over the Picts, they had to face a new foe in the Vikings. When a third enemy, the English, reappeared in the tenth century, it was only one more complication in a dangerous region. But the rewards for success were great: high office, wealth, and prestige. The penalty for failure was simple: death Their struggle over five centuries to survive in a new home eventually allowed them to take supremacy in the lands of northern Britain.
Weird Sisters and the Prior of Loch Leven
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The Macbeth legend that was ultimately used by Shakespeare began with the chronicle of Andrew of Wyntoun, prior of St. Serf’s at Loch Leven. Andrew knew more than one legend about Macbeth, and his inadequacies as an editor permit us to see the various strands. He presents Macbeth in connection with the occult, introducing ethereal ladies, prophecy, and the supernatural. Andrew changed Macbeth from a stereotypical and one-dimensional villain into the hero/anti-hero of the story. He placed Scottish history within the larger context of world history and also wrote in the Scots vernacular, which guaranteed him a large audience. More than any previous writer, Andrew of Wyntoun provided the names of places, character development, historical details, and genealogical information that would be adapted by later interpreters of the Macbeth story. A modern English translation of this episode is given in Appendix 2.
Macbeth and Renaissance Scotland
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Prior to Shakespeare’s drama, Hector Boece, a sixteenth-century principal of King’s College, Aberdeen, and one of the early leaders of the Scottish Renaissance, rewrote the Macbeth episode incorporating the episodes from John of Fordun and Andrew of Wyntoun. His Macbeth was a complicated beast. Part bon vivant, part war hero, but entirely an elusive psychological specimen, this Macbeth was able to command the love and loyalty of many. Equally he was an egotistic, savage tyrant who ruthlessly pursued his own ends. Boece’s history became the basis for Shakespeare’s play. More significantly, his work was used in the intellectual warfare of sixteenth-century Scotland as Protestant and Catholic writers offered their visions of government.
Macbeth before Shakespeare
Authors: Hudson Benjamin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The connection of William Shakespeare’s company, the Lord Chamberlain’s Men, with Scotland began before King James VI of Scotland became King James I of England. That might explain why a play about a Scottish prince was written. There is evidence that two independent pieces about Macbeth were circulating around London at the beginning of the seventeenth century. The first record of the Tragedie of Macbeth is by Simon Forman in 1611 although the first print of the play was made after Shakespeare’s death in the First Folio. There remains much that is unknown about Macbeth the person and Macbeth the literary character
Sweden’s Public/Private Sector Mix in the Financing and Delivery of Healthcare Services
Authors: Glenngård Anna Häger 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
In Sweden, the responsibility for organizing and financing healthcare rests with 21 regions and 290 municipalities. The central government is responsible for overall healthcare policy and legislation. Most hospitals are publicly funded and operated. Following the introduction of patient choice and provider competition in 2007–2010, there is a mix of public and private primary care centers (PCCs), all publicly funded and subject to the same overall requirements. There is some variation in geographical accessibility, access to alternative providers between socioeconomic groups, and characteristics between public and private PCCs. The evidence on socioeconomic distribution of visits is mixed, while several studies have demonstrated that groups of individuals with worse socioeconomic conditions are less satisfied with primary care services. Public and private PCCs have become more similar over time in regard to patient mix, the division of labor, and patients’ perceptions of quality of care.
Healthcare Commodification, Equity, and Quality in Chile and Mexico
Authors: Bernales-Baksai Pamela , Velázquez Leyer Ricardo 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chile and Mexico represent two cases of recent healthcare expansion in the Americas, with different types of incorporation of private provision. In Chile, it is through the explicit commodification of healthcare by incorporating private services into the policy architecture and in Mexico through the implicit commodification of healthcare due to deficiencies in the supply of public services. This chapter analyzes the effects of existing public-private mixes on equity and quality outputs across population groups. Conclusions show that in spite of important achievements in terms of coverage levels in both cases, significant inequities in healthcare provision persist, with poor access to quality services for lower-income households and other vulnerable groups. Additional reforms are needed to guarantee the right to quality healthcare to the entire population.
The Public/Private Sector Mix in Healthcare in Russia
Authors: Chubarova Tatiana , Grigorieva Natalya 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The chapter discusses problems of health equity and quality of medical care in the Russian public/private mix (PPM). It analyzes PPM’s characteristics related to organization, delivery, and financing concerning their effect on quality and equity in Russian healthcare. The data reveal the increasing role of the private sector in PPM in Russia in term of finance and provision, though it is well developed mostly in urban areas. Several initiatives undertaken by the government to improve access and quality in the public sector are mentioned. Public and private sectors in healthcare become more interrelated, first because private health services can now join public compulsory health insurance. The paradox is that sometimes public and private health services compete for patients’ money. This situation can be referred to as inverse quasi markets. It is argued that while PPM has positive outcomes in terms of quality improvement and an increase in patients’ choice, its influence on equity is controversial. The main concerns from expansion of fee for service in the public and private sectors, is that it makes medical treatment dependent on ability to pay rather than meeting health needs. The relatively large public sector, despite its problems, still provides the possibility for people to obtain medical treatment regardless of income. This puts on the health policy agenda the necessity to find the right balance between public and private sectors in terms of funding and organization to secure both quality of care and equity.
Hammurabi toMiddlemarch, 1750 bce to 1850 ce
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractThe history of medicine shows how social norms, professional ethics, licensure, price regulations, hospitals, and charitable service developed over thousands of years. People needed care and were willing to pay for it even before cures were effective. Trust and financial rewards were based on personal relationships. Spending was small but persistent, with fees calibrated by individuals’ ability to pay and supplemented by donations and public taxation. Governments and wealthy patrons shared some responsibility for public health and for care of the poor, while kings provided care for soldiers and sailors in order to retain military might and political power. However, responsibility for medical treatment remained primarily an individual and family responsibility until the late 19th century.
The Rise of Modern Medicine, 1880–1975
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractBy the end of World War II nurses outnumbered doctors, antibiotics were widely used, academic research centers had been established, and large pharmaceutical firms had been formed. The health sector of the economy expanded more in 50 years than it had over the last 3,000. Traditional solo doctoring morphed into complex organized networks of care. Rates of expansion peaked as national health systems funded by third-party insurance payments coalesced, creating sustainable structures and institutions that would remain in place for the next 50 years. However, the exuberant desire to fund rapid advances in medical technology waned as the realities of budgetary, biological, and social limits set in.
Global and National Market Trends, 1950–2019
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractAnnual growth trends for 21 OECD countries and 22 emerging market economies are examined. A surge in growth attributable to postwar investments in hospitals, research, and professional training can be seen in most OECD countries, followed by a moderation trending downward toward a rate of GDP +1% or less after 1975. A useful benchmark for international comparisons is provided by the level and rate of growth in the median health share among OECD countries. Other nations usually have lower expenditures, but several have expanded rapidly in the 21st century. The global distribution of health spending has changed significantly since 1950. International comparisons show that convergence is a complex and somewhat unresolved empirical issue.
Scaling Up
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractMedicine became qualitatively different as it scaled up along financial, scientific, moral, political, technological, and organizational dimensions. Shifts in the social environment forced the evolution of existing medical institutions into new organizational species: specialties, clinical teams, hospital networks, academic medical centers, managed insurance plans, and multinational pharmaceutical firms. Access to advanced medical technology with universal insurance coverage for all citizens was at first aspirational, then standard—a political mandate required for governments to stay in power. The coalescence of national health systems in the 20th century marked a distinctively new phase in the organization, financing, and delivery of medical care.
Contracts
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractThe flow of funds reveals the structure of transactions, showing how and why medical care is different from other commercial services. “What is the price?” is no longer a simple question. Economist Kenneth Arrow explored how uncertainty shapes medical contracts. The strength of licensure in different specialties appears to depend upon the risks of death and the acceptability of alternative providers. The incidence of costs and benefits shifted as infectious disease mortality fell and longevity increased. Workers paying insurance premiums and taxes saw larger portions going to those who were unemployed, old, poor, or chronically ill, creating distributional conflicts over funding similar to those seen in pension and disability plans.
Aging Populations
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractPersonal aging is associated with illness and increased medical expenditures, yet population aging is not associated with the level or rate of increase in national health expenditures once other factors are controlled for, thus illustrating a profound difference between micro and macro effects. Changes in spending by age group show that the “cost effects of aging” are determined by policy as much as by biology. However, allocations of total expenditures are greatly affected by age and time to death. By 2050 half of all patient care expenditures are likely to be for persons who are over age 65. Budgetary limits and this skewed allocation have restricted the rates of growth in per capita spending for elderly persons relative to those under age 65 since 1990.
Temporary Fluctuations, Trend Shifts, Lags, and Inertia
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractNominal NHE growth can be decomposed as changes in real income per capita, population, inflation, and excess medical cost growth that expands the health sector. Among OECD nations from 1970 to 2000, about one-fifth of nominal growth was due to increases in the health share of GDP. Responses to macroeconomic, demographic, and technological changes take time, occurring with lags that vary across categories of expenditure and across countries. Spans of observation must be sufficient to distinguish trend shifts from temporary fluctuations and show the curvature in growth over decades. These slow-moving dynamics are seen in employment, mortality, and longevity as well as national expenditures, making it difficult to specify precise years for turning points and trend shifts.
Forecasting National Health Expenditures
Authors: Getzen Thomas E. 
Published: November 2022

AbstractLong-run health forecasts over 10, 20, or 50 years are conditional, taking expected trends in the economy and population as given. They are commonly formulated as cumulative annualized growth rates (that is, GDP + X%). Projections for various countries, regions and time spans are discussed. Short-term actuarial “nearcasts” for specific groups over the next two or three years are quite different since they use rafts of current and local information and are typically stated in nominal currency amounts. Inclusion of many variables improves short-term forecast accuracy, yet univariate GDP + X% trend estimation has proven more accurate for national growth trends over decades. Forecasting COVID-19 effects illustrates budgetary dynamics and institutional inertia discussed in prior chapters.