bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Less Economic Inequality
Authors: Kenworthy Lane 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Would democratic socialism be better than capitalism at reducing economic inequality? Very likely yes. While many progressives believe income inequality has harmful effects on health, economic growth, democracy, happiness, and other outcomes we value, there is little empirical basis for this conclusion. Still, the normative case for modest levels of economic inequality is strong, so it would be better if there were less inequality than there is in the contemporary United States. However, reducing economic inequality probably shouldn’t be high on our list of priorities. In a society where many of life’s core needs—housing, childcare, schooling, healthcare, a job, retirement income, eldercare, and much more—are assured by government programs, inequality of income and wealth isn’t likely to cause much consternation. We can see this in today’s Nordic countries, which have comparatively high levels of wealth inequality but also enviable quality of life and high levels of subjective well-being.
Yo-yo Rationality Attributions
Authors: Sorensen Roy 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The author seeks a cure to an inconsistency about rationality. On the one hand, one’s rationality is a prerequisite for another to understand one’s action in terms of one’s beliefs and desires. Why bother to attribute beliefs and desires if they do not output one’s action as a logical conclusion? On the other hand, rationality is a scarce resource. One’s ability to optimize outcomes depends on attention, self-control, memory, and computational power. Since one has a limited stock of each, another should attribute only as much as needed to explain one’s action. But it is impossible to minimize rationality (as a cost) while also maximizing rationality (as the framework within which all costs are calculated). One is inconsistent about rationality—as evident from the ups and downs of attempts to explain another’s actions. The author surveys the symptoms along with six diagnoses.
Bias in a Biased System
Authors: Munton Jessie 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The visual system responds to both an excess of available information and an underdetermination problem by learning from past experiences. This can lead to visual biases concerning demographic features, such as race or gender. This focuses attention on the following problem: How can one identify prejudicial bias within a system that relies on a kind of structural bias to accomplish its goals? Taking two bodies of recent empirical work as case studies, the author explores and rejects three possible criteria for demarcating problematic instances of bias. The author identifies a principled reason why standard epistemic criteria cannot accomplish the task. The author instead proposes an adoption of a skill-based model of visual perception that allows for multidimensional evaluation relative to a set of potentially competing goals.
Theory and the Empirical Record
Authors: Fischerkeller Michael P. , Goldman Emily O. , Harknett Richard J. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
A multi-method approach comprising quantitative analysis, case studies, unsealed criminal indictments, open source government reporting, and cyber security industry surveys, experiments, and trend reports supports hypotheses derived from cyber persistence theory. States have built cyber infrastructure and employed it to act persistently in and through cyberspace. Exploitation through cyber faits accomplis is the dominant behavior, with illustrative case studies of China’s cyber-enabled intellectual property theft and North Korea’s sanctions circumvention demonstrating the independent strategic significance of this behavior. Direct cyber engagement outside of armed conflict is rare, but not absent. Cyber incidents between States, including rival dyads, display no escalation dynamics. Concerns that open source materials may not be representative of proprietary and classified data are allayed with two counterfactuals that demonstrate the value of cyber persistence theory prescriptions no matter the representativeness of publicly available data.
The Cyber Aligned Nexus of Theory and Policy
Authors: Fischerkeller Michael P. , Goldman Emily O. , Harknett Richard J. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Cyber persistence theory has important policy implications. Since exploitative campaigns below armed conflict are the dominant State cyber behavior, policymakers should adopt a “campaign mindset” when they prepare, plan, and posture, and should treat cumulative effects rather than armed attack equivalence as the primary metric of consequential behavior. Emphasis on deterrence, escalation, and altering the adversary’s decision calculus to act should yield to precluding adversary options for exploitation. Domestic policy and legal frameworks should enable cyber operational persistence, agility, and initiative rather than reinforcing inaction and restraint. Operators should strive for a continuous operational tempo, exploiting targets of opportunity now rather than holding targets at risk for future contingencies. Explicit efforts to mature this competitive space through establishing norms should be complemented by tacit approaches to building mutual understandings of acceptable and unacceptable behavior that construct new customary international law.
Introduction
Authors: Fay Jacqueline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the central questions of the volume: how might a largescale, group identity like Englishness have been lived out by the inhabitants of early medieval England, and how can this experience be accessed now, from a distance of around one thousand years, given that almost no early medieval texts directly address the everyday experience of being English? A series of examples follow to illustrate the characteristics that the book identifies as fundamental to Englishness during the early medieval period: an essential tie to the land, a shared history, a perceived embodied bond between members, and the fusion of these components in such a way that they seem to occur naturally and in a realm below, beyond, or additional to that of texts and ideas. The introduction also locates the argument of the book in relation to theories about group identities and about matter, and describes the content of each chapter.
Conclusion
Authors: Fay Jacqueline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter reviews the overall argument of the volume that Englishness during the early medieval period is forged in interactions between matter and discourse rather than only, or primarily, in the realm of texts and ideas. Furthermore, the chapter considers the role that analysis of the medieval period plays in issues of urgent contemporary concern, leading to a discussion of the role of the past in relation to the present. The chapter concludes by advocating for a type of engaged historicism that assumes and explores the resonance between past and present so as to provoke recognition and enhanced understanding of contemporary problems as well as an orientation toward taking action to solve them.
‘Educating Criminals’
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 locates the emergence of the idea of educating criminals at the turn of the nineteenth century and charts the spread of schemes to teach prisoners to read and write across the convict prison and local prison sectors. Although the reformation of prisoners was a central plank in the campaigns of penal reformers from John Howard to Elizabeth Fry and the Society for the Improvement of Prison Discipline, their efforts focused on religious rather than scholarly instruction. Schemes to teach reading, sometimes writing and occasionally arithmetic in prisons derived from the desire for educational reform. The insertion of a clause within the 1823 Gaols Act, which instructed those in charge of prisons to make provision for instruction in reading and writing, was a consequence of the frustrations of educational policymakers who were failing to establish a national system of elementary education. The 1823 Gaols Act also encouraged the spread of prison education, especially through the powerful figure of the prison chaplain. Education was provided to facilitate spiritual reform, to occupy idle prisoners and as a tool for discipline. By c.1850, the majority of prisons had schools, and instruction was increasingly given to both males and females and to both adults and children.
The Evolution of the ‘Prison School’
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the wide variety of forms through which the idea of educating criminals was realised in individual prisons, from the informal (self- or peer instruction, through the provision to books and tools) to the formal (instruction delivered by appointed teachers at set times in space put aside for the purpose). Forms of delivery which were cheap and convenient (peer instruction and charitable initiatives) soon clashed with the realities of the penal environment, and especially with new forms of prison discipline, namely the silent and separate systems. The direction of travel was towards the establishment of formal schools, but the peculiarities of the penal environment meant that these schools, with their silent, partitioned classrooms, looked very different from the mainstream elementary schools attended by children (and some adults) in civil society.
The Du Cane Regime Appearance and Reality
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 interrogates the achievement of uniformity in convict and local prisons under Sir Edmund Du Cane during the 1870s and 1880s. Du Cane’s relentless pursuit of uniformity across the convict and local prison sectors was accompanied by a tightening control over the dissemination of information about what went on inside of prisons, and a ruthless suppression of anything that did not fit. Using evidence from a range of official and semi-official sources, this chapter shows how officials—governors, chaplains and teachers—exploited loopholes in order to give more or less education, to more or fewer prisoners in need or desirous of learning. At the same time, Du Cane was forced to deal with the grievances of schoolmasters in both convict prisons and local prisons who protested about their pay and conditions. Criminal justice statistics which showed a reduction in the prison population in this period and which were used to highlight the success of Du Cane’s system belied the growth of short prison sentences. Prisoner literacy statistics suggested that the advent of compulsory education had done little to address illiteracy among offenders, and provided fodder for positivist criminologists searching for the natural roots of crime. However, the reasons for prisoner illiteracy were multifarious and the educational attainments of prisoners exposed the limitations of mainstream elementary schooling.
Conclusion
Authors: Crone Rosalind 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The Conclusion provides a summary of the main arguments of the book and relates its findings to the provision of education in prisons at beginning of the twenty-first century. The nineteenth century witnessed the rise and fall of the prison school. The provision of education in prisons was a product of educational reform as well as a part of the desire to facilitate spiritual reformation among prisoners. While curriculum reflected that of mainstream elementary schools, the delivery of education was shaped by the penal environment, and looked quite unlike anything found in the civil sphere. As education expanded across the penal sector, philosophies of imprisonment which prioritised punishment and deterrence undermined provision and limited the rehabilitative potential of education. The closing decades of the nineteenth century were characterised by a series of missed opportunities which further restricted the role of education in the penal regime. The penal regime constructed in the nineteenth century continues to shape experiences of imprisonment and the provision of education in prisons in 2021.
Armed Robbers
Authors: Taylor Emmeline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Notoriously difficult to access, armed robbers have mostly eluded the attempts of authors to access their lives. Aside from biographies of the most infamous, the stories of armed robbers, as varied, bizarre, and captivating as they are, have rarely been told. This has resulted in robbers being considered as largely homogenous beings, their unique pathways to crime ignored or lumped into ill-defined stereotypes. Yet their routes into one of the most serious violent crimes could not be more varied. Written by a leading female criminologist, Armed Robbers relays the powerful, sometimes amusing, often harrowing stories of 42 convicted criminals. Their accounts are interwoven with historical events and folk tales—colonial settlement, convict ancestry, gold rushes, and a sometimes ferocious hyper-masculinity born of frustration and constructed in forgotten towns. This book offers a frank account of the views and experiences of convicted armed robbers. In doing so the concept of ‘affective transgression’ is developed and resounds throughout the pages—the stomach-churning fear of a robber losing control, the rage directed at ‘wannabe heroes’, the anticipatory anxiety and adrenaline heightened by drugs and music, the guilt and shame that follows the ferocity of aggression taken too far, and the eruption of laughter at the most seemingly inappropriate time. It is clear that crime has an affective quality that exists beyond any rational calculus pertaining to financial reward. The analysis provided in Armed Robbers responds to the need to connect the visceral with the cultural, the somata with the social.
Prison Research
Authors: Taylor Emmeline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter outlines the methodology and the process of identifying research participants and gaining access to Australian prisons to conduct the interviews. Six prisons were visited over the course of the study and the unique characteristics of each institution are detailed alongside ethnographic insights gained while undertaking the research. The sample of prisons was particularly interesting, being a mix of private and state-run, old and new, and open jails through to super-maximum-security facilities. The prison cultures experienced in each of these institutions are also explicated in this chapter, including gender dynamics, power plays, and the various functionalities of humour employed by prison officers and inmates.
The Magic Carpet Ride
Authors: Taylor Emmeline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
‘The Magic Carpet Ride’ moves the analysis into the realm of the visceral and sensory experience of committing commercial armed robbery. Far from rational, some motivations existed on the edge of reason. Here the participants extol the excitement, adrenaline rush, and thrill experienced through this particular crime type. Their days were long, predictable, and monotonous, particularly for the men who were underemployed. Excessive alcohol use was a culturally acceptable way to pass the hours, but only lowered already depressed states. The absence of mental stimulation propagated a thirst for hedonic pleasures satiated only by the extremes of violent criminal activity. The chapter charts the affect and emotions from pleasure to shame, ecstasy to guilt. Yet beyond the offenders who were self-medicating their depression was a cohort who sought out the affective capacities of extreme behaviour for its own sake.
Getting Caught and Doing Time
Authors: Taylor Emmeline 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Chapter 9, Getting Caught and Doing Time’, identifies how and why the men were caught and convicted of their crimes. A variety of reasons are offered from a desire to be sent to prison to undergo medical treatment and be reunited with their friends, to being ‘snitched’ on by acquaintances and even wives and girlfriends. The second part of this chapter explores the prison system in Australia. In particular, the private prison estate is examined before the chapter proceeds to unpack the ‘prison-industrial complex’ (PIC). Australia currently has the highest proportion of prisoners in privately operated prisons in the world; this chapter examines how this impacts on experiences of prison, both for the individuals who participated in the study and also more broadly.
Introduction
Authors: Brodie Marc 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This introduction shows how the key historical assumption challenged in this book—that the working class resented and resisted any interference by the state in their lives and communities—has continued to be presented without question even in the most recent historical works. This has particularly been the case concerning what are seen as ‘traditional’ working-class poorer neighbourhoods. Such neighbourhoods form a major focus of this book. Historical disagreements about their key characteristics, including whether they had inherently trusting relationships and precisely when they existed, are discussed here, as is their influential identification in the later twentieth century as a key sociological and historical focus for study. What has not previously been discussed is the way in which the historical evidence often used about political attitudes in these communities is skewed, and contrary viewpoints have often been neglected or ignored.
Education
Authors: Brodie Marc 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
It has been widely accepted that the working class were hostile to the introduction of compulsory education in the late nineteenth century. This chapter challenges that idea. Rather than poor parents wanting their children to be available for work instead of going to school, as has been believed, there is more reason to think that factors such as the impact of certain diseases were more important over time in changing patterns of absenteeism in this period. Deliberate persistent truancy by a small proportion of children, particularly boys, without any prompting from parents, was also a key to low average attendance rates. Importantly, it was improvements within schools—generally better educational provision by the state—which was vital in changing minds among the working class, providing what was wanted by children and so encouraging parents’ support.
Road Map to the Emergent AU Law
Authors: Amao Femi 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The introduction provides a road map to the contributions in this volume. It introduces the concept of AU law as an emergent continental legal order emanating from the activities of the African Union. It shows its place within the existing legal systems in Africa and also its importance. Furthermore, it provides an overview of the various contributions underscoring their importance and relevance. It summarizes how the contributions pull together clear and tangible evidence of the emergent AU law. It notes that the scope of the contributions is wide because the legal order created by the African Union is manifested in the many different areas that the AU and its Member States are active.
The AU and Disputed Presidential Elections
Authors: Yemisi Omorogbe Eki 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers the response of the African Union (AU) to two types of unconstitutional change: fraudulent electoral practices and the refusal of incumbent presidents to step down from office following electoral defeat. The chapter addresses the AU’s legal and policy framework for intervention on the occurrence of unconstitutional change of government. In addressing these issues, the chapter considers AU response to election crises in Kenya (2007), Zimbabwe (2008), Cote d’Ivoire (2010), and Gambia (2016). With the exception of Gambia, the AU preference is for power sharing. The chapter concludes that the AU is making positive progress but that in each case the AU’s ultimate support for an incumbent undermines any deterrent and regulatory effect which AU law and policy may have. It also concludes that a revision of the definition of unconstitutional change coupled with firmer responses against perpetrators, including through criminal prosecution, would better advance peace, security, democracy, and development in Africa.
Human Rights, Statelessness, and the Right to Nationality (R2N) in Africa: What Can Vertical Structures Achieve?
Authors: Nwankwo Chidebe Matthew 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Africa contributes a substantial percentage to the global population of stateless people. Groups most affected by statelessness in Africa include descendants of colonial-era migrants, nomadic pastoralists, populations separated by arbitrary colonial borders or affected by nascent states, and internally displaced persons. These groups are further increased by the rise in climate change induced migration and Africa’s continuous ethnic conflicts. These persons are denied the right to nationality by a combination of systematic discrimination through bad policies, weak administrative systems, and laws that effectually provide limited rights based on nationality through jus soli and restrict nationality through jus sanguinis on discriminatory grounds. At national level, laws and policies on the right to nationality are fragmented and discriminatory. This is perhaps a reflection of the colonial origins of citizenship laws in post-colonial African states and a dismissive political attitude to the issue. Regardless of this, there appears to be an appreciation of the danger of statelessness and the need to formulate regional standards to guide national approaches to the right to nationality. This chapter analyses the emerging jurisprudence of African regional courts and argues that the African human rights system offers considerable potential to tackle the problem.
The Contribution of AU Human Rights Agreements to an Emergent AU Law
Authors: Naldi Gino 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
The adoption of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights has attracted considerable attention, and much negative comment, for its distinctive approach to human rights, with its stress on socio-economic and group rights. Notwithstanding the conventional Western stance that such rights are aspirational and non-justiciable, the African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights maintains that parties have assumed obligations under the Charter which are enforceable. The African understanding of human rights is replicated in a number of later treaties on vulnerable groups. Human rights form an integral part of the African Union which its organs are charged to uphold. This chapter will argue that human rights agreements adopted by the AU pave the way for an AU law to emerge based on a body of jurisprudence giving effect to a uniquely African conceptualization of human rights.
Six Concepts of Legality and their Disambiguation
Authors: Yip Ka Lok 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter performs a conceptual under-labouring by identifying, clarifying and differentiating six concepts of legality under public international law. Three of these concepts can be further categorized as ‘vertical legality’ as they measure the ‘entrenching’ quality of the legal norms across varying depths of permissiveness—Neutral Legality, Negative Legality, and Positive Legality. The other three of these concepts can be further categorized as ‘Horizontal Legality’ as they measure the ‘covering’ quality of the legal norms across different subject areas—Simple Legality, Compounding Legality, and System-wide Legality. The new vocabulary is designed to clearly demarcate the different notions of something being ‘legal’, properly name their differences, and use these differences to precisely locate the roots of disagreement over the legality of use of force against individuals in war.