bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Kirp David , Wechsler Marjorie , Gardner Madelyn , Tinubu Ali Titilayo 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Theories about how to improve education have pitted disruptors operating outside the world of schools—those who support quick fixes like technology and new structures such as charter schools and vouchers—against many educators inside the school system, who are working toward steady, research-informed approaches that address individual students’ needs and close opportunity gaps. An examination of the impact of disruption in education, business, and other sectors reveals that disruption rarely creates the promised benefits, and can actually have unintended negative consequences. In contrast, effective organizations focus on a long-term vision, employing an incrementalist, bottom-up strategy to reach those objectives. Three school districts—Roanoke, Virginia; Union, Oklahoma; and Union City, New Jersey—demonstrate the power of slow, steady change. Over time, each has significantly improved graduation rates and essentially eliminated opportunity gaps.
Conclusion
Authors: Kirp David , Wechsler Marjorie , Gardner Madelyn , Tinubu Ali Titilayo 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The accomplishments of Union, Oklahoma; Union City, New Jersey; and Roanoke, Virginia demonstrate that incremental reform, rather than disruption, enables a district to regularly revisit its policies and practices, making steady improvements that increase graduation rates and shrink or eliminate opportunity gaps. Rather than operating in isolation, successful districts make good use of partnerships with parents, local organizations, and political leaders. They embrace the idea that all students can learn, and they aim to graduate 100 percent of their students. They pay attention to each student’s needs, creating an environment that gives students the understanding that they are respected members of the school community—that they belong—and can engage in academic and extracurricular activities that excite them. Principals and superintendents rely on the expertise of their staff and base their decisions on data, not bias or hunch. Their efforts for change are sustained over time.
Ambivalence
Authors: Coates D. Justin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers an account of ambivalence. To begin, it distinguishes between ambivalence and several related phenomena: being indecisive, being uncertain, being unsettled, being wavering, being weak-willed, and having mixed feelings. Unlike these forms of agential conflict, ambivalence necessarily implicates inner states of the agent (e.g., what she loves, values, cares about, etc.). Moreover, the conflict that one experiences when ambivalent is not one that lends itself to neat or tidy resolution, as might be the case in instances of indecision or uncertainty. On the resulting account, ambivalence is a form of inner conflict that the agent experiences as being irresolvable without value remainder.
Resolving the Will
Authors: Coates D. Justin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The Resolution Argument purports to show that we are able to fully resolve our wills in cases of practical conflict only if we come to wholeheartedly identify with one of the conflicting motives (as well as the course of action that that motive rationalizes). The reason for this is that in the absence of wholehearted resolution with respect to one of our conflicting motives, the motive that in fact moves us to act lacks normative or action-guiding authority. So because the ambivalent agent acts on a motive that lacks normative authority, she is not autonomous. Against this argument, the chapter argues that resolution of the sort that is necessary for autonomy only requires agents to be normatively competent. Ambivalence does not preclude normative competence, so it poses no threat for autonomy.
Affirmation and Ambivalence
Authors: Coates D. Justin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The Affirmation Argument begins with a Nietzschean premise according to which our choices are meaningful for us only if we can wholeheartedly affirm them. Yet when we are ambivalent we are not able to fully affirm our motives or choices considered individually or our lives considered as a whole. Therefore, the ambivalent life cannot be uniquely meaningful in the way it is possible for a wholehearted life to be. In response to this argument, this chapter first argues that given the significance we tend to attach to affirmation, it’s not clear why ambivalent affirmation wouldn’t be meaning-generating at least to some degree. It then argues that there are important cases in which an ambivalent affirmation of one motive over another is enhances meaningfulness.
Ambivalence without Self-Defeat
Authors: Coates D. Justin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The Argument from Self-Defeat purports to show that ambivalence undermines the possibility of integrity. This chapter considers a version of this argument that can be traced back to Plato but has contemporary support in the work of Christine Korsgaard. According to this version of the Argument from Self-Defeat, ambivalence is a threat to well-functioning agency because a fragmented will inevitably issues in actions that involve pernicious forms of self-betrayal. In response, the chapter argues that this initial version of the argument fails to show that ambivalence is self-defeating because it rests on mistaken psychological and normative commitments. It then considers a second version of the argument found in the work of Harry Frankfurt.
Normative Competence and Ambivalence
Authors: Coates D. Justin 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
What is well-functioning agency? This chapter argues that a necessary condition on well-functioning agency is normative competence. According to this understanding, normative competence involves three essential capacities: being sensitive to normatively significant facts, being attuned to the degree to which those facts bear on the agent’s practical situation, and being disposed to regularly act on the basis of such facts in accordance with their weightiness. The chapter argues that in the face of many practical conflicts, normative competence on the part of the agent will require her to be responsive to competing reasons, and for that responsiveness to be present in how she executes her choice. An upshot of this, the chapter concludes, is that normative competence sometimes requires agents to be ambivalent.
Introduction
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The introduction acquaints readers with the major themes of the book, beginning with the complicated tensions around the role of women in mainline Protestant churches in the mid-twentieth century. Though women outnumbered men in nearly every denomination, and despite the power they had amassed in the missionary organizations they founded, funded, and administered, churchwomen had to treat lightly. They had to find a way to win equality without raising fears of feminization among the male minority that still hung on to leadership. The introduction also provides an overview of the scholarly literature on mainline Protestantism, and of the relatively small but important discussion of feminization in American religion. Finally, the introduction opens a larger question of emotional pain, the possibility of anger among churchwomen who were deeply loyal to Protestant institutions, but routinely barred from positions of leadership.
The Gender of Efficiency
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Helen Barrett Montgomery was a prominent Baptist laywoman, a biblical scholar, the first female president of the Northern Baptist Convention, and an undisputed leader of the women’s missionary movement. She was also one of the first to recognize the threat that denominational restructuring posed to the financial and institutional autonomy of those organizations. This brief portrait shows Montgomery at the pinnacle of her career, as Protestant laywomen celebrated the missionary movement’s joyous Jubilee in 1910. At the same time, however, Montgomery was becoming aware of the growing negativity among male missionary leaders toward women’s organizations, which they viewed as a drain on denominational expenses and a source of unnecessary competition.
Liberating the Ladies’ Aid
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 describes the new role for Protestant laywomen that emerged in the late 1920s and 1930s. The “churchwoman” was no longer interested in missionary work alone, or even a separate sphere within the church. Inspired by the ecumenical movement’s vision of Christian unity, a new generation sought involvement in the whole of the churches’ mission in the world. This chapter describes the early stages of the transition from missions to a larger agenda, and focuses on two important new organizations, United Church Women and the Methodist Women’s Division of Christian Service. It argues that these efforts, which, especially in the Methodist case, involved both northern and southern denominations, expanded and redefined traditional mainline Protestant boundaries.
Forming the Question
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 surveys the role of women in the ecumenical movement, beginning with its inception in the early twentieth century and culminating in the inaugural meeting of the World Council of Churches in 1948. The ecumenical movement was fundamentally wary of women, convinced that any talk of equality would damage the larger cause of Christian unity. Yet in the years after World War II, European churchwomen were restless for change, and angry at conservative rebuffs. This chapter follows the work of Twila Cavert, wife of a leading American ecumenist, in getting things started, convening a gathering of American and European churchwomen at Baarn, in the Netherlands, before the Amsterdam meeting of the World Council of Churches.
Pursuing Answers
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 7 covers a developing conversation about gender during the early years of the World Council of Churches (WCC). The women who led this conversation emphatically did not want to create a “women’s department” within the WCC. Instead they envisioned a model of cooperation between the sexes, in which men were equally invested in righting injustices. First titled the Commission (later Committee) on the Life and Work of Women in the Church, and then the Department of Cooperation between Men and Women in Church and Society, this feminist ecumenism opened an important new round of theological conversation about gender roles. It also posed a direct challenge to American churchwomen, regarding the whole idea of separate women’s organizations as a “shadow church” accepting influence rather than demanding real power and leadership.
Finding Feminism
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Chapter 9 analyzes the reasons for the long delay in achieving women’s ordination, and the forces that finally brought it about. Two decisive influences came from outside mainline Protestant circles. The first came from the World Council of Churches, from women disillusioned with the possibility of cooperation between the sexes and demanding equality. The other came from Roman Catholic women, who unlike their Protestant peers, had a solid contingent of educated professionals—nuns and sisters—and in the wake of Vatican II, a clear view of masculine misogynism. Mainline Protestant feminism was late in coming, and required a sharp turn from the previous generation’s strategy of cooperation and parallel institution building. It is not surprising, therefore, that the new generation of feminists saw themselves as pioneers, not finishing the work of their predecessors but beginning something completely novel.
Afterword
Authors: Bendroth Margaret 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This portrait centers on an incident in 1969, when Presbyterian churchwoman Cynthia Wedel was about to be elected president of the National Council of Churches (NCC), the first woman to achieve this honor. The meeting was a sustained uproar, however, repeatedly interrupted by activists protesting the Vietnam War, and then by Black churchmen with a Manifesto and a direct demand that the NCC elect Albert Cleage. In the course of events, Wedel was literally kidnapped and detained in a hotel room, told to stand down from the election in deference to Cleage. She refused and became NCC president, but as a woman in leadership—and representative of an older nonfeminist generation—had to walk a fine line, one that was familiar to the other women described in previous portraits.
The Agrarian Policy of the Senate between Hannibal and the Gracchi
Authors: Balbo Mattia 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the policy undertaken by the Senate in order to manage the agrarian developments in Italy in the second century. First it considers the specific social, demographic, and economic background in which some provisions are introduced. Competition for land appears to be a key feature of the period. Ancient sources attest at least three levels of competition in the use of Italian lands: competition between large owners and smallholders, competition between slaves and free manpower, and competition between different modes of exploitation. Roman agrarian policy in the second century bce offers a very complex scenario, with a variety of social actors and needs at stake. Indeed, the Roman Senate adopts various measures, which may be interpreted as responses to shifting circumstances. However, there are some consistent elements that may be understood as part of a general policy. For instance, the res publica is often interested in claiming ownership of land to which it is entitled and in using the uectigalia to keep public revenues in balance, especially after the collection of tributum was suspended in Italy. At the same time, the specific interest of the Senate—which in the second century assumed wide-ranging powers of direction in agrarian matters—in stimulating land exploitation across Italy emerges. These two aims were in fact complementary, even though they were the cause of contrasts, and responded to the need of managing a complex landscape in transformation.
The Political Culture of Coinage
Authors: Termeer Marleen 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The introduction of the denarius system during the Second Punic War represents a major step in the monetization of the Roman world. The following century saw a great influx of wealth and growth of the urban population on the Italian peninsula. This chapter analyzes how the introduction of the denarius system and its subsequent development reflect and constitute important developments in Rome’s political culture, focusing on two main changes: the introduction of the denarius system itself, and the appearance of private denarius types in the 130s, which was accompanied by a decrease in bronze coinage production. Two main questions are investigated. First, what do the coins tell us about political decision-making processes, and the way coinage helped to define the res publica? Second, who was the audience for the messages on the coins, and how do they relate to the Roman political body? The introduction of a fixed “state emblem” on the denarius coinage was an innovative move away from previous coin-producing practices, and can be read in relation to the conscious development of a Roman civic identity. The change to private types implies a decrease in the importance of Roman civic identity as communicated on coins, and more attention for the families and individuals that constitute Rome as a political entity. This change was restricted to silver coins, however. The bronze coins tell a different story: the Roman types stay the same, but production decreases, while a variety of local productions on the Italian peninsula are widely used.
Public Buildings and Urban Landscape
Authors: de Caprariis Francesca 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Among the several—and sometimes dramatic—defining moments in the urban history of Rome, the first half of the second century bce has long been recognized as a pivotal one, marking the transformation from city-state to Hellenistic capital. Demographic growth together with an impressive inflow of wealth, much of it spent on public buildings or on public decor, were the driving forces behind an intense building activity contracted by censors and aediles that recreated the urban center, the forum with the commercial buildings nearby, streets, sewers, and the river port. Monuments and temples built by victorious imperatores bear witness to a period of architectural innovation and of intense aristocratic competition. New typologies of buildings emerge and reveal through their names a foreign—mostly Greek—influence. Within this well-established picture in modern scholarship, single aspects of this phenomenon and its consequences on the urban fabric have been investigated: its suddenness, the cultural impact, and the social and demographic one. A view from the Tiber—proposed in this chapter—is an excellent perspective for a critical reappraisal of the literature of this defining period, because while the general picture is clear, the details (literary sources, archaeology, recent topographical debates) are much more complicated. The focus will be on the port infrastructure in general—from the Aventine plain up to the Circus Flaminius riverfront—and notably on the Naualia question. The identification of the huge Testaccio building is particularly useful for trying to understand the port system of Republican Rome and its growth.
The Administration of the Imperium Romanum in the Second Century bce
Authors: Bellomo Michele 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter gives a brief summary of how the imperium Romanum—interpreted as the sum of the imperia that were granted year after year to magistrates, promagistrates, and priuati—was administered during the second century bce, and notably how discussions on provincial administration shaped the foreign and especially the domestic political debate. If, on one hand, the proliferation of practices like the prorogatio imperii, or the granting of commands to priuati, gave Rome the instruments with which it could pursue a very large-scale expansionist policy, on the other hand they provoked strong and harsh debates within the senatorial elite that paved the way for its subsequent crisis.
Legislation, Politics, and Social Change in the Early Second Century bce
Authors: Lanfranchi Thibaud 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter reconsiders the increasingly important role conferred upon legislation at the end of the Republic. After a general account of this legislation, it focuses on legislation regarding private law. From a quantitative point of view, there was indeed a significant increase in the number of legislative measures; the second century marks the beginning of this increase in the number of laws, and legislative activity began to grow rather strongly, peaking with the Gracchan legislation. The second century also displays an increase in the use of plebiscites. The fact that the tribunician legislation is so well represented can only accentuate the idea that, even before the Gracchi, it occupied a special place in the first half of the second century. This quantitative presentation is then combined with a more qualitative approach, especially focusing on legislation on private law. A significant number of such measures are suddenly documented in our sources in the second century. The chapter first deals with the lex Laetoria. This law is then analyzed in parallel with the lex Atilia and the leges Furia and Voconia. The lex Atilia organized a new form of guardianship for impuberes, whereas the leges Furia and Voconia regulated bequests, donations, and inheritance. Barely ten years later, the lex Vilia Annalis established the cursus honorum for the first time by setting minimum legal ages. These measures appear to form a fairly coherent pattern, which aims at framing a whole series of practices that were previously rather free (or dependant on mos).
“So . . . Who Is Your Audience?”
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter studies an area of philosophy apparently closer to other forms of investigation: the philosophy of science. It poses a question: For whom do philosophers of science write? Three answers are considered: philosophers, scientists, and members of the broader public concerned with some area(s) of the sciences. After reviewing the recent history of the subject, the question is answered. Philosophy of science may sometimes benefit philosophy—but that is worthwhile only if the areas it helps to advance are themselves worth pursuing. It can aid the sciences in a number of ways. Perhaps its most important task is to help the public understanding of science. Although philosophy of science has sometimes been successful in all three ways, the report card isn’t perfect: it needs improvement.
The Whole Function of Philosophy
Authors: Kitcher Philip 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers an account of “the whole function of philosophy.” It elaborates William James’s thought of philosophy as aiming to help people sort out their “somewhat chaotic” views of “the frame of things.” Philosophy is viewed as contributing to large questions of the age, as assisting a wide variety of forms of inquiry, and as a synthetic venture, directed at resolving the confusions arising in various domains of life. Philosophy works among disciplines, not striving for a special kind of knowledge, but as offering concepts, analogies, and lines of reasoning that prove useful in many attempts to make sense of our place in the world.
Grounding and Reduction
Authors: Marmor Andrei 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The kind of metaphysical inquiry we seek in the social context is inevitably drawn to an Aristotelian framework of a hierarchical picture of reality, whereby some aspects of it are more foundational than others. This chapter aims to explain this intuition by utilizing some of the recent literature on grounding and reduction. The main conclusion of the chapter is that we have good reasons to keep the distinction between metaphysical grounding, whereby “A is X in virtue of A being Y,” and identity relations of the type “A just is B” or “to be an F just is to be G,” and that this distinction can be utilized to distinguish between two types of reductive explanations: reduction by way of complete grounding and reduction as metaphysical identity. Subsequent chapters will show that some of the confusions about the possibility of reductive explanations in social ontology can be avoided by relying on this distinction between two types of reduction.
Rationalizing Practices
Authors: Marmor Andrei 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
It is often thought that any philosophical account of a social practice needs to offer the kind of explanation that would rationalize the practice for its participants, make it intelligible to them why they engage in it, and what the point of it is, for them. I call this the internal rationalization constraint. My main argument in this chapter is that a reductive metaphysical explanation of a social practice is not subject to the internal rationalization constraint, and that this is one of the main differences between a metaphysical theory of social practices and a hermeneutical one. I use some of the key debates about the nature of law as my main example, arguing that legal positivism is a metaphysical grounding-reductive theory of law, and as such, not subject to the internal rationalization constraint. Dworkin’s hermeneutical critique of legal positivism clearly takes the rationalization of the practice for its participants as an important objective, but then it must also rely on a different, essentially normative methodological framework.