bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Finnish baby box
Authors: Näsi Ella , Koskenvuo Karoliina 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The Finnish baby box is a well-known social security benefit with a century-long history. It was invented in 1922 by volunteers, who helped indigent mothers by providing baby clothing and other care items. At the time, Finland was a poor country with a high infant mortality rate. In today’s Finland, the baby box is a universal benefit and enjoys wide acceptance and global recognition. This chapter revisits the evolution of the Finnish baby box, which is entangled with the general development trajectory of public health and social security enhancements in Finland during the last 100 years. In the beginning, the success of the baby box was manifested in its ability to support mothers who suffered from deprivation. Later, the baby box became a universal benefit available to all mothers on the condition that they attend antenatal healthcare. Consequently, the baby box has strengthened antenatal care attendance as a social norm in Finland. Together with numerous other medical and social developments, the baby box has contributed to the enhanced well-being and health of infants and families in Finland. Throughout its history, the baby box has enjoyed wide acceptance among politicians and the general public. Today, the baby box is an appreciated social benefit among families, bringing intangible added value to society through its endurance and universality. For Finland as a country, the baby box appears as a symbol of welfare and a social innovation generating interest and local adaptations around the globe.
Gender Quotas for Municipal Executive Bodies in Finland
Authors: Holli Anne Maria 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The chapter gives an account of the background, making and implementation of a law on gender quotas for the executive branch of local government in Finland, arguing that the case can be considered a programmatic policy success which has, moreover, endured over time. In 1995 Finland adopted a statute in its Gender Equality Act which decrees a minimum of 40 per cent of both women and men for municipal executive bodies. The policy was a result of a decades-long campaign by a multitude of actors in feminist ‘strategic partnerships’, who had been pressing the state to adopt measures for ameliorating gender inequality in corporatist bodies and the local government. The mobilization of women’s organizations (with political parties’ women’s sections at the forefront), women MPs, gender equality agencies and individual actors (including male allies) took place in a framework of governments’ relative indifference and strong resistance by many influential actors. In the early 1990s, feminist actors started to support Norwegian-style mandatory quotas to solve problems in women’s political representation. The quota policy finally won the field as a result of women MPs’ cross-partisan ‘coup’ in parliament. The implementation of quotas was also very successful, partly due to fortuitous back-up by already existing legislation regulating local authorities. The quotas, however, caused much upheaval in municipalities as local-level party organizations had to adjust their selection criteria to municipal executive bodies to take mandatory gender requirements into account. However, since 1997 there has prevailed a gender balance in municipal executive bodies in Finland.
Duty, Virtue and Feeling
Authors: Walker Ralph C. S. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Kant holds that feeling is essential to the moral life. The moral law must be the sufficient condition of the action, but other motives may be present as well, and the moral law may often function as a second-order motive. It is by an education through feeling that one comes to an understanding of the moral law, and feeling is also essential if one is to understand what the needs of others are and what our duty to them may be. One may undergo a ‘change of heart’, whereby one comes to a full appreciation of the importance of acting out of duty; but even so we retain the freedom, and the temptation, to act otherwise. Freedom of will is essential to moral responsibility—though Kant does recognize that there may be circumstances under which people do not have the mental capacity to act responsibly.
The Strengths of Kant’s Position
Authors: Walker Ralph C. S. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Kant makes a good case for recognizing the moral law as an objective imperative. Much of his account is highly defensible, though some things need to be filled out. He is at least partly right about transcendental idealism, though perhaps science can take us further towards the underlying spatio-temporal order than Kant believed. He is more open to theories in the third Critique, where he considers us entitled to believe (though not to know) that the future will continue to be orderly, and that this order is due to a designer. Evolution is insufficient to explain our inductive and abductive practices, which take us far beyond the experiences of our ancestors. Nor can it explain our moral concerns for those remote from us. Rational reflection is what is needed. It leads us towards truth in science; Kant rightly holds that rational reflection can lead us to objective truth in morals.
Lucy Hutchinson and the English Revolution
Authors: Gheeraert-Graffeuille Claire 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This book explores Lucy Hutchinson’s historical writings and more particularly the Memoirs of the Life of Colonel Hutchinson, which were composed between 1664 and 1667 and first published in 1806. The Memoirs were a best-seller in the nineteenth century, but largely fell into oblivion in the twentieth century. They were rediscovered in the late 1980s by historians and literary scholars interested in the emerging culture of republicanism and dissent. By approaching the Memoirs through the prism of history and form, this book challenges the widely-held assumption that early modern women did not—and could not—write the history of wars, a field that was supposedly gendered as masculine. On the contrary, it shows that Lucy Hutchinson, a reader of ancient history and an outstanding Latinist, was a historian of the English Revolution, to be ranked with Richard Baxter, Edmund Ludlow, and Edward Hyde.
Structuring discretion through sentencing guidelines: Do the Sentencing Council’s guidelines promote greater consistency?
Authors: Harris Lyndon 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 undertakes the same task but in relation to sentencing guidelines. England and Wales is the world leader in narrative sentencing guidelines and many jurisdictions look to the Sentencing Council of England and Wales when considering establishing their own guidelines system. The guidelines system in this jurisdiction is now rather advanced and thus, there is plenty to critique and seek to draw lessons from. There are guidelines now in their second iteration with supplementary case law amplifying the structure and guidance offered. Chapter 8 examines both types of guideline: offence-specific and overarching. Conclusions are drawn as to the limitations of a guidelines scheme, particularly one in narrative form to form a clear determination as to whether the narrative sentencing guidelines of the Sentencing Council in fact promote greater consistency in sentencing.
Achieving consistency in sentencing
Authors: Harris Lyndon 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Chapter 9 draws the threads together. This chapter revisits the definition of consistency proffered early in this work and reflects on the analysis of the efficacy of the three institutions that provide sentencing guidance, to consider individually and collectively the primary means of structuring the discretionary sentencing decision in England and Wales. From this, key lessons are identified for more effective methods of achieving greater consistency in sentencing. This considers, crucially, the ‘division of labour’ between the three main actors and identifies weaknesses and strengths in this arrangement. Lessons to be learnt include where in the system greater flexibility is required and where greater structure is required. Additionally, the conclusion draws attention to the work that needs to be done to address racial and gender inconsistencies in sentencing. Thus, while providing a theoretically sound critique of the concept, this monograph is of direct practical relevance to those studying or practising in sentencing systems worldwide.
The Doctrine of Mistake and the Rule on Gross Misunderstanding in Chinese Contract Law
Authors: Wei Shen 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Mistake in declaration of will, or mistake for short, refers to the lack of true will to enter a contract as a result of an incorrect understanding by the contracting party declaring an intention to be bound by the contract (the representor). The occurrence of mistake means the loss of trustworthiness in the fundamental element to true consent being given, and it ultimately leads to the invalidity of the contract. Although the concept of mistake is not contained explicitly in China’s Contract Law, the doctrine of gross misunderstanding actually functions like mistake in foreign private law. Comparatively, China’s doctrine of gross misunderstanding is not perfect at covering all types of mistakes, defining standards, exercising the right of rescission, or in its remedies. The law of contract does not pay enough attention to protecting the reliance interest of the counterpart when the mistake occurs by one contracting party. In order to protect the representor’s free will, the mistake doctrine is critical to maintaining the reliance interest of the counterpart so as to ensure transactional security.
Reprehensible Conduct: Threats and Unfair Exploitation in Hong Kong
Authors: HO Lusina 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the doctrines of duress, undue influence and unconscionable bargain, with a particular focus on how Hong Kong law has evolved from its English heritage. The doctrine of duress in Hong Kong law broadly follows that in England, and requires the entry into a transaction as the result of illegitimate pressure. Such pressure is typically exerted through unlawful threats, though lawful threats that go far beyond reasonable pressure also suffice. In relation to undue influence, Hong Kong differs from English law in not relying on presumptions to establish such influence, but instead considers the ‘totality of evidence’ to decide whether undue influence has been exercised. As regards unconscionable bargain, Hong Kong accepts a broader scope of relief for parties in a ‘serious disadvantage’, and does not confine itself to the English doctrine that requires the party concerned to be ‘poor and ignorant’. The common law position is also reinforced by the Unconscionable Contracts Ordinance, which is drawn upon consumer protection legislation in Australia, and has been interpreted in line with the latest Australian statute.
Threats and Unfair Exploitation under Japanese Law
Authors: SONO Hiroo 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the rules and principles under Japanese law relating to contracts induced by threat or unfair exploitation. It first discusses the Civil Code rule on ‘duress’ (kyohaku) and the more relaxed rules in the Consumer Contract Act (CCA) related to ‘distress’ (konwaku). Both provide grounds for rescission of the contract. Even with the relaxed rules in the CCA, however, this chapter assesses that the application of these rules remains rather orthodox, and maintains a rigid framework: it is firmly based on the idea of ‘defective manifestation of intention’. However, this underdevelopment may be a result of the availability of a more flexible principle that holds contracts violating ‘public policy’ null and void. Upon this principle, case law has developed the ‘doctrine of excessive profits’ (bori koi). Some of the case law development has been incorporated into special legislation. Such cases and legislation focus not on ‘defective manifestation of intention’, but on (a) the substantive unfairness of the agreement and (b) the procedural unfairness of the manner in which the agreement was reached. Despite the prevalence of cases and legislation emphasizing the element of substantive unfairness, this chapter demonstrates that there are signs that case law is amenable to a rule that rests solely on the element of procedural unfairness. This chapter concludes that this path will bring Japanese law into line with the more modern trend in comparative contract law of policing ‘abuse of circumstances’.
Mistake, Fraud, and Misrepresentation in Korea
Authors: Youngjoon KWON 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a general overview of the doctrines of mistake, fraud, and misrepresentation under Korean contract law. These doctrines are based on Articles 109 and 110 of the Korean Civil Code. A contract concluded due to a mistake may be avoided by a mistaken party (Article 109). Such mistake should be about a material element of the substance of a contract, and should not have been caused by the gross negligence of the mistaken party. A contract concluded due to a fraud may also be avoided by a defrauded party (Article 110). A fraud should be intentional and unlawful and should have a causal link with the contract. Meanwhile, a misrepresentation is mostly handled as an issue of mistake, fraud, or statutory warranty. There is no single provision in the Korean Civil Code that exclusively covers the issue of misrepresentation.
Invalidity of Contracts in the Philippines: Grounds for Annulment Based on Defects of Intellect and Will
Authors: DIZON Michael Anthony C , DISINI Jose Jesus M 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The chapter explains the Philippine laws and rules on invalidity of contracts. Under Philippine law, a voidable contract is a particular kind of defective contract that is invalid because of a defect in consent. A party’s consent may be impaired due to erroneous belief (mistake or fraud) or reprehensible conduct (violence, intimidation, or undue influence). Mistake is generally understood to be a false belief or notion about something that is material to the contract. On its part, fraud is committed through the use of insidious words or machinations to induce another party to enter into a contract. Violence involves the use of serious or irresistible force to compel a party’s consent, whereas intimation is carried out through threats or actions that produce a reasonable and well-grounded fear of an imminent and grave evil on the part of the other party. Undue influence is present when a party takes improper advantage of his or her power over the will of another. A voidable contract is subject to an action for annulment. But, prior to annulment, a voidable contract is valid and binding and produces legal effects. A voidable contact may also be ratified by the injured party, and this would cleanse the contract of its defect. When a court annuls a voidable contract, the parties are subject to a number of duties including the obligation of mutual restitution.
Threats and Unfair Exploitation under Taiwanese Private Law
Authors: JAN Sheng-Lin 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter elaborates the details of threat and unfair exploitation under Taiwanese private law. Following a very brief introduction of Taiwanese private law (Section I), the chapter enumerates the vitiating factors of contract that are provided for by the Taiwanese Civil Code (Section II). The chapter then focuses on the elaborations of threat and unfair exploitation in Taiwanese contract law (Sections III and IV). Section III begins with the illustration of the requirements for a threat, which, apart from the causal link between the threat by one party and the declaration of intent by the other, include illegitimacy of the threat itself, the threatened means, the pursued aim and of the connection between the means and the aim. This section also deals with threats by a third party and the legal remedies for threat under the Taiwanese Civil Code. Section IV covers unfair exploitation. In addition to a brief explanation of the statutory provision, some important cases decided by the Taiwan Supreme Court are discussed. This chapter concludes with the possible solutions to the hypothetical cases provided by the editors (Section V).
Introduction
Authors: McLeod Hugh 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This begins by explaining the objectives, scope, and main arguments of the book. It then provides an overview of major developments in religion, in sport, and in the relationship between them during four periods, from c.1790 to the present day, placing English sport in international context. The four periods are c.1790–1860, c.1860–1900, c.1900–1960, and since the 1960s. This is followed with a review of the historical literature on religion and sport in modern England. In fact relatively few historians have addressed this theme, but three main questions have provoked debate: ‘muscular Christianity’ and the reasons for its emergence; the role and significance of religion in the sports boom of the later Victorian years; and the relationship between sport and secularization. The chapter concludes with comparisons with the United States, where the literature is much more extensive and a brief summary of the sources.
‘A Passion and Not Merely a Recreation’
Authors: McLeod Hugh 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Historians of the nineteenth century have claimed that fox hunting was the real religion of the gentry and that sport was ‘the biggest thing’ in the lives of many working men. By the later nineteenth century claims of this kind were being made more widely with regard to the passion for cricket in the public schools and for football among working men in the North and the Midlands. With the ever-larger role of sport in English society since the 1960s, and more especially since the 1990s, these trends have gone further. Governments have poured money into sport while praising its benefits for the individual, for society, and for national prestige; sport has taken the place of Sunday School; football fans ask for their ashes to be scattered on or near to their club’s ground; statues are erected to honour sporting heroes. Meanwhile one aspect of the ‘subjective turn’ of religion in the 1960s, in which each individual was encouraged to seek their own ‘path’, was the claim that running was a religion and was able to offer its devotees most of the things which older kinds of religion offered.
What Is Future-Proof Science?
Authors: Vickers Peter 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the subject matter, provides an initial framework for discussion, and offers a brief characterisation of key concepts (to be gradually enriched as the book progresses). An indicative list of 30 examples of ‘future-proof science’ is put forward, including singular scientific facts as well as more involved bodies of thought, or theories. The chapter provides a preliminary sense of how the concept of an ‘established scientific fact’ will be related to discussions of scepticism, epistemic humility, misleading evidence, and approximate truth, as well as ‘the challenge from history’ familiar to philosophers of science.
Meckel’s Successful Prediction of Gill Slits
Authors: Vickers Peter 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 concerns the evidential significance of JF Meckel’s 1811 novel predictive success concerning the existence of gill slits in the mammalian (including human) embryo. It is argued that this successful prediction, whilst prima facie impressive, only modestly confirmed Meckel’s theory of recapitulation. In addition, the scientific community of the day were not fooled: they successfully recognised the nuances of the particular scientific context bearing on the measure of the significance of Meckel’s successful prediction. This case thus demonstrates the reliability (even in the early 19th century) of the intuitions of the scientific community when it comes to matters evidential. It also serves to show that ‘novel predictive success’ is not always significant evidentially, even when the prediction in question appears to be ‘bold’ or ‘risky’.
The Judgement of the Scientific Community
Authors: Vickers Peter 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Following Chapter 4, it is argued that the best judgement of the evidence belongs to the scientific community. Some suggestions are made concerning how the individual might go about ascertaining, and critically assessing, the judgement of the community. It might be objected that sometimes the community judgement goes wrong. A famous case concerns the community attitude towards continental drift between 1915 and 1965. Does this show that the scientific community cannot be trusted to judge the weight of evidence in a given case? It is argued that a distinction can be drawn between cases such as this, and many contemporary cases where we really should trust the judgement of the scientific community when they tell us that a given scientific claim is factual, beyond reasonable doubt. Put briefly, we should look for a scientific consensus amounting to at least 95 per cent, in a scientific community that is large, international, and diverse.
Fundamental Physics and the Special Vulnerability to Underdetermination
Authors: Vickers Peter 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 addresses Hoefer’s (2020) concern that, when it comes to fundamental physics, there is a ‘special vulnerability to underdetermination’, demanding significantly greater epistemic caution compared with other scientific contexts. The chapter starts by demonstrating the problem via a discussion of Sommerfeld’s 1916 prediction of the hydrogen fine-structure spectral lines based on a radically false theory of the atom. It is agreed that there are special epistemic problems in this context, but the concept fundamental can’t bear the weight Hoefer wishes to place upon it. Alternative options are considered, including Van Fraassen’s observable/unobservable distinction. But in the end it is argued that any such epistemic distinction will always be too crude, too sweeping. Instead we do better to trust the relevant scientific community—who are already highly cautious in this context—to decide on a case by case basis; no special caveat is needed.
Introduction
Authors: Stagg Robert 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The introduction first considers some unsatisfactory yet pre-eminent ways of thinking about versification, found in places from the lecture hall to the rehearsal room to the prosodic guidebook to the scholarly edition to the secondary-/high-school classroom. It then suggests some fresh approaches to the subject which give due attention to the ambiguities and multiplicities of metre/meter. It sets out some of the ways in which this book will supply an ‘alternative’ account of Shakespeare’s blank verse: by reading blank verse in such prosodically alternative ways, by considering pre- and non-Shakespearean blank verse, by reading for the ‘identities’ of early modern blank verse, by reading blank verse beyond English borders, by challenging blank verse’s canonical hegemony and received histories, by entertaining ‘alternatives’ to blank verse, and by seeing—or hearing—the ‘alternativity’ immanent in blank verse in particular.
Not Blank Verse
Authors: Stagg Robert 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The second chapter considers further whether Shakespeare’s blank verse might be ‘bad’. It draws attention to the ways in which Shakespeare absorbed the widely deplored, yet widely employed, popular metrical culture of the sixteenth century—especially the seven-syllable line, widely deemed incomplete and deformed, and the fourteen-syllable line, widely deemed loose and overlong—into his putatively more august blank verse, this being an apotropaic tribute to kinds of verse which had been and continue to be disparaged. The chapter pays attention to a wide range of non-Shakespearean writing, from George Chapman’s translation of the Iliad to Tottel’s miscellany, and features readings of several of Shakespeare’s 1590s comedies plus Macbeth, Cymbeline, and Measure for Measure.