bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Assertion and Assertion Sign
Authors: Picardi Eva 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
A characteristic element of Frege’s ideography is the assertion sign. This chapter explores its role and its connections with Frege’s conception of assertion, truth, and judgement. It is noted that Frege’s views about the assertion sign changed over the years and that they deeply influenced the work of the early Wittgenstein as well as Frank Ramsey’s thought. The key contention is that by the end of his career, Frege did not think of “true” as indicative of the essence of logic; rather, what is of the essence of logic for him was contained in the assertoric force with which a sentence is uttered, whence the key role of the assertion sign in his ideography.
Carnap Interpreter of Frege
Authors: Picardi Eva 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the influence that Frege’s ideas had on Rudolf Carnap. First of all, it examines the role that constitutive definitions played for Carnap and compares it to the role played by constructive definitions in Frege’s work. Then, it considers the distinction between the intension and the extension of predicates, called ‘Begriffswörter’ by Frege and ‘predicators’ by Carnap. Such a distinction is traced back to Frege’s lectures in 1910, 1913, and 1914 that Carnap attended in Jena. The chapter also shows how these notions were differently developed by Carnap in the Logische Aufbau der Welt and in Meaning and Necessity.
Frege and Davidson on Predication
Authors: Picardi Eva 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Gottlob Frege’s complex theory of predication and his intriguing ideas regarding the unity of proposition. It also dwells on Donald Davidson’s criticisms of them. First off, three different interpretations of what is at issue in predication, with different ontological commitments are presented and discussed. In the final analysis, Davidson’s critiques are found wanting, particularly because they target an understanding of predication which, arguably, is not the one proposed by Frege. That is, a deflationary reading of predication. Finally, it is argued that Frege’s theories are superior to Davidson’s and that they are still viable to this day.
The Great Change in Midwestern agriculture
Authors: Bousquette Joshua 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter builds on research that aligns changes in the organization and orientation of social structures with the process of language shift, focusing particularly on the relationship between specialization of labor and language shift. I show that the verticalization of the labor force through increased job specialization both affects the social networks of heritage language speakers, bringing them in greater contact with English speakers and English-speaking domains, and increases the community-external orientation of the community through an increase in vertical ties to the broader, English-speaking community. Supported by a comparative study of labor and reported and self-reported language proficiency in four Wisconsin communities over time, I argue that the shift in social structure predates the shift in language proficiency. Furthermore, I argue for a localized, inchoate process of verticalization, as rural farming communities increase job specialization and external orientation through the creation of secondary, agricultural industry.
The Great Change and the shift from Norwegian to English in Ulen, Minnesota
Authors: Natvig David 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter considers the relationship between verticalizing community patterns and the shift from Norwegian-English bilingualism to English monolingualism in Ulen, Minnesota. Data are drawn from US Census materials from 1900 to 1950 and supported with local community history and ethnographic and sociolinguistic interviews with present-day community members and Norwegian heritage speakers. By all accounts, Ulen maintained Norwegian-English bilingualism from its incorporation in 1886 until the mid-20th century. However, with new jobs and infrastructure from New Deal programs and more specialized and industrialized agricultural practices, the community came to rely more on extra-community systems, such as the federal government and state/national farming economies, for what were previously local functions. These outward-orienting processes affected local social patterns that supported the use and transmission of Norwegian as these gave way to national structures, where English is the default mode of communication.
Internal verticalization and community maintenance
Authors: Frey Benjamin E. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter applies the verticalization model of language shift to the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians (EBCI) in western North Carolina. Although most of the literature on language shift within this model considers immigrant communities in the United States, proof of the model’s general applicability rests on verifying it in indigenous contexts as well. Findings indicate that verticalization played a substantial role in the EBCI’s shift from Cherokee to English. Despite the effects of verticalization and Eastern Cherokee’s current status as an endangered language, the 2000 census listed the percentage of Cherokee speakers in Swain County, NC as being approximately double the percentage of German speakers in any county in eastern Wisconsin. The roots of this degree of maintenance lie in the Cherokee community’s cultural propensity toward forming community-internal vertical institutions, which have mitigated the breakdown of social networks and the associated language shift.
The verticalization model of language shift from a historical sociolinguistic perspective
Authors: Auer Anita 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter takes its cue from Chapter 1 in this volume, which presents a verticalization theory of language shift, and the case studies that test the theory within different American communities from the perspective of historical (socio)linguistics. First, the main tenets of the verticalization theory and its application to different communities in America, i.e. the five case studies, will be revisited. Second, the applicability of the theory to communities outside of North America will be further tested by comparing two Swiss migration case studies, one from North America and one from a region in today’s Ukraine. Finally, the merits of the verticalization theory will briefly be discussed within the context of historical sociolinguistics, where special attention will be paid to the challenges of reconstructing the social histories of linguistic communities in diasporas in the past, and of interpreting surviving linguistic data illustrating maintenance and shift.
Dublin, the City Coroner’s Court, and the Everyday
Authors: Breathnach Ciara 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins by positioning the coroner’s court within the medico-legal framework of Dublin City; it provides an outline of how its associated biopower surveillance network was constituted and how it mobilised with respect to sudden deaths. It then turns to the city environment, daily life, and the powers that shaped the lives of those who were the natural constituency of the coroner’s court—the poor. The parameters of ‘ordinary lives’ were limited by domestic and municipal boundaries. This chapter strengthens the case for dividing deaths into those occurring inside and outside the home. Drinking culture in Dublin City receives careful consideration as it was often the root cause of some of the more controversial cases in the sample.
The Danish Pension System in an International Comparison
Authors: Andersen Torben M. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe Danish pension system is attracting international attention for its structure and outcomes. Notably it involves a transition towards a more funded pension system, it delivers high replacement rates, and it is financially robust. The main characteristics of the Danish pension system are presented with outset in the theoretical literature on pension system design and how to address the three main objectives of a pension system: coverage (distribution), adequacy (consumption smoothing), and insurance. This calls for a multipillar pension scheme, which in the Danish case is based on defined benefit public pensions and defined contribution funded occupational pensions. The key elements of this system are presented, and the outcomes in terms of poverty alleviation, replacement rates, and macroeconomic consequences are discussed. The Danish pension system is compared in terms of structure and outcomes to those of the other Nordic countries; a comparison which is interesting since these countries share similar welfare models and yet have adopted very different pension systems. Finally, the robustness of the system in relation to changing demographics and market returns is discussed.
Asset Allocation, Investment Policies, and Returns
Authors: Jørgensen Peter Løchte , Ramlau-Hansen Henrik , Rangvid Jesper 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the investments of Danish pension funds. The first part starts out describing the distribution of pensions savings in Denmark across pension types, pension funds, and guaranteed versus market-based pension products. It then turns to the asset composition, that is, investments, of Danish pension funds. The chapter also describes how Danish pension companies invest in so-called alternative assets. Given that these are typically illiquid assets, their expected returns are relatively high. The historical returns generated by Danish pension funds will also be discussed. The asset allocation and returns of Danish pension companies will be compared to the asset allocation and returns of pension companies in other countries. The chapter finds that it is difficult to argue that Denmark stands out as an outlier, neither positively nor negative, in terms of asset allocation and returns. After having described the investment strategies and returns of Danish pension funds, the chapter turns to the question of how returns might evolve in the future, or, more precisely, how pension funds inform their customers about the return they can expect from their pension savings. Finally, the chapter devotes attention to how Danish pension funds incorporate responsible investments and ESG (Environmental, Social, and Governance) into their investment decisions.
Making the Civilian Convention
Authors: van Dijk Boyd 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2 covers the making of the first binding international treaty to recognize human rights protections for enemy civilians in armed conflict. The Civilian Convention, as it became known, provides a set of basic norms that proscribe brutal counterinsurgency campaigns. It is often forgotten how difficult the treaty’s making really was, and how it could have collapsed at various points in time. In line with the book’s sub-goals of redrawing alternative drafting routes and reconstructing the drafters’ politics, the chapter argues that the treaty’s history should be understood as a long struggle featuring several surprising turns of events, which are now largely forgotten.
Fighters in the Shadows
Authors: van Dijk Boyd 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 provides a micro-history of the attitudes embedded in the Civilian and POW Conventions concerning one of the most contested categories in the history of humanitarian law: the “irregular” fighter on the battlefield. This contentious debate led to conflict not just among the Cold War powers, but also within the Western bloc. It raised several crucial questions. Who deserved protection under humanitarian law? Were civilians allowed to take up arms, or would this violate the principle of distinction? And what should happen to them if they were captured? This chapter notes the importance of decolonization and the Cold War for understanding how drafters’ attitudes changed over time and why they came to a far more exclusionary outcome than is often admitted. Indeed, this discussion left a doubtful legacy for both future irregulars resisting occupation and those fracturing empires after 1949.
Conclusion
Authors: van Dijk Boyd 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The conclusion tracks the trajectory of the Geneva Conventions after 1949. It starts by exploring the signature and ratification procedures of the most important drafting states and then focuses on the Conventions’ reception history. The period of the early Cold War saw the emergence of a popular mythology which celebrated the adoption of the Conventions as a “universal moment” in which states worked in concert with the ICRC to prevent the previous war’s atrocities. While it is certainly true that responses to the Conventions were overwhelmingly positive, especially in Switzerland, the conclusion shows that this is only part of the narrative that was spun around the genesis of humanitarian law. The last part of this chapter analyzes the different drafting positions taken by the most important protagonists and what legacies they created for the Conventions as they are being interpreted today.
EVERYTHING THAT’S TOUCHED
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter traces the background behind an important legal principle and considers how evidence in general, and botanical evidence in particular, can be successfully accepted into a court of law. It highlights the botanical evidence relevant in a court trial, how this evidence is presented, and by whom—these individuals are the so-called expert witnesses. There are also some important evidentiary standards that must be met, based on well-accepted legal precedents. The chapter covers the fourfold purpose of any forensic investigation, which is to connect evidence at a crime scene to a suspect, the victim, or both, and vice versa. Forensic investigators call these connections the four-way linkage theory.
EVERY PARTICLE TELLS A STORY
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter highlights microscopic plants, pollen, diatoms, and fungal structures seldom seen as anything more than dust, that can provide key evidence in criminal and civil cases. It also emphasizes how investigators must take the initiative to sample ‘les poussieres’, knowing that microscopic examination of spores, pollen grains, and unicellular algae may reveal valuable evidence. The chapter covers the forensic identification of mould that can play an important role in civic cases related to human health. It refers to Patricia Wiltshire, who pioneered the picture of place approach that involves obtaining a description of the vegetation at crime scenes from pollen and fungal spore samples recovered from suspects, vehicles, or victims.
A FORENSIC PHARMACOPOEIA
Authors: Gibson David J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at the different types of toxins from plants and fungi, and how they have caused harm to humans, accidentally and deliberately. It focuses on cases of plant poisoning that involve forensic and legal investigation at some level. These investigations involve identifying the toxin and determining culpability and blame, broadly defining poison as any substance that can cause death, injury, or harm, while toxin is a poison that plants, animals, algae, viruses, bacteria, and other organisms in nature produce. The history of poisons parallels that of medicinal plants, since substances beneficial at a low dose often become poisonous at a high dose.
Ireland, Revolution and the English Modernist Imagination
Authors: Patten Eve 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis introductory chapter argues that English writers of the modernist era frequently allude in their work to the events of Ireland’s revolutionary era, from the 1912 Home Rule crisis to the Easter Rising and the Civil War, and that such references often configure Irish events as a means of expressing English political apprehension, cultural disorientation, and vicarious nationalism. The chapter illustrates the English–Irish literary connection through attention to various writers who feature in the study, including Wyndham Lewis, Virginia Woolf, D.H. Lawrence, and Ethel Mannin, with preliminary readings that show how Irish allusions in English texts repeatedly inflect domestic concerns or interests, from the legacies of liberal crises and resurgent forms of interwar English nationalism to post-war imperial disaffection. The chapter also sets this discussion in a theoretical context inflected by Fredric Jameson and shaped by relevant theorists of late modernism.
Visions of Excess
Authors: Patten Eve 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis concluding chapter explores an English literary turn to practices of parody, satire, and caricature in allusions to revolutionary Ireland, and asks how this tendency gestures towards broader anxieties about cultural overproduction and a related national fatigue. The chapter illustrates a modernist lineage of English caricatures of Irishness—much of it directed towards W.B. Yeats—with reference to writers such as Rebecca West, Wyndham Lewis, and T.S. Eliot. It then offers a more sustained focus on burlesques of Irish overproduction through analysis of the Irish-related wartime writings of the English fantasy author T.H. White, whose satirical portrayal of Irish cultural excess in The Elephant and the Kangaroo sees a heavily caricatured post-independence Dublin plunging into renewed civil war, and then submerged by a catastrophic flood, an ecological reimagining that casts revolutionary Ireland as the spectral harbinger of English and European catastrophe.
Education, Habituation, and Moral Development
Authors: Champion Michael W. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter probes Dorotheus’ programme of education and affective moral development, focusing on questions of habituation, performance, and embodiment. Against Aristotelian and Platonic doubts about whether habituation could be considered a part of education, Dorotheus makes habituation central, especially through understanding habituation as craft-like. The chapter explores Dorotheus’ account of learning to be good through habituation and investigates key sites of habit formation: imitation of dramatic ascetic exempla, monastic work, and prayer. It provides close analysis of the use of sayings literature to form habits and build emotional and ethical norms in the monastic community. This analysis reinforces that for Dorotheus, education itself is conceptualized as a cognitive, emotional, and embodied enterprise of coming to inhabit privileged perspectives and generative narratives. Habituation, for Dorotheus, is required throughout each stage of a monk’s moral and spiritual education, partly because monastic education has the whole lifetime of the monk in view.
Parenthetical Meaning
Authors: Koev Todor 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis book investigates the semantics and pragmatics of a representative sample of parenthetical constructions. These constructions are argued to fall into two major classes: pure and impure. Pure parentheticals comment on some part of the descriptive content of the root sentence but are otherwise relatively independent of it. Impure parentheticals modify components of the illocutionary force and affect the felicity or the truth of the root sentence. The book studies parentheticals from three theoretical viewpoints: illocutionary effects, scopal properties, and discourse status. It establishes and explicates the notion of parenthetical meaning in a formally precise and predictive dynamic semantic model. As a result, parentheticality is brought to bear on linguistic phenomena such as entailment and presupposition, binding and anaphora, evidentiality and modality, illocutionary force, and polarity.
Introduction
Authors: Koev Todor 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter lays out the empirical and theoretical basis for the rest of the book. It gives a first taste of parenthetical meaning by emphasizing the commonalities and differences across a wide range of constructions that form the empirical core of the discussion to come. It situates parentheticality among the familiar layers of meaning, arguing that parenthetical content shares properties with entailment and presupposition but also differs from these in its ability to impact the interpretation of the root sentence. It is proposed that what all parentheticals have in common is their illocutionary independence, or the fact that they carry their own force operators and thus constitute independent speech acts. It establishes two major levels of parenthetical independence (pure and impure) and identifies six semantic puzzles about parentheticals that the rest of the book strives to solve. It also sketches a basic semantic formalism that underlies the theoretical claims.
Scopal properties
Authors: Koev Todor 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter investigates the scopal properties of parentheticals and proposes explanations for the core findings. It is argued that, on the basis of their scopal behavior, parentheticals fall into two major categories: pure and impure. Pure parentheticals readily occur in embedded syntactic positions but trigger projective inferences. The robust projection of pure parentheticals is best explained not in structural terms but in terms of speaker perspective. Such a perspective arises from the fact that parentheticals are headed by force operators, which do not scopally interact with higher propositional operators and entail commitments for the speaker. In turn, impure parentheticals operate on the illocutionary level and typically occur in root clauses. When placed in the syntactic domain of verbs of saying, impure parentheticals adopt a non-speaker perspective but remain relevant to the current context.
April
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall and fog at Durham during the month of April. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month of April. It discusses how, while it is the middle month of spring, April’s weather is more like that of March than May. It covers how in Durham snowfall in April is not uncommon, and frosts remain a problem. It also mentions that April 1917 was Durham’s coldest April on record, and briefly discusses this event.
May
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the month of May. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month. As May is a transitional month as regards weather, the chapter covers how, while the month can occasionally exhibit summer-like characteristics, other winter- and late-spring-like weather events (for example, snow, frosty nights, and cooler day temperatures) cannot be ruled out. While May is, on average, the sunniest month in Durham, it is also the second-driest month of the year, after March.
June
Authors: Burt Stephen , Burt Tim 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The meteorological summer consists of the three months June, July, and August. June in Durham is, on average, almost 3 degrees Celsius warmer than May, but is also significantly wetter and somewhat less sunny. The beginning of June can often produce remarkably cool nights, and even air frosts are not unknown at this time of year. This chapter examines the long-term records (averages and extremes) of temperature, precipitation, sunshine, barometric pressure, wind direction and speed, snowfall, and fog at Durham during the month of June. The chapter includes descriptive accounts and local photographs of notable weather events during the month.