bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Overview of History
Authors: Bažant Zdeněk P. , Le Jia-Liang , Salviato Marco 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The last chapter briefly sketches the rich century-long history of fracture mechanics, with an additonal quasibrittle focus. The mainstream milestones were Griffith's 1921 introduction of energy criterion of crack propagation, Irwin's 1958 discovery of the relation of the energy release rate to the stress intensity factor of the near-tip singular stress field, Barenblatt's 1959 conception of the cohesive crack model, and Rice's 1966 discovery of the J-integral giving the energy flux into tip crack tip. Progress was spurred by the breakup of welded Liberty ships at sea and of Commet jetliners in flight, and later by many sudden shear failures of RC structures. At the interface with structural safety the main milestone was Weibull's 1939 introduction of his namesake distribution and statistical size effect in brittle failure. Hillerborg's 1976 fictitious crack model for concrete, essentially equivalent to the cohesive crack model, was a boost for computer simulation of concrete fracture. An even stronger impetus was, during 1984-1991, the gradual emergence, during 1976-87, of the crack band and nonlocal models which can capture the tensorial behavior of the FPZ, and of the energetic size effect law. Evolution of quasibrittle fracture mechanics continues until today (2020), e.g., with the recent disruption of established line-crack fracture concepts by the gap test documenting the strong effect of crack-parallel stresses. Fracture mechanics research will doubtless flourish for another century.
Labor Markets
Authors: El-Ganainy Asmaa , Ernst Ekkehard , Merola Rossana , Rogerson Richard , Schindler Martin 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Labor earnings are the dominant income source for most individuals. Thus, an inclusive labor market is key for ensuring inclusive growth. In this chapter we propose four principles that an inclusive labor market will embody: access, fairness, protection and voice. While measuring inclusivity presents challenges, we discuss how data can be used to shed light on the extent of inclusivity and document cross-country trends and stylized facts. We also discuss the role of policy in achieving an inclusive labor market, focusing on the need to rebalance growth; improve risk sharing; and fight discrimination. Several messages emerge. First, some policies entail a trade-off between the different dimensions of inclusivity. Second, it is important to view policies as a bundle, taking into account substitution and complementarities. Third, some policies are win-win, in the sense that they both increase inclusivity and improve overall efficiency.
Competition and Innovation
Authors: Aghion Philippe , Cherif Reda , Hasanov Fuad 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The chapter provides an overview of the theories and empirical evidence on the complex relationship among innovation, competition, and inclusive growth. Competition and innovation-led growth are critical to drive productivity gains and supports broad-based growth. However, new technologies and trends in market concentration are stifling future innovation while contributing to the marked increase in inequality. Beyond consumer welfare in a narrow market, competition policy should adapt to this new reality by considering the spillover and dynamic effects of market power, especially on firm entry, innovation and inequality. Innovation policies should tackle not only government failures but also market failures.
Trade
Authors: Bacchetta Marc , Cerra Valerie , Piermartini Roberta , Smeets Maarten 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter surveys the literature on the relationship between international trade and inclusive growth. It examines claims that the rise in inequality in many countries can be attributed to the concurrent rise in trade competition, especially from EMEs like China, spurring trade tensions and protectionist measures. The chapter investigates the conflicting literature showing the aggregate benefits of trade versus the adverse and persistent impact of trade, especially import competition, on specific industries and local communities. It then reviews the evidence for using trade policies and other complementary policies for adjustment and compensation to those groups adversely affected by trade.
Governance
Authors: Ivanyna Maksym , Salerno Andrea 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The government’s ability to deliver inclusive growth crucially depends on the quality of governance. This chapter reviews the linkages between governance and inclusive growth, and key policies to improve governance. The policies include (1) structural reform, automation, improving rules and procedures (including for fiscal and monetary policies) to limit the discretion and hence the space for policy errors; (2) human resource policies, capacity building, effective anti-corruption frameworks to incentivize public officials to take decisions in the best public interest; and (3) transparency, accountability, and inclusive political institutions to inform and monitor policymaking.
Regional Disparities
Authors: Floerkemeier Holger , Spatafora Nikola , Venables Anthony 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The chapter discusses regional disparities in economic performance and living standards. It first sets out some key facts and provide a conceptual framework to help analyze whether such disparities are efficient, or instead reflect market and/or policy failures. It examines whether policy attempts to reduce regional disparities necessarily involve a trade-off between equity and efficiency. The chapter then investigates whether policymakers should focus on boosting the economic performance of lagging regions—or, conversely, accept the presence of regional disparities, and instead assist households in lagging regions through transfer payments, investments in education, health, and other basic services, and by facilitating out-migration.
Generational Aspects of Inclusive Growth
Authors: Baduel Benedicte , Isakova Asel , Ter-Martirosyan Anna 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Sharing economic benefits equitably across all segments of society includes addressing the specific challenges of different generations. At present, youth and elderly are particularly vulnerable to poverty relative to adults in their middle years. The chapter examines broad-based policies to foster youth integration into the labor market and ensure adequate income and health care support for the elderly. Turning to the intergenerational dimension, everyone should have the same chances in life, regardless of their family background. The chapter analyzes policies that promote social mobility, including improving access to high-quality care and education starting from a very early age, supporting lifelong learning, effective social protection schemes, and investing in infrastructure and other services to reduce spatial segregation.
Climate Change
Authors: Bhattacharya Amar , Ivanyna Maksym , Oman William , Stern Nicholas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Climate change is a major threat to the sustainability and inclusiveness of our societies. A just transition to a low-carbon economy is the only viable way forward. This chapter reviews the science of climate change and the socio-economic damages that it causes and could cause in the remainder of this century. It then outlines key policies for a successful transition: pricing carbon, aligning the financial system with climate objectives, boosting public spending on sustainable infrastructure, deploying low-carbon industrial and innovation policy, building resilience and adapting to the climatic changes that are coming, better measurement of well-being and sustainability, and crucially, making the transition fair by ensuring socially just outcomes.
Conclusion
Authors: Christians Allison , van Apeldoorn Laurens 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The conclusion gives an overview of the argument of the book and ends with an urgent call for action. The need to respond to moral claims upon the relatively affluent is urgent. It is unjust to remain complacent in the face of suffering from which those with the greatest resources financially benefit. Relatively affluent states should not continue to claim their own entitlements to wealth while denying the same to others that lack the ability to influence the relevant tax policy institutions and processes. The need for urgency is only confirmed, and the means for action furthered, by the ongoing efforts of the international community to redefine the international tax system to achieve more fairness among states. A reckoning with the parameters and implications of the entitlement principle and that of fair cooperation must be seen as an urgent priority in this process, lest the mistakes of the past continue into the future.
Grounding the Beneficiary Pays Principle
Authors: Bazargan-Forward Saba 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter develops a novel foundation for the beneficiary pays principle (BPP). Suppose a wrongdoer wrongs a victim by compelling labor from her. The wrongdoer owes the victim compensation. Suppose a third party innocently benefits from that wrongdoing. By benefiting, he, in effect, adds to the value of the labor that the wrongdoer compelled from the victim. And by adding to the value of the victim’s labor, the beneficiary ipso facto increases the amount of non-consensual labor compelled from the victim. The beneficiary thus exacerbates the wrong that the wrongdoer committed. Since the victim is owed by way of compensation the value of the labor forcibly extracted from her, the beneficiary, by keeping the benefits, is responsible for increasing what the victim is owed by way of compensation. And this is just to say that the beneficiary has a compensatory duty toward the victim, which is what the BPP states.
Republican Liberty as Liberty within Rights
Authors: Layman Daniel 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
What is the relationship between republican liberty and rights? The received view is that republican liberty is conceptually distinct from rights enjoyment. This chapter argues that republican liberty just is liberty within rights. Rights enjoyment is necessary and sufficient for republican liberty. It is necessary for republican liberty because there is no way to specify the range within which independence from others’ unconstrained wills matters without specifying particular rights that people may claim against one another. And it is sufficient for republican liberty because to enjoy a right is to possess securely a valid claim against one or more other people, where security is a function of institutional sanctions sufficient to dissuade others from violating that right. Once it becomes clear that republican liberty is liberty within rights, the liberty debate reappears as a contest that is fundamentally about whether there is conceptual daylight between liberty and rights.
Labour Markets in Low-Income Countries
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 serves as the introduction into the topic of the book, presenting the demographic background of low-income countries’ (LICs) struggle for better labour market performance and the focus of the joint Growth and Labour Markets in Low-Income Countries (GLM|LIC) programme of the UK Government and the IZA – Institute of Labor Economics. Despite the importance of studying labour markets in LICs and investigating which policies are more successful, the evidence remained, until recently, rather limited. Against this backdrop, the joint IZA/FCDO (German IZA – Institute of Labor Economics and the Foreign, Commonwealth, and Development Office) and the GLM|LIC programme was established in 2011 after identifying an important research gap on labour markets and growth in LICs. The GLM|LIC programme has taken important steps to close this gap. The chapter provides a brief overview of the subsequent chapters of the volume.
Barriers to Labour Market Efficiency in Low-Income Countries
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 2 investigates how to make it easier for firms and workers to find each other in LICs. Several GLM|LIC projects study constraints such as information and mobility barriers that are mechanisms for exclusion of the most disadvantaged. They also show that well targeted, low-cost interventions can have large impacts, improving both efficiency and equity in the labour market. A project in Ethiopia found positive effects of low-cost programmes designed to help reduce search costs and improve matching, including a soft skills certification programme and transport subsidies. The chapter also presents evidence from Uganda on the impact of improving firms’ knowledge about workers’ characteristics. The demand for labour and the cost of labour in Africa is analysed building on evidence from Ghana, while the effect of intra-firm wage disparities on productivity and absenteeism is discussed based on a novel RCT in India.
The Role of Employability Training and Behavioural Change
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 looks at skills training, one of the most common labour market programmes run by governments and NGOs to enable individuals achieve better labour market outcomes. Despite the growing number of training programmes in LICs, many of these programmes go without any rigorous evaluation. Considerable evidence suggests that they are often not very effective, especially considering cost. GLM|LIC research presents new innovations in this area from a number of countries, including, for example, combining training with cash transfers that aim to relax credit constraints and adding behavioural interventions. Some of the interventions also investigate the role of non-cognitive skills. The outcomes studied go beyond the regular labour market outcomes of employment and wages and include other social outcomes such as risk or violence. The chapter discusses the lessons learned about what types of trainings and the (geographic and cultural) contexts in which these programmes would work.
The Interrelationship of Growth, Formality, Informality, and Regulation
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 discusses issues related to sectoral transformation, economic growth, and employment. The topic of informality, casual or self-employment is of particular importance because it accounts for the majority of employment in many low-income countries, yet its role in the process of economic growth, and its links with the formal sector, remain poorly understood. GLM|LIC studies show that the informal sector can play an important role in economic development, and may not always be simply the ‘last resort’ of workers who are unable to secure formal jobs. The chapter also looks at the question of whether labour costs are ‘too high’ in Africa, and discusses the possible role of labour market regulation such as social insurance mandates and minimum wages, based on evidence from GLM|LIC projects.
Gender Dimensions of Developing Labour Markets
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 focuses on the gender dimensions of labour markets in low-income countries. While women’s employment rates tended to increase with economic development and falling fertility rates in Latin America and some other regions, there has been little or no increase in most South Asian countries. A variety of factors appear to be at work, including rising incomes of husbands, social norms, and the sectoral composition of economic growth. GLM|LIC has supported novel training programmes targeted to (young) women. Vocational and life skills training was found to increase women’s labour force participation while reducing teen pregnancy and early marriage. Other GLM|LIC research demonstrates that women’s employment is affected by their control over finances via own bank accounts and direct deposit of their earnings, while access to safe transportation plays an important role as well on the road to women’s empowerment.
Lessons about Labour Market Programmes and Policies
Authors: Lam David , Elsayed Ahmed 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 9 summarizes the lessons of GLM|LIC research for labour market policies and programmes in low-income countries. Lessons from projects that had disappointing results are, in many ways, as informative as lessons from projects that had positive results. The chapter recaps key points regarding labour market interventions including training programmes, public works programmes, and programmes designed to reduce labour market frictions due to imperfect information, transport costs, and barriers to access. Also discussed are the lessons from GLM|LIC projects about the ways in which social norms may limit economic activity of women, including examples of how women’s labour force activity can be increased by removing restrictions on women’s physical mobility and giving women greater control over their own finances. It also considers some of the important lessons from GLM|LIC projects about the importance of rigorous programme evaluation, especially evaluation that allows long-term follow-up of programme participants.
‘Power and wicked practices’
Authors: Peacey Jason 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter extends the analysis of John Smyth’s ‘practice’ during the Warrens Court dispute, by exploring some of the most dramatic claims about his behaviour. These involved allegations about his willingness to exploit his ‘power’, both locally and nationally, in ways that might be thought to be corrupt, and that were said to extend to intimidation and violence. As throughout the book, the aim is not so much to arbitrate between conflicting claims as to interrogate the plausibility of contemporary allegations, and to reflect upon the degree to which they were given credence at the time. The aim is to suggest that historians have been too quick to dismiss certain claims as mere rhetoric, and to recover the degree of contemporary unease and debate over what constituted acceptable as opposed to ‘corrupt’ behaviour.
Conclusion
Authors: Lautz Terry 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The characters in the book speak to us about the challenges of finding common ground between our two countries. At the present time, the Chinese Communist Party treats the values highlighted in this book—transparent business practices, open scholarly and cultural expression, unfettered rule of law, authentic human rights, and true freedom of the press—as potential threats to its existence. China’s leaders believe the United States opposes China’s rise and stands in the way of its unification with Taiwan. Americans fear the PRC as an economic, military, and geopolitical threat. The deterioration of official relations means that person-to-person ties are more important than ever. As shown in this book, the ultimate success of foreign policy, joint ventures, and scholarly and cultural exchange depends on personal networks, mutual understanding, and trust.
From Shame to Guilt
Authors: van Doorn-Harder Nelly 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the strategies advocates for Muslim women’s rights use to change Indonesian mindsets about child marriage, one of which is “guilting” a girl’s male guardian. Advocates create new frames of reference by recruiting religious, civil, and political leaders who cooperate in reinterpreting religious texts, thus creating new understandings of the rights of women. Evoking various levels of guilt and shame in a girl’s guardian, as well as among close relatives, often involves reference to larger projects of national growth, pride, and well-being. Indirectly, the advocates accuse male actors of obstructing the nation’s future. In the Indonesian landscape of emotions, shame and guilt intersect, and references in Bahasa Indonesia to shame (malu) prevail over guilt (salah). Causing someone to feel shame precedes guilt. Guilt needs shame. Transforming mindsets about fixed ideas and showcasing behavioral changes is a slow, difficult process. As a result, these efforts, while effective in the long run, often proceed without visible results.
The Art of Apology
Authors: Lotter Maria-Sibylla 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Political apologies fulfill important functions that cannot be assumed by other practices in coming to terms with historical injustice. Since an apology implies an admission of guilt, but a political apology rarely fulfills the criteria for a collective attribution of guilt in a moral or legal sense, political apologies by proxy are notoriously ambiguous and open to interpretation. Following Hannah Arendt, I distinguish between the political and the moral meanings and functions of addressing guilt and responsibility. I examine the artistic nature of this practice and the conditions under which the symbolic gesture can be understood as sincere and authentic. Subsequently, I explore some of the risks, misunderstandings, and deceptions that are especially associated with apology by proxy.
Disputes over Germany’s War Guilt
Authors: de Mazza Ethel Matala 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
World War I constitutes a turning point in political and legal dealings with war crimes. Whereas peace treaties, especially since the Thirty Years’ War, used to evade questions of guilt and granted amnesty to the belligerent parties, the treaties sealed in the Paris Peace Conference in 1919–1920 moved away from this long-established custom. Drawing on recent studies in history and political science, this remarkable shift emerges both as result of and motor for the modernization of international relations. World War I served the Allies as precedent to prove their commitment to legal principles and to transform the battlefield of interstate conflicts into a sphere civilized by law. Against this backdrop, the productivity of guilt emerged in two ways. On the one hand, guilt became a category of legal importance and served as a powerful agent of change within the process of building transnational coalitions for new principles of international law. On the other hand, the bold advance of Kurt Eisner, then prime minister of Bavaria, who published secret documents in order to admit the guilt of imperial Germany, should be recognized as an early effort to accept political responsibility to foster new bonds between former enemies.
Introduction
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The Introduction establishes the book’s central research questions, introduces the reader to China’s contradictory approach to state control, and highlights the limitations of the existing literature while also summarizing the book’s core argument. The People’s Republic of China claims that sovereignty is the guiding principle of its foreign policy. State control, which is constitutive of sovereignty, could serve as a “regulative idea” that shapes a China-led international order. Instead of consistently following this regulative idea, however, China’s foreign policy is contradictory and China is sometimes willing to compromise the principle of state control. These contradictions shape how China is able to influence the future international order. China’s foreign policy contradictions are rooted in its domestic vulnerabilities. This means that instead of replacing it with an alternative “China Model,” China’s rise will lead to a fragmentation, pluralization, and particularization of the international order.