bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Legitimacy Types and Procedures
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins the book’s investigation into the third core justification of ratification: the legitimacy justification. This is the claim that ratification should be implemented because it helps create a legitimate constitution. Like many arguments making recourse to legitimacy, references to this justification are often unhelpful because they fail to explain what legitimacy means, how it applies to constitutions, and how procedures affect it. To address this problem, the chapter first argues that in its political application, legitimacy divides into three types—moral, sociological, and legal—, though legal legitimacy collapses into sociological legitimacy when it comes to constitutions. Next, the chapter explains how a procedure can affect the actual or perceived normative status of an outcome in two ways: by having a substantive effect, changing the contents of the outcome such that it meets some independently derived normative criterion. Or by having a procedural effect, serving as the normative criterion itself that the outcome meets by virtue of resulting from the procedure. The chapter ends combining these two distinctions to produce four pathways through which constitution-making procedures might legitimate constitutions: substantive moral legitimation, substantive sociological legitimation, procedural moral legitimation, and procedural sociological legitimation.
Legitimation Device
Authors: Lenowitz Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
This chapter interrogates ratification’s capability of creating a legitimate constitution through the four pathways discussed in chapter 8. This involves testing the most plausible or popular arguments for each. Substantive moral legitimation and substantive sociological legitimation are treated together. Ratification might ensure that the contents of a constitution are or are perceived to be morally legitimate by, to follow Condorcet, filtering out illegitimate constitutions via rejection. Or the fear of a future veto might prevent framers form writing an illegitimate constitution in the first place. Procedural moral legitimation depictions of ratification either invoke constituent power—examined and rejected in previous chapters—or utilize consent, conceptualizing the procedure as the means through which citizens consent to a constitution and pick up obligations to obey. The chapter goes on to consider two examples of procedural sociological legitimation. The first posits that most citizens simply believe that ratification is necessary for a legitimate constitution, while the second casts ratification as a participatory moment in constitution-making and appeals to findings linking participation with beliefs in legitimate outcomes. As with previous attempts to justify ratification, these legitimacy justifications come up short. Among other things, they are theoretically implausible, assume the existence of norms that cannot be guaranteed, rely on empirical findings that are unknown or misinterpreted, and or involve morally problematic manipulation.
Beyond Individual Loci
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractPopulation genetic models become much more complex when two or more loci are considered simultaneously. Random association of the alleles (and genotypes) at two loci is called gametic equilibrium. Linkage is the primary factor that can cause the alleles at two loci to be in nonrandom association within a population. This is called gametic disequilibrium. Many other factors (e.g., genetic drift, selection, hybridization, etc.) can cause even unlinked loci to be in gametic disequilibrium. The interpretation of multilocus genotypes is becoming increasingly important in conservation because of advances in techniques to screen many loci and advances in data analysis. The ability to sequence large sections of chromosomes provides the opportunity to interpret multiple locus genetic data using entirely new conceptual approaches. It is now possible to use sequence data to identify chromosomal segments originating from different ancestral chromosomes.
Mutation
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractMutations are errors in the transmission of genetic information from parents to progeny, and an understanding of mutation assists in interpreting patterns of genetic variation to inform conservation. Mutation is the source of all variation, and can be neutral, beneficial, or detrimental. Mutation rates vary across the nuclear genome, and are generally higher in animal mitochondrial genomes, but much lower in chloroplast and plant mitochondrial genomes. Mutation contributes to variation within populations, population subdivision, and the rate of recovery from bottlenecks. Mutations can be detected using genomic analysis, or through effects on morphological, physiological, or behavioral traits. The amount of standing genetic variation within populations is a balance between the gain of genetic variation from mutations and loss from genetic drift. Natural selection acts to keep mutations that have a detrimental effect on fitness from increasing in frequency, and genetic drift aids the survival of advantageous mutations.
Hybridization
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractHybridization occurs between species or populations, and can arise from either natural or anthropogenic causes. Hybridization is important in natural evolutionary processes, but can be a harmful force reducing species identity and reproductive success. Hybridization can increase fitness through heterosis, or reduce fitness through outbreeding depression. Genetic analysis can effectively identify hybridization and has frequently used diagnostic loci that have different allele frequencies in the parents. Hybrid indices or admixture analyses use proportions of parental ancestry in individuals to identify hybrids. Hybridization contributes to decline and extinction of species through loss of reproductive potential and reduced population growth, or through genetic mixing and loss of genetically distinct populations. Determining whether hybridization is natural or anthropogenic is crucial for conservation. Protection of hybrids is often based on whether they are genetically distinct through long-term isolation or speciation, or whether they represent recent, ongoing, or anthropogenic hybridization.
Invasive Species
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractInvasive species have significant effects on biodiversity. Genetics provides insights important for eradication and control crucial for conservation. Invasive species can be successful despite bottlenecks because of increased genetic diversity following hybridization or multiple introductions, rapid evolutionary change, lack of natural enemies, or absence of constraints from local adaptation. Genetic and genomic analysis can identify cryptic invasive species, sources of introductions, pathways of spread, and patterns of adaptation and invasion. Bottlenecked species will have less diversity in the invasive range than in the native range, and species with multiple introductions will have greater diversity than in the native range. Genetic analysis can identify the mode of reproduction, including clonality, selfing, or parthenogenesis/apomixis. Invasive species detection is a crucial first step in determining prevalence of disease vectors. Metagenomics and metabarcoding can detect parasites and pathogens, and track the origin and transmission of parasites and infectious diseases.
Exploited Populations
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractThere is mounting evidence that human exploitation of wild populations can lead to genetic changes that greatly increase the complexity of managing sustainable populations. Harvest can reduce the effective population size and cause loss of genetic variation by reducing population size directly and by reducing the number of migrants into local populations. Harvest tends to remove phenotypes that are most desirable, which can reduce the frequency of these phenotypes by artificial selection. Even random harvest will select for earlier sexual maturity. Harvest of wild populations can perturb genetic subdivision among populations and reduce overall productivity. The harvest of a group of individuals that is a mixture of several subpopulations can result in the extirpation of one or more subpopulations. Exploitation of wild animals and plants often depends upon augmentation through releases of translocated or captive-raised individuals. Such releases can bring about adverse genetic change to wild populations.
Population Connectivity
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractWe discuss the roles of gene flow, genetic drift, and selection in determining the distribution of genetic variation in complex, real-world landscapes. A metapopulation is a group of populations that experience some degree of gene flow among them. Metapopulation structure can have complex effects on patterns of genetic variation within and among populations. For species that do not naturally occur in discrete habitat patches, a landscape genetics framework is more appropriate. Landscape genetics combines population genetics, landscape ecology, and spatial statistics to understand how environmental heterogeneity affects gene flow and genetic variation. Habitat loss and fragmentation have severed connectivity among populations of many formerly continuous species, isolating populations that then lose genetic variation due to reduced gene flow. Genetic rescue, the supplementation of small inbred populations with immigrants from larger more genetically diverse populations, can be used to increase genetic diversity and reduce extinction probabilities of populations isolated by habitat fragmentation.
Genetic Identification
Authors: Allendorf Fred W. , Funk W. Chris , Aitken Sally N. , Byrne Margaret , Luikart Gordon 
Published: April 2022

AbstractGenetic analysis allows genetic identification of individuals, populations, and species for a range of conservation purposes, including wildlife trafficking, detecting invasive species, determining relatedness in captive breeding, and identifying community composition. Genomics provides increased power for genetic identification at individual, population, and species levels, and is a key tool in wildlife forensics. DNA barcoding using specific markers has become common for species identification, and metabarcoding of environmental or mixed samples through genomics informs community composition, diet analysis, and identifying cryptic, elusive, or rare individuals and species. Genetic identification has become prominent in wildlife forensics providing critical evidence to enable prosecutions and deter illegal wildlife activities. Multilocus genotyping allows determination of parentage and relatedness, population assignment, and origin of samples. Determination of the relatedness or parentage of individuals provides information on identification of dispersal and migration patterns, and facilitates management of captive breeding populations.
The problematic side of precision medicine
Authors: Boniolo Giovanni 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
‘Molecular medicine’, ‘precision medicine’, and ‘personalized medicine’. Do these expressions indicate something different? After pragmatically solving this question and stating the meaning of ‘precision medicine’, this chapter offers an overview of some of the main issues raised by this approach to biomedical research and clinical practice. In particular, it will be focused on data deluge, biomarker validation, new clinical trials, patient-in-waiting and too much medicine, unknown genotypes and ethnic discrimination, cost of new treatments, global injustice, and patients’ lack of awareness of the proper meaning of the statistical and probabilistic results. This does not imply that we should have a dismissive or a suspicious approach to precision medicine. This our medicine: the medicine of our age. It is a medicine with great potential for improving our quality of life and the quality of life of our lineages. Yet, we have to work on it if we wish to fully realize its promises. This means also working from a philosophical point of view, both offering ethical analyses and methodological suggestions whenever required, and being willing to help in the training of the new generations of clinicians.
The precision paradox
Authors: Vogt Henrik 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Precision medicine—or personalized medicine—promises greater precision and certainty in medicine. This paper highlights a ‘precision paradox’: that it may, in important ways, also create more uncertainty and imprecision. First, the aim of precision medicine is to tailor treatment to the individual. However, when the number of individuals that are seen to have a specific health problem moves towards one (n = 1), it becomes hard to employ randomized control trials or other statistically based methods. This creates uncertainty about what kind of rationality and evidence will be seen as validating what works in medicine. Just as biomedicine aims to turn personalization into science, the art of medicine resurfaces. Second, one strategy in precision medicine is to make models more complex in order to make them more accurate and thus certain. However, there is a fundamental tension between complexity and precision. Beyond a certain threshold, as more variables are included, models paradoxically become less precise. Third, in the preventive vision of precision medicine, a massive, new form of screening is proposed where DNA is sequenced, and multiple variables of human health are monitored through life. However, as each body is rendered ‘transparent’ by multiple screening technologies, there is a risk of labelling each person with multiple health problems. Contrary to its promise of medicine ‘at the right time in the right person’, precision medicine, as proposed, will paradoxically be present ‘all the time’ in ‘everybody’.
Personalized medicine and genetic newborn screening
Authors: Brusa Margherita , Dickenson Donna 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Given the established success of newborn screening programmes around the world, promoters of personalized medicine envision the possibility of extending genetic analysis to bloodspots routinely collected for newborn screening. Since most of the diseases already screened for are genetic, diagnosis would be more precise. Moreover, data thus collected would merge into the creation of a repository of genetic information accessible in case of future health-related needs. The appeal of such a plan poses a series of ethical challenges related to the peculiar nature of genetic information, the involvement of babies, and the blurred boundaries of such an enterprise that extends beyond prevention, to clinical practice and research. After reviewing the key elements of the practice of newborn screening, and the increased use of genetic testing of babies, the paper analyses UK policies as a test case, considering the ethical implications of consent, solidarity and the conflict of interests involved. It is demonstrated that some forms of ‘genetic expansion’ of newborn screening amount to genetic research on minors and, consequently, must follow well-established protocols. Such screening may also violate the established legal principle that parental consent is based on the child’s best interests. Other forms of accumulation of data cannot even account for research, thus lacking scientific justification. Whether or not whole-genome screening of babies may be a promising scientific pathway, it should not threaten clinical standards of childcare in the guise of expanding a well-established public health initiative for children, without proper and agreed justification.
The revolution of personalized medicine is already upon us in rare diseases
Authors: Austin Christopher P. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Personalized medicine remains an aspirational future state for the majority of diseases, but is the present state for rare diseases. As a result, the principles, practices, potential, and perils of personalized medicine are currently being realized in rare disease medicine, and we can look through the lens of rare disease at present and see the future for common disease personalized medicine. Personalized medicine endeavours to use in-depth genetic and environmental data to define a genotype–phenotype pairing that is based in definable physiological dysfunction and predicts treatment with a high likelihood of positive response. Rare diseases are defined and managed in just this way today. The experience of rare diseases suggests both exhilarating medical promise, and sobering operational and ethical realities, for personalized medicine of common diseases. Rare disease/personalized medicine can be just as effective as anticipated. But current medical systems, drug development, treatment, and payment paradigms are not well-suited to personalized medicine, and all will require adaptations for its promise to be realized.
Personalized medicine and disorders of consciousness
Authors: Fins Joseph J. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
When scholars write about personalized medicine, most refer to the interpretation of molecular biomarkers for the development of therapeutics tailored to an individual’s disease. By moving beyond pathological phenotypes to better characterize disease and guide treatment, next-generation personalized medicine moves more deeply into the biology of the malady to refine diagnostics at a genotypic, or molecular level. By understanding the unique biology of an individual’s disease, in most cases a malignancy, personalized therapies can be directed against specific biological targets. This focus maximizes therapeutic effect, decreases the variance of therapeutic response through more accurate diagnostic classification, and minimizes side-effects. This chapter suggests another domain where the metaphor of personalized medicine is apt and considers its application to the emerging diagnostics, therapeutics, and neuroethics informing the care of patients with disorders of consciousness. These conditions comprise a range of brain states that span coma, the vegetative, and minimally conscious states. Each of these states has behavioural and biological characteristics that warrant review and consideration for our discussion of personalized medicine. As in other domains of personalized medicine, patients presenting similarly at the bedside may have meaningful differences in their underlying neural circuitry. These distinctions, or the discordance between observed phenomenology and unobserved neurobiology, may have normative implications for the diagnosis and treatment of these conditions.
Thoughtful genomics
Authors: Reardon Jenny 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Many people hope for a future in which genomics and its offspring (i.e. personalized medicine) achieve their promises: new cures and longer and better lives for all. However, for that to come to pass, this chapter argues that the field must support meaningful, thoughtful speech about that which it does. It provides an account of the history of genomics that brings to light the choices made by architects of genomics to set to one side important questions about the meaning of their endeavours. For decades the field focused on creating data and tools, a project they understood as separate from forging knowledge and meaning. As a result, genomics became susceptible to inadvertently and unreflectively fostering racial and capitalist logics that exclude many from its benefits. Drawing upon the work of Hannah Arendt, the chapter presents a model of thoughtfulness capable of fostering a genomics more able to respond to the needs and cares of a more diverse range of lives. It argues that cultivating this kind of response-able, thoughtful genomics should be the field’s next milestone.
Genetics, genetic profiles, and Jewish law
Authors: Weissinger Yehoshua , Barilan Yechiel Michael 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Because Jewish law is a positive legal system, it has tended to tolerate actions not specifically prohibited by pre-modern laws, such as genetic technology. Jewish law and culture even embrace medical technologies. But Jewish ethics and its interaction with Jewish law follow naturalistic reasoning. Jewish morality warns against abuse of the positive legal system by acts and intentions that are immoral but technically licit. Jewish morality is censorious with attempts to predict personal future; Jewish law is quite restrictive in relation to the dissemination of personal information, even when truthful. The chapter shows how Judaism’s treatment of personal information might bear on the evolving ethics and law of information technologies on private and genetic data.
Two and a half approaches to two-dimensional wave-packet interferometry
Authors: Cina Jeffrey A. 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
Fluorescence-detected wave-packet interferometry (WPI or whoopee) and four-wave-mixing approaches to optically phase-coherent two-dimensional electronic spectroscopy are analyzed and compared. It is noted that the former (whoopee) method does not depend on wave-vector matching within a macroscopic sample and can be applied to single-chromophore systems. A version of four-wave mixing using spectral interferometry is outlined. The ranges of interpulse delay within which each of several contributing wave-packet overlaps may take nonzero values are identified. Time-versus-time WPI interferograms for a model Hamiltonian are interpreted by using quasi-classical phase-space diagrams to identify conditions for non-negligible overlap between contributing multi-pulse nuclear wave packets. The effects of inhomogeneous broadening and optical dephasing are explored by including an additional, sluggish vibrational mode.
Does Homeownership Reduce Wealth Disparities for Low-Income and Minority Households?
Authors: Eldemire Ashleigh , Luchtenberg Kimberly F , Wynter Matthew M 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
We use the U.S. Department of Housing and Urban Development’s Housing Choice Voucher program as a setting to evaluate the interaction of homeownership and race on the wealth accumulation of low-income households. Using a within-treatment difference-in-differences framework, we establish that low-income households that receive assistance in owning a home experience increased wealth accumulation relative to their tenure as renters. These wealth gains are not present among low-income minority households. Our findings provide evidence that homeownership is a driver of wealth formation for low-income households and that homeownership does not inherently reduce racial disparities in wealth. (JEL G51, J15, R21).
Social Change through Financial Innovation: Evidence from Donor-Advised Funds
Authors: Grennan Jillian 
Published: April 2022

Abstract
I draw on new data to examine how donor-advised funds (DAFs), a fast-growing philanthropic option, relate to social progress. DAFs are distinguished by flexibility such as their ability to transform complex assets and separate the timing of tax breaks from giving decisions. While DAFs are often classified by their sponsor type, I introduce a new classification scheme that reflects their economic purpose, including the users targeted, style and features offered, and focus of grant making. This classification reveals that growth is fastest among DAFs that offer fintech tools, liquidity transformation, and grant making focused on diversity, equity, and inclusion. Conditional correlations show that DAFs with an innovative style of service distribute more grants to charities serving areas with high inequality, in times of greatest financial need, and with more efficient operations. (JEL D64, K34, L31, G23, J15, O35)