bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Non-Profit Project Owners
Authors: Gaunt Sam , Longo Andrea 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the rising phenomenon of crowdfunding for public interest litigation as a distinct category of donation-based crowdfunding, falling outside of the scope of the Crowdfunding Regulation. The rise in the use of crowdfunding for public interest litigation cases results from the fact that such cases are undeniably expensive. Legal costs are high, running into the hundreds of thousands of euros depending on numerous factors such as, inter alia, the nature of the legal question(s) discussed, the number of parties and of counsels involved, and the number of appeals. As a result, it appears that crowdfunding is progressively emerging as a means to ensure access to justice for non-private interest claims. The chapter then considers the challenges and opportunities of crowdfunded public interest litigation.
Investor Protection on Crowdfunding Platforms
Authors: Lee Joseph 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the protection of investors on crowdfunding platforms under the Crowdfunding Regulation. It focuses on how investor protection can contribute to the objectives of crowdfunding and, in particular, how the provisions of the Crowdfunding Regulation serve this purpose. The chapter begins by discussing the investor-focused objectives of crowdfunding, and the role that technology can play in realising these objectives. It then considers the meaning of investor protection within the scope of the Crowdfunding Regulation, and identifies areas where the current regime might be extended in the future. The chapter also examines the categorisation of investors and the relevance thereof for the investor protection, before looking at the major provisions pertinent to investor protection, including the information to be provided to clients, default rate disclosure, the entry knowledge test and the simulation of ability to bear loss, the pre-contractual reflection period, and the key investment information sheet.
Secondary Trading of Crowdfunding Investments
Authors: Hakvoort Anne 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the introduction by the Crowdfunding Regulation of the possibility for investors to advertise on a bulletin board their interest in buying or selling loans, transferable securities, or other instruments. It describes the obligations of the crowdfunding service providers when allowing the advertisement of interests on such a bulletin board. Moreover, the chapter assesses the interlinkage with the obligations under MiFID II in respect of internal matching systems which execute client orders on a multilateral basis. It also looks into the qualification of a crowdfunding investment as transferable security or loan and the consequences thereof for secondary trading. The chapter focuses on the secondary trading option that can be facilitated by a crowdfunding service provider under the Crowdfunding Regulation.
History, Sources, and Nature of International Investment Law
Authors: Dolzer Rudolf 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the history, sources, and nature of international investment law. Foreign investment law consists of general international law, of standards more specific to international economic law, and of distinct rules peculiar to the protection of investment. In addition, the law of the host State plays an important role. Depending upon the circumstances of an individual case, the interplay between relevant domestic rules of the host State and applicable rules of international law may become central to the analysis of a case. The chapter then surveys the most important sources of international investment law, including the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention); bilateral investment treaties (BITs); sectoral and regional treaties; customary international law; general principles of law; unilateral statements; and case law. It also highlights certain aspects that are relevant for the nature of current international investment law, including trade law; the balancing of duties and benefits in investment treaties; and good governance.
Investment
Authors: Dolzer Rudolf 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter differentiates between direct and indirect investments. In practice, two conceptual approaches have been developed to give legal meaning to the term ‘investment’. The first approach is to offer specific elaborate definitions in bilateral and multilateral treaties, usually at the beginning of the operative part. The second approach, adopted for example in the Convention on the Settlement of Investment Disputes between States and Nationals of Other States (ICSID Convention), does not provide for a definition of ‘investment’ but leaves the interpretation and application of this term to the practice of States and tribunals. Cases involving ICSID arbitration typically require two separate examinations of the existence of an ‘investment’: one under the instrument providing for consent to arbitration (BIT, national law, contract), the other under Article 25 of the ICSID Convention. This is often referred to as the double keyhole approach or double-barrelled test. The chapter then outlines the types of investments, including tangible assets, contract rights, shareholding, financial instruments, intellectual property rights, and arbitral awards. It also considers the concept of the unity of the investment. Only foreign investments are protected by international investment law. In some cases, investment tribunals denied protection because the investment or the claimant's conduct in making it was illegal either under domestic law or under international legal rules or principles.
Settling Investment Disputes
Authors: Dolzer Rudolf 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the settlement of investment disputes. Under traditional international law, investors did not have direct access to international remedies to pursue claims against foreign States for violations of their rights. Instead, they depended on diplomatic protection by their home States. However, the gaps left by the traditional methods of dispute settlement (diplomatic protection and action in domestic courts) has led to the idea of offering investors direct access to effective international procedures, especially arbitration. Arbitration between a host State and a foreign investor may take place in the framework of a variety of institutions or rules. If arbitration is not supported by a particular arbitration institution, it is referred to as ad hoc arbitration. Ad hoc arbitration requires an arbitration agreement that regulates a number of issues. These include selection of arbitrators, applicable law and a large number of procedural questions. A number of institutions, like the United Nations Commission on International Trade Law (UNCITRAL), have developed standard rules that may be incorporated into the parties' agreement. The chapter then looks at the creation of the International Centre for Settlement of Investment Disputes (ICSID). It also details the procedures for investment arbitration.
Contracts for the Sale of Goods
Authors: Gabriel Henry Deeb 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This book delivers detailed analysis and in-depth comparison of the substantive law for the sale of goods in domestic and international transactions. It provides comparative analysis of three major sources of sales law: The United Nations Convention on Contracts for the Sale of Goods, the UNIDROIT Principles of International Commercial Contracts (PICC), and Article Two: Sales of the Uniform Commercial Code. Practitioners, academics, and anyone involved in the sale or purchase of goods in the international market will need this thorough analysis of both the text of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (CISG) and the cases that have addressed and interpreted the CISG. The new edition examines the number of American cases on the CISG decided since the last edition, and the several hundred major non-American CISG cases, concentrating on the development of specific points of law that have become important and contentious areas. It continues to provide a complete discussion of the PICC including the latest provisions on set-off, assignment, and limitation periods, and timely coverage of the new supplementary model clauses for use with the Principles. The book compares and analyses the PICC, the CISG and the Uniform Commercial Code in a detailed way. It explores instances when one may be more applicable than the other and enables further understanding of all three instruments and the options available under international and domestic US law.
Detailed Comparison of the Convention, the Unidroit Principles, and Article 2 of the U.C.C.
Authors: Gabriel Henry Deeb 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a detailed comparison of the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Convention), the UNIDROIT Principles on International Commercial Contracts (Principles), and Article 2 of the Uniform Commercial Code (Code). Following the structure of the Convention, this chapter is divided into four parts: sphere of application and general provisions; formation of the contract; sale of goods; and final provisions.
Rules in the Unidroit Principles Not Covered in the Convention
Authors: Gabriel Henry Deeb 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses some provisions in the UNIDROIT Principles on International Commercial Contracts (Principles) which are not covered in the United Nations Convention on Contracts for the International Sale of Goods (Convention). Not contained in the Convention, the Principles set out specific rules on set-off rights, limitation periods, assignment of rights and delegation of duties, third party beneficiary rights, conditions, illegality, and plurality of parties.
Shipping Terms and their Usage
Authors: Gabriel Henry Deeb 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the shipping and delivery terms known as Incoterms, which are published by the International Chamber of Commerce. Shipping terms facilitate international commercial transactions by eliminating some of the barriers caused by distance, language, and local business customs. The principal areas that are governed by the Incoterms are risk of loss, delivery obligations, export licenses, custom clearance, and insurance. The Incoterms are grouped into four categories based on the shipper’s obligations. The “E”-term provides for the least amount of obligation placed on the shipper. Accordingly, the “F”-terms, the “C”-terms, and ultimately the “D”-terms increase the obligations placed on the shipper. The FAS (Free Alongside Ship), FOB (Free On Board), CFR (Cost and Freight), and CIF (Cost, Insurance, and Freight) terms are used for sea and inland waterway transport, while the other terms are appropriate for any mode or modes of transport.
Arms Control and Disarmament Law
Authors: Casey-Maslen Stuart 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Arms control and disarmament are key elements in promoting international peace and security. In recent decades, the scope of disarmament law has broadened from a traditional focus on weapons of mass destruction to encompass conventional weapons. This new volume provides a concise and objective appraisal of international arms control and disarmament law. Across seven concise chapters, the book traces the history of arms control and disarmament in the modern era, addressing the issues surrounding biological and chemical weapons, the non-proliferation of nuclear weapons, and conventional weapon and arms transfer regimes. It concludes by considering how, in order to remain relevant, disarmament and arms control will need to adapt to rapidly evolving technologies that defy traditional means of verification and control. The book is an accessible, go-to source for practising international lawyers, judges and arbitrators, government and military officers, scholars, teachers, and students.
Introduction
Authors: Casey-Maslen Stuart 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides background and context to the study of arms control and disarmament and first offers definitions of certain fundamental terms, such as arms and weapons, weapons of mass destruction, conventional weapons, disarmament, arms control, and non-proliferation. It summarizes the evolution of arms control and disarmament over the past 150 years into the modern era. It also discusses the role of multilateral institutions in disarmament and arms control. The chapter gives a concise and objective appraisal of arms control and disarmament, with a primary focus on international law, but also with reference to key mechanisms and institutions. It confirms why arms control and disarmament are key contributors to international peace and security.
Key Components of Arms Control and Disarmament
Authors: Casey-Maslen Stuart 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter defines and describes the different components within arms control and disarmament law treaties, specifically development and testing, production, stockpiling, transfer, and use. It analyses verification and other confidence-building measures that seek to monitor and promote implementation of agreed commitments while assuring other States that those commitments are being respected. It also discusses weapons development, which includes the testing of prototypes, and test-detonation of nuclear weapons and other nuclear explosive devices that are addressed in dedicated provisions and treaties. The chapter explains production as one form of acquisition of armaments and the means by which a State may come to possess or control a weapon. It refers to stockpile destruction and other treaties that allow a small number of prohibited weapons to be retained in training and testing of environmental remediation processes.
Nuclear Weapons and Nuclear Weapon Regimes
Authors: Casey-Maslen Stuart 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter clarifies the content and operation of the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which works to ensure the peaceful use of nuclear energy. It examines the content and status of the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (JCPOA), better known as the Iran Nuclear Deal, including the concomitant situation in Iran. It also outlines the role of the United Nations (UN) Security Council with respect to the Democratic People’s Republic of Korea (North Korea). The chapter talks about the operation of the Missile Technology Control Regime (MCTR), which was initiated by like-minded countries in order to address the increasing proliferation of nuclear weapons. It covers the development and use of nuclear weapons and mentions new technologies under development for their delivery.
Toddler–mother attachment moderates adolescents’ behavioral and neural evaluation of trustworthiness
Authors: Li Xiaomei , Jorgensen Nathan A , McElwain Nancy L , Telzer Eva H 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This longitudinal study examined the prospective association between toddler–mother attachment to adolescents’ (n = 52; 34 boys; Mage = 13.22 years; 90% White) behavioral and neural responses during the evaluation of trustworthiness from unfamiliar, emotionally neutral faces. At 33 months, toddler–mother attachment status (secure vs insecure classification) was assessed using a modified Strange Situation procedure. Results revealed that attachment moderated the processing of trustworthiness facial cues. As faces became less trustworthy, adolescents with a secure (vs insecure) attachment history rated the faces as correspondingly less trustworthy and showed increasing (vs overall blunted) activation in brain regions involved in trustworthiness perception (i.e. bilateral amygdala, bilateral fusiform, right anterior insula and right posterior superior temporal sulcus). Findings suggest that a secure compared with insecure child–mother attachment in toddlerhood may be associated with greater capacity for, or openness to, processing potentially negative social information at both the behavioral and neural levels during adolescence.
Intra-host analysis of hepaciviral glycoprotein evolution reveals signatures associated with viral persistence and clearance
Authors: Gömer André , Brown Richard J P , Pfaender Stephanie , Deterding Katja , Reuter Gábor , Orton Richard , Seitz Stefan , Bock C- Thomas , Cavalleri Jessika M V , Pietschmann Thomas , Wedemeyer Heiner , Steinmann Eike , Todt Daniel 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Even 30 years after the discovery of the hepatitis C virus (HCV) in humans there is still no vaccine available. Reasons for this include the high mutation rate of HCV, which allows the virus to escape immune recognition and the absence of an immunocompetent animal model for vaccine development. Phylogenetically distinct hepaciviruses (genus Hepacivirus, family Flaviviridae) have been isolated from diverse species, each with a narrow host range: the equine hepacivirus (EqHV) is the closest known relative of HCV. In this study, we used amplicon-based deep-sequencing to investigate the viral intra-host population composition of the genomic regions encoding the surface glycoproteins E1 and E2. Patterns of E1E2 substitutional evolution were compared in longitudinally sampled EqHV-positive sera of naturally and experimentally infected horses and HCV-positive patients. Intra-host virus diversity was higher in chronically than in acutely infected horses, a pattern which was similar in the HCV-infected patients. However, overall glycoprotein variability was higher in HCV compared to EqHV. Additionally, selection pressure in HCV populations was higher, especially within the N-terminal region of E2, corresponding to the hypervariable region 1 (HVR1) in HCV. An alignment of glycoprotein sequences from diverse hepaciviruses identified the HVR1 as a unique characteristic of HCV: hepaciviruses from non-human species lack this region. Together, these data indicate that EqHV infection of horses could represent a powerful surrogate animal model to gain insights into hepaciviral evolution and HCVs HVR1-mediated immune evasion strategy.
Spatial Variability and Behavior of Background Radon Concentrations in Ambient Air in the San Mateo Basin of the Grants Mineral Belt
Authors: Rood Arthur S. , Whicker Randy 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
A modeling study and analysis of measurement data was conducted in the San Mateo basin near the former Homestake Mining Company of California’s mill site located north of Milan, NM, to understand the spatial variability of background radon and identify a suitable background station. Recent guidance from the US Nuclear Regulatory commission clarifies the requirement that dose assessments of existing facilities be based on environmental measurements at the facility’s unrestricted boundary instead of predictive modeling. Background is important because it is subtracted from radon measured at the boundary for dose calculations. The current background station lies on the slopes above the wash floor. The mill site contains two tailing piles with a total area of 1.03 km2 that in 2019 emitted 1,750 mBq m−2 s−1 from the larger of the piles and 320 mBq m−2 s−1 from the smaller pile. Atmospheric transport modeling was conducted to facilitate understanding of the movement of radon in the San Mateo wash bottom and surrounding hillsides. The model was validated using emission and measurement data from the nearby Ambrosia Lake mining region. The modeling, in combination with current measurements and previous studies, indicated the wash floor has characteristically higher radon concentrations than the slopes above the wash. This phenomenon was attributed to (1) higher radon soil flux in the alluvial sediments that make up the wash floor, (2) nocturnal drainage flow that results in a pooling of radon on the wash floor, and (3) inversion conditions that trap radon in a shallow air mass on the wash floor during late evening and early morning hours. Using a regression of predicted and observed radon concentrations, a background concentration of 25.7 Bq m−3 was derived that was close to that measured at background stations about 4 km north of the tailings pile and on the San Mateo wash floor.
Care Management Intervention to Address Determinants of Health for Individuals With Multiple Behavioral Health Readmission
Authors: Hutchison Shari L. , Herschell Amy D. , Edwards Jamie F. , Karpov Irina , Wasilchak Deborah S. , Hurford Matthew O. 
Published: January 2022

Purpose of Study:
To examine the effectiveness of a care management intervention to decrease readmissions and to better understand clinical and social determinants associated with readmission.

Primary Practice Setting:
Inpatient mental health (MH) and substance use disorder (SUD) facilities, nonhospital SUD withdrawal management and rehabilitation facilities.

Methodology and Sample:
The authors identified 3,950 Medicaid-enrolled individuals who received the intervention from licensed clinical staff of a behavioral health managed care organization; 2,182 individuals were eligible but did not receive the intervention, for treatment as usual (TAU). We used logistic regression to examine factors associated with readmission. Determinants of readmission were summarized through descriptive tests.

Results:
The intervention was associated with lower readmissions to SUD facilities compared with TAU (6.0% vs. 8.6%, p = .0002) and better follow-up to aftercare. Controlling for clinical differences between groups, regression results found increased odds of readmission for male gender (odds ratio [OR]: 1.33; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16–1.52, p < .0001) and dual MH and SUD diagnoses (OR: 1.52; CI: 1.29–1.79, p < .0001). Prior inpatient and case management services were also associated with increased odds for readmission. In the regression model, the intervention was not associated with decreased odds for readmission. Individuals with readmission (n = 796) were more likely to report being prescribed psychotropic medication and having housing difficulties and less likely to report having a recovery plan than those without readmission.

Implications for Case Management Practice:
Characteristics of Medicaid populations with hospitalization may contribute to readmission, which may be mitigated through care management intervention.