bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Courts and Judicial Manipulation
Authors: Helmke Gretchen 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyses judicial manipulation in Latin America, Judicial manipulation is antithetical to judicial independence, limited government, and the rule of law. It either ensures that the court mirrors the preferences of the incumbent government, or makes it next to impossible for judges who do not to express their sincere views. In such an environment, checks and balances are compromised and horizontal of accountability fails. Much attention has been focused on how Latin American judges respond to constraints on their independence, far less is understood about the calculus of manipulation itself. Not all leaders in Latin America seek to control the judiciary. Courts have been routinely reshuffled in places like Argentina, Venezuela, Peru, and Bolivia, but have been allowed to remain relatively independent in Uruguay, Costa Rica, and Brazil. Such variation demands better description and better explanation.
Proportionality
Authors: Clérico Laura 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Proportionality is a technique of rights adjudication. As such, it relates to the question of whether a limitation of a right is justified. This chapter identifies different variations of the test of proportionality. It distinguishes between the meanings of proportionality from three different perspectives: the analytical, the doctrinal, and the institutional. The analytical one is concerned with the systematic and conceptual elucidation of the justification of rights restrictions. The doctrinal perspective relates to a descriptive activity and a normative one. The institutional perspective analyses the proportionality test in the frame of the tension between majoritarian democracies and courts. Different levels of judicial review are proposed depending on the type of right, the deliberative process played in the parliament, the consideration of the rights of the affected persons in the deliberation, the intensity of the restriction of the right, and so on. Therefore, different modes of proportionality arise in the field of rights review in each State of Latin America.
Property and Land
Authors: Saffon Maria Paula 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins by challenging the common notion that property rights consist only or mainly in individual private property rights. Instead, it argues that there exists a plurality of land rights that can coexist with individual private property rights. It further argues that non-individual non-private property rights tend to be disproportionately in the hands of the poor, which is a powerful reason for their legal protection. Such protection has been afforded by Latin American legal regimes at different points in time. Offering a historical account of land property rights in Latin America, it argues that, with the exception of current constitutions, collective and public land rights have tended to be recognized and protected mainly under non-liberal legal systems that foresee plural modalities of property. Finally, the chapter analyses current constitutions as engendering an odd combination of plural modalities of property rights and the promotion of neoliberalism and natural resources exploitation.
Due Process
Authors: Oquendo Ángel R. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
The principle of due process, together with its strict ban on legally arbitrary deprivations of life, liberty, or property, has evolved into a central component of the constitutional and public order everywhere in Latin America. It travelled from the United States southward, starting in the nineteenth century, and eventually reached every corner of this vast southern territory. This chapter examines the right to a hearing in Mexico, and to an ample defence and cross-examination in Brazil. It analyses how these entitlements play out concretely by focusing on a prominent and possibly decisive lawsuit. This entire chapter will employ common-law-style names to refer to the opinion produced by the highest local tribunal in each instance: (1) Melgar Castillejos v President; and (2) Villarinho v Brazilian Union of Composers.
Substantive Equality in Law and Reality
Authors: Ferraz Octávio Luiz Motta 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
Latin America is renowned for being the most economically unequal region of the world. It is also a region where a large (perhaps the largest) number of constitutions feature so-called substantive egalitarian clauses, i.e. constitutional norms that proclaim principles or recognize rights that, if taken seriously and implemented effectively, should reduce the large disparities of income and well-being that characterize it. This chapter begins by providing an overview of the substantive egalitarian constitutional clauses currently in force in Latin America. It focuses on clauses that recognize specific rights, often called economic and social rights. It then considers some of the main factors that the literature discusses as obstacles for those clauses to take root and change reality. Finally, it presents some concluding remarks and speculates on the future of transformative constitutionalism in Latin America.
Race Discrimination
Authors: Hernández Tanya Katerí 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses race discrimination in Latin America. Most countries in the region have traditionally relied upon broadly worded constitutional equality provisions as the confirmation that racial inequality has been adequately addressed. However, constitutional equality provisions are rarely applied to the context of racial discrimination. In fact, there is a region-wide phenomenon of denying the existence of racial discrimination because of the assertion that ‘the serious incidence of racism and racial discrimination’ more accurately exists in the United States. Despite evidence that racial discrimination permeates every realm in the region including social, political, education, labour, culture, and public health sectors, government responses have downplayed its significance as inconsequential compared to the legal violence of the U.S. context.
Abortion
Authors: Ramón Michel Agustina 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter is about abortion law in Latin America. Latin America abortion law is often categorized as seriously restricted. And this is so, partially. Abortion is criminalized if it does not fit in the legal indications (e.g. health risk, rape) contemplated. However, the region is in a process of examining some of their laws and implementation. The chapter argues that we should go beyond the more classic discussion in comparative constitutional law and engage in constitutional discussions in which we check thoroughly the persistent criminalization of abortion in most of the world, and the (health) regulations on abortion that put doctors, not women, at the centre and hinder access to safe abortion. If the law recognizes an abortion right to women, thus, it needs to deliver regulations that fit that purpose. The second part of the chapter analyses these regulations, as they burden women’s rights and overstep constitutional governmental discretion to regulate this practice.
Dionysius the Areopagite in Syriac
Authors: Fiori Emiliano 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This essay presents the first Syriac translation of the Dionysian corpus, which was made in the early sixth century by Sergius, the priest and physician-in-chief of the city of Resh‘ayna. This translation is crucial in many respects: the only manuscript that transmits it (Sinai Saint Catherine Syr. 52) is the earliest witness to the Areopagitic writings overall, and the translation itself attests to a textual stage of the corpus that antedates John of Scythopolis’ scholia. After an outline of Sergius’ life and ecclesiastical and intellectual context, the chapter describes the manuscript tradition of the translation. The next section is devoted to a presentation of Sergius’ linguistic and stylistic idiosyncrasies: his version is an ideal example of the Syriac translation style of the sixth century, which is both reader-oriented and faithful to the original. Particular attention is also devoted to the question of whether Sergius’ version reveals an original ‘Origenist’ character of the Dionysian writings, which would have allegedly been censored by John of Scythopolis. An accurate investigation of Sergius’ vocabulary and wording choices rather seems to stress that Dionysius’ works had been anti-Origenist from the outset.
Maximus the Confessor and the Reception of Dionysius the Areopagite
Authors: Constas Maximos 
Published: March 2022

AbstractThis essay argues that Maximus’ reception of the Dionysian tradition was governed largely by the struggle against Origenism, illustrated above all in Dionysius himself by the axial place of the hierarchies in the cycle of remaining, procession, and return. Maximus goes well beyond his thirty explicit citations from the corpus in his absorption of its thought and vocabulary; on the other hand, his long discussion of the sufferings of the incarnate Christ in his scholia on the corpus betokens a radical shift of emphasis. His world is a dynamic continuum of Logos, logoi and beings, and the five divisions of being in Ambiguum 41 supersede the angelic hierarchies of Dionysius in his own system. And just as he transposes the Neoplatonic cycle of procession and return into a Christological key, so he makes apophatic theology central to the self-revelation of the logos in the incarnation.
Dionysius and John of Damascus
Authors: Edwards Mark , Pallis Dimitrios 
Published: March 2022

AbstractThis essay considers John Damascene’s use of Dionysius under the four headings of negative theology, Christology, angelology, and the defence of icons. Under the first heading Dionysius represents orthodoxy, yet Damascene tends to cite him only when his authority can be buttressed by that of accredited saints such as Gregory Nazianzen, and feels obliged to offer detailed glosses on propositions which Dionysius had been content to make in a generic form. The Christology of Dionysius was open to a miaphysitic (or, as Damascene would say, monophysitic) interpretation, and was therefore even more need of interpretation through the writings of others. In Damascene’s discussion of the angelic hierarchy, on the other hand, Dionysius is an authority even where Nazianzen is silent. Similarly, when vindicating the use of holy images Damascene turns to Dionysius for the suffrage of antiquity, which he cannot produce so readily from his usual authorities.
Theodore the Studite and Dionysius
Authors: Arabatzis George 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
As a Byzantine intellectual, Theodore the Studite was marked by his polemic against the iconoclasts, the emperor, and the ecclesiastical authority of Patriarch Nicephore. He was against the iconoclasts, since he was an iconophile and one of the master thinkers of the iconophile theory. He opposed the emperor, since he was a strong defender of the autonomy of the Church against the state and the crown. He challenged the ecclesiastical authority of Patriarch Nicephore, although the latter was also an important thinker and supporter of the iconophile party. Establishing a direct relationship between iconophile thinking, which is present in Theodore’s work, and Dionysius is not undemanding. Theodore’s refutation of the iconoclasm shows that he was aware of the ambiguous impact of the Dionysian thought regarding the images of the holy while the Studite monks acknowledged the instrumental value of the Dionysian text.
Gregory Palamas and Dionysius
Authors: Theodor Tollefsen Torstein 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This essay presents the Byzantine thinker St Gregory Palamas, who was influenced by Dionysian writings in formulating his own theology. The essay investigates the influence of Dionysius on Palamas and compares aspects of both thinkers with relevant doctrines in pagan Neoplatonism. Palamas is famous for defending a particular kind of spirituality known as hesychasm, where the goal of the mystic is to achieve stillness (hesychia) and experience the divinity as transforming light. In this regard, the theology of Dionysius the Areopagite became of great importance. Palamas found in Dionysius support for his distinction between God’s essence and activities, a distinction that Palamas found necessary in order to explain how humans could participate in God without being absorbed in the divine essence. Dionysius’ writings also served Palamas well in his development of a doctrine of mystical experience.
Hugo Koch and Josef Stiglmayr on Dionysius and Proclus
Authors: Schäfer Christian 
Published: March 2022

AbstractIn 1895, two detailed philological studies by Hugo Koch and Josef Stiglmayr showed that the doctrine of evil found in the treatise On the Divine Names was dependent on Proclus’ theory of the subsistence of evils. As a result, the traditional attribution of the treatise to Dionysius, the Areopagite from the first century ad, became untenable: The author must have been a Christian Neoplatonist from the times of Proclus or shortly after. The discovery of Dionysius’ dependency on Proclus marks a watershed moment in Dionysius scholarship. This essay describes and evaluates the contribution of Koch and Stiglmayr to modern Dionysius studies.
Dionysius and the Lutheran Tradition
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes 
Published: March 2022

AbstractThis essay presents the largely untold story of the reception of Dionysius in Lutheran thought after Luther himself. This reception was relatively negative with regard to Luther’s early followers Johann Gerhard and Georg Calixtus, although the latter does not think the pseudonymity entirely destroys the value of the mystical writings. Johann Arndt is more sympathetic, deriving a form of natural theology from Dionysius, while Philipp Spener echoes Luther in setting Dionysius against the scholasticism of the papal era. Gottfried Arnold argues from the profundity of the corpus to its antiquity, whereas Anders Nygren, emboldened by the researches of Koch and Stiglmayr, makes Dionysius a showpiece of egocentric and anthropocentric Platonism.
Christian Apophaticism before Dionysius
Authors: Edwards Mark 
Published: March 2022

AbstractThe first section of this essay surveys the biblical roots of apophaticism, verifying Philo’s claim to be one of the first precursors of Dionysius. The second section offers examples of Gnostic speculation which pre-empted the Neoplatonists in denying to the first principle not only the properties of corporeal entities but the negations of those properties. By contrast, the apologists and theologians surveyed in the third section seldom arrive at this negation of negation, with the exception of Clement, a conscious successor to Philo. The fourth section argues that the Cappadocian ascription to God of an essence superior to all predication is in part a polemical construct against the opponents whom they styled ‘Arian’, their discourse being therefore limited to the metaphysical description of God. The conclusion points out that the great originality of Dionysius lies in his inculcation of liturgical activity as the necessary complement to, and compensation for, our inability to form an adequate conception of God.
Reconstructing the Origins of Language Families and Variation
Authors: Carling Gerd , Cathcart Chundra , Round Erich 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
The chapter looks at language variation and change, and the relation of these processes to language reconstruction and classification. The chapter gives an overview of theories, models, methods, and data, describing how diversity and variation is modelled and measured for reconstruction and classification within traditional, comparative and statistical, evolutionary, or phylogenetic methods. First, the chapter identifies the basic principles of language change and the way in which these differ within various subdomains of language. A second part delves into the outcomes of change, describing the diverse results of sound change, lexical change, and typological/morphosyntactic change. Here, important aspects include the inherent propensity of change, the role of arbitrariness, the role of systems, horizontal transfer, and the outcome of change at macro-levels. Finally, the chapter deals with the issue of the ontological status of the reconstruction, and how various theoretical approaches may affect the interpretation of results. The chapter reviews results and controversies arising from current research.
The Challenge of Value Alignment
Authors: Gabriel Iason , Ghazavi Vafa 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the question of how to align artificial intelligence (AI) systems with human values and situates it within a wider body of thought regarding technology and value. Far from existing in a vacuum, there has long been an interest in the ability of technology to ‘lock-in’ different value systems. There has also been considerable thought about how to align technologies with specific social values, including through participatory design processes. In this chapter, we look more closely at the question of AI alignment and suggest that the power and autonomy of AI systems gives rise to opportunities and challenges in the domain of value that have not been encountered before. Drawing important continuities between the work of the fairness, accountability, transparency, and ethics community, and work being done by technical AI safety researchers, we suggest that more attention needs to be paid to the question of ‘social value alignment’—that is, how to align AI systems with the plurality of values endorsed by groups of people, especially on the global level.
The Social History of the Alexandrian Church
Authors: Jakab Attila 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
The history of Alexandrian Christianity takes place in the social context of the most cosmopolitan city of the Roman Empire. Rooted in the Hellenized Jewish community, the wealthy and educated Christians emerged at Alexandria with the Kerygma of Peter, in the beginning of the second century. For decades Alexandrian Christianity, in fact a spiritual movement, was represented by names generally considered as ‘Gnostics’ teachers (Basilides, Carpocrates). Even later masters such as Clement or Origen play a more major role than the bishops. They are the privileged witnesses of the social differentiation and the institutionalization of the Christian community, who became most ‘popular’ in the middle of the third century. In this context, bishops Demetrius and Heraclas worked to strengthen the ecclesiastical institution. The conflict with Origen was inevitable. With Dionysius of Alexandria, the bishop became the leader and also the teacher of the church. The problems were solved.
Origen as a Theologian: An Overview
Authors: Lyman Rebecca 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
As an overview of Origen’s theology this chapter’s starting point is philosophical. Origen’s radical synthesis of Christianity and Platonism makes the body and materiality central to the cosmological and Christological core of salvation. Her second point, however, is sociological. Sectarian textual communities are the sites for philosophical and theological speculation. The challenge of the Alexandrian Christianity of Origen’s day was to articulate a theological vision for mixed communities of simpliciores and educated elites. For Origen the flesh of the Incarnation and the letter of Scripture as well as the opportunity for repentance and advancement through free will were the crucial starting points for the simpliciores, the bridges to a mature spirituality. Exegesis is above all spiritual work to be done by disciplined teachers.
Origen and the Reworking of the Legacy of Greek Philosophy
Authors: Berchman Robert M. 
Published: March 2022

AbstractThe author’s concern with epistemology is framed by his interest in situating Origen in the history of philosophical exegesis using the tools of the philosophy of language. The ‘new hermeneutics’, by dissolving the unity of authorial meaning into the multiplicity of reader reception, suits Origen’s exegetical schema well. Deconstruction makes it possible to see that Origen’s allegory constitutes a non-propositional and a non-discursive mode of access to the Logos which the author translates as exegesis and contemplative prayer. In this mode, ‘[T]he knower/reader eventually learns not to consider himself as separate from the Scriptural reality which he seeks to comprehend.’ Contemplation leads to assimilation/divinization experienced as unity.
The Discovery of the True Origen By Twentieth–Century Scholars
Authors: Daly Robert J. 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
The supposed rehabilitation of Origen by early twentieth-century Catholic scholars was, apart from the little-noticed work of Prat, actually more of a somewhat later relatively new discovery of a more authentically true Origen as a more ‘whole’ and multi-faceted but actually more biblical, and less philosophically systematic religious genius than had generally been presumed to be the case. This correction of misperceptions about Origen, a synthetic but not systematic thinker, was brought about primarily, but not exclusively, by Catholic scholars beginning with the daring Ferdinand Prat (1907) and the Lutheran Walter Völker (1930), and continuing with Gustave Bardy (1932), Hans Urs von Balthasar (1936), Aloisius Lieske (1938), Jean Daniélou (1948), the incomparable Henri de Lubac (1950), and the prolific Henri Crouzel (passim but here, esp, 1967).
Past accomplishments and future challenges of the multi-omics characterization of leaf growth
Authors: Skirycz Aleksandra , Fernie Alisdair R 
Published: March 2022

Abstract
The advent of omics technologies has revolutionized biology and advanced our understanding of all biological processes, including major developmental transitions in plants and animals. Here, we review the vast knowledge accumulated concerning leaf growth in terms of transcriptional regulation before turning our attention to the historically less well-characterized alterations at the protein and metabolite level. We will then discuss how the advent of biochemical methods coupled with metabolomics and proteomics can provide insight into the protein–protein and protein–metabolite interactome of the growing leaves. We finally highlight the substantial challenges in detection, spatial resolution, integration, and functional validation of the omics results, focusing on metabolomics as a prerequisite for a comprehensive understanding of small-molecule regulation of plant growth.