bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Existential Limits
Authors: McPherson David 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In exploring the place of limits within a well-lived human life, this first chapter begins at the most general level with “existential limits,” which are limits with respect to the given, that is, to what exists. This chapter explores two fundamental existential stances, or orientations toward the given, which play a key role throughout the book. One stance is the choosing-controlling stance. All mature human beings adopt this stance to some extent in their efforts to improve their lives and the world around them through controlling, transforming, and overcoming the given. However, at the extreme, this stance can give expression to a “Promethean” project of “playing God” by seeking mastery over the given. The other basic existential stance is at odds with this Promethean project: it is referred to as the accepting-appreciating stance. By accepting and appreciating the given, this stance imposes limits on the choosing-controlling stance. While acknowledging an important role for a choosing-controlling stance in human life, this chapter argues that the accepting-appreciating stance toward the given should be regarded as primary in several ways and discusses specific limiting virtues—namely, humility, reverence, contentment, and loyalty—that give proper expression to this stance. This chapter begins with a discussion of prominent defenses of the Promethean project of mastery in the works of Friedrich Nietzsche and, more recently, Ronald Dworkin in his argument in favor of genetic engineering, and then it turns to make the case against the Promethean project.
Economic Limits
Authors: McPherson David 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This final chapter on economic limits begins by considering the problem of greed in modern economic life within capitalism as the key problem that needs to be addressed. It discusses the importance of the limiting virtue of contentment here for counteracting greed. The second section develops a positive vision for the role of economics in the good life. It is called “home economics,” as it seeks to recover something of Aristotle’s idea of oikonomia as centering on the home (oikos), but also contributing to the common good of the particular communities to which one belongs. What we need, it is contended, is a way of living our economic life that contributes to our being properly at home in the world, rather than causing alienation (or not-at-home-ness). This also requires recovering a sense of the dignity of work. The third and final section discusses the practice of the Sabbath (as a specific form of leisure) as providing an important limitation on work, while also in a crucial sense completing our work, and it suggests its relevance for everyone, regardless of religious beliefs. This discussion will also provide a fitting conclusion to the book, since it returns us to the discussion with which the book began: the two fundamental existential stances—the choosing-controlling stance and the accepting-appreciating stance—and the proper relationship between them.
Tax Cooperation with a Duty of Assistance
Authors: Christians Allison , van Apeldoorn Laurens 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines how more affluent states could help create a world in which states with populations suffering subsistence rights deficits would be able to capture more of the benefits of cooperation on international capital mobility. It will show that one way in which states can relinquish unjust claims of entitlement is to make room for source-based taxation with two main approaches to be pursued in tandem. The first step is for states that export significant capital to expand their existing pass-through regimes for corporate income taxation, while guarding against double taxation and tax competition with carefully designed foreign tax credits. The effect of this step is to create a backstop or minimum level of corporate taxation, which will reduce some of the kinds of tax competition that effectively prevent some states from exercising their entitlement to a share of the benefits of cooperative surplus through taxation. The second step is for states with populations suffering subsistence rights to exercise their entitlement to cooperative surplus benefits. These two steps for reform of the international tax system are not radical departures from the status quo. The first step is a return to standards that were common across OECD states in the not-too-distant past, whilst the second is a take-up of an alternative but still broadly neutral division of cooperative surplus in line with some of the earliest proposals for international tax cooperation and consistent with the ongoing work of the United Nations and other institutions.
The Burden of Subsistence Rights Deficits
Authors: Christians Allison , van Apeldoorn Laurens 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter proceeds on the assumption that there exist no backup duties on the part of relatively affluent states and that states are either solely responsible for fulfilling subsistence rights within their own territories or they must be assisted with capacity or institution building, but not with wealth transfers. The basic question in this chapter is therefore how to conceive of fair cooperation between states when at least one of them has a population facing subsistence rights deficits (assuming that such cooperation is morally permitted). It analyses what the entitlement principle and the requirement of fair cooperation entail in the presence of subsistence rights deficits in cooperating states in this case. The aim is to show that even if the duty to assist burdened or negligent states with wealth transfers is rejected, the existence of subsistence rights deficits is nevertheless key to determining what constitutes a fair allocation of the benefits and burdens of cross-border cooperation.
Permissible Rights Infringements, Benefits, and Compensation
Authors: Hecht Lisa 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Sometimes it is permissible to infringe an individual’s rights against harm in order to save others from greater harm. It has been a matter of extensive debate if and by whom victims of permissible rights infringements are owed compensation. This chapter defends the view that the beneficiaries of a permissible rights infringement have special compensatory duties to the victim. The chapter identifies two desiderata that an account of the beneficiaries’ compensatory duties should meet, and shows that two existing defenses, the Beneficiary Pays Principle and the Fairness Principle, fail to satisfy them. The chapter argues that the beneficiaries owe compensation on grounds of the Special Duty Principle. Their compensatory duty is best understood as a special duty to alleviate harm. The duty is particularly stringent because victims and beneficiaries stand in a morally tragic relationship.
Republicanism, Justice, and Equality of Opportunity
Authors: Dougherty Tom 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that Pettit’s Republican theory of justice lacks the resources necessary for identifying injustice in a society where a social lottery determines people’s prospects for success. Equality of non-domination does not guarantee John Rawls’s ideal of equality of opportunity. This chapter considers and rejects two views that attempt to connect Pettit’s ideal of equality of non-domination with equality of opportunity. First, it argues against the view that Pettit’s equality of non-domination constitutes equality of opportunity. Second, it argues against the view that Pettit’s ideal of equality of non-domination reliably causes equality of opportunity. On the grounds that there are no compelling reasons to refrain from revising Pettit’s theory, it concludes that Pettit’s theory should be supplemented with a separate value of fairness that grounds a principle requiring equal opportunity. The upshot is that while equality of non-domination may be an important part of justice, it cannot be its whole.
Visions of democracy and the limits of parliamentarism
Authors: Ganghof Steffen 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter explores how competing constitutional design goals can be balanced under pure parliamentary government. It distinguishes two polar visions of democracy: simple and complex majoritarianism. They both embrace majority rule but reflect different approaches to the cognitive and coordinative complexity of democratic politics. Since the extreme versions of both visions create significant risks and do not constitute robust equilibria, many parliamentary democracies take intermediate positions on the continuum from simple to complex majoritarianism. The chapter operationalizes each vision in terms of three specific goals and uses the resulting empirical measures to create a two-dimensional map of democratic patterns in 22 democracies in the period 1993–2018. The sample includes pure parliamentary systems, semi-presidential systems, and the assembly-independent system in Switzerland. The results reveal the tension between the two visions of democracy and show that their most demanding goals cannot be reconciled under pure parliamentarism. Voters cannot make a clear choice between competing cabinet alternatives (“identifiability”), while also being fairly represented in issue-specific legislative decision-making (“legislative flexibility”).
How semi-parliamentarism can balance visions of democracy
Authors: Ganghof Steffen 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter explores how semi-parliamentary systems can balance the competing democratic visions of simple and complex majoritarianism. It compares the institutional design of the seven semi-parliamentary cases (the Australian Commonwealth, Japan, and five Australian states) and positions these cases on a two-dimensional empirical map of democratic patterns in the period 1993–2018. The analysis shows how the separation of powers can balance the two democratic visions in ways that are unavailable under pure parliamentarism. In particular, semi-parliamentarism can empower voters to make a clear choice between competing cabinet alternatives (“identifiability”), while representing them fairly in issue-specific legislative decision-making (“legislative flexibility”). The chapter also conducts comparative analyses of legislative coalition-building in Australia and of legislative success rates under different forms of government. Finally, the chapter explores the relevance of these findings for the performance of democracies and discusses how semi-parliamentarism may complement other institutional designs, such as compulsory voting and weaker forms of judicial review.
Introduction
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
In the second half of the nineteenth century the Netherlands became a modern nation-state with representative government, industrialism emerged, and the intellectual climate—influenced by a new historical approach to religion and the successes of the natural sciences and positivist and materialist philosophies—became critical of supernatural worldviews. In universities, both the critical examination of the Bible and the comparative study of religions were on the rise. Questions about how to justify Christian propositions were hotly debated. The aim of this book is to analyse how theology was fundamentally transformed and reinvented in the nineteenth century in a variety of ways—in response to the process of modernization. The focus is on intellectual history, but broader social and political transformations will be addressed too. Protestant theologians dealt with various aspects of modernization in different ways. Enlightenment values were fiercely attacked by orthodox Pietists, but embraced by ‘modern’ theologians, who strove for a synthesis of religion on the one hand and the new findings of biblical scholarship and the natural sciences (evolutionary theory, anti-supernaturalism) on the other. The most influential Dutch theologian of the time, Abraham Kuyper, modernized Reformed theology and Dutch politics in hitherto unprecedented ways. The new segmented social structures—based on differences in religion and worldview—of pillarized Dutch society were to a large extent determined by Kuyper. His polarizing style offended the old liberal elites, who still clung to the ideals of a consensual and homogeneous state and an inclusive, Protestant ‘People’s Church’.
Isaac da Costa and the Zeitgeist
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Isaac da Costa (1798–1860) was a pivotal figure in Dutch religious history, not only because of his remarkable conversion to Christianity, but first and foremost because of his vehement criticism of modern political, social, and religious ideas. His notorious publication Bezwaren tegen de geest der Eeuw (Objections to the Spirit of the Age, 1823) upset the liberal establishment of his day, including his great-uncle, the British political economist David Ricardo, who thought that his nephew—notwithstanding his excellent abilities—had come to ‘wrong conclusions, on points too which have long divided the world’. The pamphlet involves a fierce critique of Enlightenment values such as human autonomy and representative government. With the claims of free will and the supremacy of reason, modern man, according to Da Costa, would rather be a ‘godless and spiritless animal’ than dependent on God. As the chapter also addresses Da Costa’s criticisms of academic theology in Groningen and Leiden, it sketches a relevant part of Dutch academic theology at the time.
Pillarization
Authors: Molendijk Arie L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The following characterization of a ‘pillar’ captures the Dutch situation rather nicely: ‘A pillar is…defined as a subsystem in society that links political power, social organization and individual behaviour and which is aimed to promote—in competition as well as in cooperation with other social and political groups—goals inspired by a common ideology shared by its members for whom the pillar and its ideology is the main locus of social identification’ (Erik H. Bax). But how exactly do the several pillars relate to each other? Does the pillarization metaphor not suggest a false symmetry and uniformity? It has been a matter of debate whether the social democrats and the liberals could be aptly described as ‘pillars’. Various motives and aspects have played a role here. Important is the aspect of the emancipation of underprivileged groups, either in religious (Catholics and orthodox Protestants) or social respects (labourers). Second, the defence against secularizing tendencies—in particular against the ‘neutral’ state and its monopoly on schools—has been often mentioned. A third element concerns the wish of the elites to control the lower classes and to establish political stability in a pluralist society. Although pillarization was at its height between 1917 and 1968, confessional mobilization and organization had already started in the 1870s. The lens of ‘pillarization’ offers an important perspective by which to understand the specific process of modernization that characterized Dutch society from the late nineteenth century until well into the twentieth century.
Following the Map of the Genome
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the biotechnology industry, tracks its growth from its origins in the 1970s to the present, and presents topline results of its track record. That record shows that the biotech industry has created more innovative medicines at lower costs than those in the pharmaceutical industry. The chapter also explains how this analysis of the remarkable efficiency of the biotech industry contrasts with prior works that have emphasized the importance of the large pharmaceutical companies’ scale, scope, and experience in the development of new medicines. The chapter then outlines the main themes of the remaining chapters, which address the scientific background, the elements and costs of the drug development process, the origin and financing of biotech companies, the nature of alliances between biotech and pharmaceutical companies, the characteristics and responsibilities of biotech entrepreneurs, and the industry’s R&D track record. It concludes by outlining the forces that will shape the future of the industry.
The Molecules
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers an overview of the major scientific advances that led to the founding of the biotech industry in the 1970s. While the first entrepreneurial life-sciences companies were established primarily to take advantage of rDNA and monoclonal antibody technology, the chapter also highlights a number of other promising technologies, including antisense and gene therapy. It also shows how large pharmaceutical companies have adopted the same technologies. At the same time, biotech companies have branched out into the medicinal chemistry that has been the mainstay of the pharmaceutical industry. It explains that what distinguishes a biotech company from a large pharmaceutical company is not a focus on using any specific technology but the fact that the biotech company is smaller, newer, less experienced, and almost always unprofitable.
Biotech–Pharma Alliances
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter covers one of the two major sources of funding for the biotech industry: strategic alliances between biotech companies and pharmaceutical companies. There are so many alliances—typically over a thousand each year—that, even in the early days, one scholar called the volume of these transactions “without precedent in business history.” Beyond funding, alliances can also provide access to drug development expertise and resources and can send a positive signal to potential investors that a very knowledgeable partner has kicked the scientific tires. The chapter describes the negotiation process, how the terms are set, and which technologies and products have most often been the subjects of the alliances. It also discusses whether information asymmetry is an issue in forming these alliances and concludes that it is not.
The Future of the Biotech Industry
Authors: Drakeman Donald L. , Drakeman Lisa N. , Oraiopoulos Nektarios 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores whether today’s approach to innovative drug discovery will continue. The governments that invest over $100 billion a year in fundamental research do so with the dual goal of promoting the health of their citizens through the new medicines and of promoting the wealth of their communities from the jobs created by the companies developing those medicines. But the prices of new medicines have risen to levels unimaginable at the outset of the industry. As a result, the industry’s future will be determined primarily by whether policymakers, physicians, and patients decide that the costly new medicines emerging from the industry provide enough value for governments to continue to invest in basic academic research. Those decisions will similarly influence whether venture capitalists and other investors will continue to invest in the biotech industry.
Evolution and Phylogeny of Pancrustacea
Authors: Schram Frederick R. , Koenemann Stefan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The understanding of arthropod phylogeny and evolution in the past three decades has undergone major changes. These have arisen from new sources of data applicable across several fields of study. Developments within ontogenetic studies not only in regard to gross patterns of embryology but also regarding a revolution in the application of development genetics continue to generate remarkable insights into crustaceomorph evolution. Phylogeny techniques of analysis and new sources of data derived from molecular sequencing have forced consideration of new hypotheses concerning the interrelationships of all the pancrustaceans, both crustaceomorphs and Hexapoda. Furthermore, it is not uncommon that this multiplicity of sources for new data from opposing research teams can result in different hypotheses for phylogenetic relationships. This situation should not be treated as a defect, or an impediment, but rather as a source for multiple alternative hypotheses—the bases for further data gathering and analyses. Also, one should never view consideration of fossils as a vexing source of noise. Here, too, consideration of multiple hypotheses has proven useful. Often, fossils can produce deeper understanding of the paleodiversity of body plans. Nevertheless, some fossil groups still remain as enigmas, such as Thylacocephala. But even fossils incompletely understood can help fill in gaps in knowledge of paleobiodiversity that can prove useful, for example, in analyzing the the origin and early evolution of Hexapoda. Old ideas about pancrustacean evolution have served the field well, but results derived from all data inputs should be embraced.
Chen-ning Yang
Authors: Lautz Terry 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
C. N. Yang won the Nobel Prize in physics jointly with T. D. Lee in 1957 and used his fame to advocate for US diplomatic recognition of China. He had come from China to study at the University of Chicago in 1946 and stayed in the United States instead of returning to China after the 1949 revolution. When Sino-American relations warmed in the 1970s, Yang met with Chinese leaders and brought Chinese students to study in the United States, which was the largest source of advanced scientific training in the world. He became a US citizen but was always a Chinese patriot, striving to overcome China’s weakness and humiliation. Late in life, he returned to live in Beijing and gave up his US citizenship. Finding the right balance between China and the United States was his life-long pursuit.
Shirley Young
Authors: Lautz Terry 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Shirley Young played a pivotal role in establishing General Motors’s highly successful joint venture with China in the 1990s, where the company has sold more automobiles than anywhere else in the world in recent years. She was born in Shanghai and came to the United States at age ten. As a Chinese American with a background in business, she helped GM to build relationships and negotiate cultural differences. After the Tiananmen Incident, she was a founding member of the Committee of 100, an organization dedicated to advancing US-China relations and defending the civil rights of Chinese Americans. After retiring from GM, she founded and directed a program to promote US-China exchanges through the arts and education, believing in the power of cultural diplomacy to get beyond political differences.
John Kamm
Authors: Lautz Terry 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
John Kamm is an advocate for improved rights for political and religious prisoners in China, based on a philosophy of finding common ground rather than lecturing or shaming Chinese officials on their failings. He heads the Dui Hua Foundation, which will accept any case for review so long as the charges do not involve violence. Kamm left a successful career in business during the 1990s and was effective as a human rights activist partly because of his support for Most Favored Nation trading status with the PRC, which gave him credibility with the Chinese. However, China’s turn in an authoritarian direction under Xi Jinping, including the repression of minorities in Tibet and Xinjiang, has made hope for a convergence of values between China and the West more problematic.