bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Global Order
Authors: Flockhart Trine 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO has proved to be an agile and resilient organization that has been able to adapt and renew in response to the evolving global order. NATO’s resilience has been anchored in a dual-track identity—existing simultaneously as a ‘collective defence alliance’ and a ‘community of values’. That dual identity has allowed NATO to perform reflexive self-governance with a significant degree of flexibility. This chapter focuses on three historical phases in the evolution of global order (1949–1991, 1991–2008, and 2008–2022) and demonstrates that the relationship between the Alliance and the global order is co-constitutive, but always tempered by the prevalent role identity of NATO at any given time. Following Russia’s invasion of Ukraine in 2022, a new phase in the evolution of the global order looks set to bring NATO’s ‘collective defence’ identity to the fore.
Kosovo
Authors: Smith Martin A. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO’s Kosovo intervention—Operation Allied Force—from March to June 1999 and the follow-on Kosovo Force (KFOR) stabilization mission marked an important point in the operational evolution of the Alliance. Having already undertaken a major operation in Bosnia-Herzegovina, a NATO intervention in the Serbia–Kosovo dispute was virtually inevitable. NATO’s credibility was widely perceived to be on the line in the face of an apparent campaign of Serb ethnic cleansing in Kosovo. In launching a campaign to halt Serbia, the allies adopted a flexible approach to intra-alliance decision-making. They adapted and sometimes bypassed established structures and procedures, so that a small caucus made the big decisions. In its own terms, Operation Allied Force was a success. It paved the way for the KFOR mission to become NATO’s most enduring military operation.
Libya
Authors: Engelbrekt Kjell , Palmer Braxton 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter critically examines the origins, conduct, and aftermath of Operation Unified Protector (OUP), NATO’s 2011 mission in Libya. Few multilateral military interventions have ever been carried out as expeditiously and effectively, with NATO’s military coalition accomplishing in just seven months the operation’s objective of protecting civilians against Moammar Gaddafi’s regime. All this was done with an express mandate from the United Nations Security Council. However, inconsistencies in coalition members’ interpretations of intent and burden-sharing diminished the value of OUP in the long term. When it comes to the troubling aftermath of OUP, four failures of anticipation are examined. Two of these pertain to the lack of clear ownership of the post-conflict situation; the other two can be ascribed to insufficient attention being paid to the political context within which the intervention was designed and executed. Over a decade after the mission was launched, the negative domestic and regional repercussions continue to reverberate.
Maritime Operations
Authors: Smith-Windsor Brooke A. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO’s maritime operations and activities in the post-Cold War period have ranged from counter-piracy operations to freedom of navigation operations in response to renewed great-power competition. During the Cold War, NATO maritime operations were restricted to the geopolitical space defined by the North Atlantic Treaty. After 1990, the Alliance’s maritime interests and operations expanded. They now include the North Atlantic and the High North, the Baltic, Black and Mediterranean Seas, the Indian Ocean and Arabian Gulf, the Pacific Ocean, the South Atlantic, and the Caribbean Sea. Ken Booth’s trinity of naval roles—military, diplomatic, and policing/constabulary—is employed to understand the Alliance’s interest in naval power. This approach enriches our understanding of the rationale for the adoption of the 2011 Alliance Maritime Strategy, allied concern with Russian naval capabilities, and the accession of two major European naval powers, Sweden and Finland, to NATO.
Turkey
Authors: Oğuzlu Tarik 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Turkey is a long-standing NATO ally. It joined the Alliance in 1952 and was crucial to balancing against the Soviet threat on NATO’s southern flank during the Cold War. Turkey has had a troubled relationship with NATO in the post-Cold War era. Two underlying factors explain this. First, with the dissolution of the Soviet Union, an interest-based approach became more important than an identity-based one in defining Turkey’s foreign policies. It is an open question whether or not Turkey and NATO still share common security perceptions and strategic orientations. Second, Turkey has an acute sense of its regional security problems—bordering Syria and Iraq, straddling the geographic space between the Balkans and the Middle East, and sitting in-between the Black and Mediterranean Seas. This geostrategic location has meant Turkey has developed a particular set of interests on issues of NATO concern. It has concurrently developed a greater sense of national security independence and autonomy. These two dynamics have often set Turkey apart from the majority of NATO members. Strains in relations between Turkey and its fellow NATO allies have been evident for decades but have been especially notable under the leadership of Recep Tayyip Erdoğan and the Justice and Development Party (AKP).
Georgia and Ukraine
Authors: German Tracey 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter examines NATO’s partnership with two important post-Soviet states, Georgia and Ukraine. Practical cooperation developed with both as NATO rolled out its partnership initiatives from the 1990s onwards. The two states have also actively participated in NATO-led operations. Both became NATO Enhanced Opportunity Partners in 2020 in recognition of their efforts. But Russia has put a brake on the aspirations of both countries to join the Alliance. Russia fought a short war with Georgia in 2008 and it has forcibly annexed Crimea and occupied parts of Eastern and Southern Ukraine since 2014. Since the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022, NATO collectively and most allies individually have provided extensive support to Ukraine’s efforts at fighting Russian forces. Ukrainian membership of the Alliance, however, remains out of sight.
Liberalisms
Authors: Harnisch Sebastian , Böller Florian 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
How can a liberal perspective on military alliances and defence cooperation be applied to the case of NATO’s establishment, institutionalization, persistence, and evolution? To answer these questions, this chapter first establishes a coherent liberal argument drawing on three variants of liberalism: republican, commercial, and ideational. It then demonstrates with short case vignettes how each of these three strands helps one understand the formation and institutionalization of NATO, the politics of intra-alliance conflict management, and how divergent ideational preferences have impacted alliance cohesion and thus the development of NATO. In conclusion, the chapter considers how liberal approaches are relevant to ‘new’ security and political challenges, such as the rise of populism, cybersecurity, and Russia’s war in Ukraine.
The Black Sea Area
Authors: Biagi Paolo 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter regards the Early Holocene archaeology of the Black Sea region and its adjacent areas, from the Bosphorus, in the west, to the Caucasus, in the east. From an archaeological and environmental point of view, the territory is very diverse. Some of the areas are reasonably well known, such as the steppe zone of Ukraine and the Crimean mountains, while the data currently available from others, among which are Anatolia and the westernmost Black Sea region, are very poor. This is due to different reasons, including the quality and intensity of the research, the characteristics of the landscape, and the political events that took place during the last decades. From a chrono-cultural point of view, the most interesting region is the Crimean Peninsula, where important caves and rock shelters which were settled during the whole Early Holocene have been discovered and radiocarbon dated. These sites yielded long sequences with knapped stone artefacts of microlithic dimension among which are different types of geometric tools which are represented by variable percentages of lunates, triangles, and trapezoidal arrowheads.
Alpine Region (Switzerland, Austria, Slovenia, and Northern Italy)
Authors: Fontana Federica 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The Mesolithic record of the Alpine region shows an uneven distribution both due to research biases and possible differences in human occupation. Sites are spread from plains and valley-bottoms to highlands, reaching altitudes up to 2,600 m in the Alps, 1,100 m in the Jura, and 1,800 m in the Apennines. Diverse cultural facies have been identified: Beuronian on the northern side, Sauveterrian/Castelnovian on the southern one, and Late Epigravettian of Danubian influence to the southeast. Variability of lithic raw materials shows adaptability to local resources, but also reflects mobility patterns and possible social networks. Ornamental beads on red deer atrophic canines and Columbella rustica shells, along with harpoons on red deer antler (the latter since the late Boreal), represent common traits across the region. Burial rituals, although poorly represented, seem to indicate a higher degree of variability.
The Western Mediterranean Coast and Islands (Spain, Balearic Islands, Corsica, Sardinia, France, Italy, Sicily, and North Africa)
Authors: Perrin Thomas 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The period between the ninth and sixth millennia cal bc is that of the very last hunter-gatherer societies of the western Mediterranean. With shifting shorelines, the development of forest, and abrupt climate changes, these groups had to continually adapt to a changing environment. Long-distance exchanges and synchronous, yet geographically distant, technical and cultural developments show just how dynamic these societies were. The colonization of the islands, particularly Corsica and Sardinia, which had been uninhabited until then, indirectly testifies to the mastery of deep-sea navigation. Cultural developments are mainly based on the evolution of lithic industries, which constitutes the main part of their remains. This Mediterranean Mesolithic can be divided into two main phases, the passage from one to the other perhaps being due to a movement of populations along the coast. The spread of the Neolithic from east to west, however, put an end to this traditional world of hunter-gatherers.
Rivers
Authors: Živaljević Ivana 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
With the global glacier retreat at the onset of the Holocene, unconstrained drainage systems gradually became colonized by a myriad of species, including humans who made their lives along flowing water. While Mesolithic research has been firmly embedded in the study of the environment, it was primarily conceptualized as a passive backdrop to human activity. In more recent times, the paradigm shift known as the Ontological Turn afforded new ways of thinking about actors and material worlds whose properties do not simply exist but emerge through mutually constitutive relationships. With their constant flow and ever-changing form, shaped by human agency and shaping human experience of the world, the rivers quite literally embody the vibrant nature of entanglement. In this chapter, rivers flowing through Mesolithic worlds are considered as socialized landscapes, mediums which afforded specific experiences and interspecies encounters, and as dynamic assemblages of beings and abiotic actors.
The Pioneer Experience
Authors: Fuglestvedt Ingrid 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter is an attempt to outline the current research status of the pioneer time in Norway (9,500–8,000 cal bc), with an emphasis on the settlement phases of the site complex at Pauler in the Oslofjord region. The nine sites of this complex are used as illustrative examples as they form the outset for descriptions of the wider context. Pauler is representative of the stability in settlement pattern, economy, and technology during the Early Mesolithic 2 and Early Mesolithic 3 sub-phases. This stability stands in contrast to a highly changing environment. Thus, the most intriguing feature of the Early Mesolithic lifeway is its seemingly unchanged character over several centuries. Against the background of this setting, I briefly discuss what could be the contents of ‘pioneer experiences’.
Wetland Landscapes
Authors: Taylor Barry 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter explores the economic and cultural significance of wetlands to the hunter-gatherer communities of Mesolithic Europe. It draws together the archaeological evidence for the economic activities that people undertook in these landscapes, the different forms of settlement and architecture, and the practices of ritual deposition that took place. In doing so, this chapter argues that wetlands were not just economically important environments, but were places that shaped very particular communities during the Mesolithic. Inhabiting wetlands required particular forms of technology, technical skill and knowledge that would have been learnt from childhood, honed through subsequent experience, and passed on to subsequent generations. These related not only to the variety of economic activities that people undertook, but also the ability to navigate the complex geographies of wetlands, and the ontological associations that deemed certain places appropriate for acts of deposition. These forms of skill and knowledge would have been particular to the human communities who inhabited wetlands, forming an integral part of their identity, and making them distinct from groups inhabiting other environments.
Inland/Forest
Authors: Verpoorte Alexander , Scherjon Fulco 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Forests, defined as vegetation consisting of trees and woody plants, covered large parts of Europe during the Mesolithic. The inland forests of Europe differed regionally in species composition, cover type, openness, and temporal change. We suggest that they consisted of a patchwork of tree and plant resource types. This chapter shows how Mesolithic hunter-gatherers exploited, managed, manipulated, and transformed the forests that they called their home. It argues that the forest was an environment subject to a variety of human niche construction practices including burning. Human-driven fires during the Mesolithic were generally small and mostly with local-scale effects of limited temporal extent. However, the increased frequency of Late Mesolithic fire use may have led to cumulative effects at a regional or even subcontinental scale, a scale previously only attributed to more recent populations.
Violence
Authors: Orschiedt Jörg 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The Mesolithic is often described as a period when evidence of violence within or between groups is rising. The question whether violence played an important role in Mesolithic life is still difficult to answer. Although observed cases seem to be higher in numbers in comparison to the Palaeolithic, it is more plausible to suggest that the good state of preservation and the much larger number of burials is the reason why the Mesolithic is often described as a violent period. Despite isolated cases were lethal and non-lethal violence is documented, the Late Mesolithic site Ofnet shows the potential for conflicts between groups or even massacres was present. Due to intensified interest and research in the topic of violent behaviour among prehistoric hunter-gatherers, it seems plausible to predict that more cases will be diagnosed in the future.
Shelter and Dwellings
Authors: Grøn Ole 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The dwellings are key points in hunter-gatherers’ physical landscapes as well as in their ideological and spiritual worlds. Therefore, it is important to better understand the central interface between these worlds that their dwellings constitute. Other cultural features such as sacred places, graves, etc. also function as such interfaces, but the dwellings are those that most directly interface practical daily life with the other worlds. This chapter sums up our present knowledge of Mesolithic dwellings in Europe with regards to superstructure, inner preserved features, indications of inner spatial organization, as well as the social and spatial organization of the households they contained. It represents only a vague first step in the direction of the well-founded understanding of the Mesolithic dwellings, which hopefully can be obtained through further study.
Pottery Production among European Foragers
Authors: Cubas Miriam , Robson Harry K. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Pottery played a crucial role in the development of prehistoric societies entailing different human–environmental interactions, new technological knowledge, and the development of a diversity of culinary practices. Their apparition in the archaeological record has contributed to ongoing debates regarding their role in the Neolithization process and the cultural attribution of these findings. Archaeological and biomolecular data suggest that the introduction of ceramics was a complex phenomenon linked to different subsistence practices throughout Europe. In this contribution, we provide an overview of the earliest evidence of pottery among forager groups throughout Europe showing the main technological characteristics and uses linked to different subsistence practices. Current archaeological evidence suggests different trajectories in the adoption processes of this technology in the north, where pottery is well recorded in forager contexts, and the south of Europe, linked to the spread of farming communities. However, archaeological evidence shows several scenarios for its adoption and uses revealing the importance of regional studies.
Human Remains in ‘Non-Burial’ Contexts
Authors: Gray-Jones Amy 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter reviews human remains from a variety of non-burial contexts (defined principally as those remains that were not inhumed as complete bodies) and explores the contribution that this material can make to our understanding of funerary practice and belief in the European Mesolithic. As well as within burials, human skeletal material has been recorded from occupation deposits, middens, caves, stream channels, and bodies of water, varying from isolated finds of single skeletal elements to the disarticulated remains of partial bodies, assemblages of specific elements (notably skulls), and the commingled remains of multiple individuals. There is also growing evidence for the use of human bone as a material for the manufacture of bone points and pendants. Studies that reconstruct the taphonomic histories of these disarticulated human remains increasingly reveal that this material results from a range of deliberate interactions with the dead body, and that, for some Mesolithic communities, this represented the normative form of mortuary practice. What is more, this chapter argues that these interactions reflect a broader tradition of manipulating bodies that also occurs in more obvious funerary contexts, such as cemeteries, and that this is an important feature of the mortuary practices of Mesolithic Europe more generally.
The Handling of the Dead Body
Authors: Stutz Liv Nilsson 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The mortuary record of the Mesolithic of Europe presents a significant variability in the treatment of the body. While the most well-known burials are inhumations, often from large formal disposal areas, or cemeteries, many other ways of treating the dead body occurred, including cremation, manipulation, exposure to the elements, submersion in water, and even mummification. This chapter presents this range of treatment in these hunter-gatherer communities with an approach that centres archaeological method and theory with a focus on the ritualized handling of the dead body as a fundamental aspect of the mortuary ritual as a rite of passage. The chapter proposes that, by analysing the ways in which the dead body was treated, we can glean insight into the hunter-gatherer cosmology in which they were an integral part, and the place that death and the dead held within it. This is accomplished by discussing aspects such as the maintenance and dissolution of the individual human body, the framing of different kinds of bodies (human and animal), the significance of place for the dead and the living, and by analysing transformation and violence against the cadaver.
Orwell and Charles Dickens
Authors: Hollington Michael 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter, a consideration of Dickens’s literary importance to Orwell, falls into four parts. The first considers some biographical evidence of Orwell’s unwavering devotion to Dickens from the beginning to the end of his life. The second scrutinizes the unmistakable stylistic debt Orwell’s novels owe to Dickens’s. The third assesses Orwell’s major 1940 essay on Dickens and its impact on Dickens criticism. The fourth takes the phrase ‘common decency’ as the epitome of what Orwell valued in his favourite author. The chapter begins with minor biographical amplification of Peter Davison’s account of the ubiquity of Dickens in Orwell, looking at some bits of collateral evidence that go back to before the writing career, and forward to after it.
Orwell, Consumption, and Destitution
Authors: Ingle Stephen 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Poverty and hunger appear like a leitmotiv in Orwell’s fiction, as subjects for study in their own right but also as providing a context for a system of values that he came to understand as democratic socialism, what he also called ‘common decency’. On his return to Europe after serving in the Indian Imperial Police, Orwell embarked on a mission to experience poverty at first hand, in Paris, London, and the north of England. His sympathy for the poor turned into respect for their values. By contrast he disdained the ruling classes who had lost their moral compass—their soul. Orwell likened hedonistic modern man to a wasp on a plate that had been cut in half but unknowingly continued to gorge on jam. Only the ‘common decency’ of ordinary people, embedded in equality, had the resilience to stand against the dreaded threat of totalitarianism.
Orwell and the Politics of Culture
Authors: Taunton Matthew 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter seeks to position George Orwell’s essays on popular culture as important precursors of the British cultural studies tradition that was institutionalized from the 1950s onwards, under the influence of Raymond Williams, Richard Hoggart, and Stuart Hall. All three of these central figures in the cultural studies tradition had ambivalent attitudes to Orwell’s work, and the chapter describes those attitudes, seeking to show that political disagreements (stemming largely from Orwell’s canonization as a key anti-communist figure during the Cold War period) did not detract from a genuine admiration for Orwell’s openness to, and critical analyses of, popular culture. Focusing on essays such as ‘Boys’ Weeklies’ (1940), ‘The Proletarian Writer’ (1940), ‘The Art of Donald McGill’ (1941), and ‘Rudyard Kipling’ (1941), the chapter shows that Orwell produced innovative studies of popular culture while rejecting embattled defences of ‘high’ culture by the likes of T. S. Eliot and F. R. Leavis. Against the backdrop of these defensive and conservative arguments, which tied culture to the fate of social elites, Orwell’s essays proposed a genuinely fresh account of the politics of culture, with an alternative social basis.