bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Fornecker Samuel 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates a historiographical tradition which holds that the Restoration marginalized Reformed divinity in English religious life, resulting in the assimilation of Arminian theological resources in its place. This idea is epitomized by diverse scholarly positions, whose diverse interpretations of the period concur in accepting the picture of a post-Restoration Arminian majority, rejecting Reformed divinity for a reactionary doctrinal program. In fact, the idea that the Restoration saw the advent of a unified Arminian response to Reformed divinity belies a misguided conception of Arminianism as merely anti-Calvinist soteriology. Historians patient of this conception have consistently assumed that Arminian conformists represented a monolithic “front” against Reformed divinity, simply by virtue of rejecting its soteriology. But the fissure dividing Arminian conformists over Remonstrant ideas precipitated a widespread negatively defined consensus, resulting in novel polemical configurations that relativized—without vanquishing—older soteriological boundaries. Due to the lack of research in this area, the complexity of later Stuart Arminian conformity has been drastically underestimated.
A Merely “Specifick” Trinity?
Authors: Fornecker Samuel 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter initiates a series of inquiries into doctrinal controversies centered in the Lower House of Convocation, in which the Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, Jonathan Edwards (c. 1628–1712), played a crucial role. Beginning with the Trinitarian crisis of the 1690s, this chapter shows how suspicions of Socinianism leveled against William Sherlock were exacerbated by Sherlock’s espousal of ideas about the unity of the divine persons, derived from the Remonstrant theologians, Étienne de Courcelles and Jean Le Clerc. Then, having drawn attention to Brent Sirota’s interpretation of the Trinitarian crisis as a battle of “political ecclesiologies” resulting from the lower clergy’s discontent with the lapsed disciplinary regime of the post-revolutionary Church, the chapter proceeds to show how the long prorogation of Convocation served to galvanize intra-Arminian tensions, providing a partisan aim toward which anti-Remonstrant polemic could be directed.
Conclusion
Authors: Fornecker Samuel 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
In historiography of the early modern Church of England, few terms possess as vast a range of meaning as the word “Arminian.” Recent research has devised useful taxonomies to underline its dynamic usage chronologically, and to flag its equivocal usages in English religious politics more generally. Yet this fastidiousness has not ordinarily prevented scholars from mapping earlier religious fault lines and polemical configurations onto later doctrinal debates. As a result, study of the Arminian conformist tradition during the later Stuart and early Hanoverian periods has been impoverished by an exaggerated emphasis on what can be witnessed through the narrow aperture of soteriological controversy. The present study has sought to widen that perspective by developing an account of the Arminian conformist tradition that provides a more nuanced understanding of the complexity of the post-Restoration Church of England’s engagement with its Reformed heritage. Extending the findings of recent revisionist research, this study has examined a series of cases in which Reformed orthodoxy remained a benchmark for the detection of aberrant doctrine and the construction of claims to confessional legitimacy—including for churchmen who rejected Reformed soteriology. The study has thus sought to initiate greater attentiveness to the complexity and dynamism of doctrinal development in England, during a period of de-confessionalization which nonetheless witnessed surprising patterns of innovation and preservation, provocation and response.
Ethics and Risk Distribution for Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Evans Nicholas G. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The study of how to build ethical autonomous vehicles (AVs) initially focused on the trolley problem and on questions about who to harm, but it has evolved to consider how to distribute the risk of harm. This chapter examines that evolution and argue that it signals a change in the kinds of philosophical, metaphilosophical, and empirical tools that should be marshalled to solve pressing ethical issues in AVs. We show this by examining cases in which AVs are required to make judgments under conditions of moral uncertainty, and when thinking about the widespread distribution of risks and benefits from AVs.
Automated Vehicles and the Ethics of Classification
Authors: Keeling Geoff 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This paper articulates the moral significance of object classification for automated vehicle decision-making. The first part of the paper examines how classification errors and uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects relate to the permissibility of an automated vehicle’s actions. It is argued that moral permissions for automated vehicles are indexed to their epistemically justified predictions about the classification of proximate objects. The second part of the paper develops an account of the morally right way to navigate uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects in mundane road traffic situations. In particular, it is argued that an automated vehicle acts wrongly if, given its evidence, it could easily be the case that the vehicle’s actions injure a road-user. The paper concludes by developing an account of how to balance the competing values of time-efficiency and road-user safety in mundane road-traffic scenarios that involve uncertainty about the classification of proximate objects.
Trolleys and Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Behrends Jeff , Basl John 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Recent years have witnessed a dramatic increase in the scrutiny of artificial intelligence applications. While we applaud this deserved attention, we are concerned that a substantial portion of the ethical theorizing in this domain has proceeded with insufficient attention to the details of the technology involved. This paper argues for a new approach to reasoning about the ethics of machine learning. We make our case by way of an extended evaluation of the literature on autonomous vehicles and trolley cases. We show that theorizing on this topic has relied on a mistaken assumption about how the engineering of autonomous vehicles is likely to proceed. We argue that identifying this mistake allows us to see why trolley cases are not immediately useful in answering moral questions about autonomous vehicles, and it reveals how to proceed when crafting moral arguments about any technology that makes use of machine learning.
The Trolley Problem and the Ethics of Autonomous Vehicles in the Eyes of the Public
Authors: Inoue Akira , Shimizu Kazumi , Udagawa Daisuke , Wakamatsu Yoshiki 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The trolley problem is a classic thought experiment that evokes an ethical dilemma. Thomson’s “bystander” and “footbridge” versions of the trolley problem induce different intuitive judgments about what to choose in the ethical dilemma. However, it can be questioned how robust these intuitive judgments are. Hence, an online survey experiment of Thomson’s versions of the trolley problem was conducted. The experiment showed that more respondents tended to choose not pulling the lever in the bystander version and pushing a person off the bridge in the footbridge version when they believed they were not being watched. These results illustrate that people’s decisions deviate from the social norms in the absence of the public’s attention. To activate the practice of holding the manufacturers to a normative expectation based on the social norms, we suggest the law must be changed.
Unintended Externalities of Highly Automated Vehicles
Authors: Gurney Jeffrey K. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Automated vehicles will have both intentional and unintentional externalities on other people and industries. Many of the intended externalities of automated vehicles have been discussed at length; these intended externalities include safety benefits, increased happiness, better traffic management, and pollution reduction. In this chapter, the author will describe several unintended externalities of automated vehicles, which, although they have been discussed far less than the intended externalities, may be of equal importance. This chapter will explore such topics as the negative effects on organ donation, the opportunities that automated vehicles may create in the trade of illegal drugs, the impact that automated vehicles may have on relationships between police officers and racial minorities, and the effects on the airplane industry.
The Politics of Self-Driving Cars
Authors: Pagallo Ugo 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter deals with the normative challenges and the governance of autonomous vehicles (AVs). The list of normative challenges includes ethics, law, business, and social norms. Following Aristotle’s notion of practical science, these challenges can be summed up in terms of politics. The chapter thus has four key aims. The first is to understand whether current declarations and guidelines on the ethics of AVs should be conceived of in accordance with that which ought or ought not be done to contrast current legislation (hard ethics) or to strengthen and improve it (soft ethics). The second is to determine whether hard law or soft law is more suitable in this particular domain vis-à-vis business interests. The third is to examine the role played by social norms, given that matters of trust, social acceptability, and cohesion bear differently on how to reconcile different regulatory systems in competition. The fourth is to argue that what is at stake with the politics of AVs concerns the model of regulation and governance to be adopted. Today’s debate on the governance of AI and models of data governance in Europe provides valuable insights into the balance that needs to be struck in this vibrant field of technological innovation.
Autonomous Vehicles and Ethical Settings
Authors: Formosa Paul 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
While autonomous vehicles (AVs) are not designed to harm people, harming people is an inevitable by-product of their operation. How are AVs to deal ethically with situations where harming people is inevitable? Rather than focus on the much-discussed question of what choices AVs should make, we can also ask the much less discussed question of who gets to decide what AVs should do in such cases. Here there are two key options: AVs with a personal ethics setting (PES) or an “ethical knob” that end users can control or AVs with a mandatory ethics setting (MES) that end users cannot control. Which option, a PES or an MES, is best and why? This chapter argues, by drawing on the choice architecture literature, in favor of a hybrid view that requires mandated default choice settings while allowing for limited end user control.
An Epistemic Approach to Cultivating Appropriate Trust in Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Chilson Kendra 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Consumer trust is of paramount importance in the development of autonomous vehicles (AVs), because without this trust, AVs would not only underperform, they could be unusable and dangerous. This essay gives an epistemic account of trustworthiness that aims for appropriate trustworthiness, which fully justifies consumers’ trust in AVs, based on indicators of trustworthiness. After defining trust in the realm of technology, this paper introduces six desiderata for autonomous systems in order to increase trust: Repeatability, Predictability, Reliability, Transparency, Reconstructability, and Explicability. After each term is defined and examples provided, it is argued that these concepts can be divided along two orthogonal axes: System Externality versus Internality, and Expert versus Nonexpert groupings. In order to establish appropriate trust for nonexpert consumers, both external and internal nonexpert indicators must be present, and internal expert indicators must be accessible by appropriate authorities. Finally, recommendations will be given for incorporating these features into AVs.
Distributive Justice, Institutionalism, and Autonomous Vehicles
Authors: Taylor Smith Patrick 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Much of the philosophical discussion concerning the permissibility or regulation of autonomous vehicles has focused on interpersonal ethics, including and especially the question of whether we can program a vehicle to behave as an ideal moral agent would when faced with a dilemma where a fatal crash is unavoidable. However, there are normative issues surrounding autonomous vehicles that go beyond the single, isolated decision of how to act when faced with this kind of “trolley problem.” One should also ask how different autonomous vehicle designs and regulatory regimes support or undermine social and distributive justice. In this paper, the author describes three different types of justice-based worries. First, there are justice-based considerations that are internal to autonomous vehicle deployment where we determine whether autonomous vehicles will behave in ways that distribute risks fairly among relevant classes of people. That is, it would be problematic if we purchased superior trolley problem performance at the cost of dramatically increased risks in other contexts. Second, determining whether and to what extent autonomous vehicle deployment scenarios generate conflicts with other domains of justice is necessary. Finally, there are justice-based worries concerned with dual-use technologies. If superior performance on trolley problems requires the development of technologies that can be used in less benign contexts, then those risks ought to be mitigated. After describing these three sources of concern, the author then offers some potential principles—using concepts borrowed from Rawlsian distributive justice—that might help guide us through these conflicts and trade-offs.
Autonomous Vehicles and the Basic Structure of Society
Authors: Dubljević Veljko , Bauer William A. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The widespread introduction of fully autonomous vehicles (AVs) presents macro-level socioeconomic concerns in addition to micro-level “ethics on the road” dilemmas. This paper concerns the impacts of AVs on our basic socioeconomic structure. Given the advent of self-driving freight trucks and taxis, for instance, millions of drivers could become unemployed very quickly. Citizens and leaders should address these kinds of macro-level social justice issues in advance in order to forestall the worst outcomes. To plausibly address these issues, we explore them using John Rawls’s theory of justice. After explaining the “original position” thought experiment and the principles of justice Rawls espouses, we apply these principles to the question of AVs. Focusing on the cases of truck and taxi drivers, we argue that the principles of justice as fairness support several possible policy-guiding norms that can be used to develop specific regulatory policies and ensure smoother economic transition as AVs are implemented on a broad scale.
Making Autonomous Vehicle Technologies Matter
Authors: Dutta-Koehler Madhu C. , Hatch Jennifer 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Autonomous vehicle (AV) technologies are bound to reshape urban landscapes. Depending on how these technologies are deployed—whether in private cars, taxis, or mass-transit systems—the impacts and benefits will be differentially distributed across people and sectors. The authors argue that the introduction of this disruptive technology also offers, however, a significant opportunity to deploy autonomy in ways and forms that enable broad and equitable access, while ensuring efficient use of time and resources. Drawing on economic, demographic, environmental, and geospatial analyses of current public transportation access in urban communities affected by the first-mile/last-mile problem, the authors investigate the implications of introducing AV technologies to key underserved neighborhoods. Evaluating several criteria, including current and emergent technologies, global models of implementation, and the implications of increased transportation access to underserved communities, the authors propose a framework for cities to effectively take advantage of AV technology to increase social equity.
Fixing Congestion for Whom?
Authors: Voulgaris Carole Turley 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Traffic congestion is among the most commonly cited urban transportation problems. Autonomous vehicles, if widely adopted, have the potential to dramatically alter the relationships among drivers, traffic congestion, and those who live in the places cars travel through. An explanation of the definition and causes of traffic congestion provides a framework for discussing the specific ways in which autonomous vehicles might influence traffic congestion, and it suggests that the widespread adoption of autonomous vehicles could increase travel by car rather than reducing total traffic congestion. At the same time, by freeing drivers’ attention from the unpleasantness of driving in congested conditions without reducing the effects of congestion on nondrivers in the communities where cars travel, autonomous vehicles could shift the burden of congestion from drivers to nondrivers. Careful consideration of the distribution of the full range of harms congestion causes should shape policy responses to the introduction of autonomous vehicles.
Fulfilling the Promise of Autonomous Vehicles with a New Ethics of Transportation
Authors: Kock Beaudry , Lannquist Yolanda 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores how the ethics of our transportation system dominate and influence the ethics of autonomous vehicles (AVs). Success of any new technological entrant has always depended on supportive structures in the existing transportation system. Many have sought to shape the transportation system and its ethics in favor of a particular technology. This has bequeathed us a transportation system that is dangerous, polluting, inequitable, and wasteful, rooted in ethics that privilege the safety of people in vehicles, emphasize mobility over accessibility, design for injustice, and embrace inefficiency. Absent intervention, AV ethics and outcomes will simply mirror these failures unless we work to reshape both the system and its ethical underpinnings. A new ethics of transportation is needed, based on principles of human-centeredness, empathy, and justice guiding all transportation policies, investments, laws, standards, and technologies. Under this regime, AVs will be more successful and valuable to society.
An Introduction to Individual Sounds
Authors: Adams David 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents the phonetic symbols used in the book and descriptions of how each sound is made, with reference to the positioning of the articulators (tongue, jaw, lips, glottis) for each sound. Sample words from each language, including English, are given as examples of the sounds and comparison of sounds from one language to another. A brief history of the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA) is provided. The sequence of the presentation is as follows: vowel sounds, glides, and consonants. Additional symbols are presented and explained, such as those for vowel length, syllabification, and word stress. Each sample word is translated into English and transcribed into the IPA.
Conclusion
Authors: Spitzer Robert J. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The Supreme Court’s recent ruling in the case of New York State Rifle & Pistol Association (NYSRPA) v. Bruen sets up the paradigm for the effort to roll back existing and established gun laws. This effort by conservative gun rights activists in law and politics to significantly broaden the definition of gun rights is part of a larger movement from the political right to push or redefine rights in many areas in a more conservative direction. This book offers a case study of that larger movement, occurring both at the national and grassroots levels. The lessons of our gun law past contradict the Originalism-based argument touted to support such a rollback of gun laws.
Nature or Nurture?
Authors: Gat Azar 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
The idea that humankind has little to speak of by way of its nature, that people’s minds are a “blank slate”, to be molded by culture and by other environmental factors, belongs to the very core of liberalism. In the ways it has been developed and applied, this idea is responsible for major polemics, misguided notions, and resultant confusion in the intellectual and public arena. In this chapter, we address the prevailing analysis of, and attitude toward, the phenomena of the nation and nationhood. The resurgence of nationalism comes as a surprise and shock to many, as the world has become increasingly interconnected and interdependent. Cosmopolitism and the demise of the nation-state have been heralded and celebrated as the order of the future. “Modernists” have claimed that the national phenomenon is recent, superficial, and contrived. As this chapter argues, ethnic and national affinities have deep roots in the human psyche and have been among the most powerful forces in human history. While always subject to historical transformations, ethnic and national identities are not going away any more than are other deeply rooted and changing human associations and relations, such as the family. They have had an emancipating effect and they are a major source of social solidarity, while also carrying a chauvinistic-aggressive aspect.
Precision Medicine and Distributive Justice
Authors: Fleck Leonard M. 
Published: September 2022

Abstract
Wicked ethical problems have been generated by precision medicine due to both the wiliness of cancer and the fragmentation of health care financing in the United States. The wiliness of cancer has resulted in these targeted cancer therapies yielding only very marginal gains in life expectancy for most patients at very great cost, thereby threatening the just allocation of health care resources. As a life-threatening phenomenon, cancer is not morally special. Philosophers have high hopes for the utility of their theories of justice. However, metastatic cancer and costly precision medicines generate extremely complex problems of health care justice that none of these theories can address adequately. What is needed instead is a political conception of health care justice (following Rawls) and a fair and inclusive process of rational democratic deliberation governed by public reason. A basic assumption is that society has only limited health care resources to meet unlimited health care needs (generated by emerging medical technologies). The primary ethical and political virtue of rational democratic deliberation is that it allows citizens as citizens to fashion autonomously shared understandings of how to address fairly the complex problems of health care justice generated by precision medicine. Still, in a pluralistic world, ideally just outcomes are a moral and political impossibility. Wicked problems can metastasize if rationing decisions are made invisibly, in ways effectively hidden from those affected by those decisions. A fair and inclusive process of democratic deliberation makes wicked problems visible to public reason.