bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Fertility Options for Transgender Persons
Authors: Roo Chloë De , T’Sjoen Guy 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Transgender persons inherently possess normal reproductive capacity, however, hormonal and surgical treatments for transgender people potentially impair the ability of these individuals to reproduce. Additionally, transgender people tend to start gender-affirming treatment at a young age, when reproductive wishes are not yet clearly defined nor fulfilled. The most recent Standards of Care of the World Professional Association for Transgender Health recommend to clearly inform patients on their future reproductive options prior to initiation of treatment. Where surgery definitely results in sterility, hormone therapy on the other hand also has an important, but partially reversible impact on fertility. However, thresholds for cross-sex hormone treatment to avoid permanent reproductive impairment have not been established. The current fertility preservation options for transgender men are embryo cryopreservation, oocyte cryopreservation, and ovarian tissue cryopreservation. For transgender women, sperm cryopreservation, surgical sperm extraction, and testicular tissue cryopreservation are possible.
Endocrinology in the Critically Ill
Authors: Berghe Greet Van den , Langouche Lies 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The neuroendocrine responses to acute and prolonged critical illness are substantially different. In the acute phase, the adaptations are probably beneficial in the struggle for short-term survival, whereas the chronic alterations may be maladaptive and participate in the general wasting syndrome of prolonged critical illness. Thorough understanding of the pathophysiology underlying these distinct neuroendocrine alterations during acute and prolonged critical illness is vital when considering new therapeutic strategies to correct these abnormalities and, as such, open perspectives to improve survival. Indeed, adequate choice of hormone and corresponding dosage are crucial and depend on such insights. The concomitant administration of presumed deficient (hypothalamic) releasing factors holds promise as an effective and safe intervention to jointly restore the corresponding axes and to counteract the hypercatabolic state of prolonged critical illness.
Endocrine Abnormalities in HIV Infection
Authors: Grinspoon Steven K. , Stanley Takara L. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Treated and untreated human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection is associated with perturbations in body composition and in the function of the endocrine axes. In advanced stages of disease, individuals with untreated HIV may have wasting, decreased lean mass, and abnormalities of multiple endocrine axes, including growth hormone (GH) resistance, androgen deficiency, oligo- or amenorrhea in women, and impaired adrenal function. By contrast, individuals with well-treated HIV often experience weight gain and ectopic fat accumulation. Whereas frank endocrine abnormalities are less common in people with well-treated HIV, cardiometabolic abnormalities such as insulin resistance, dyslipidaemia, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease are relatively common. Finally, bone mineral density may be reduced, and cardiovascular risk is increased in individuals with HIV, in large part due to the immune dysregulation and persistent inflammation that accompanies even treated HIV. Appropriate care for individuals with HIV includes evaluation of any potential signs or symptoms of endocrine dysregulation as well as assessment and management of cardiovascular risk factors.
Endocrinology and Alcohol
Authors: Walter Marc , Proescholdt Margit G. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Alcohol has widespread effects on the endocrine system, potentially impairing endocrine function. Endocrine dysfunction observed in alcoholism, not only results from hepatic failure or chronic malnutrition, but also from direct, toxic actions of alcohol on the endocrine organs themselves as well as interferences with endocrine regulation at the hypothalamic–pituitary level. In the absence of liver disease, alcohol-induced endocrine impairment is mostly reversible upon cessation of alcohol consumption. The endocrine system itself may play a crucial role in the facilitation and maintenance of addictive behaviour. There is conflicting evidence that low to moderate alcohol consumption confers benefit on some endocrine diseases. The question as to whether low to moderate alcohol consumption has benefits on general health is unresolved. A better understanding of the impact of alcohol on the endocrine system is required to drive public health recommendations on alcohol consumption.
Dietary and Medical Management of Obesity
Authors: Wilding John P. , Lim Jonathan Z.M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Lifestyle interventions that restrict energy intake, increase physical activity, and modify behaviour are the mainstay of most weight management programmes. Diets producing an intake of 500–600 kcal day below estimated total daily energy expenditure, combined with altered dietary macronutrient composition result in an average decrease of 3–5% initial body weight over 12 months. Use of meal replacements coupled with lifestyle support and gradual re-introduction of normal food can result in better weight loss than other dietary strategies, but weight regain is still common. Increasing physical activity through structured, gradual increments of intensity and frequency are predictors of success in weight maintenance at 1 year, 3 years, and beyond 5 years in combination with diet. Evidence from meta-analysis of behaviour modification therapy has further led clinicians to reconsider the types of messages, advice, and behaviour support offered to tackle the psychosocial aspects and stigma associated with obesity. Current pharmacological antiobesity agents include the intestinal lipase inhibitor orlistat, centrally acting drugs such as lorcaserin, naltrexone/bupropion, or phentermine alone or in combination with topiramate, and liraglutide, a GLP-1 receptor analogue also approved for use as glucose lowering agent. Future developments will likely target multiple pathways to optimize efficacy.
Classification and Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus
Authors: Colagiuri Stephen , Lee Crystal Man Ying 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Diabetes is a major contributor to the global disease burden. The first official recommendation on the diagnostic criteria and classification of diabetes was published in 1965. At the time measurement of 2-hour plasma glucose during an oral glucose tolerance test was the only recommended diagnostic test. Today, measures of fasting plasma glucose and glycated haemoglobin are recognized alternatives. Diagnostic criteria for diabetes are universally agreed but criteria for intermediate hyperglycaemia differ. Classification of diabetes has evolved with improved understanding of the aetiopathology of diabetes but remains challenging due to the overlap of diabetes phenotypes. While new classification systems have been proposed to address the limitations of the current system, lack of global access to diagnostic tests which might better characterize types of diabetes hinders their universal application.
Epidemiology and Public Health
Authors: Wild Sarah , Price Jackie 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Epidemiological studies provide valuable information about the definition, incidence, and prevalence of diabetes and its complications and their risk factors. Prevalence of diabetes is increasing globally as a consequence of ageing populations and increasing urbanization and obesity. Incidence of type 2 diabetes is falling in some developed countries, but prevalence continues to increase as a consequence of increasing survival. Differences between populations in prevalence of diabetes have provided important information in understanding the aetiology of diabetes and in developing approaches to prevention and treatment. However, there are still considerable gaps in our knowledge of the epidemiology of diabetes and in how we apply existing knowledge about effective approaches to the prevention of diabetes and its complications at a population level. Complications of diabetes results in major costs to individuals, health systems, and societies.
Non-Insulin Glucose-Lowering Agents
Authors: Bailey Clifford J. , Davies Melanie J. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
A selection of differently acting blood glucose-lowering agents can be used in the management of type 2 diabetes to address different aspects of disease pathogenesis and comorbidities. Key factors influencing choice of medication include extent and duration of hyperglycaemia, obesity, insulin resistance, and impairment of beta-cell function, risk of hypoglycaemia, and risk or presence of cardiovascular, renal, and other complications. Diet, other lifestyle measures, patient education, and empowerment are fundamental throughout. Metformin is still widely used as initial orally administered blood glucose-lowering therapy. Other orally administered agents include sulphonylureas and meglitinides which stimulate insulin secretion, sodium/glucose cotransporter-2 (SGLT2) inhibitors which increase glucose elimination in the urine, thiazolidinediones which improve insulin sensitivity, and alpha-glucosidase inhibitors which slow the rate of carbohydrate digestion. Dipeptidylpeptidase-4 (DPP4) inhibitors slow the degradation of endogenous incretins, particularly glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), potentiating prandial insulin secretion, and reducing excess glucagon secretion. GLP-1 receptor agonists, which are administered by subcutaneous injection further increase prandial insulin secretion, reduce hyperglucagonaemia, and facilitate weight loss.
Strategies for the Management of Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: Hammond Peter , Campbell Fiona 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The management of type 1 diabetes depends on optimal administration of insulin based on measurement of blood glucose levels. In order for a person living with diabetes to do this effectively on a daily basis they require training through a structured education programme in insulin delivery using multiple daily insulin injections or insulin pump therapy, and adjusting insulin doses according to monitored glucose values from capillary blood glucose measurements or continuous interstitial glucose sensing. This strategy applies to children and adults alike, although the specifics of the training and dosing regimen will be tailored to the individual. National benchmarking and audit programmes set the standards that services should expect to meet to demonstrate that they are helping the persons living with diabetes under their care to effectively implement this management strategy.
Immunotherapy for Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: Dayan Colin , Tatovic Danijela 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
A period of several years from the appearance of multiple antibodies to beta-cell antigens to clinical presentation of type 1 diabetes represents a window of opportunity for immunological intervention in order to halt the autoimmune process and preserve beta-cell function. The most rapid loss of beta-cell function happens in the first 12 months after diagnosis, which provides a further opportunity for interventions leading to effective beta-cell preservation. This is important as even a small amount of residual beta-cell function markedly improves metabolic control. Low-risk immunotherapeutic options are now available and widely used in other autoimmune diseases, but no such therapies are licensed for use in type 1 diabetes. With multiple immuno-intervention approaches showing potential efficacy in type 1 diabetes, we are now on the brink of fundamentally changing the management of this burdensome disease by using immunotherapy to preserve endogenous beta-cell function and make metabolic control substantially easier. It seems likely that non-antigen-specific therapies will be licensed first, but antigen-specific therapy may follow, offering the possibility of treating type 1 diabetes in the preclinical phase and delaying or preventing the need for insulin therapy.
Transplantation (Islet and Solid Organ)
Authors: Flatt Anneliese , Drage Martin , Callaghan Chris , Senior Peter 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The limitations of insulin therapy as a means to manage glycaemia in type 1 diabetes are familiar to affected individuals and clinicians. Current therapies are burdensome and are unable to reliably achieve euglycaemia without substantial risk of hypoglycaemia and weight gain, while micro- and macrovascular complications remain major contributors to morbidity and mortality. Restoration of endogenous glucose-dependent insulin secretion by replacing beta cells through transplantation remains an intriguing option. Given the limited number of organ donors as well as the potential risks, including the present requirement for lifelong immunosuppression, identification of individuals for whom the risk benefit clearly favours transplantation is key. Rather than an alternative to insulin, transplantation may be better considered as an option when conventional therapy integrating technology and educational approaches has failed. This chapter aims to describe our current knowledge of the risks and benefits of islet and pancreas transplantation to help practitioners identify those most likely to benefit from beta-cell replacement.
Care of Diabetes in ICU and Perisurgery
Authors: Gunst Jan , Van den Berghe Greet 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Critically ill patients and patients undergoing major surgery usually develop stress hyperglycaemia, which is associated with an increased morbidity and mortality risk. Randomized controlled trials interfering with elevated blood glucose during intensive care and the perioperative period have yielded mixed results, however. The optimal blood glucose target may depend on the context. Tight glucose control was shown to be effective and safe when performed with accurate glucose measurement tools and a reliable insulin infusion protocol in patients receiving early parenteral nutrition. Whether tight glucose control is beneficial in the absence of early parenteral nutrition, remains to be studied. In any case, hypoglycaemia and severe hyperglycaemia should be avoided. In patients with poorly controlled diabetes, the ideal blood glucose target may be higher than in non-diabetics.
Type 1 Diabetes and Psychiatry
Authors: Ismail Khalida , Garrett Chris , Stadler Marietta 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
There is a consistent pattern of association of several psychiatric disorders and type 1 diabetes (T1D) including depression, anxiety, eating disorders, and personality disorders. The presumption is that most psychiatric morbidity is accrued from the psychological burden per se of T1D or that individuals with subclinical pre-existing mental health difficulties are tipped into an overt psychiatric diagnosis. Elements of the T1D regime, namely the acute focus on food and the energy it contains, as well as heightened requirements of self-control can predispose to eating disorders, while others find the unrelenting requirements profoundly depressing, leading to clinical depression. Others acquire diabetes-specific anxieties, such as fear of hypoglycaemia or preoccupation with long-term complications. Psychiatric disorders impact diabetes self-management and there is an established association with acute and long-term complications including increased mortality. An underlying mental health problem should be a primary differential in certain clinical scenarios. such as persistent high HbA1c (&gt;80 mmol/mol IFCC), particularly with recurrent diabetic ketoacidosis (rDKA) and also those with recurrent severe hypoglycaemia. This is particularly important in rDKA where subsequent all-cause mortality is in excess of 15% and closely linked to mental health disorders. Early recognition of psychiatric disorders is therefore vital for prognosis for both physical and mental health and diabetes clinicians should routinely monitor for psychiatric disorders.
Retinopathy
Authors: Scanlon Peter H. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Diabetic retinopathy is the leading cause of blindness in the working age population of most developed countries but has been shown to no longer be the leading cause in England and Wales. The introduction of the national screening programmes has been considered to be a major contributor to this achievement. The people with diabetes who still lose vision are often non-attenders who present late in the disease when treatment is more difficult. Tightening of control of glycaemia and blood pressure can slow the disease progression. When sight threatening retinopathy is detected, laser treatment and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) inhibitor treatments reduce the risk of visual loss. When advanced retinopathy is detected, vitrectomy results have improved considerably over the last 20 years and a reasonable level of vision is often retained.
Diabetic Nephropathy
Authors: Gnudi Luigi , Marshall Sally M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DN) is the most feared diabetic chronic vascular complication. Characterized by progressive renal function decline, it eventually results in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and is the major cause of ESRD (United States Renal Data System, 2016). In patients with type 1 diabetes (T1DM), DN presents initially with hyperfiltration and albuminuria which are then followed by a relentless decline in glomerular filtration rate; this classical presentation occurs in 30–40% patients and is always paralleled by the presence of retinopathy. The presentation of diabetic kidney disease (DKD) in patients with T2DM is not straightforward and often presents diagnostic difficulties: we are often unaware of the duration of diabetes and hypertension, and about the potential concomitant presence of other glomerular/tubular pathologies; the fact that only half of patients with T2DM with kidney disease have diabetic retinopathy highlights the heterogeneity of DKD in T2DM. All-cause mortality in individuals with DKD is 20–40 times higher than that in diabetic patients without nephropathy. Most patients with DKD die from cardiovascular disease before they reach ESRD. The prevention and management of diabetes and its chronic vascular complications and associated cardiovascular mortality and morbidity, is a global challenge and a significant social and economic burden.
Diabetic Neuropathy
Authors: Tesfaye Solomon , Wu Jing 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Diabetic neuropathy is a major complication of diabetes and a cause of considerable morbidity and mortality. Classification of the various syndromes of diabetic neuropathy is also difficult: it is not a single entity as such, but includes several neuropathic syndromes. In clinical practice, the commonest presentation of neuropathy is chronic distal symmetrical polyneuropathy (DSP) also known as diabetic peripheral neuropathy (DPN). The neuropathic syndromes depicted have varied presentations and pathogenesis. This chapter will cover these syndromes although the main focuses will be: (1) DPN, which is the main initiating factor for foot ulceration and a cause of troublesome painful neuropathic symptoms and (2) autonomic neuropathy.
Mechanisms of Macrovascular Disease in Diabetes
Authors: Kearney Mark T. , Patel Peysh A. , Cubbon Richard M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Insulin resistance describes defective metabolic and signalling responses to insulin, which may manifest clinically as prediabetes or frank diabetes. The spectrum of insulin resistance is associated with accelerated development of cardiovascular disease, ranging from endothelial dysfunction to advanced atherosclerosis, and also impedes endogenous vascular repair. Systemic insulin resistance encompasses a cluster of inter-related pro-atherosclerotic factors such as dyslipidaemia, hyperglycaemia, oxidative stress, and chronic inflammation. Perturbed insulin signalling within the vascular wall is also emerging as an important contributor to the macrovascular complications of diabetes. Insulin-resistant disorders remain a risk factor for developing cardiovascular disease and its fatal complications, necessitating the development of new therapeutic approaches.
Modern Management of Diabetes-Related Foot Disease
Authors: Bowling Frank Lee , Boulton Andrew J.M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Diabetic foot problems are preventable but still account for a high number of hospital admissions in developed countries. In 2005, The International Diabetes Federation (IDF) focused on the diabetic foot. The ‘Put Feet First’ campaign highlighted the high prevalence of amputations within the diabetic population worldwide. Parallel to this World Diabetes Day launch, The Lancet dedicated a large proportion of its issue to the diabetic foot: a first for any major non-specialist journal focusing on this global challenge. Armstrong et al. concluded that 34% of people with diabetes will develop a foot ulcer during the course of their life; thus the overall treatment and healthcare management of diabetic foot complications can be sustained and time-consuming requiring the involvement of a multidisciplinary team (MDT) dedicated to foot health. It has recently been suggested that those with a previous foot ulcer history should be described as being in ‘remission’ rather than ‘healed’, emphasizing the seriousness of a foot ulcer history. A non-healing lesion complicated by gross infection is estimated to precede 85% of all major lower limb amputations.
Sex Steroid Actions in the Male
Authors: Vanderschueren Dirk , Antonio Leen , Kim Na Ri , Claessens Frank 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Testosterone (T) is the principal circulating androgen in men. T can be converted to the more potent androgen dihydrotestosterone (DHT) by 5a-reductase enzymes and to oestradiol (E2) by the aromatase enzyme. Growing evidence suggests that not only androgen-, but also oestrogen-mediated pathways are important in male physiology. In this chapter, we will discuss sex steroid metabolism and transport in the circulation and the molecular mechanisms of sex steroid actions via the androgen and oestrogen receptor. Furthermore, we will review androgen and oestrogen actions throughout the male lifespan and the differential effects of T, DHT, and E2 in adult male physiology.
Plagiarism and the Napoleonic Potpourri
Authors: Weitz Shaena B 
Published: January 2022

ABSTRACT
This article presents the modern rediscovery of the potpourri, a genre of music that appeared in France around 1787 and was banned by Napoleonic copyright law in 1810. While potpourris have been dismissed as mere medleys, this article shows that in its original form, the potpourri used musical excerpts for an intriguing game: to make pointed musical commentary about the politics of musical resemblance. As a genre, the potpourri reveals various conclusions about musical creation, setting into relief tensions between older ideas about the primacy of imitation and newer ideas about creativity ex nihilo—tensions that were not sufficiently resolved when the new intellectual property law privileging the ‘rights of genius’ was enacted in 1793. Potpourris provide, from the viewpoint of working musicians, previously unexamined commentary on the philosophical discourse and legal action that defined and protected certain creative practices and delegitimized others around the turn of the nineteenth century.