bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Two Trajectories to Jihad
Authors: Drevon Jerome 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 compares the emergence of two groups in the 1970s: the IG and the JG. These two groups defined the main ideological precepts of jihadi salafism around opposition to Muslim leaders not applying Islamic Law comprehensively. Despite this similarity, their comparative radicalization reflected different mechanisms of radicalization that shaped these groups’ early institutionalization. The JG radicalized in interaction with the state and political environment but failed to institutionalize internally because of the high-risk nature of the group’s endeavor to topple the regime. The group hence remained an agglomeration of loosely connected cells before 1981. The IG was conversely a proselytization movement that institutionalized before embracing violence in response to a counter-movement, outbidding with the security services, and political developments. These contrasting trajectories contextualize the IG’s relatively advanced internal institutionalization before the assassination of Sadat in 1981.
Confronting the Regime and Fighting the Far Enemy
Authors: Drevon Jerome 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 examines how the IG and JG resorted to armed violence in Egypt and abroad through the conjoint analysis of changing state policies, jihadi groups’ institutionalization, and micro-level developments. The chapter argues that jihadi groups’ internal institutionalization accounts for the practicalities of violence beyond stated ideological commitments and changing policing of protest. Strongly institutionalized groups like the IG are better positioned to use violence in line with their tactical and strategic preferences and prevent counterproductive violence, in contrast with weakly institutionalized groups like the JG. In both cases, institutional decay ultimately produced increasingly indiscriminate violence disconnected from the achievement of any long-term strategic objectives.
How to Make an AI
Authors: Graham S. Scott 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes how health artificial intelligence (AI) development is embedded in multifaceted sociotechnical systems that involve not only cutting-edge advances in computer science and medicine, but also scientific standards, regulatory structures, and economic systems. It describes how algorithms find patterns in numeric representations, and how AI accuracy is measured following one of several conflicting approaches established by federal regulation and scientific communities. The chapter details how AI development is a complex choreography of humans and technology. It also offers an orientation to the technical details of AI development and explores how the many systems that compose AI are assembled into a single package or product. Along the way, the chapter describes how bias can enter the sociotechnical systems of deep medicine in different ways at different moments in the AI development process.
The Search for Ground Truth
Authors: Graham S. Scott 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates data collection and curation activities that precede the training of artificially intelligent systems. The chapter documents different approaches to annotating data to create what is called “ground truth” in machine learning. It begins with an exploration of different techniques for health artificial intelligence (AI) “groundtruthing.” This includes collection of data from electronic health records, the use of established diagnostic techniques, and custom annotations by healthcare professionals. The chapter then investigates different statistical techniques for validating AI performance and describes the results of an AI development simulation that models the search for ground truth and exposes serious limitations in the most common research designs.
HypeDx
Authors: Graham S. Scott 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates promotional claims about health artificial intelligence (AI) in press releases, popular media, and scientific publications. It details the inaccuracies of the “two-stage” model of scientific dissemination that posits an initial stage of dispassionate scientific inquiry followed by a subsequent stage of marketing and promotion. In so doing, the chapter analyzes how the same promotional claims are present in press releases, popular media, and scientific publications. To further explore hype in health AI, the chapter also reports on the development of twin AI systems that identify and classify promotional and hedged language in biomedical research. These systems support an analysis of the prevalence of promotional language in published research on health AI and the identification of those research reports at the greatest risk of exaggeration.
Conclusion
Authors: Graham S. Scott 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter concludes The Doctor and the Algorithm by reviewing recommendations that will support more just and ethical futures for health artificial intelligence (AI). It offers an analysis of specific current technologies within the context of these recommendations and outlines several key emerging initiatives that might support more ethical and equitable approaches to health AI in the future. The promise in deep medicine is usually articulated in terms of system performance or potential improvements to health outcomes. However, the greatest promise for health AI comes from the work of its careful critics. Capitalizing on the momentum of this work will help bring a new, well-regulated, rigorously validated, and community-led era for deep medicine.
Prior Attempts to Assess Harm and the Challenges They Have Encountered
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter reviews previous attempts to work with “harm” as an analytical device, either through empirical assessments of the harms of particular criminal activities or by spelling out what harm means and for whom. Identifying few attempts in the literature on crime, it takes a broader perspective and also considers analytical frameworks and empirical studies focusing on drug-related harm, public perceptions of the seriousness of crime, the impact of criminal victimization, and the cost of crime. Reflecting on these studies, the chapter discusses the conceptual and technical challenges of assessing harm and argues that these challenges almost certainly have played a part in hindering progress toward assessing the harms of crime. The chapter points to the achievements and deficits of previous analytical efforts, the underlying obstacles to harm assessment, and the value of the new framework.
A Framework to Assess the Harms of Crime
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter sets out a methodology for assessing the harms of crime systematically and empirically—namely, the harm assessment framework—which supports the analyses in subsequent chapters. It discusses the origins of the approach in literatures that span disciplines and presents the components of the framework, consisting of a set of analytical tools (data template, taxonomy, severity and incidence scales, and priority matrix) and a multistep process for applying them. The harm assessment framework weaves the tools together to identify, evaluate, and rank harms from damages to functional, material, and other interests, which are borne by individuals, private-sector entities, government, and the social and physical environment. In a final step, it also investigates causality, including the role of policy and related law-enforcement practices in shaping harms. All told, the framework addresses many of the conceptual and technical challenges of harm assessment raised previously.
An Application of the Framework to Coca Cultivation and Processing in Colombia
Authors: Greenfield Victoria A. , Paoli Letizia 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter reaches to the start of a cocaine supply chain and presents the results of a rapid assessment of harms of coca cultivation and processing in Colombia. The assessment, conducted largely in 2017, draws a loose circle around farm-level activities and the violence, corruption, and money laundering that accompany them in-country and references off-farm processing, trafficking, and conflict. This assessment, which is less comprehensive than the Belgian cocaine trafficking assessment, focuses on harms involving the physical environment—from deforestation and pollution—and material support, but it also considers some of the benefits of coca cultivation and processing to growers and others in Colombia. This application of the harm assessment framework demonstrates the potential for assessing harms quickly without a full-scale data collection, by using existing data and analyses, but, like the Belgian assessment, it also highlights some remaining analytical challenges.
How Does Ideology Explain Mass Killing?
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter sets out the book’s central account of why and how ideologies are essential to the explanation of mass killing. It begins by critiquing the two main ways in which scholars have sought to explain mass killing without reference to ideology: (i) rationalist explanations focused on strategic incentives for violence, and (ii) situationist explanations focused on social pressures to participate in violence. The chapter shows how such factors do matter, but only encourage mass killing in tandem with ‘hardline’ ideologies that generate justificatory narratives for mass killing in times of crisis. The chapter then unpacks ideology’s role for three key components of any ‘perpetrator coalition’ in mass killing: political elites, rank-and-file agents, and supporting public constituencies. It finally considers the roots of ‘hardline’ ideologies, emphasizing that they are neither mere modern instantiations of longstanding cultural traditions, nor simply symptoms of more fundamental material or social causes of mass killing.
Allied Area Bombing in World War II
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan 
Published: August 2022

AbstractDuring World War II, Britain and the United States launched a campaign of area bombing against Germany and Japan: explicitly seeking to kill civilians so as to shatter ‘enemy morale’ and cripple industry. That campaign has often been presented as essentially ‘unideological’ and explained through the strategic conditions of a desperate total war. This chapter refutes that account—showing that while desperate wartime conditions were critical, prior ideological conceptions of war adhered to by key Allied elites and massively propagated during the war were equally essential. The chapter begins by demonstrating the quite contingent path of ideological development that generated such hardline ideas about war, and especially air power, between World Wars I and II. It then shows how such ideas underpinned Allied elites’ decision to employ area bombing, while also playing important though less vital roles for rank-and-file aircrews and the broader American and British publics.
Mass Killing in Guatemala’s Civil War
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines mass killing by the military government of Guatemala between 1978 and 1983, in which over 100,000 civilians, primarily indigenous Maya, were killed. The military’s atrocities against civilians have often been analysed through a rationalist counter-insurgency lens, in which the violence was strategically motivated and explained by the incentives of an intractable civil war. This chapter shows that, while strategic motives were central to mass killing in Guatemala, the choice for such extreme, wildly disproportionate violence was vitally embedded in the military regime’s ideological infrastructure. The chapter traces the origins of that ideological infrastructure, rooted in Guatemalan racism and anticommunism stretching back to the mid-twentieth century, and radicalized by civil war. It then shows the centrality of racist nationalism and ultraconservative anticommunism, and the justificatory narrative for violence they generated, in the elite decisions, rank-and-file participation, and broader public support for the regime in mass killing.
Conclusion
Authors: Leader Maynard Jonathan 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis concluding chapter first summarizes the main arguments of the book—in particular surrounding (i) the need to analyse the intersection of ideology and strategic decision-making about security, and (ii) the need to analyse the multiple ‘infrastructural’ processes through which ideologies may shape violent behaviour, rather than retaining a narrow focus on ‘true believers’. The chapter then outlines some key implications of the book’s findings for future research and for efforts to predict and prevent mass killings. It concludes be emphasizing the need, in both empirical and normative reflection on violence, to appreciate the human dependence on ideology in politics, and the ethical frailty and progressive potential that this dependence creates.
Introduction
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The present chapter gives an introduction to Nanophotonics. It starts with the definition of Electronics, and then describes its scope, progress, and current state-of the-art technology. After giving the definition of Photonics, a brief sketch of the development of Photonics is given mentioning how it opened up newer areas of development and applications and novel physical phenomena. The meaning and scope of Nanophotonics are then given, covering semiconductor nanostructures, photonic band gap structures, metallic nanostructures with emphasis on nanoantenna, plasmonics, metamaterials, and metasurfaces. The structures used in Nanophotonicsare then briefly introduced. A list of novel physical phenomena including cavity QED effects, Bose–Einstein condensation, etc., is then given. Finally, some of the envisaged application areas of Nanophotonics are discussed; in particular, the transition from Electronics to Photonics and ultimately to plasmonics in attaining small-size and high-speed systems for networking is briefly mentioned.
Photons and electron-photon interactions
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The chapter first develops the wave equation in a rectangular cavity and gives the definition and number of density-of-modes within it. Prescription for converting the classical expressions of the EM field to quantized forms in terms of creation and annihilation operators is then outlined. After introducing the concept of photons, the interactions of an atomic system with photons are described in terms of the interaction Hamiltonian. The time-dependent perturbation theory, using the Fermi Golden Rule and the dipole approximation is employed to obtain expressions for the absorption and emission rates. The theory is then applied to the case of a two-level atomic system to obtain the expression for Einstein’s A-coefficient. Broadening of emission line is pointed out and the oscillator strength is defined.
Electron-photon interactions in bulk semiconductors
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The microscopic theory of optical processes in bulk semiconductors is developed in this chapter. Amongst various absorption processes in a semiconductor, firstly the expression for direct-gap band-to-band absorption coefficient is developed by considering the polarization dependence of momentum matrix elements and then the intervalence band absorption process. The free carrier absorption processes are explained by using a classical Drude model. The recombination processes are then addressed and lifetimes of both radiative and non-radiative, including Auger type, are introduced with appropriate theory. The effects of carriers on absorption and change in refractive index are pointed out qualitatively. Finally, the expression for the gain coefficient in semiconductors is developed in terms of momentum and electric-dipole matrix elements for interband and other transitions. The minimum difference to be maintained between the quasi-Fermi levels for electrons and holes to obtain gain is established.
Optical processes in quantum wells
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The theory and methods developed in Chapter 5 are applied with modifications to semiconductor Quantum Wells in this chapter. The expressions for the interband absorption coefficient are developed taking into consideration the two-dimensional nature of electrons and holes, subband selection rules, degeneracy of the carriers, and altered polarization-dependent momentum matrix element. The intersubband transitions within a band are then considered. This is followed by the theory of various recombination processes relevant for Quantum Wells (QW)s. The derivation of the expression for gain coefficient in QWs then follows. Different loss processes reducing gain, namely, intervalence band absorption, Auger recombination, and free carrier absorption, are then discussed. A brief discussion about these changes in gain and other characteristics under is presented next. The chapter concludes with a brief discussion on optical processes in type II structures and the advantage of using tunnel injection structure.
Excitons in semiconductors
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The aim of the present chapter is to discuss excitonic processes in semiconductor bulk and Quantum Wells(QW)s. The concept of exciton is elaborated for bulk semiconductors and the expressions for dispersion relation, binding energy, and absorption coefficient of Wannier excitons are derived, illustrating the changes in the absorption spectra due to excitons. The recombination processes are then discussed. Theories for excitonic absorption in QWs are developed, first for the ideal two-dimensional system and then for QWs of finite widths and barriers by approximate treatments. The effects of electric field, the Franz–Keldysh effect in bulk and prominent quantum confined stark effects in QWs due to changes in subband structure and excitonic effects are then investigated. The chapter ends with a brief introduction to and development of Wannier equation in the fractional dimensional space and the methods of determination of non-integer dimension and excitonic binding energy for QWs.
Optical microcavities
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Optical cavities or resonators having dimensions of the order of cube of the wavelength, are introduced with the definitions of DOM, mode volume, quality factor, finesse, and loss mechanisms in general. The simplest resonator structures, the FP resonator, Bragg gratings and mirrors, and ring resonators and their characteristics are presented next. Resonators working with whispering gallery modes, different structures used, and both ray-optic and electromagnetic theories to understand their operations are also discussed. The formation of photonic band gap in photonic crystal is illustrated by solving wave equation in a 1D periodic structure. The concepts are extended to 2D and 3D periodic structures, giving representative structures, typical dispersion relations, examples of photonic band gaps, and the methods to form waveguides. The micropillar structure is discussed in detail. Finally, a summary of different resonator structures, method of light confinement, values of Q, and sources are given.
Cavity quantum electrodynamics
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Inhibition and enhancement of spontaneous emission rate, first proposed by Purcell, is discussed in terms of altered density-of-modes in various types of solid-state cavities and the Purcell factor is derived for two-level atomic system. The conditions for observing Purcell factor and experimental findings in micropillars embedded with Quantum Dots (QD)s are discussed. The strong interaction between photons and matter in the form of QD excitons, dispersion relations for ground and excited states separated by Rabi splitting are discussed. Experimental photoluminescence spectra showing anticrossing of exciton lines and cavity lines by temperature and other tuning methods are used to illustrate the strong light-matter interaction. The Jayness–Cummins model based on second quantization is presented to point out Rabi oscillation, Purcell effect, and other novel features. Microcavity structures for observing cavity quantum electrodynamics effects are mentioned. Microcavity lasers predicting thresholdless operation for unity spontaneous emission coupling factors are discussed.
Bose–Einstein condensation
Authors: Basu Prasanta Kumar , Mukhopadhyay Bratati , Basu Rikmantra 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The concept of Bose–Einstein condensation (BEC) critical temperature and volume are introduced for atomic systems. The possibility of observation of BEC at high temperature due to small mass is discussed considering exciton-polaritons in bulk CuCl, CdSe, and Cu2O, indirect excitons in coupled QWs, and mostly polaritons in semiconductor microcavities, the last system being most effective for observing BEC at room temperature. The dispersion relations of exciton-polaritons for both upper and lower polariton branches, effective masses, scattering processes, and conditions for observing BEC in microcavities are discussed. Experimental results for BEC in such structures, pumping and detection mechanisms, and characteristics are then presented. Novel features of polariton lasers, progress in developing room temperature electrically pumped lasers with structures are then presented. A model for electrically driven polariton laser considering formation and scattering of excitons is developed and a steady state rate equation model is used to obtain useful characteristics.
Coordination and the Syntax – Discourse Interface
Authors: Altshuler Daniel , Truswell Robert 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe goal of this book is to explore interactions between syntactic structure and discourse structure, through a case study of patterns of extraction from coordinate structures. This is the most complete account of extraction from coordinate structures to date. This is a consequence of the theoretical breadth of the survey undertaken: extraction from coordinate structures is, at first blush, a syntactic matter, but the survey ranges far beyond syntax, and this breadth raises theoretical and empirical questions across syntax, semantics, pragmatics, and discourse structure. A complete survey of extraction from coordinate structure must pay attention to all of these domains, and their interactions. Instead of aiming to promote a single analysis, this survey motivates reasonable hypotheses which allow one to reason deductively from empirical facts to theoretical conclusions. The theoretical conclusions show that coordinate structures have the potential to discriminate between current syntactic theories, and to inform work on the interfaces between syntax, semantics, pragmatics and discourse. However, in many cases, the necessary empirical work has not yet been done, and too much of the literature revolves around the same handful of examples, mainly in English. We hope that this book will inspire further work on extraction from coordinate structures, particularly in understudied languages, and provide a guide to how to tease out the theoretical implications of empirical findings.