bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Historical Evolution of Bank Capital Requirements in the European Union
Authors: Gortsos Christos V 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of the historical evolution of bank capital requirements and capital adequacy legislation in the European Union (EU) under the influence of international financial standards. It begins by reviewing bank capital adequacy requirements within the system of prudential banking regulation and dealing with the various sources of negative externalities in the banking system, the components of the so-called ‘bank safety net’. The chapter then looks at the international financial standards developed by the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) until the outbreak of the recent (2007–2009) Global Financial Crisis (GFC) and their impact on the shaping of the relevant EU banking legislation. It also traces the migration in 2010 from the so-called ‘Basel II’ capital adequacy framework to the ‘Basel III’ regulatory framework, before considering its incorporation into EU law in the context of the Banking Union. The emphasis is mainly placed on the basic provisions of the two legislative acts of the European Parliament and of the Council: the Capital Requirements Regulation (CRR) and the Capital Requirements Directive (CRD IV). Finally, the chapter studies the most recent (June 2020) amendments of the former legislative acts implemented amidst the current pandemic crisis.
The Definition of Common Equity Tier 1 Capital and of Contingent Capital
Authors: Lamandini Marco , Muñoz David Ramos 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the interpretation and application of Common Equity Tier 1 (CET1) and Contingent Capital requirements. The path towards Basel III was marked by the 2007–2009 financial crisis, which prioritised the need to enhance soundness, at the expense of clarity and simplicity. Capital rules now have a more restrictive definition of ‘capital’, but also introduce new ratios, such as the equity capital ratio, and the ‘core capital’ ratio, plus the new measures of contingent capital, and the leverage ratio. They all have complicated the definition of what ‘solvency’ means. The chapter then differentiates between Tier 1 and Tier 2 capital, before considering the challenge of setting the optimal minimum requirements. It also defines CET1 capital in Capital Requirements Regulation (CRR) and CRR II and CET1 capital instruments. Finally, the chapter looks at the role of the European Banking Authority (EBA) in terms of CET1 instruments, before focusing on Contingent Convertible Bonds (CoCos). Under Basel III, CoCos must be deeply subordinated, perpetual, and must pay non-cumulative coupons out distributable profits, payable at the discretion of the issuer.
The Construction of the Total Risk Exposure Amount and the Relationship with the Combined Buffer Requirements
Authors: Joosen Bart PM 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the total risk exposure amount (TREA) and on the leverage ratio (LR). It begins by introducing the different concepts of an institution’s capital, before discussing the TREA in the Capital Requirements Regulation (CRR), including the most significant changes introduced by the CRR II. The chapter then analyses the relationship between the TREA and the different additional buffer requirements set out in the fourth Capital Requirements Directive (CRD IV). The TREA is also the denominator of the ratios of these different additional buffers. Finally, the chapter looks into the LR. Contrarily to the capital ratio, the LR is a non-risk weighted capital measure. The binding LR which requires institutions to maintain at least Tier 1 (T1) capital of 3% of their non-risk weighted assets is a new ratio introduced by CRR II. An additional ratio will apply for global systemic important institutions (G-SIIs).
The Definition of Default, Loss Distribution, Expected and Unexpected Loss, and Provisioning in the Context of Credit Risk
Authors: Joosen Bart PM 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates the principles for assessing credit risk, the consequences this has for capital requirements, and the fundamental approach that is chosen for all banks in this area. Absorbing losses is one of the functions of bank capital. As regards the credit risk concerning the bank’s exposures, it can generally be argued that banks will suffer losses on their credit portfolios due to counterparties failing to pay interest, the principal or costs incurred by the bank and attributable to the relevant loans. Banks will by nature always be faced with such losses, the only question of when they will occur, and their magnitude is an issue that will have to be dealt with in the context of credit risk management. The chapter then differentiates between manifest losses, expected losses, and unexpected losses. It also looks at the capital conservation buffer (CCB) introduced by Basel III; the definition of default in European banking law; and credit risk adjustments. Finally, the chapter considers the revisions to Capital Requirements Regulation (CRR) to address non-performing exposures.
Credit Risk Weighting—SA and IRB Approaches
Authors: Joosen Bart PM 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter traces the evolution of the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) standards in respect of credit risk. The First Basel Capital Accord of 1988 (Basel I) introduces uniform rules for the minimum capital that banks must hold in light of the risks that banks run in the credit business. Basel II codifies a number of rules that had been adopted since the adoption of Basel I in 1988. With regard to the weighting of the credit risk for (on) balance sheet items, banks can apply two methods, the Standard approach (SA) and the internal models method (Internal Ratings-Based Approach, ‘IRB’). The original foundations of the SA as laid down in Basel I of 1988 underpinned the risk weighting of credit risk exposures for about 30 years. However, the fundamental turn in the approach to risk weighting of the various exposure classes as a result of Basel III-Reform brought about major changes for European banks applying the SA. No less fundamental are the changes introduced for banks applying the IRB approach as a result of Basel III-Reform.
Capital Treatment of Securitizations
Authors: Joosen Bart PM 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the prudential treatment of securitisation transactions. It focuses on the various facets of the prudential treatment from a perspective of European regulated credit institutions in the various roles and capacities banks may play or assume in securitisation transactions. Firstly, for banks acting as originator or original lender, provided strict conditions are met, a securitisation transaction may result in an off-balance sheet treatment for prudential purposes, in other words assets forming part of the securitisation transaction are no longer part of the assets held by banks for which risk weights must be calculated. Secondly, from the perspective of banks investing in securitisation positions, such positions may obtain lower risk weights if they meet certain conditions. Thirdly, banks may act as sponsor in connection with Asset Backed Commercial Paper (ABCP) transactions, therefore fulfilling a pivotal role in managing the liquidity of the ABCP conduit. Finally, securitisation positions held by banks within the treasury function may be comprised in the liquidity buffer in order to meet the liquidity management rules. The chapter looks at the development of the regulatory framework for securitisations in the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS), as well as the adoption of the Basel capital standards and the Significant Risk Transfer (SRT) rules in Europe.
Position Risk and Market Risk Measures Fundamental Review of the Trading Book
Authors: Cherubini Umberto 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the concept of market risk measures, starting with a review of the long-standing debate on risk measures. It provides an overview of the main structure and (non-quantitative innovations) that will be introduced by the Fundamental Review of the Trading Book (FRTB) from the point of view of a ‘quant’. The chapter then looks at the quantitative procedures required to compute the capital charge for both the standardised and the internal model, before discussing the question that risk factors are prices, the regulatory prescriptions to define whether the prices observed are sufficiently transparent to deem the risk factors ‘modellable’, and how to address the other risk factors (Non Modellable Risk Factors). It also considers backtesting and profits and loss (P&L) attribution, and the degree of association between prices used in trading and risk management. Finally, the chapter examines the pros and cons of the new standards, the increase in regulatory costs, and the prospects of choice in the banking systems, before assessing the transposition of the Basel soft law into regulations such as the Capital Requirements Regulation (CRR) and CRR II.
The ECB Guide to Internal Liquidity Adequacy
Authors: Singh Dalvinder 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
This chapter analyses the European Central Bank Guide to Internal Liquidity Adequacy (ECB ILAAP Guide), which aim to introduce safeguards against liquidity contingency risk from a crisis prevention perspective. While the strategic direction of liquidity management resides with a bank’s management body, it requires delegation down to technical experts to ensure it is operationalized as efficiently as possible. The chapter argues that the crisis prevention narrative is delegated to banks to discharge their obligation in bank supervision so as to minimize the asymmetry of information problems created by their business and improve the way they manage adverse scenarios and the risks to depositors, markets, and supervisory authorities. The ECB ILAAP Guide is simply one component of a complex web of supervisory instruments and tools for banks’ liquidity management. In view of this, it is also important to consider the European Banking Authority (EBA) findings on internal governance from its convergence assessment. The chapter considers how these inform various decision-making processes within the Single Supervisory Mechanism (SSM) such as the work of the Joint Supervisory Teams (JSTs) and Supervisory Review and Evaluation Process (SREP), as the ECB ILAAP Guide specifically emphasizes the traditional qualitative approach to the supervision of liquidity management.
Aboveground plant-to-plant electrical signaling mediates network acquired acclimation
Authors: Szechyńska-Hebda Magdalena , Lewandowska Maria , Witoń Damian , Fichman Yosef , Mittler Ron , Karpiński Stanisław M 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
Systemic acquired acclimation and wound signaling require the transmission of electrical, calcium, and reactive oxygen species (ROS) signals between local and systemic tissues of the same plant. However, whether such signals can be transmitted between two different plants is largely unknown. Here, we reveal a new type of plant-to-plant aboveground direct communication involving electrical signaling detected at the surface of leaves, ROS, and photosystem networks. A foliar electrical signal induced by wounding or high light stress applied to a single dandelion leaf can be transmitted to a neighboring plant that is in direct contact with the stimulated plant, resulting in systemic photosynthetic, oxidative, molecular, and physiological changes in both plants. Furthermore, similar aboveground changes can be induced in a network of plants serially connected via touch. Such signals can also induce responses even if the neighboring plant is from a different plant species. Our study demonstrates that electrical signals can function as a communication link between transmitter and receiver plants that are organized as a network (community) of plants. This process can be described as network-acquired acclimation.
Neuroanatomical correlates of working memory performance in Neurofibromatosis 1
Authors: Sawyer Cameron , Green Jonathan , Lim Ben , Pobric Gorana , Jung JeYoung , Vassallo Grace , Evans D Gareth , Stagg Charlotte J , Parkes Laura M , Stivaros Stavros , Muhlert Nils , Garg Shruti 
Published: May 2022

Abstract

Introduction
Neurofibromatosis 1 (NF1) is a single-gene disorder associated with cognitive impairments, particularly with deficits in working memory. Prior research indicates that brain structure is affected in NF1, but it is unclear how these changes relate to aspects of cognition.

Methods
29 adolescents aged 11-17 years were compared to age and sex-matched controls. NF1 subjects were assessed using detailed multimodal measurements of working memory at baseline followed by a 3T MR scan. A voxel-based morphometry approach was used to estimate the total and regional gray matter(GM) volumetric differences between the NF1 and control groups. The working memory metrics were subjected to a principal component analysis (PCA) approach.

Results
The NF1 groups showed increased gray matter volumes in the thalamus, corpus striatum, dorsal midbrain and cerebellum bilaterally in the NF1 group as compared to controls. Principal component analysis on the working memory metrics in the NF1 group yielded three independent factors reflecting high memory load, low memory load and auditory working memory. Correlation analyses revealed that increased volume of posterior cingulate cortex, a key component of the default mode network (DMN) was significantly associated with poorer performance on low working memory load tasks.

Conclusion
These results are consistent with prior work showing larger subcortical brain volumes in the NF1 cohort. The strong association between posterior cingulate cortex volume and performance on low memory load conditions supports hypotheses of deficient DMN structural development, which in turn may contribute to the cognitive impairments in NF1.
A wireless ultrasound patch detects mild-to-moderate central hypovolemia during lower body negative pressure
Authors: Kenny Jon-Émile S. , Elfarnawany Mai , Yang Zhen , Eibl Andrew M. , Eibl Joseph K. , Kim Chul-Ho , Johnson Bruce D. 
Published: May 2022

BACKGROUND
We have developed a wireless, wearable Doppler ultrasound system that continuously measures the common carotid artery Doppler pulse. A novel measure from this device, the Doppler shock index, accurately detected moderate-to-severe central blood volume loss in a human hemorrhage model generated by lower body negative pressure. In this analysis, we tested whether the wearable Doppler could identify only mild-to-moderate central blood volume loss.

METHODS
Eleven healthy volunteers were recruited and studied in a physiology laboratory at the Mayo Clinic. Each participant underwent a lower body negative protocol in duplicate. Carotid Doppler measures including Doppler shock indices were compared with blood pressure and the shock index for their ability to detect both 10% and 20% reductions in stroke volume.

RESULTS
All carotid Doppler measures were better able to detect diminishing stroke volume than either systolic or mean arterial pressure. Falling carotid artery corrected flow time and rising heart rate/corrected flow time (DSIFTc) were the most sensitive measures for detecting 10% and 20% stroke volume reductions, respectively. The area under the receiver operator curves (AUROCs) for all shock indices was at least 0.86; however, the denominators of the two Doppler shock indices (i.e., the corrected flow time and velocity time integral) had AUROCs ranging between 0.81 and 0.9, while the denominator of the traditional shock index (i.e., systolic blood pressure) had AUROCs between 0.54 and 0.7.

CONCLUSION
The wearable Doppler ultrasound was able to continuously measure the common carotid artery Doppler pulse. Carotid Doppler measures were highly sensitive at detecting both 10% and 20% stroke volume reduction. All shock indices performed well in their diagnostic ability to measure mild-to-moderate central volume loss, although the denominators of both Doppler shock indices individually outperformed the denominator of the traditional shock index.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE
Diagnostic test or criteria; Level III.
Oddball-irrelevant visual stimuli cross-modally attenuate auditory mismatch negativity in rats
Authors: Shiramatsu Tomoyo Isoguchi , Mori Kanato , Ishizu Kotaro , Takahashi Hirokazu 
Published: May 2022

Objective
To elaborate the recent theory of prediction models of the brain in light of actual neural activities, it is important to investigate the cross-modal interactions in the context of prediction construction. To this end, in this study, we assessed whether cross-modal disturbances would result in the attenuation of mismatch negativity in anesthetized animal models.

Methods
A surface electrode array recorded neural activities from the visual and auditory cortices of rats under isoflurane anesthesia, during an auditory oddball paradigm over the course of three audiovisual sequences. In the audiovisual sequences, the visual stimuli were simultaneously presented with the first, second, or third standard before the deviants.

Results
The interrupting visual stimuli decrease the amplitude of mismatch negativity in the auditory and visual cortices. In addition, the correlation coefficients between the amplitude of middle-latency potential for the interrupting visual stimuli and the amplitude of mismatch negativity to the following auditory deviant stimuli were smaller when the visual stimuli were presented alongside the third standards from the deviants.

Conclusion
Such attenuation in mismatch negativity has been often associated with a top-down mechanism and the present anesthesia selectively attenuates top-down transmission. Taken together, our study’s findings indicate that the cross-modal disturbances on prediction and deviation detection may also be mediated by bottom-up mechanisms, as well as previously reported top-down mechanisms.
The limited place in cognitive space
Authors: Hodgetts Carl J. , Hahn Ulrike 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThe idea that objects can be represented within multi-dimensional ‘cognitive spaces’ remains popular within psychology and neuroscience, and yet the restrictive topology of such spaces is seldom considered. Here, we show that it is possible, even within a simple set of items, to break such models by imposing neighbourhood relations that are incompatible with a purely spatial representation. These results highlight the fundamental limits of cognitive space as a representational format for complex cognition.
Calcium determines Lactiplantibacillus plantarum intraspecies competitive fitness
Authors: Yu Annabelle O. , Wei Lei , Marco Maria L. 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThe importance of individual nutrients for microbial strain robustness and coexistence in habitats containing different members of the same species is not well understood. To address this for Lactiplantibacillus plantarum in food fermentations, we performed comparative genomics and examined the nutritive requirements and competitive fitness for L. plantarum strains B1.1 and B1.3 isolated from a single sample of teff injera fermentation batter. Compared to B1.1 and other L. plantarum strains, B1.3 has a smaller genome, limited biosynthetic capacities, and large mobilome. Despite these differences, B1.3 was equally competitive with B1.1 in a suspension of teff flour. In commercially-sourced, nutrient-replete MRS (cMRS) medium, strain B1.3 reached three-fold higher numbers than B1.1 within two days of passage. Because B1.3 growth and competitive fitness was poor in mMRS, a modified MRS lacking beef extract, we used mMRS to identify nutrients needed for robust B1.3 growth. No improvement was observed when mMRS was supplemented with nucleotides, amino acids, vitamins, or monovalent metals. Remarkably, the addition of divalent metal salts increased the growth rate and cell yields of B1.3 in mMRS. Metal requirements were confirmed by Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry, showing that total B1.3 intracellular metal concentrations were significantly (up to 2.7-fold) reduced compared to B1.1. Supplemental CaCl2 conferred the greatest effect, resulting in equal growth between B1.1 and B1.3 over successive five passages in mMRS. Moreover, calcium supplementation reversed a B1.3 strain-specific stationary phase, flocculation phenotype. These findings show how L. plantarum calcium requirements affect competitive fitness at the strain level.ImportanceEcological theory states that the struggle for existence is stronger between closely related species. Contrary to this assertion, fermented foods frequently sustain conspecific individuals, despite their high levels of phylogenetic relatedness. Therefore, we investigated two isolates of Lactiplantibacillus plantarum B1.1 and B1.3 randomly selected from a single batch of teff injera batter. These strains spanned the known genomic and phenotypic range of the L. plantarum species, and in nutrient-replete, laboratory culture medium, strain B1.3 exhibited poor growth and was outcompeted by the more robust strain B1.1. Despite those differences, B1.1 and B1.3 were equally competitive in teff flour. This result shows how these bacteria have adapted for co-existence in that environment. The capacity for the single macronutrient calcium to restore B1.3 competitive fitness in laboratory culture medium suggests that L. plantarum intraspecies diversity found in food systems is fine-tuned to nutrient requirements at the strain level.
A 3-Dimensional bioprinted human gut-liver axis model for studying Alcoholic Liver Disease
Authors: Meher Kranti , Rottela Madhuri , Saranya K , Iyer Subramanian , Kadiyala Gopi , Vangala Subhramanyam , Chandran Satish , Saxena Uday 
Published: May 2022

SummaryGut-liver axis is the interaction between the gut, its microbiome and the liver. The crosstalk and interaction between these organs plays an important role in their individual health and disease. Alcoholic liver disease (ALD) is a case in point where dysfunction of intestine actively promotes liver damage by alcohol. A flashpoint in ALD is the breach of intestinal integrity caused by gut bacteria Enterococcus faecalis (E.Faecalis). More specifically, Cytolysin, a toxin secreted by this bacteria may have a central role in the genesis of ALD. 3-D bioprinted human simulations of the gut-liver axis may help better understand the genesis of ALD.Here we developed a 3 dimensional bioprinted in vitro model composed of human origin intestinal and liver cells to explore the role of Cytolysin and ethanol in intestinal and liver damage. We find that neither Cytolysin or ethanol are sufficient for cell damage but a combination of the two act in concert to cause maximum breach in intestinal integrity. Secondly we find that enhanced transport of macromolecules thru the intestinal layer is not caused by overt cell toxicity but occurs through potentially paracellular/transcellular pathways. Our model will be used to test repurposed and new drugs/ biologics for treatment of ALD as well as other intestinal inflammatory diseases.