bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Regulatory Competition through Choice of Contract Law and Choice of Forum in Europe: Theory and Evidence
Authors: Vogenauer Stefan 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article challenges the claim that there is regulatory competition in the areas of contract law and civil litigation. It is frequently assumed that lawmakers reform their contract laws and dispute resolution mechanisms with the purpose of attracting 'users', i.e., parties to cross-border contracts who choose the contract law or the courts of a given legal system. I shall discuss this assumption and its plausibility in the first part of this article. In the second part, I will test the assumption by presenting the available empirical evidence on the choices of contract law and forum that businesses in Europe actually make. For a long time, such data have been largely absent from the debate. Moreover, I assemble evidence of lawmakers competing for the production of the most attractive legal regimes in the areas of contract law and civil litigation. I conclude that meaningful regulatory competition in the areas concerned cannot be predicted with confidence; nor is there evidence of its existence. Résumé: Cet article questionne l'affirmation selon laquelle il existerait une concurrence normative en matière de droit des contrats et de contentieux civil. Il est généralement tenu pour acquis que les organes producteurs de droit réforment le droit des contrats et les mécanismes de résolution des conflits en ayant en vue de les render attractifs pour les 'utilisateurs de droit', et plus spécifiquement, d'attirer les parties aux contrats internationaux qui sont en position de choisir le droit applicable à l'acte ainsi que la juridiction compétente en cas de conflit. Cette hypothèse sera analysée et son caractère plausible étudié, dans la première partie de l'article. Dans la seconde partie, l'hypothèse sera mise à l'épreuve au regard des résultats des études empiriques récentes sur les choix de loi et de forum par les professionnels en Europe. Longtemps, ce type de donnés a fait défaut au débat. Au surplus, seront étudiés des indices relatifs à l'existence éventuelle d'une compétition entre législateurs pour produire les régimes légaux les plus attractifs en matière de droit des contrats et de contentieux civil. Il faudra conclure en reconnaissant que, d'une part, il est difficile de prédire avec certitude qu'une réelle concurrence normative pourrait marquer les domaines étudiés et que, d'autre part, il n'y a, pour l'heure, pas de preuve de son existence.
The Adjustment of Long-Term Supply Contracts: Experience from German Gas Price Case Law
Authors: Rott Peter 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Long-term contracts make it difficult for the contracting partners to foresee and to integrate the future development into the contract. One way to deal with this uncertainty is to provide a legal right to price adjustment; another is to include contractual terms to the same effect. Both mechanisms are present in German law related to gas supply, and both mechanisms have given rise to large-scale litigation triggered by massive price increases in the past years. This article focuses on the judicial control of unilateral price determination by the gas supplier. It shows that courts mainly exercise procedural control, looking at the transparency of the conditions for price increases, whereas they do not enter into the calculation of the adequate or fair price. Résumé: Dans les contrats à long terme, il est difficile pour les parties contractantes de prévoir et d'intégrer les développements futurs dans le contrat. Une façon de faire face à cette incertitude est de prévoir un droit légal à l'ajustement de prix, une autre façon consiste à inclure des clauses contractuelles ayant le même effet. Ces deux mécanismes existent en droit allemand en matière de fourniture de gaz et ces deux mécanismes ont donné lieu à un accroissement du nombre de litiges dû aux fréquentes augmentations de prix durant ces dernières années. Le présent article analyse le contrôle judiciaire de la fixation unilatérale du prix par le fournisseur de gaz. Il indique que les cours et tribunaux exercent principalement un contrôle procédural, examinant la transparence des conditions d'augmentations de prix, sans toutefois intervenir dans le calcul du prix juste ou adéquat. Zusammenfassung: Langzeitverträge erschweren es den Vertragsparteien, künftige Entwicklungen vorherzusehen und in den Vertrag zu integrieren. Ein Weg, mit dieser Unsicherheit umzugehen, sind gesetzliche Preisanpassungsrechte, ein anderer besteht in vertraglichen Preisanpassungsklauseln. Beide Mechanismen finden wir im deutschen Recht der Gasversorgungsverträge, und beide Mechanismen waren wegen der erheblichen Gaspreiserhöhungen der vergangenen Jahre Gegenstand einer Vielzahl gerichtlicher Verfahren. Dieser Aufsatz befasst sich mit der gerichtlichen Überprüfung einseitiger Preisbestimmungen durch den Gasversorger. Er zeigt, dass Gerichte sich auf Verfahrensfragen und Transparenz fokussieren, wohingegen eine echte Überprüfung des angemessenen oder fairen Preises unterbleibt.
Freedom of Contract in Free Movement Law: Balancing Rights and Principles in European Public and Private Law
Authors: Schepel Harm 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The right to free movement embodies both the power to interfere with contractual freedom and contractual freedom itself. Neither is absolute, and the realization of either needs justification in situations of conflict in light of the impact it has on the realization of the other. Where free movement rights embody fundamental rights capable of interfering with economic freedom - most notably, the prohibition of nationality discrimination - this constitutionalized private law will find its countervailing force in the ability of private parties to call upon the constitutional protection of their private autonomy - in privatized constitutional law. Where free movement rights embody economic freedoms, this privatized constitutional law will find its countervailing force in the ability of private interfering parties to call upon collective values laid down in fundamental rights and general principles of law - in constitutionalized private law. This settlement sacrifices both the doctrine of the supremacy of European Union law and the hierarchy of norms in its traditional constitutional understanding to an exercise in balancing rights and principles. Résumé: Le droit de la libre circulation contient à la fois le pouvoir de s'immiscer dans le domaine de la liberté contractuelle et la liberté contractuelle elle-même. Aucun des deux n'est absolu et la réalisation de l'un doit être justifiée dans des situations de conflit à la lumière de l'impact qu'il a sur la réalisation de l'autre. Là où les droits de la libre circulation contiennent des droits fondamentaux pouvant s'immiscer dans la liberté économique - le plus évident étant l'interdiction de discrimination basée sur la nationalité - ce droit privé constitutionnalisé va trouver sa force compensatoire dans la possibilité pour les parties privées de faire appel à la protection constitutionnelle de leur autonomie privée - en droit constitutionnel privatisé. Là où les droits de la libre circulation contiennent des libertés économiques, ce droit constitutionnel privatisé va trouver sa force compensatoire dans la possibilité pour les parties privées intervenantes de faire appel à des valeurs collectives fixées dans les droits fondamentaux et les principes généraux du droit - en droit privé constitutionnalisé. Ce règlement sacrifie à la fois la doctrine de la primauté du droit de l'Union européenne et la hiérarchie des normes dans son sens constitutionnel traditionnel pour tenter d'équilibrer les droits et les principes.
Third-Party Litigation Funding: Current State of Affairs and Prospects for Its Further Development in Spain
Authors: Manuel Oliver Cojo 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Third-party litigation funding (TPLF) is a promising and fascinating practice that is receiving increasing attention. However, TPLF is still a novel institution, and hence there exists certain controversy as to what it actually stands for. In order to bring some clarity in this regard, a definition of TPLF will be provided. This definition will be used to compare TPLF with other ways of funding litigation disputes, to investigate its origins, and to examine its advantages and disadvantages. Nonetheless, the main purpose of this article is to shed light as to two supplementary issues. On the one hand, this article will show what is the current state of affairs of TPLF. For that purpose, a comparative analysis of several countries will be provided. This will show that TPLF is commonplace in common law countries such as Australia, though virtually non-existent in civil law countries. On the other hand, in order to determine the prospects for TPLF to expand into jurisdictions in which it has not developed so far, Spain will be taken as an example. This analysis will show that the possibilities for TPLF to grow in Spain are rather promising as TPLF may help overcome some of the challenges currently faced by the Spanish civil justice system. In addition, TPLF seems to be legally viable under Spanish law. Resumé: Third-Party Litigation Funding (TPLF) est une pratique prometteuse et fascinante, qui reçoit une attention croissante. Cependant, le TPLF est encore une institution novatrice, à ce titre il existe un certain nombre de controverses concernant ce qu'il représente. Afin d'apporter de la clarté à cet égard, une définition du TPLF sera fournie. Cette définition sera utilisée pour comparer le TPLF avec d'autres moyens de financement de litiges contentieux, pour rechercher ses origines et examiner ses avantages et inconvénients. Néanmoins, le but principal de cet article est de faire la lumière sur deux questions supplémentaires. Dans un premier temps, cet article montrera quelle est la situation actuelle du TPLF. Pour cela, une analyse comparative de plusieurs pays sera établie. Elle démontrera que le TPLF est monnaie courante dans les pays de common law comme l'Australie, et pratiquement inexistante dans les pays de droit civil. Dans un second temps, afin de déterminer les perspectives du TPLF de se développer dans les juridictions où il n'est que peu implanté, l'Espagne sera prise comme exemple. Cette analyse montrera que les possibilités pour le TPLF de se développer en Espagne sont prometteuses puisque le TPLF peut permettre de surmonter certaines difficultés rencontrées actuellement par son système de justice civile. En outre, TPLF semblent légalement viables en vertu du droit espagnol.
Contractual Penalties in German Law
Authors: Faust Florian 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Under German law, penalty clauses are generally admissible. They mainly serve two functions: They are intended to prevent the debtor from breaching an obligation and to provide compensation to the creditor in case of breach. The first one of these functions is especially important if a claim for specific performance, which is routinely granted by German law, is difficult to enforce and if the creditor's loss is either difficult to prove or non-pecuniary and therefore not recoverable under German law. Both functions are - at least in part - also fulfilled by liquidated damage clauses and by guarantees. Under German law, the three types of clauses have to be clearly distinguished because different sets of rules apply. The judicial review of penalty clauses is more extensive than the review of liquidated damages clauses and guarantees: Unless the debtor is a merchant, the court may reduce the amount of a penalty when it has been triggered. Furthermore, for a penalty to be triggered, the debtor must be at fault. Résumé: Le droit allemand admet généralement les clauses pénales. Elles ont principalement deux fonctions: elles tendent à empêcher le débiteur de ne pas exécuter une obligation et de fournir une compensation au créancier en cas de rupture contractuelle. La première de ces fonctions est spécialement importante lorsque la demande d'effectuer une prestation spécifique, qui est couramment acceptée en droit allemand, est difficile à appliquer et lorsque le dommage du créancier est, soit difficile à prouver, soit immatériel et par là non recouvrable en droit allemand. Les deux fonctions sont également remplies - du moins en partie - par des clauses d'indemnisation et par des garanties. En droit allemand, les trois types de clauses doivent être clairement distinguées car différentes sortes de règles s'appliquent. Le contrôle par les tribunaux des clauses pénales est plus étendu que le contrôle des clauses d'indemnisation et de garanties: sauf le cas où le débiteur est un commerçant, les tribunaux peuvent réduire le montant de la clause pénale si elle a été appliquée. De plus, pour que la clause pénale soit appliquée, il faut que le débiteur soit en défaut.
Claims Management Services: An Alternative to ADR?
Authors: Rott Peter 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The article discusses enforcement of consumer claims by claims management companies. Using the example of air passenger rights, it analyses the business model of claims management companies, including the contingency fees they charge, and the reasons for their success both in attracting customers and in enforcing their rights. It then compares that mode of enforcement with other routes of enforcement and reflects further areas in which claims management companies could act successfully. Finally, the article considers how the judicial enforcement system could be modified so as to avoid consumers paying parts of their claims to claims management companies. Résumé: L’article examine comment des societes specialement instituees pour traiter des reclamations des consommateurs font valoir les droits de ces derniers. En utilisant l’exemple des droits des passagers aeriens, il analyse le modele operationnel de ces societes de traitement des reclamations, en incluant les honoraires de resultat qu’elles facturent et les raisons qui expliquent pourquoi elles parviennent tant a attirer des clients qu’a faire respecter les droits de ces derniers. L’article compare, ensuite, ce mode de mise en oeuvre de droits avec d’autres moyens et se penche sur d’autres domaines dans lesquels de telles societes de traitement des reclamations pourraient agir avec succes. Enfin, l’article examine comment le systeme judiciaire de mise en oeuvre des droits pourrait etre modifie afin d’eviter que les consommateurs payent une partie du montant de leurs reclamations aux societes de traitement des reclamations.
Kinship Bonds and Emotional Ties: Lack of a Family Relationship as Ground for Disinheritance
Authors: Amayuelas Esther Arroyo , Amorós Esther Farnós 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: A topical issue in the context of the general debate about the need to retain or abolish forced share in Spain is the question of whether to broaden the range of grounds for excluding a forced heir from his or her share of the estate. There is particular debate surrounding the appropriateness of adding estrangement or the lack of a family relationship to the list of grounds, with the aim of increasing testamentary freedom. Some countries have a tendency to allow ties of affection to prevail over purely family or kinship ties in this matter, but sometimes at the cost of legal certainty and – since such a vague ground is not necessarily more respectful with freedom of testation – despite the risk that the courts may not always achieve the justice sought by a testator who wishes to disinherit a forced heir that shows no affection for her. This paper considers the different approaches to this topic between different legal systems. The Catalan and the German ones just represent extreme examples of radical different tendencies. In Spain, recent case law has provided new arguments for thinking about what the law says, how the courts interpret, and, finally, what the society expects. Resumée: Faut-il étendre les causes qui permettent d’exclure un héritier réservataire de sa part dans le patrimoine? Telle est une des questions brûlantes qui agitent le débat sur le maintien ou l’abolition de la réserve héréditaire en Espagne. Le débat porte en particulier sur le point de savoir s’il est opportun d’ajouter aux causes d’exclusion, la séparation ou l’absence de relations familiales, dans le but d’accroitre la liberté testamentaire. Certains pays ont tendance à faire prévaloir les liens affectifs sur les liens de famille ou de parenté, parfois au détriment de la sécurité juridique. Le caractère vague d’un tel motif ne respecte pas nécessairement la liberté de tester, parce qu’il n’est pas sûr que les tribunaux y parviendraient à l’objectif de justice recherché par le testateur qui souhaite déshériter un héritier réservataire lorsqu’il ne montre pas de proximité affective avec lui. Cet article met en évidence les différentes approches de cette question par différents systèmes juridiques. Le système catalan et le système allemand donnent par exemple des réponses radicalement différentes. En Espagne, la jurisprudence récente a fourni de nouveaux arguments pour réfléchir à ce que dit la loi, ce que les tribunaux donnent comme interprétation et, enfin, ce que la société attend.
Blockchain & Data Protection  and Why They Are Not on a Collision Course
Authors: Moerel Lokke 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: Recent publications on the data protection aspects of blockchain technology focus on the characteristics of the initial public (Bitcoin) blockchain, and do so in a generalized manner. The authors then conclude that the characteristics of a public blockchain are profoundly incompatible at a conceptual level with the principles of the EU General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR). The GDPR requires identification of a central ‘controller’ who is responsible for compliance with the GDPR, while a public blockchain decentralizes the storage and processing of personal data, as a result whereof there is no such central point of control. For lack of a better alternative, the authors conclude that all ‘nodes’ involved in operating a blockchain qualify as a controller under the GDPR, raising enforcement and jurisdictional issues that make it impossible for individuals to enforce their rights. The transparency and immutability of a public blockchain would further not sit well with principles of data confidentiality, data minimization, data accuracy and the rights of individuals to correction and deletion of their data. I disagree with the analysis of these authors for a host of different reasons, the main one being that the authors focus on the shortcomings of the initial public (Bitcoin) blockchain when already many new types of permissioned private and consortium blockchain have been developed that significantly diverge from the original, permissionless public blockchain. In fact, these types of permissioned blockchain have been developed in response to the shortcomings of public blockchain. The authors further consider the data processing implications of blockchain as if this technology constitutes in itself a data processing activity for which a controller has to be identified. Controllership is, however, decided based on a specific use or deployment of a certain technology. Blockchain, like the internet, is a general-purpose technology that is subsequently deployed by actors for a certain purpose in a specific context. Applying the question of controllership to the internet at large would pose similar data protection issues under the GDPR as identified by the authors in respect of blockchain. This publication explains why none of these issues are currently hampering application of the GDPR to the internet and are equally unlikely to pose issues for blockchain applications. This publication describes the issues in their broader context, as well as how each of these issues can be addressed to ensure compliance with the GDPR. The conclusion is that the GDPR is also well able to regulate this new technology. This does not, however, mean that blockchain will thus be suitable for all use and deployment cases.
Consumer Law, Enforcement and the New Deal for Consumers
Authors: Scott Colin 
Published: April 2022

A key trend for consumer law and policy in Europe has been the progressive expansion of consumer rights. It has long been recognized that the vindication of consumer rights is challenging. The expansion of consumer rights from the 1960s was accompanied by the establishment of proactive regulatory agencies whose enforcement powers complement and to some degree displace mechanisms of individual consumer enforcement. In April 2018 the European Commission proposed extensive reforms of consumer law and policy in its New Deal for Consumers, a key component of which is a further significant shift away from judicial enforcement. This trend is balanced by new proposals to enhance opportunities for collective consumer redress. In this article I offer an assessment of where we are today with the varied mechanisms and trends for enforcement of consumer law and where we are heading, not simply with the New Deal for Consumers, but also with related policies such as the Digital Single Market Strategy. Overall the pattern suggests a number of key trends including: a shift from reactive to more proactive modes of enforcement; from individuated to more collective modes; more evidence of meta-regulatory approaches, and; greater cooperation in enforcement (both public private and transnational). These trends are not necessarily consistent as between each other, generating potential for tensions between approaches and underlying assumptions about both purposes and effectiveness in consumer law and policy.
Consumer Law, Enforcement, European Union
The Significance of the Principles of European Contract Law
Authors: Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: April 2022

In his autobiographical account ‘My Life as a Lawyer’ Ole Lando wrote: ‘I set out to try and unify the substantive contract law in the EU. My efforts started in 1976’. These efforts were to lead to the publication of the Principles of European Contract Law (PECL) in 1995 (Part I), 2002 (Parts I and II), and 2003 (Part III). According to Hugh Beale it is that work for which Ole Lando is best known; and it is for that work that he is regarded as ‘one of the most influential figures in the development of European private law to date’. The present contribution therefore deals with these Principles of European Contract Law.
Acquis commun, Acquis communautaire, Commentaries on European Contract Laws, Lando, Ole, Non-legislative codification, Principles of European Contract Law, Restatements, Textual Layers, UNIDROIT
Ole Lando and Choice of Law for Contracts
Authors: Nielsen Peter Arnt 
Published: April 2022

The author represents the content of Ole Lando’s doctoral dissertation from 1961 on the choice of law for contracts. The dissertation examined the evolution of the choice of law rules for contracts in France, Germany, England, the US and the Scandinavian countries. It is concluded that Ole Lando in his dissertation proposed choice of law rules for contracts that in general were adopted two decades after his dissertation in the Rome Convention on Choice of Law for Contractual Obligations.
Harmonization, contract law, European private law, restatements