bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Molecular Biology, Genetics, and Translational Models of Human Cancer
Authors: Traub Benno , Scheufele Florian , Viswanathan Srinivas R. , Meyerson Matthew , Tuveson David A. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Cancer is a disease of abnormal cellular behavior and characterized by molecular aberrations that promote cellular proliferation and survival. Neoplastic progression ultimately produces tumor masses that compromise local organ function, and the invasion and metastasis of malignant cells away from their tissue of origin and spread throughout the body cause a diverse array of pathophysiologic sequelae that compromise the quality and length of life of patients. A background knowledge of cancer pathogenesis and cancer models should help oncologists understand the developing approaches for optimal patient care, including the new concept of personalized medicine.
This article is a basic, “methods‐oriented” survey of molecular biology directed toward the clinician or trainee who wants a fundamental understanding of this discipline. It describes the principles that underlie the procedures used most commonly by molecular biologists and provides examples of clinically relevant situations that draw on particular techniques. Molecular biology already plays an important role in clinical cancer medicine, both in terms of diagnosis (e.g., in the analysis of tumors for prognostic or pathogenetic information) and in treatment (e.g., in the production of pharmacologic and biologic agents, such as recombinant growth factors and monoclonal antibodies).

We will begin with an overview of genes, gene expression, and gene cloning. Our discussion of techniques will follow the flow of genetic information as we explain the procedures used to analyze gene expression at the levels of DNA,
ribonucleic acid
(
RNA
), and protein. We conclude with a discussion of current cancer modeling systems
in vitro
and
in vivo
. Good general overviews of these topics can be found in several books.
1–3
Cancer Genomics and Evolution
Authors: Hendricks William P. D. , Sekulic Aleksandar , Bryce Alan H. , Murtaza Muhammed , Ramos Pilar , Lang Jessica D. , Whitsett Timothy G. , McDaniel Timothy K. , Rockne Russell C. , Banovich Nicholas , Trent Jeffrey M. 
Published: October 2022

OverviewOver 100 years ago, the Nobel Prize for Physiology and Medicine was given to Paul Ehrlich for postulating that “magic bullets” could specifically target and kill cells such as cancer cells based on their unique molecular features. The completed Human Genome Project and the cancer genomics revolution have now mapped many of the genetic changes underlying the unique features of common malignancies. Although cancer has long been recognized to be heterogeneous in its clinical presentation, course, pathology, and response to therapy, we now recognize that it is far more molecularly heterogeneous than anticipated and that such variability will require an individualized approach to patient care. Rather than a single magic bullet, we need an arsenal requiring precise delivery. While inter‐ and intratumoral genomic heterogeneity present significant challenges to cancer management and drug development, a number of developments foster hope for accelerated progress in the war on cancer. First, our catalogue of genomic targets underlying diverse cancers is rapidly growing. Second, we are beginning to understand how diverse mutations converge on a small number of druggable pathways. Third, we continue to develop drugs and biologic agents (e.g., immune checkpoint inhibitors) that target an increasingly diverse array of genomic subtypes of cancer. Finally, advances in “next‐generation” sequencing technologies now enable far earlier detection of disease and disease recurrence. This article focuses on these developments and how their integration is aiding in the precise delivery of “magic bullets.”
RNA
Tumor Viruses
Authors: Gallo Robert C. , Reitz Marvin S. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Retroviruses are enveloped viruses that contain a diploid RNA genome and are defined by the presence of reverse transcriptase (RT), a DNA polymerase that transcribes RNA into DNA, which is then inserted into the host cell chromosome. These processes often lead to the capture and/or alteration of genetic material and the transfer of information between cells, with neoplastic transformation of the infected cell being an occasional outcome of infection. Retroviruses are also associated with immunodeficiencies and with neurologic diseases, although infection is often asymptomatic. Retroviruses can also enter the germ line and be present as a part of the genetic complement of some or all members of a species. These viruses are called endogenous retroviruses. Although most retroviral malignancies occur as leukemia/lymphomas in nonhuman species, human T‐cell leukemia virus type I (HTLV‐I) causes adult T cell leukemia/lymphoma in a minority of infected humans, as well as a neurologic disease and a variety of other pathologies. Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV‐1), although not considered a true tumor virus, is associated with an increased incidence of several types of tumors, especially those caused by viruses such as human papillomavirus and Epstein–Barr virus.
Hepatitis Viruses and Hepatoma
Authors: Wang Hongyang 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Hepatitis is inflammation of the liver, typically the result of virus infections or the exposure of the liver to toxic substances such as alcohol or aflatoxin B. Hepatitis B virus (HBV) and hepatitis C virus (HCV) are the most common causes of transient and persistent liver infections, frequently resulting in hepatitis and, in the context of chronic infections, liver cirrhosis, and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Hepatitis B may be worsened by super or co‐infection with hepatitis delta virus, a subviral satellite.
Behavioral Approaches to Cancer Prevention
Authors: Gonzalez Roberto , Karam‐Hage Maher 
Published: October 2022

OverviewVarious behaviors are well known to increase the risk of developing cancer. Between 30% and 50% of all cancer‐related deaths worldwide can be prevented by following healthier behaviors that relate to food intake, substance use, sun exposure, and physical activity. This article will summarize the available literature on the overall effects of modifiable behaviors as risk factors of chronic disease, in particular cancer, as well as describe behavioral changes and/or interventions that could lead to cancer prevention.
Principles of Imaging
Authors: Schwartz Lawrence H. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Radiological studies offer vital information about tumor detection, characterization, staging, and therapeutic response monitoring. There are a myriad of imaging modalities available for each of these tasks and their use is dependent upon both the primary tumor type and the clinical need. Increasingly, integration of other diagnostic tools including genomic and proteomic assays. Other techniques including AI enhancements to imaging diagnostics aid in diagnostic potential.
Principles of Surgical Oncology
Authors: Bauer Todd W. , Tanabe Kenneth K. , Pollock Raphael E. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
The discipline of surgical oncology describes a surgical super specialty to which a board certification process is now attached in the United States. With specific cognitive as well as technical surgical expertise, the surgical oncologist is an oncology specialist who uses surgery as his or her mainstay therapeutic modality in treating tumors. The surgical oncologist has a thorough grounding in the natural history of solid malignancy, extensive experience in tumor biopsy and staging approaches, the knowledge needed to direct a multidisciplinary solid tumor treatment program, and the commitment required to participate in the many relevant research opportunities that will advance comprehensive care of the cancer patient.
Pain and Palliative Care
Authors: Baum Laura Van Metre , Smith Cardinale B. 
Published: October 2022

OverviewPalliative care is an essential component of comprehensive cancer care. Palliative care is given concurrently with other disease‐modifying, life‐prolonging, and curative therapy. Palliative medicine specialists focus on helping patients and their families with a variety of care needs including symptom control, psychosocial support, physician–patient communication, addressing care goals in relation to the patient's condition, prognosis, values, and preferences, as well as with transitions in care. Cancer patients often experience significant symptom distress either from the illness itself or from the associated treatments. The beneficial effects of palliative care have been well documented. When integrated into early oncologic care, palliative care is associated with a significant improvement in quality of life, depression, and survival. As such, palliative care should be given throughout the trajectory of cancer care whether during early‐stage disease in which the focus is on cure or in more advanced disease when the focus is on maximizing quality of life. Currently, national and international organizations have clinical guidelines that recommend palliative care be routinely integrated into comprehensive cancer care.
Drug Resistance and Its Clinical Circumvention
Authors: Moscow Jeffrey A. , Hughes Shannon K. , Cowan Kenneth H. , Sikic Branimir I. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Tumors initially sensitive to chemotherapeutic agents frequently develop resistance to them, resulting in the familiar clinical pattern of initial response followed by a recurrence that no longer responds to therapy. Laboratory and clinical investigation have identified a plethora of drug resistance mechanisms, some that are particular to an individual agent and others that are applicable across classes of agents. These mechanisms include altered cellular accumulation and detoxification of drugs, mutation of the drug target, change in expression of the drug target, and activation of alternative signaling pathways. The identification of drug resistance mechanisms has led to strategies to overcome resistance and improved clinical outcomes.
Cytokines, Interferons, and Hematopoietic Growth Factors
Authors: Epperla Narendranath , Hanel Walter , Talpaz Moshe 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Cytokines are a diverse family of signaling molecules encompassing interleukins, interferons, and hematopoietic growth factors. As important mediators of immune responses, cytokines play critical roles and have clinical relevance in cancer. Interleukins have numerous diverse effects in cancer, including influencing the growth, differentiation, or survival of endothelial cells; attracting inflammatory cell types or induce secondary cytokines to regulate angiogenesis; influencing the tumor environment and infiltrating hematopoietic effector cells; inhibiting or stimulating tumor growth; and regulating immune responses. Various immunostimulatory cytokines, including ILs, are administered to patients in an attempt to initiate or augment antitumor immune responses. Interferons are a large family of multifunctional secreted proteins involved in antiviral defense, cell growth regulation, and immune activation. The three types of IFNs, types I, II, and III, signal via specific cell surface receptors and the JAK‐STAT pathway to transcriptionally activate IFN‐regulated genes (IRGs). Alterations in IRG expression result in modulation of receptors for other cytokines, concentration of regulatory proteins on the surface of immune effector cells, and activation of enzymes that control cellular growth and function. Both natural and recombinant IFNs have shown antitumor activity as single agents in more than a dozen malignancies. Hematopoietic growth factors, most notably epoetin, thrombopoietin, and granulocyte colony‐stimulating factor (G‐CSF), are used in the clinic to stimulate the growth and differentiation of red blood cells, platelets, or neutrophils in clinical settings including after chemotherapy or bone marrow transplantation in a restorative role.
T
Cell Immunotherapy of Cancer
Authors: Palomba M. Lia , Park Jae H. , Brentjens Renier 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Bone marrow transplantation (BMT) represents the first known example of using the anti‐tumor potential of T cells; a phenomenon later known as the graft versus tumor effect. Since the recognition in BMT that T cells are a significant source for therapeutic anti‐cancer potential, investigators have sought for the next 6–7 decades to better harness the potential of T cells as an anti‐ cancer therapeutic. This road to discovery early on included utilizing virus specific T cells to target virus induced malignancies which express viral proteins. Recognition that T cells infiltrating tumors also mediate anti‐tumor efficacy, investigators next harnessed these tumor infiltrating T cells (TILs), expanded in the laboratory, to demonstrate therapeutic benefit primarily in the setting of melanomas. With the advent of viral vector mediated gene engineering, the field of adoptive T cell therapies made a remarkable step forward in the setting of T cells engineered to specifically recognize tumor antigens through the introduction of genes encoding tumor targeted T cells receptors (TCRs) as well as the more novel chimeric antigen receptors (CARs). These TCR and CAR engineered T cells have to date demonstrated anti‐tumor efficacies with the potential to markedly change cancer therapy in the foreseeable future. More significantly, with further understanding of the tumor immunology and consequent innovation, the ceiling on adoptive therapy using genetically engineered T cells is extremely high.
Cancer Immunotherapy
Authors: Sharma Padmanee , Anandhan Swetha , Siddiqui Bilal A. , Goswami Sangeeta , Subudhi Sumit K. , Gao Jianjun , Peggs Karl , Quezada Sergio , Allison James P. 
Published: October 2022

OverviewThe basic principles that guide cancer immunology are immune surveillance, immune editing, and immune tolerance. Rapid increase in the knowledge of mechanistic details of these basic principles has led to clinical success in the treatment of cancer. In this article, we discuss the basic principles and recent advances in the field of basic and clinical immunotherapy that has given credence to the long‐held belief that the immune system can be used to treat cancer. Further, we also focus on the challenges associated with immunotherapies in the clinic, the role of combining different types of immunotherapies and other therapeutic modalities in the treatment of cancer.
Principles of Pediatric Oncology
Authors: Nicolaides Theodore P. , Raetz Elizabeth , Carroll William L. 
Published: October 2022

OverviewPediatric malignancies differ from those that occur in adults in their relative incidence, pathological type, clinical presentation, and prognosis. The last several decades of the twentieth century have been a period of enormous accomplishment in the field of pediatric cancer research and outcomes have steadily improved largely due to results from large well‐controlled clinical trials conducted by various cooperative groups at the national and international level. This article seeks to provide a broad overview of pediatric oncology, outlining the several common cancer types that are unique to the pediatric age group.
Neoplasms of the Appendix and Peritoneum
Authors: Liu Annie , Cardona Diana , Blazer Dan 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Neoplasms of the appendix, while rare, include a broad range of heterogenous malignancies. These are broadly divided into two subtypes: epithelial and nonepithelial. In this chapter, we detail the most recent classification guidelines, and describe clinical presentation, histology, and treatment options for these neoplasms.
Hodgkin Lymphoma
Authors: Straus David J. , Kumar Anita 
Published: October 2022

Overview
This article provides a historical perspective on the marked advances in radiotherapy and chemotherapy that have contributed to significant improvements in the curability of Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) over the past several decades. The classic features and new insights into the epidemiology, biology, and pathologic characteristics of HL are described. With emphasis on the modern clinical approach to the staging, imaging, and treatment of HL, the article highlights how current management approaches, such as refined risk stratification, use of PET imaging, and the reduction of radiation field and dose, seek to limit long‐term toxicities of therapy while maintaining excellent cure rates. Finally, the authors describe how novel, biologically targeted therapies have contributed to significant changes in the therapeutic landscape for patients with relapsed/refractory HL.
Myeloproliferative Disorders
Authors: Palmer Jeanne , Mesa Ruben 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Myeloproliferative neoplasms (MPNs) are a diverse group of blood disorders that include essential thrombocythemia (ET), polycythemia vera (PV), and myelofibrosis (MF). These disorders share several features, including “driver mutations,” thrombotic risk, and symptom burden. The driver mutations, which are usually mutually exclusive, include Janus kinase 2 (JAK2), calreticulin (CAL‐R), and myeloproliferative leukemia virus oncogene (MPL). JAK2 mutations include JAK2 V617F, JAK exon 12, and JAK exon 16. CAL‐R mutations are divided into type 1, which is a 52‐bp deletion (L367fs*46), and type 2, a 5‐bp insertion (K385fs*47). The thrombotic risk is present in all three disorders; however, it varies based on age, mutation status, and the history of the thrombotic events. The symptom burden for these disorders includes constitutional symptoms, such as fevers, night sweats, and weight loss; microvascular symptoms such as itching, headache, and peripheral neuropathy; and spleen symptoms such as abdominal discomfort and early satiety. The prognosis and treatment of these is very dependent on the risk factors, symptom burden, and disease presentation and is reviewed in this chapter.
Hematologic Complications and Blood Bank Support
Authors: Belizaire Roger , Anderson Kenneth C. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Many of the fundamental therapies used to treat cancer (e.g., chemotherapy, stem cell transplantation) disrupt normal hematopoiesis in the bone marrow. As a result, blood transfusion for patients with cancer is an essential supportive modality. The primary focus of this article is on “classical” blood component support: how red cells, plasma, platelets, and granulocytes are collected, tested, stored, and administered to address specific deficiencies in patients with cancer. Particular attention is paid to studies of prophylactic platelet transfusion, which over the past several decades has been critical in allowing myelosuppressive treatments to be applied to a variety of malignant disease states. Current infectious risks of blood products are reviewed.
Respiratory Complications
Authors: Shannon Vickie R. , Eapen George A. , Jimenez Carlos A. , Grosu Horiana B. , Morice Rodolfo C. , Bashoura Lara , Sheshadre Ajay , Evans Scott E. , Adachi Roberto , Kroll Michael , Faiz Saadia A. , Balachandran Diwakar D. , Pravinkumar Selvaraj E. , Dickey Burton F. 
Published: October 2022

OverviewThe respiratory system is particularly susceptible to complications of cancer and cancer therapy. This vulnerability arises from the stringent architectural requirements for gas exchange, the continuous exposure of the respiratory tract to the external environment, and the severe symptoms that can accompany respiratory compromise. Gas exchange requires patent airways, an effective musculoskeletal ventilatory pump, a thin alveolocapillary membrane, and adequate blood flow through the pulmonary circulation. In cancer patients, primary and metastatic tumors of the chest compromise major airways; pleural effusions externally compress the lungs and impair diaphragmatic function; direct, hematogenous or lymphangitic spread of tumor replaces functioning lung parenchyma; resectional surgery reduces parenchymal volume; nonresectional surgery can transiently impair lung function; radiotherapy, chemotherapy, stem cell therapy, and infection injure the vulnerable alveolocapillary membrane; tumors directly or indirectly compromise the musculoskeletal pump; venous thromboembolism and pulmonary vasculopathy obstruct pulmonary blood flow.The normal respiratory system contains considerable physiologic reserve, such that surgical loss of one lung is generally well tolerated. However, in cancer patients, insults to multiple components of the respiratory system may result in progressive loss of physiologic reserve and increasing dyspnea. Dyspnea, cough, wheezing, stridor, chest pain, and hemoptysis are common symptoms in the cancer setting that lead to pulmonary consultation.In this article, we will discuss the pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of the major respiratory complications of cancer and its therapy. We begin with the direct effects of cancer and cancer therapies on the lungs, review major indirect effects of cancer on the lungs, and end with respiratory failure in the cancer patient.
Gonadal Complications
Authors: Lentz Robert W. , Klein Catherine E. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Anticancer therapies often cause alterations in gonadal function for both men and women, which can cause infertility. This chapter reviews the assessment of gonadal function in men and women, effects of specific anticancer therapies on gonadal function (including cytotoxic chemotherapy, targeted agents, and radiation), and pregnancy implications of select anticancer therapies. Protective measures for fertility preservation are discussed in detail, including standard of care modalities (sperm cryopreservation in men and embryo or oocyte cryopreservation in women) and experimental techniques.
Infections in Patients with Cancer
Authors: Torres Harrys A. , Kontoyiannis Dimitrios P. , Rolston Kenneth V.I. 
Published: October 2022

Overview
Patients with cancer have increased risk of developing infections, owing both to their underlying disease and its treatment. This risk appears to be greatest in patients with hematologic malignancies and in hematopoietic cell transplant (HCT) recipients. This is due primarily to the development of various immunologic defects such as neutropenia and impaired cellular and/or humoral immunity, each associated with a unique spectrum of infection. Newer therapeutic modalities for the treatment of some cancers are changing the spectrum of infections as are the increasing use of catheters and other medical devices. While bacterial infections are documented most often, opportunistic fungal and viral infections are being encountered with increasing frequency. The morbidity and mortality of infection in cancer patients are generally greater than in the general population. Thus, early diagnosis and the prompt administration of appropriate therapy are of paramount importance. Antimicrobial resistance among these pathogens has become a worldwide problem, which can only be partially tackled by the development of novel agents. Consequently, the importance of conducting frequent epidemiologic surveillance in order to detect local epidemiologic shifts and of infection prevention, infection control, and antimicrobial stewardship cannot be emphasized enough. The number of cancer survivors is steadily increasing. Many of these patients remain immunosuppressed for substantial periods of time. Keeping these survivors healthy and infection free will continue to be a challenge for years to come.