bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Crohn’s disease of the duodenum and small bowel
Authors: Barton Jeffrey S. , Davis Kurt G. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Crohn’s disease of the duodenum and small intestine can be a highly variable disease. Symptoms vary according to the anatomical location, the severity of inflammation, the temporal phenotype, as well as the presence of any fibrosis or fistulae. Evaluation centres on endoscopic evaluation of the patient with direct visualization, and cross-sectional imaging. Medical management continues to be the mainstay of therapy for these patients, but surgery remains a common and often necessary treatment. Intestinal resection should be performed with bowel-sparing modalities such as strictureplasty when possible as these patients cannot be cured of their disease with surgery, but surgery often occupies an important component of their therapy.
Neuroendocrine tumours of the duodenum and small bowel
Authors: Andreasi Valentina , Partelli Stefano , Muffatti Francesca , Falconi Massimo 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The incidence of duodenal (dNENs) and small bowel neuroendocrine neoplasms (SB-NENs) is growing. While dNENs are often discovered incidentally during upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, SB-NENs are frequently diagnosed in patients with carcinoid syndrome. The diagnostic workup for dNENs includes upper gastrointestinal endoscopy with biopsy, endoscopic ultrasound, and somatostatin receptor imaging, along with high-quality radiological examinations (computed tomography and/or magnetic resonance imaging) with contrast medium, that are also important for diagnosis and staging of SB-NENs. According to tumour size, depth of invasion, tumour location, and presence of nodal involvement, the management of localized dNENs ranges from conservative treatment (active surveillance or endoscopic resection) to surgical resection. In contrast, SB-NENs should be always treated with surgical resection of the primary tumour associated with lymphadenectomy, when technically feasible. If liver metastases are present and resectable, it is recommended to remove them as well. The overall prognosis of both dNENs and SB-NENs is good, with 5-year survival rates around 90% for localized dNENs and approximately 100% for stage I–II SB-NENs.
Techniques of duodenal surgery
Authors: Macutkiewicz Christian , Baltatzis Minas , Siriwardena Ajith K. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a concise overview of the broad topic of duodenal surgery. Relevant aspects of the anatomy and relations of the duodenum are reviewed. There are also sections on the management of the common indications for duodenal surgery such as perforation and bleeding. The technique of pyloric exclusion for dealing with large (giant) duodenal perforation is addressed. There is a discussion of pancreas-preserving surgery for duodenal polyposis. This procedure is a specialized intervention. Older surgical procedures such as sphincteroplasty and ampullectomy are described here and may still retain a place in practice. Pancreatoduodenectomy is not covered in this chapter as it is addressed elsewhere.
The Prevalence, Incidence, and Risk of Tourette Syndrome
Authors: Scahill Lawrence , Thorsteinsson Erla , Dalsgaard Søren 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter summarizes the results and discusses the methodological issues related to prevalence studies on Tourette syndrome (TS) conducted during the past two decades. The best estimate for the prevalence of TS in school-age children is between 5 and 7 cases per 1,000. The prevalence of chronic motor tic disorder appears to range from 3 to 8 per 1,000, whereas estimates of prevalence for chronic vocal tic disorder in school-age children are less stable and await further study. Children with chronic tic disorders, even those with mild conditions, have a higher likelihood of other problems, such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, disruptive behavior, and obsessive–compulsive disorder. The classic two-stage design seems to be an acceptable approach for prevalence studies of TS and related tic disorders; however, this requires sample sizes greater than 5,000 to ensure relatively narrow confidence intervals. From a public health perspective, chronic tics may serve as a marker of neurodevelopmental vulnerability. Community-based studies that improve case finding and register-based studies may also improve our comprehension of the public health impact of tic disorders in children.
Perinatal Adversities and Tourette Syndrome
Authors: Hoekstra Pieter J. , Dietrich Andrea 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a literature review and critical commentary on studies evaluating the association between pregnancy-related and birth-related adversities in Tourette syndrome. Perinatal risk factors for the development of Tourette syndrome include low birth weight and the simultaneous presence of multiple pregnancy, delivery, and/or neonatal adversities. Risk factors for more severe tics may include older paternal age, maternal psychosocial stress during pregnancy, maternal severe nausea and/or vomiting during the first trimester, maternal smoking during pregnancy, maternal medication use during pregnancy, low birth weight, and delivery complications. These factors have not been replicated across studies, however. Maternal smoking during pregnancy and low birth weight are risk factors for the presence of comorbid obsessive–compulsive disorder and/or attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder in individuals with a tic disorder.
Infections and Tic Disorders
Authors: Martino Davide , Escobar Alex Medina , Malik Osman , Hedderly Tammy 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Several associations between patients with infections, particularly group A streptococcal (GAS) infections, and subsequent tics and obsessive–compulsive symptoms have been established in population-based studies, suggesting at least a nonspecific role of infections in a subgroup of patients with tics. Expanding the clinical entity of pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus, a broader spectrum named pediatric acute-onset neuropsychiatric syndromes (PANS) has been proposed, which encompasses phenotypes dominated by obsessive–compulsive symptoms or eating behavior abnormalities and includes tics as accompanying features. PANS are defined by the temporal course but are not limited to post-infectious etiologies. In chronic tic disorders, GAS infections do not seem to be a major determinant of tic exacerbations, although a potential interactive effect with psychosocial stress cannot be excluded. The role of other pathogens in influencing course and onset of tic disorders remains uncertain. The complex interaction of patient-specific attributes (neurochemical and immune vulnerability genes leading to maladaptive neuropsychiatric or immune function) with environmental attributes (psychosocial stress, injuries, substance exposures, and pathogen-specific properties) creates an interesting and ongoing research challenge.
Neuroimmunoendocrinology of Tourette Syndrome
Authors: Martino Davide , Johnson Isaac N. S. , Escobar Alex Medina , Leckman James F. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Cellular and molecular mechanisms involving immune-competent cells can modulate normal brain development, influencing the genesis, refinement, and maintenance of neural circuits. There is increasing evidence in support of the contribution of an early immune priming to the abnormal trajectories of maturation of cortico-subcortical circuits associated with the generation of tics. During postnatal life, the hyperreactivity of systemic immune pathways and neuroinflammation may contribute to natural fluctuations of the behavioral features manifesting in Tourette syndrome and related disorders. Moreover, abnormalities in the parallel development of neural and immune systems, as well as in stress responses, are reflected in the higher risk of autoimmune and allergic illnesses in people with these neurodevelopmental disorders. There is still limited knowledge regarding the efficacy of direct and indirect immune-modulatory interventions in the treatment of these disorders. There are also limitations in knowledge of the key molecular pathways associated with gut dysbiosis that can influence neuroimmune interactions in these disorders. This chapter provides an up-to-date summary of the existing knowledge around these themes, highlighting existing gaps that need to be addressed by future research in order to develop breakthrough, disease-modifying, immunological, hormonal, and microbiota-based therapeutic interventions.
Animal Models of Tic Disorders
Authors: Bortolato Marco , Cadeddu Roberto 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Animal models of Tourette syndrome (TS) and other tic disorders are powerful research tools to advance our knowledge of the neurodevelopmental and molecular foundations of these disorders. Assessing the reliability and translational validity of an animal model of TS is a particularly intricate task due to the heterogeneous presentation, multifactorial ontogeny, and neurobiological complexity of this disorder. Even with these limits, recent advances in understanding the semiology and ontogeny of tics and their accompanying phenotypes are paving the way for new refinements in the characterization and validation of animal models. In addition, the development of novel models reflecting the impact of genetic and environmental vulnerability factors is greatly expanding knowledge on the causes of TS and providing a rich source of molecular mechanisms to account for the neurobiological dysregulations associated with this disorder. This chapter recapitulates the current state of the art in animal modeling of tic disorders and highlights how each model allows for the analysis of complementary aspects of phenomenology, pathophysiology, etiology, and therapy of TS. The chapter also outlines several methodological and conceptual directions for the future development of new animal models and the refinement of available ones. The implementation of these translational strategies will be critical to further improve knowledge of the biological foundation of TS and expand the therapeutic arsenal for tic disorders and comorbid symptoms.
The Differential Diagnosis of Tic Disorders
Authors: Kurlan Roger 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Tics need to be distinguished from other neurological movement disorders (chorea, myoclonus, and dystonia). Tics also need to be distinguished from movement disorders associated with psychiatric conditions (compulsions, stereotypies, mannerisms, and habits). Tourette syndrome (TS) is part of a family of primary tic disorders that include chronic motor or vocal tic disorder and transient tic disorder. Tics can occur secondary to a number of conditions, including neurological disorders, medications, and as a functional manifestation. This chapter discusses the differential diagnosis of tic disorders at two levels. First is a discussion about how to distinguish tics from other types of body movements and sounds. This is followed by a discussion about the various etiologic entities that can cause tics.
Social and Adaptive Functioning in Tourette Syndrome
Authors: Sukhodolsky Denis G. , Kalvin Carla , Artukoğlu Bekir B. , Eicher Virginia W. , Leckman James F. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Many children, adolescents, and adults with Tourette syndrome have impairments across various domains of social and adaptive functioning, both as a result of the severity and particular features of tics and as a result of co-occurring disorders such as attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and anxiety. The relative contribution of tics and comorbid disorders to these impairments is an area of active investigation. A thorough clinical assessment should also include standardized ratings of adaptive functioning. Psychosocial interventions for tics and associated behavioral disorders are constantly improving and show the potential to reduce symptom severity and associated impairment as well as to improve quality of life and adaptive functioning.
Psychoeducational Interventions
Authors: Lebowitz Eli R. , Artukoğlu Bekir B. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter both reviews research about the role of psychoeducation in coping with and treating Tourette syndrome and serves as a psychoeducational resource, summarizing key information about the disorder. Providing patients and families with accurate, nuanced, and up-to-date knowledge about Tourette syndrome is important to promoting better coping, helping them become informed consumers of resources and supports, and combating negative stigma that can be attached to the disorder. This chapter examines many of the features of Tourette syndrome that contribute to its complexity and discusses psychoeducational interventions for patients and families. Parents of children with tics and other commonly comorbid psychiatric problems face practical and emotional challenges, and addressing these challenges is another important objective of psychoeducation. Children with tics also face educational and social difficulties in school and are often targets of peer victimization. Psychoeducation for school staff as well as peers may alleviate these difficulties. Advocacy organizations can offer helpful and informative resources to individuals and families living with tics and can provide a forum for social support. Finally, adults with tics often face discrimination and social victimization in the workplace and tend to be underemployed. Psychoeducation for employers and colleagues about tics as well as about the legal obligations toward individuals with disabilities may mitigate such discrimination.
Surgical Treatment of Tourette Syndrome
Authors: Servello Domenico , Deeb Wissam , Galbiati Tommaso F. , Porta Mauro 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of the existing literature on the functional surgery therapeutic approach in Tourette syndrome (TS) and summarizes the current recommendations for the application of this type of treatment. A special focus is provided with respect to the pending issues concerning this invasive treatment that will need to be addressed in future research. Some technical notes are also given. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) for TS is not curative, and in some cases it does not improve tics. Drugs for TS are prescribed according to the different symptomatology exhibited by the individual patient: Although the same tailored approach is conceivable in choosing the best target for DBS, evidence is still insufficient to provide a sound clinical guidance to target selection. Ongoing technological advances in the surgical procedure (e.g., the introduction of the O-arm and other imaging modalities) have the potential to improve its safety and applicability in routine clinical practice. A patient selection and target selection algorithm, based on evidence from randomized controlled trials and multidisciplinary experiences from tertiary referral centers, is currently under development.
Inhibitory Control and Tic Generation
Authors: Kurvits Lille , Ganos Christos 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Tic disorders are characterized by a surplus of brief movements and sounds that share some of the characteristics of voluntary actions but occur repetitively and are inapposite to discernable context. Tics are most commonly observed in primary tic disorders, and are often accompanied by additional neuropsychiatric features, including impulsive and socially disruptive behaviors. This lends support to the hypothesis of a core inhibitory deficit at different organization levels of brain structure and function. This chapter dissects evidence supporting the disinhibition model, starting from neuronal composition aberrations within the cortico-basal-ganglia-thalamo-cortical loops to their putative consequences in behavioral output. Specifically, it provides an overview of the neuropathological and functional neuroanatomic changes of different cell populations within the basal ganglia, with a focus in GABA-ergic and cholinergic interneurons, dopaminergic neurotransmission, and the glutamate–glutamine-GABA cycle. Evidence from animal models of tic disorders, alongside studies of cortical neurophysiology are also discussed. Finally, an account of behavioral studies related both to control of voluntary actions and tics is provided, and knowledge gaps are listed to motivate future studies in the field.
Basic Physics
Authors: Johnson Evan M. , Misulis Karl E. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces basic physics. It explores the structure of atoms, which are known to be the smallest unit of matter. Atoms, such as hydrogen and oxygen, are frequently represented in a periodic table of elements. Additionally, bonds are considered either covalent or ionic depending on the sharing of atoms. While the atomic theory is vital for understanding electronics, atomic decay is essential for understanding laboratory techniques. The chapter also highlights charge movement as a critical aspect of physics, especially neurology. Atoms have either positive or negative charges that could help them share electrons. Then, the chapter discusses neurohydrodynamics covering fluid dynamics, movement of gasses and the motion of liquids.
Computers, Applications, and Artificial Intelligence
Authors: Misulis Karl E. , Doyle Eamon 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the development of computers, applications, and artificial intelligence (AI). The value of technology primarily focuses on keeping track of knowledge such as medical care. Additionally, the chapter looks into the functions and components of a computer such as the CPU. Signal processing starts on the analog signal before the ADC. Thus, neurophysiologists are concerned about the calculations performed on the digitized data. Moreover, cognitive physicians are highly dependent on computers for their ability to handle electronic health records (EHR) and extensive diagnostic equipment. The functions of EHR range between communication with patients and providers, decision support, and patient list management.
Physics of Neurophysiology
Authors: Johnson Evan M. , Misulis Karl E. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on neurophysiology, which is dependent on the physics and chemistry of excitable tissues. It parallels the traveling signals between the nervous system and electrical wirings wherein biophysics allows the conduction of electronic signals in living creatures. Additionally, the polarization of the membrane is dependent on selective permeability or conductance to specific ions, especially since ions are affected by chemical and electrical gradients. Then, an action potential is produced when the depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane resulted in a regenerative increase in sodium conductance. The chapter also expounds on the physics of neurologic dysfunction affecting neuron bodies, axons, and/or the myelin sheath.
History of Technology in Neurology
Authors: Misulis Karl E. , Johnson Evan M. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the history of neurology technology. It highlights how the scientific method revolutionized the advancement of knowledge with a hypothesis, observation, and experiments. Before, people were used to death and their methods to relieve suffering are mostly ineffective and harmful. The chapter lists bloodletting, electrical stimulation, and trephination as examples of harmful pain-relieving methods. Thus, part of scientific methods, data, and decisions are continuously evaluated and revised since not all technologies could stand the test of time. An example of technology with uncertain implications is therapeutic hypothermia due to the differences in critical care and results amidst the complex studies that are conducted.
Nuclear Imaging
Authors: Johnson Evan M. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter tackles the features of nuclear imaging. The two forms of radio-isotope based imaging modality are positron emission tomography (PET) and single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). Compared to other imaging modalities, nuclear imaging is more tailored for assessing functional information or tissue-specific localization. Radioisotopes used for diagnostic purposes could also deliver therapeutic localized radiation. The limit of the possible tracers for PET and SPECT that can carry a positron emitter is largely dependent on the imagination and capability of chemists and biochemists. Modern PET scanners can benefit from the patient’s internalized source of radiation by using a fixed 360-degree ring array of detectors.
Neurologic Therapeutics
Authors: Johnson Evan M. , Misulis Karl E. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on neurologic therapeutics. Trephination and electric shocks are the earliest neurologic technique used to help people through their neurological issues. Neurostimulation techniques are commonly used to treat epilepsy and movement disorders. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a method of targeted neurostimulation through electrical impulse generation. DBS also allows access to deeper structures in an effort to provide optimal relief of symptoms without any side effects. Thus, DBS is commonly used to treat epilepsy, dystonia, Parkinson’s disease, and obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD). The chapter also tackles transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) which is mostly used to alleviate psychiatric disorders, while electroconvulsive therapy is often utilized for refractory psychiatric conditions.
Crossing Over
Authors: Barnard David , Towers Anna , Boston Patricia , Lambrinidou Yanna 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The revised edition of Crossing Over is a book of stories—narratives of giving and receiving palliative care in the context of end of life. It is not a textbook that portrays ideal palliative care or that prescribes specific management techniques. Instead, it presents stories of actual patients and families who have experienced terminal illness with the support of hospice or palliative care teams. The narratives are derived from a three-year, qualitative, ethnographic study of the experiences of patients, families, and caregivers. Since the first edition of Crossing Over appeared, changes have occurred in healthcare and in society at large that have altered the environment in which people give and receive palliative care, including effects of the COVID-19 pandemic, the opioid crisis, changes in social welfare policy, the rise of the internet, the evolution of palliative care as a field, increased emphasis on advance care planning, and, in some jurisdictions (including all of Canada), legalization of medical aid in dying. The Authors’ Comments following each narrative pinpoint specific decisions and choices of patients, families, and clinicians where today’s changed context may be particularly relevant.
Prelude—Palliative Care in the Time of Pandemic
Authors: Towers Anna 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This narrative is based on the author’s experience working as a palliative care physician during the first year of the COVID-19 crisis in Quebec. She offers it to feature the role, the dilemmas, and the impact on herself as a physician and a person, as well as to express sympathy for those who have suffered the most all over the world. She and her co-authors also offer it as a Prelude to this Revised Edition of Crossing Over. Of the myriad ways the world has changed since this book first appeared in 2000, perhaps none has been so radical as the changes in consciousness and self-understanding forced upon us by the pandemic. As clinicians, we have had to reckon with the fragility of our systems of care in the face of surging demand. We have had to question the capabilities of our institutions, our governments, and our leaders to respond equitably and efficiently to a fast-moving but entirely predictable global threat. And, while we celebrate the resilience and courage of our colleagues and the unprecedented achievements in vaccine development, we are shaken and humbled by these failures.