bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Systematic Assessment of Risk Control Effectiveness
Authors: Grant Eric , Ambasta Shreya , Jean Mark 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The inherent risks associated with pipeline operations are significant. Companies dedicate countless resources to identifying, assessing, and controlling risks across their operations. Risk management activities are completed by personnel at all levels, from field staff to senior management. This ensures that risks are identified and managed at all levels within the company to align with company risk tolerance. Where risks are identified that are higher than company tolerance levels, additional controls are typically developed. For most risks, a series of controls is developed to protect in different ways or in different scenarios. In many cases, a control may protect against multiple different risks.
When risk assessments are completed, there is the possibility that the effectiveness of controls that have been developed to manage the risk are incorrectly considered [1]. Individuals or teams completing the review of controls are assessing their effectiveness higher or lower than they actually are [2]. This is typically the result of a controls assessment that does not fully consider the functionality, availability, and reliability of the control. The result is the potential for a risk being accepted that may be beyond company risk tolerance or the allocation of additional resources on risks that are already well controlled. To account for a control’s partial effectiveness, they are often layered, with multiple controls working together to mitigate a risk [3]. In these instances, if one control is unable to manage the risk, another would be available to provide additional mitigation to reduce the possibility or consequence of a major risk event.
With the combination of thousands of hazards that can lead to different major risk events with hundreds of unique controls, it can be difficult to quantify the degree of risk to which a company is exposed. This paper explores the approach to systematically assessing risk controls, enabling improved understanding and ability to communicate the overall organizational risk and prioritization of improvements for the most critical controls.
Pipeline Defect Detection and Fine-Scale Reconstruction From 3-D MFL Signal Analysis Using Object Detection and Physics-Constrained Machine Learning
Authors: Rosenthal W. Steven , Westwood Stephen , Denslow Kayte 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Sustainable operation of pipeline networks for oil and gas transportation requires diagnostics capable of both detection and characterization of pipeline defects in particular corrosion defects. Current defect analysis techniques can identify and characterize the geometric features of metal loss defects or defect clusters such as peak depth, length, and width with limited accuracy. Probabilistic data driven models have also shown an ability to predict error bounds for individual defect characteristics as opposed to overall defect tolerance. The prediction accuracy of the health of a pipeline with metal loss defects such as corrosion can be improved with additional detail in the corrosion surface profile as this affects the burst pressure. This will enable operators to apply more accurate corrosion growth models and simulations that can forecast the reduction in pipeline capacity and facilitate more targeted diagnostic and mitigation plans. To this end, a data-driven workflow is proposed to automate the detection, classification, and surface prediction of external corrosion defects. This combines experimental MFL data and validated MFL simulations and leverages both image-based and physics-informed machine learning methodologies.
Implementation of API 1183 Recommended Practice for Reliability-Based Assessment of Dents in Liquid Pipelines
Authors: Kainat Muntaseer , Virk Amandeep , Yoosef-Ghodsi Nader , Bott Steven 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Prior to the publication of API 1183 (Recommended Practice for Assessment and Management of Pipeline Dents) in 2020, there was no industry consensus on one method to evaluate the Fitness for Purpose for dents to be implemented in integrity management programs. Regulations in Canada and the United States regarding the repair of dents are primarily based on depth and interaction with stress risers. API 1183 has put forth specific methodologies for screening and detailed assessment of dents which consider both strain-based and fatigue-based failure mechanisms.
Enbridge Liquid Pipelines had previously presented a framework to support systemwide dent assessment with an efficient reliability-based approach. Following the publication of API 1183, this approach has been further modified to comply with the API recommendations for dent assessment. Both the screening and detailed analyses within this framework account for the properties of the pipe, dent, and interacting features, the operating condition and history of the line, restraint condition, and associated uncertainties. These analysis techniques combine inline inspection results and engineering analysis with their uncertainties, providing a means for quantitative assessment of dents. This paper demonstrates the alignment of Enbridge’s dent management framework with API 1183 recommendations, and discusses the modifications made for probabilistic assessment of dents. In the absence of specific guidelines for probabilistic assessment in API 1183, Enbridge relied on relevant publications and industry best practices for considering uncertainties within the probabilistic assessment. This framework has been implemented for systemwide analysis with over 5,000 geometric anomalies assessed to date. From this implementation experience, the challenges with probabilistic analysis and potential areas of further improvement have been identified and discussed in detail in this paper. In particular, the recommendations in API 1183 regarding dent fatigue assessment, and the fatigue life reduction factor due to weld interaction are observed to be overly conservative. Overall, the reliability-based dent management framework following API 1183 recommendations have proven to be effective, but inefficient due to being overly conservative. Efforts have been made to validate, and where possible, to calibrate the techniques through comparison to experimental results, field findings, and historical failures. These efforts have enabled Enbridge to tackle the over-conservatism of the models for certain combinations and ranges of operating parameters through novel techniques, which are described in this paper.
Recoating SCC on Gas Pipelines Without Grinding
Authors: Milligan Ryan , Co Noelle Easter , Gao Ming , Krishnamurthy Ravi , Kania Richard , Rosca Gabriela , Sanjuan Elvis 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Considering both safety and cost-effectiveness in repairing SCC colonies, TC Energy and Blade Energy Partners conducted an engineering assessment to determine whether SCC colonies with depths of 20, 30, and 40%wt in base material and DSAW pipe can be left in a gas pipeline without grinding out provided that the fracture toughness and crack size conditions are met, and the features are recoated properly with a high-performance coating system. The operator would choose the safety level for recoating/grinding based on a fitness-for-service assessment. These findings are based on a literature review and verified by small- and full-scale testing. The product of the work is an assessment tool that identifies SCC cracks that are appropriate for recoating without grinding.
ILI System Performance Trials for Mechanical Damage
Authors: Tiku Sanjay , Rana Arnav , John Binoy , Dinovitzer Aaron , Piazza Mark 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Pipeline integrity management involves the analysis of pipeline condition information (e.g., pipe size, existence, and size of features), operational/environmental conditions and line pipe material properties in engineering assessment (fitness-for-purpose) tools to evaluate operational risk. While nominal or minimum specified material properties and SCADA reported, design or estimated operational loading conditions can be considered, pipeline operators depend heavily on pipeline condition data from in line inspection systems. This paper will present the details of performance trials supported by the Pipeline Research Council International (PRCI) evaluating the ability of ILI systems to provide pipeline condition information for dents with coincident or closely aligned features. A set of sample dent features were prepared along with a trial protocol and performance metrics beyond those presented in API 1163 that were used to characterize performance.
The ILI system pull and pump through trials of magnetic, ultrasonic and caliper-based ILI technologies from seven ILI Service Providers were used to consider detection, identification and sizing performance for isolated corrosion features, dents with variety of shapes including those without coincident features and those with corrosion, gouges, cracks, cracks and corrosion. The effect of dents on the ILI system detection, identification and sizing of the coincident features was evaluated.
The presentation will describe trial protocols including new feature characterization techniques that considers the position of the coincident feature in the dent pipe wall deformation. The trial results include consideration of various technologies, the effect of speed and relative position of the dent and coincident feature on probability of detection, identification, and sizing accuracy by considering unity plots and observed statistical variation and trends. The final objective of this work was to report on the performance of ILI systems in detecting, characterizing, and sizing dents with coincident features such that this information can be used to support the pipeline integrity management process and provide feedback to ILI Service Providers to support advancement in technology development. The results of this work described in this paper provide confidence that ILI systems are capable of reporting dents and any coincident features to support fitness for service evaluation or integrity management.
Inline-Inspection Crack Detection for Gas Pipelines Using a Novel Technology
Authors: Aanes Magne , Haas Michael , Andersen Kenneth Kirkeng , Talberg Andreas Sørbrøden 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Gas transmission lines, especially those which were built from mid-20 century to the early 1980s are often affected by external SCC. A common methodology to manage this threat is to utilize EMAT based ILI tools to collect data to characterize the asset and flaws. It is common practice to utilize a transverse magnetic flux leakage tool (TFI) in addition to the EMAT inspection to enhance identification and characterization of EMAT signals. Furthermore, resolution and maximum wall thickness to operate those EMAT tools are limited as of today.
NDT Global is developing an alternative technology which addresses crack detection, identification, and sizing in gas pipelines. It is based on directional gas coupled guided wave generation in the pipe wall which allows inspection of the asset without any contact of the sensors to the internal pipe wall.
This paper presents the history of the development, starting with a gap analysis of existing solutions, some working hypothesizes to overcome those gaps followed by small scale lab test results and an outlook towards full-scale tests in a large Nitrogen filled pressure chamber in Norway, Europe, operated at different pressures. The solution combines newly developed gas coupled guided wave principles with several principles taken from the proven Eclipse UCx [1] technology operated in liquids.
Utilization of a Probabilistic Function to Describe the Performance of In-Line Crack Inspection Systems and a Possible Application in Hydrogen Service
Authors: Moritz Timo , Baumeister Marc , Beuker Thomas 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
A more result-driven, holistic view on the performance of an In-line inspection (ILI) system is desired by pipeline operators, namely an integrated view on the Probabilities of Detection, Identification and Sizing, i.e. POD, POI and POS respectively. It is self-evident to combine the product of the individual probabilities to a single value POX as proposed also by API 1163. The changes in material properties of existing pipelines related to the repurposing to Hydrogen service yields smaller acceptable anomaly dimension. Consequently the dependency of the POX vs. anomaly dimensions need to be considered as function.
The current practice to document the performance of an ILI system is typically based only on the specific dimensions of minimum detectable crack-like anomaly. In the case of crack-like anomalies, the contribution of the dimensions (e.g. length, depth, orientation) and interactions of crack-like anomalies can be used to turn POX into a meaningful function/dependency depending on the anomaly dimensions instead of a single value. To establish a POX to anomaly dimension relation successfully for a specific ILI crack detection service, the relevance of field verifications needs to be taken into account as well. Previous publications as well as physics foundations of NDE demonstrate that an increase in anomaly dimensions typically yields a higher sensitivity of the underlying inspection system. This can be immediately linked to the POX function as product of POD, POI and POS. This paper provides access to an in-depth assessment of POX based on the results of recent field verification data. The paper focuses on the interaction between POX and different anomaly dimensions.
This is supported by the most commonly applied standard for in-line inspection, API 1163, which implies the validation of inspection performance with use of field verifications based on the reported results. In addition, a performance specification can be derived exclusively based on a field verification campaign, in the absence of other comparable performance information.
As an example, as part of a conversion of natural gas transmission pipelines to hydrogen service the sensitivity of inspection systems is frequently discussed. A potentially increased crack growth rate da/dN and a reduction in pipe steel toughness seem to require a reduction of minimum acceptable anomaly dimensions, in the absence of better statistical evidence of the actual ILI performance. The proposed POX assessment will be a credible means to establish optimal re-inspection intervals for existing in-line crack inspection technologies.
Ingenuity and Curiosity to Supercharge Your Pipeline Safety Management System
Authors: Gareau Frank , Ilbagi Arash , Dew Brian 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Everyone working in the pipeline industry knows that they “Don’t Know What They Don’t Know”. Our behaviours and actions to address this simple phrase have led to significant successes.
Pipeline Safety Management Systems and Integrity Management Programs have evolved over the last 40 years. This evolution has been a result of adopting quality management systems, learnings from failures and incidents, and regulatory involvement. These advances and areas of improvement are investigated through examples and observations made by the authors.
The examples and observations in this presentation will demonstrate how organizations of various sizes have successfully addressed safety and integrity challenges over the past forty years. Examples will be discussed from small, medium, and large sized organizations. The management systems have continually improved; these advancements have enabled some of these systems to provide significant value to the pipeline system operators.
The following will be included in the presentation:
a) important elements required to meet policy requirements associated with a pipeline safety management system,
b) the advantages and disadvantages of changing versus constant management system requirements defined within a regulatory framework,
c) compliance versus beyond-compliance approaches,
d) the importance of integrated management systems,
e) the importance of planning and performance verification to meet goals and targets, and
f) examples to demonstrate continual improvement and alignment with corporate goals.
Continual improvement in the ISO 9000 series of standards for quality management systems have preceded changes in pipeline safety management systems. This presentation will show correlations and relationships between Quality Management Systems and Pipeline Safety Management Systems. Forecasts about the future of Pipeline Safety Management Systems will also be presented. The examples and observations in this presentation are intended to promote ingenuity and curiosity as methods to supercharge pipeline safety management systems.
Enhancing (Reducing) the Leak Detection Times in Pipelines by Deployment of Real-Time Ethernet Protocols in Lieu of Legacy Protocols, Such as DNP, IEC-60870-5-101 / 104
Authors: Raju Nadimpalli V. S. N. , Ganguly Supriyo , Gowri Sankar Y. , Barley Jon , Morrow Gregory 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Cross-country pipelines at times suffer unexpected leaks to the surrounding environment. The challenge faced by pipeline operators is to ensure that the field data is communicated to the Leak Detection System as quickly as possible to ensure a leak is caught and located. The communications system comprises sensors, RTUs, SCADA system and the supporting communication protocols, hardware, firmware and software systems deployed. All must work together to complete the cyclic information exchange for any data collected at sensors located along the pipeline to the Leak Detection System deployed in the control room. Data collection rates are typically in the range of about 5 to 15 seconds. Consequently, as “Real-time Transient Modelling” (RTTM) Leak detection systems needs time to build up evidence for and confirm the existence of a leak, it can take approximately 10–15 minutes to issue an alarm. By the time, corrective steps taken for “Abnormal Operational Condition” (AOC) occurs after the leak, an enormous quantity of product could have been lost from the pipeline, leading to safety and environmental concerns.
To address the “time to detect” issue an operator can turn to Negative Pressure Wave (NPW) technologies to provide a solution. However, the efficacy and location accuracy of such systems depends on the data sample frequency — with sample rates in the order of 10–100msec being preferred. Typically, NPW systems are deployed at the RTU, so that the required sample data rates can be achieved, which can make installation and maintenance difficult and expensive. Although sending all the sensor data to a centralised server for processing is possible, the collating, marshalling and sequencing of the data at the sample rates required for leak location accuracy makes this approach unappealing.
This paper presents a use case deployment of more advanced Ethernet protocol, the so-called Real-time Ethernet Deterministic Protocols, to reduce the data acquisition time. This is possibly the first time in the pipeline industry that data acquisition rates in the order of 10msec is achieved specifically for improvement of NPW leak detection performance.
Temperature and Loading Frequency Effects in the Mechanism for NNpH SCC of Pipeline Steel
Authors: Nelson Greg , Chen Weixing , Eadie Reg 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Cracking is a leading cause of pipeline failure and rupture in large-diameter transmission lines. Thus, developing and improving crack management programs is a strategic priority for pipeline operators. The most common cracking mechanism in Canada is Near Neutral pH Stress Corrosion Cracking (NNpH SCC). A key component of such a program is a growth model that captures the underlying growth mechanism; yet, there is disagreement on the nature of this cracking mechanism. Pipeline operators have deployed various growth models to differing degrees of success, including fatigue models, classical electrochemical SCC models, and hydrogen-enhanced corrosion fatigue models.
This paper presents experimental evidence and theoretical analysis suggesting a diffusible species, namely hydrogen, plays a pivotal role in NNpH SCC by enhancing the corrosion fatigue mechanism. Past work performed by the Chen group (University of Alberta – PRCI Project SCC 2-12) identified a critical frequency at which the crack growth rate reaches its maximum. We expand this body of work by examining the effect of loading frequency at multiple temperatures. First, we use a simple diffusion model to estimate the critical frequency at the targeted experimental temperatures calibrated with the known room temperature data. Next, we perform experimental testing across various loading frequencies to prove or disprove this prediction.
Experimentally, we fabricated specialized surface crack tension (SCT) specimens from X65 pipeline steel designed to simulate the geometry of features found in the field. These specimens are pre-cracked in the air and then immersed in an NNpH SCC electrolyte (C2 solution) at the test temperature for 12 days. Next, the samples are loaded under constant amplitude cyclic loading at various loading frequencies; the initial maximum and minimum stress intensities are held constant. The experimental results find a critical frequency that agrees with the theoretical calculations suggesting that hydrogen is the diffusible species playing a pivotal role in NNpH SCC growth.