bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
European Union-Asia Pacific: Working Together on Global Security
Authors: Pérez De Las Heras Beatriz , Fernández Rojo David , Herbosa Martínez Inmaculada 
Published: April 2022

The Asia Pacific is not only the world’s largest and most populous region, it is also home to some of its fastest growing economies. At the same time, it is also a region that contains complex security hotspots, including tensions on the Korean Peninsula and maritime disputes in the East and South China Seas. The United States and China are vying for economic and military influence in the region, affecting the balance of power and security dynamics on a global scale. In recent years, the European Union (EU) has become a key trading partner for most countries in the Asia-Pacific region and is also seeking to play a relevant role as a security actor. Both regions face the same challenges and share an interest in preserving peace in their respective areas, while upholding the rules-based international order. Specifically, the EU wants to step up its security role in the Asia-Pacific by boosting cooperation with the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN) countries and other strategic partners. In the current context of huge global shifts, this article argues that the area in which the EU can make a valuable contribution to stability in the region is in supporting Asia-Pacific nations to address non-traditional security challenges.
European Union, Asia Pacific, Indo Pacific, non-traditional security, interregional cooperation, ASEAN, Strategic Partnerships
The Brussels Effect: How the GDPR Conquered Silicon Valley
Authors: Gunst Simon , De Ville Ferdi 
Published: April 2022

In 2018, the Californian government adopted a new data protection framework. The flagship of this framework is the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA). As this new framework is widely considered to resemble the European Union’s (EU’s) General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), this article intends to investigate whether the Brussels Effect could explain this resemblance. We apply process-tracing to test if the Brussels Effect causally connects the GDPR with the CCPA. The analysis is based on a careful evaluation of three sets of evidence. Firstly, privacy policies of Apple, Facebook, and Google are examined. Secondly, lobbying concerning the alignment of the implementation of the CCPA with the GDPR is scrutinized. Lastly, it is investigated whether the Californian government has used arguments linked to the Brussels Effect while drafting the CCPA and its subsequent implementing regulations. It is concluded that the Brussels Effect has indeed played a role in the adoption of the CCPA. Nevertheless, it has become clear that the impact of the Effect varies depending on exactly which provision of the GDPR is examined.
Brussels Effect, process-tracing, California, CCPA, European Union, GDPR, Data Protection, Lobbying, Big Tech
La codification
Authors: Terré François 
Published: April 2022

Résumé. Entendue comme un regroupement de règles, la codification est une manifestation du droit très ancienne et très répandue. Dans la tradition occidentale, plus spécialement européenne, sa définition et sa signification modemes se sont dégagéees au siècle des Lumières sous l’influence des grands courants issus de l’humanisme juridique, du rationalisme et du jusnaturalisme. Bien qu’il ne fut pas le premier dans son genre, le Code Napoléon a été, à partir de 1804, le modbie de référence quant à la notion modeme de code, y compris de la part de ceux qui furent hostiles à la codification. Cependant, au fil des temps, la philosophie, ostensible ou non, qui inspire celle-ci n’a pas été indifftrente tant aux circonstances entourant l’élaboration des codes, qu’à l’objet et à la méthode de la codification.
Abstract. Understood as the regrouping of a body of rules, codification is a very old and widespread form of law. In the western tradition, more particularly the European tradition, the modem definition and meaning of codification emerged during the century of the Enlightenment, under the influence of the major streams of humanism in law, rationalism and of natural law. Although it was not the first of its kind, the Napoleonic Code was taken, from 1804, as being the reference point for the modem conception of a code, even by those who were hostile to codification. However, as time has passed, the philosophy, whether or not apparent, which influences codification, has not been immune to the circumstances which have surrounded the adoption of codes, both with regard to the object and the method of codification.
Zusammenfassung. Die Kodifikation ist – verstanden als eine Umgrupierung von Normen – eine Manifestation des sehr alten Rechts und sehr verbreitet. In der abendländischen, spezieller der europäischen Tradition, ist ihre Definition und modeme Bedeutung im Zeitalter der Aufklärung unter dem Einfluß der großen Ströme des juristischen Humanismus, des Rationalismus und des Naturalismus entstanden. Seit 1804 ist der Code Napoléon – obgleich er nicht das erste in seiner Zeit war – das Model1 auf dem Weg zu dem modemen Begriff von einem Gesetzbuch gewesen, der auch den Teil derjenigen umfaßte, die dem Kodifikationsgedanken feindlich gegenüber standen. Indessen ist die den Kodifikationsgedanken bestimmende Philosophie – entsprechend den Strömungen der Zeit, sichtbar oder nicht – sowohl gegenüber den Umständen im Zusammenhang mit der Ausarbeitung der Gesetzbücher, als auch gegenüber dem Gegenstand und der Methode der Kodifikation nicht gleichgültig gewesen
Harmonization of law, foreign and private international law
Authors: Glenn H. Patrick 
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The systemic concept of national law which emerged in the XIXth century in Europe had important consequences for the definition and use of foreign law. Foreign law came to be sharply distinguished from national law, and the principle of global disunity which underlay national unifications of law meant that foreign law had to be presumed to be in conflict with national law. Private international law became a necessary form of international ordering.
This article explores the effect on such thinking of the current process of harmonization of law, which is taking place in Europe and elsewhere in the world. The reasons for this harmonization are also examined. It is argued that harmonization blurs the distinction between foreign and national law; that the presumption of conflict amongst national laws can no longer be sustained; and that current rules and principles governing the use of foreign law should therefore be re-examined, to reflect the harmonization process.
Résumé. La conception systémique de droit national qui est devenue courante au XIXe siècle avait des conséquences importantes pour la définition et l’emploi du droit étranger. Le droit étranger est devenu radicalement distinct du droit national et le principe de désunion global qui était à la base des unifications nationales du droit a mené à une présomption de conflit entre le droit national et le droit étranger. Le droit international privé est devenu un moyen essentiel de la coordination international.
Cet article examine l’effet sur ces idées du processus d’harmonisation des droits qui a lieu actuellement en Europe et dans le monde. Sont examinées aussi les raisons pour cette harmonisation. L’article suggère que l’harmonisation rend moins nette la distinction entre le droit national et le droit étranger; qu’une présomption de conflit entre les droits nationaux ne peut plus étre soutenue; et que les règles et les principes qui gouvernent l’emploi du droit étranger devraient étre ré-examinés pour mieux refleter le processus d’harmonisation.
Das neue niederländische bürgerliche Gesetzbuch aus vergleichender und deutscher Sicht
Authors: Drobnig Ulrich 
Published: April 2022

Abstract. On January 1, 1992, the core part of the patrimonial law contained in the New Civil Code came into force in the Netherlands. With the exception of Book 4 on inheritance law and parts of Book 7 on certain specific types of contract, the task of reform aimed at creating a New Civil Code, which has lasted for decades, is now complete.
The New Civil Code no longer makes a division between civil law and commercial law. It therefore also governs the most important institutions and contracts of commercial law: company law (Book 2) and the law of transport (Book 8) as well as commercial contracts (Book 7).
Although it does not have a General Part in the style of the German code, the General Patrimonial Law is dealt with comprehensively in a separate Book (Book 3). In addition, the General Law of Obligations is also dealt with in detail in a separate Book (Book 6). The General Law of Obligations also includes important specific types of non-contractual obligations, such as management of the affairs of another, unjust enrichment and the law of tort.
In contrast to the Civil Code of 1838 which was previously in force, which was greatly influenced by the French code civil, it is not so easy to point to the influences of a single foreign legal system upon the New Civil Code. Above all, it is the Romanistic law element which dominates, now as before; this applies, for instance, in the case of the law of tort and unjust enrichment. In the General Patrimonial Law, as well as in the law of contract, there are also many similarities to German law. The general clause concerned with ‘reasonableness and equity’ corresponds to the German principle of ‘Treu und Glauben’ (good faith); the provisions which govern the general conditions of business are closely related to the provisions of the relevant German law of 1976. Even the most recent German attempts to bring about a reform of the Law of Obligations have quite clearly been taken into account, such as the rule regarding the influence of changed circumstances and the rule governing recission of contracts.
In sum the Dutch New Civil Code can be characterised as an original and mature codification, in which much independent thought, practical experience, and wide comparative research have been invested. As the newest European Codex for civil law, the Civil Code will also certainly exercise an influence upon the endeavours of the countries of Eastern and South-Eastern Europe who are seeking to adjust and build their civil and commercial laws so that they meet the demands of a free legal order based on a market economy.
European Perspectives of Tort Liability
Authors: Magnus Ulrich 
Published: April 2022

Abstract. The law of tort serves two main functions: compensation of damage and prevention of damage. During the period of industrialisation in the nineteenth century the law aimed to secure the greatest possible freedom of action for economic operators and required proof of fault. Modern laws recognise the dangers inherent in many economic activities and have increasingly objectivised the notion of fault. In addition, the special risks that attach to certain forms of activity have led to strict liability for harm arising from such activity. Czech law takes a modem approach, and indeed includes a general presumption of fault once it has been shown that damage has resulted from the infringement of a legal duty. The onus is on the tortfeasor to prove that all reasonable care has been taken. Czech law also includes a very general liability for damage caused in the course of business and a num ber of special liabilities. The relationship between the different approaches to liability is not entirely clear. Although other European states are increasing the scope of their laws on strict liability, few national laws are as wide ranging as the Czech law.
Developments at the European level are limited. Greater harmonisation of rules would increase transparency for the consumer. Such legislation and proposals for legislation as exist demonstrate the same trends as are apparent at national level. These trends include: imputation of fault either because of objective ncglect of reasonable care or because of the assumption of an unusual risk; a presumption of unlawfulness where harm to person or property occur; the need for personal capacity to bear responsibility; vicarious liability of employers; recognition of the possibility of contributory negligence.
This convergence of thought is not evident in relation to the law of unjust enrichment, and there are no moves to harmonise the law at the European level. Czech law includes a general principle that enrichment unjustly acquired must be restored. This covers acquisition of both property and other benefits.
ECJ, 12 March 2002, Case C-168/00 Leitner v. TUI Deutschland GmbH & Co. KGCompensation for Non-Material Damage under the Directive on Package Travel
Authors: Loos Marco B.M. , Arnokouros Georgios I. , Dickie John 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The ECJ (Sixth Chamber) held in the case of Leitner that Article 5 of Directive 90/314/EEC on package travel is to be interpreted as conferring on consumers, in principle, a right to compensation for non-material damage resulting from the non-performance or improper performance of the services constituting a package holiday.
The following text analyses the case itself, and compares it with Dutch, English, Greek and Polish law.
OGH, 28.6.2001, 2 Ob 271/00t, JBl 2002, 42 et seq. - Zur Hemmung der Verjährung wegen psychischer Erkrankung oder geistiger Behinderung
Authors: van Schaick Bert , Shúilleabháin Máire Ní , Fages Bertrand 
Published: April 2022

The facts of this case before the Austrian OGH were as follows. The late plaintiff suffered severe head injuries in a traffic accident in November 1994. The insurer of the defendant was notified in the same month; consequently, criminal charges were raised against the defendant. In May 1996 the late Plaintiff was placed under guardianship in respect of legal representation before civil authorities and vis-à-vis private contractual partners. In mid-1996 the late plaintiff engaged a lawyer, who entered into negotiations with the Defendant?s insurer. In October 1996 the plaintiff was diagnosed with a severe psychological disorder in the context of introducing legal guardianship. In April 1998 the defendant was convicted to pay a fine in the criminal proceedings; the late plaintiff was referred to the civil courts as regards his claim for compensation. The late plaintiff lodged a claim in June 1998; the proceedings were continued by his heirs after his death. The defendant invoked prescription of the claim.
The Court of first instance rejected the claim. The Court of Appeal squashed the judgement and referred the case back to the Court of first instance, while allowing an appeal to the OGH.
The OGH rejected this appeal by the defendant. The interruption of prescription under Section 1494 ABGB applies also if the psychological disorder or mental disability is of such nature that a legal guardian is needed to lodge, or defend against, legal claims. This holds even more true if a legal guardian has been appointed for exactly this reason. It is irrelevant that the late plaintiff was then represented by a lawyer, because Section 1494 ABGB cites only the representation by guardianship as a ground for ending the interruption. The prescription of the claims has been interrupted at least since October 1996; thus, they were not prescribed when lodging the claim in June 1998.
Non-Optional Elements in an Optional European Contract Law. Reflections from a Private International Law Perspective
Authors: Downes Noemí , Heiss Helmut 
Published: April 2022

The EC Commission is considering the enactment of an optional instrument of European Contract Law. From a common market perspective such instrument will only be successful if it covers areas of mandatory law (consumer protection and insurance). A fundamental question relates to the regulatory model that could be used to provide parties with an option to choose the instrument. Legal literature proposes a change of Art. 3 para. 1 of the Rome Convention to the effect that an optional instrument may be chosen as the lex causae of a contract. There are, however, several technical problems making this regulatory model burdensome. This is particularly true with an optional instrument covering areas of mandatory law (?non-optional elements?).
A second model would be to implement a rule on direct applicability similar to Art. 1 para. 1 lit. a) CISG. However, since a European optional instrument would cover all types of contracts, it would be very hard if not impossible to find a proper rule of direct applicability for all possible cases. Therefore, an optional instrument should simply be enacted as an EC regulation establishing substantive contract law that is directly applicable in all member states and providing parties with an option. The choice granted in the optional instrument would thus depend on the applicability of the law of an EC member state to the contract. An analysis shows that such a regulatory approach would produce the best results.
Why It Is Ill-Advised to Translate Consequential Damage by Dommage Indirect
Authors: Herbots Jacques 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: The purpose of this contribution is to show the importance and the difficulty of legal translation for the project of a European contract law. The concept of consequential loss was chosen for this objective. An attempt to define this concept could be that it is foreseeable, that is, it is a probable or possible damage, which is directly traceable to a breach of contract or tort. Since it is foreseeable, it is not considered too remote. It may or it may not follow upon an earlier direct damage to a person or a thing; it may or it may not have been within the contemplation of the parties at the time the contract was made; it may or it may not be beyond the normal measures of damages. So, the Anglo-American term consequential damage is ambiguous. At least, five meanings can be noticed, in particular (1) expectation loss, (2) reliance loss, (3) indirectly caused damage, (4) indirect damage according to the second branch of the Hadley rule, (5) abnormal damage. The translation of this concept into French by dommage indirect - term that has different meanings as well, notably (1) indirectly caused damage, (2) too remote a damage, (3) damage suffered by another person than the direct victim - is misleading and can be confusing. To translate that concept, it is advisable to use a term in the target language that has no legal connotations, in French, for instance, dommage consécutif. Résumé: Le but de cet article est d'attirer l'attention sur l'importance et la difficulté de la traduction juridique pour le projet de droit européen des contrats. Le concept de « consequential loss » a été choisi dans cette perspective. Un essai de définition de ce concept pourrait être fait comme suit. Il s'agit d'un dommage prévisible, donc probable ou possible, qui est une suite nécessaire d'une inexécution du contrat ou d'une faute. Comme il est prévisible il n'est pas considéré comme trop indirect. Il peut ou non découler d'un dommage antérieur causé à une personne ou une chose; il peut ou non avoir été porté à la connaissance des parties lors de la conclusion du contrat; il peut ou non être anormal. Le terme anglo-américain 'consequential damage' est ambigu. On peut détecter au moins cinq significations, notamment (1) « expectation loss », (2) « reliance loss », (3) dommage causé de manière médiate, (4) dommage indirect dans le sens de la seconde branche de Hadley v. Baxendale, (5) dommage anormal. Traduire ce terme en fran¸cais par « dommage indirect » - expression qui a elle-même trois significations (dommage causé de manière médiate, dommage trop éloigné, dommage par ricochet) - peut faire désordre et créer de la confusion. Il est préférable de le traduire par un terme qui n'a aucune connotation juridique dans la langue cible, en français par exemple par « dommage consécutif ».
Hungarian Report
Authors: Burger Georgina Suto 
Published: April 2022

Abstract: This article focuses on how the transnational law is processed in Hungary. First, the author examines how the fragmentation of transnational sources is expressed in her country. In Hungary, practically, scholars and elite professionals were always at the forefront in resolving such problems in international context without any institutional framework set up or supported by the government. However, a new act has replaced recently the former act on the treaties, and there has been also a responsible body for decades for treaties. This latter is not a framework for the transnational sources, but at least, the treaties are handled on administration level. Where the complexity of transnational sources comes up is rather their application: the judgments. Therefore, the focus will be largely on this question in this study. Are the judges well educated for these complex cases? If not, how do they elude such a complexity? Is it possible to measure the efficiency of courts in dealing with such issues? Besides some positive answers, the effect of communism is still detectable in some chaos in the organization and in the poor education for the elder generation of judges. Résumé: Cet article analyse la réception du problèmeet aussi l'application des sources transnationales du droit en Hongrie. D'abord, l'auteur présente comment la fragmentation des sources transnationales est évoqué dans son pays. En Hongrie, pratiquement les savants et l'élite des professeurs s'occupent de ce problème á l'égard d'un contexte international mais toujours sans cadre institutionnel soutenu par le gouvernement. Toutefois, le parlement a voté récemment la nouvelle loi sur les traits qui succède la version communiste et il existe aussi,depuis longtemps, un organe gouvernemental responsable des traités. Même si ce dernier se s'occupe vraiment des sources transnationales, on peut affirmer que les traités sont bien gérés au niveau administratif. Où la complexité des sources internationales s'évoque, c'est plutôt leur application: la question de la jurisprudence. C'est pourquoi cet article a mis l'accent sur cette question. Sont les juges bien éduqués pour ces cas complexes? Si non, si et comment essayent-ils éviter les difficultés de cette complexité? Est-il possible de mesurer l'efficacité des tribunaux en ce qui concerne le jugement de ces cas? Même si l'on a des réponses positives á ces questions, le trace du communisme est toujours détectable, de même avec le petit chaos, de temps en temps, en organisation et bien en éducation des juges de la génération ainée.