bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Conqueror and a Priestess
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe seal impression of a scribe named Kitushdu introduces the Akkadian period (c. 2300–2200 bce), during which he lived. Kitushdu worked for the priestess Enheduana, who was the daughter of Sargon of Akkad, the first king to unify Mesopotamia. Sargon was later the hero of legends, but few records survive from his reign. Sargon may have been inspired by Lugalzagesi, king of Umma and Uruk, who preceded him and who had conquered a number of Sumerian city-states. Sargon in turn conquered Lugalzagesi and took over his realm, and seems to have campaigned from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean. He also promoted trade with lands as far away as the Indus Valley, and had scribes use the Semitic language of Akkadian for administration, in place of Sumerian. His daughter Enheduana was chosen, through omens, to be the high en-priestess of the moon god in the city of Ur. She was not only responsible for performing rituals and offerings in the temple, she also wrote hymns and poetry, which were preserved by later scribes who copied them in school. (The same is true of Sargon’s inscriptions, which are known only from scribal copies.) When Sargon’s grandson, Naram-Sin, became king, a widespread rebellion caused Enheduana to be expelled from her position, inspiring her to write her best-known hymn, appealing for help to the goddess Inana. When Naram-Sin defeated the rebellion, he restored Enheduana to her role, and also deified himself, even portraying himself wearing a horned helmet normally reserved for the gods.
Brickmakers, Litigants, and Slaves
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractAfter the Akkadian empire, Gudea of Lagash ruled one of the few stable kingdoms, modeling his reign on the Early Dynastic kings, rather than on warlike Akkadian rulers. The same was true of kings the Third Dynasty of Ur (2112–2000 bce) that followed. Ur-Namma conquered a wide region but did not emphasize this. Instead, he is known as the author of the earliest extant law collection, and as the man who commissioned the first ziggurats (stepped temple towers). The chapter investigates the daily life of a brickmaker who helped construct the Ur ziggurat: his working conditions and output, the number of bricks needed, the work-hours involved, and the technologies of construction. Moving on to the legal system, an overview of Ur-Namma’s laws is followed by a study of a court case, showing how the judicial system worked. The case is one in which one woman accused another of not repaying a loan completely. In court, the judge used witnesses and oaths to arrive at a verdict. A court was also used to try a runaway slave, Lu-Nanna. This episode highlights the lives and definitions of slaves in this era, efforts to capture escaped slaves, prisons, fines, and rewards imposed by judges. Next comes a short study of abandoned children who worked for the temples and were provided with rations. The last biography is of the deified king Shulgi, who reorganized the cities of his empire, created a new tax system, installed governors, and founded a redistribution center to process taxes.
Naditums and Scribal Students
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractIn Sippar, during Hammurabi’s reign, a group of women called naditums lived and worked in a community called the gagum. They were devoted to the god Shamash and forbidden to marry, but they also had a lot of autonomy. They bought real estate, leased land, and lent silver at interest, boosting the economy of the city. Excavated houses of naditums and written documents show that some had small two-room houses, but others lived in larger homes; some owned taverns, and they were not cloistered. A biography of Awat-Aya, a young naditum, looks into her initiation: the dowry she received, the gifts exchanged, the meals served, the rituals, and the mentors who helped young naditums like her. Amat-Shamash, a naditum and princess, prayed to Shamash for her family members in exchange for gifts and food. In old age, naditums often adopted young women who cared for them and later inherited from them. In Nippur, around the same time, a scribal student named Elletum attended school in a private house (House F). Literacy became more widespread in this era as some of the economy privatized, though schools mostly seem to have been small. The tablets excavated in House F reveal the stages of his training, from beginning to form cuneiform signs to writing out long literary works. Scribes also learned mathematics using the sexagesimal system. Many scribes studied an early version of the Epic of Gilgamesh, which already pertained to friendship, fear of death, fame, and kingship.
Barbers, Mercenaries, and Exiles
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractSamsu-iluna of Babylon (1749–1712 bce) faced rebellions after taking the throne. His efforts to maintain control in the south failed, but he expanded his kingdom northward, including defeating a king of Terqa. Excavations at Terqa have revealed the neighborhood of Gimil-Ninkarrak, chief barber. Barbers shaved men’s heads and beards, but also played an administrative role. Gimil-Ninkarrak and his neighbors depended on one another, including witnessing one another’s contracts, and many of them played a role at the local shrine. King Samsu-iluna’s son, Abi-eshuh, tried using a dam to deflect water from the Tigris along a canal to the Euphrates to undermine southern cities, but ultimately he was unsuccessful in defeating the new Sealand kingdom near the Gulf. A fort called Dur-Abi-eshuh protected the canal by the dam. Marduk-lamassashu was a vizier who, with commander Ibni-Sin, oversaw troops there, including mercenaries from foreign lands. Sealand forces attacked Nippur and its temple to Enlil, causing residents to flee to Dur-Abi-eshuh, where they constructed a new temple. Enlil-mansum, a temple official, engaged in trade while in exile there, working with other officials to purchase slaves from distant cities. King Hattusili I was expanding the Hittite Empire during this same time and built a new capital city at Hattusa. His son Mursili I attacked Babylon, but the kingdom there had already been weakened by internal rebellions, and was probably invaded by several groups, not just the Hittites. The conquest was followed by a Dark Age during which few documents were written.
Gift Recipients and Royal In-Laws
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractStability in the Late Bronze Age (1550–1200) derived in part from that fact that many kings encouraged loyalty by awarding grants of land to loyal officials and others. Fields and orchards were central to the Near Eastern economy, but fewer of them were now in private hands and more belonged to the kings. Abi-hunni in Hana received a house from his king, who was present for the event, along with many high officials. Records like Abi-hunni’s contract, sealed by the king, were kept for generations because of the need to prove their rights to land. Stability also came from the diplomatic ties between kingdoms, particularly marriages of kings to allies’ daughters. Burna-Buriash II of Babylon was related by marriage to many great kings of the era. His daughter who married the pharaoh became one of a host of royal wives in a very international court, and lived through Akhenaten’s religious revolution. Another daughter, Tawananna, married Hittite king Suppiluliuma I, but was widely disliked in the court because she replaced the previous great queen. Suppiluliuma’s court and career are discussed, along with Tawananna’s conflict with his son. A third daughter of Burna-Buriash II, Napir-Asu, married Elamite king Untash-Napirisha who was her first cousin. Her biography details Elam during this era, the bronze statue made of her, and the buildings instigated by her husband, including the new capital at Chogha Zanbil. Finally, Burna-Buriash II himself married an Assyrian princess, but his son with her was overthrown soon after he took the throne.
Brewers, Rebels, and Exorcists
Authors: Podany Amanda H. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractNabonidus was often seen as a heretic for his belief that Sin was the greatest of the gods, but he saw himself as a successor to ancient Babylonian kings. His daughter, the en-priestess in Ur, kept a collection of ancient objects found during the rebuilding of a palace, often called the first museum. Nabonidus spent ten years away from Babylon, in Arabia. During this time, Cyrus began to expand the Persian empire. Although Nabonidus returned to Babylon, he was unable to prevent Cyrus from taking control in Babylonia in 539. Darius and his son Xerxes put down rebellions in Mesopotamia. Cuneiform archives ended in Babylon after this. The Persians were, however, unable to conquer Greece. Ultimately, Alexander of Macedon conquered all of the Persian empire. Through all this, commerce continued in Mesopotamia. Powerful families controlled roles in temples. Bel-uballit owned a prebend as a temple oil presser, and was also a businessman in Sippar, trading oil and dates, producing and selling textiles, and running a brewery. Itti-Marduk-balatu, a businessman in Babylon, had two of his slaves, husband Nabu-utirri and wife Mizatu, run a brewery, which made a profit. Another slave, Ina-qate-Nabu-bultu, was apprenticed to an experienced baker who was also a slave. A fourth slave from the same household, a woman named Ishunnatu, was an innkeeper in Kish who brewed date beer, served food, and provided beds for travelers. After the Persian conquest, scribes like an exorcist named Rimut-Anu continued copying ancient works, even though the languages were no longer spoken.
Weaponizing the Senses
Authors: Stoler Ann Laura 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter highlights the politicality of the senses, which concentrate on distributions of sentiments that has directed on the toxicities of racecraft. It discusses how sentiments are broached as relational measures of value that are articulated in speech or mutely performed. It also reviews interior frontiers, which find sustenance in measured dispositions, calibrated exclusions, porosities sealed, and leakages rapidly repaired. The chapter elaborates the sentiment of remorse, longing, or disdain that are never freestanding internal states but elements of social dispositions, responses to relations, and contested arrangements. It looks at stringent lines of demarcation that are barely visible and audible, wherein derisions are down dressed in nondescript clothes and are hard to say of how blindly or pointedly they were made and imposed.
Poetic RageAnti-colonial Avant-gardes
Authors: Stoler Ann Laura 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter distills what is seen as a fugitive, peripatetic set of anticolonial avant-gardes that are innovative and mobile to different degrees and challenge both what avant-gardes do and who are included among them. It treats anticolonial avant-gardes as convergent spaces of work and thought, of co-practitioners in restless motion, style, and genre, and in the range of places to which they travel. It also explains the singularities of where, how, and when anticolonial avant-garde press against the oppressive weight of racialized imperial governance and the anticolonial refusals they share in melding political and aesthetic commitments and labor. The chapter cites geopolitics, which makes for a restless, borderless archive that is dismissive of finitudes and wary of certitudes, but is taken with manifestos, visionary, and information. It mentions avant-gardes that cross archipelagos of colonial detentions and dispossessions.
Introduction: Republics and the Politics of Self-Governance
Authors: Graubart Karen B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Spanish monarchs governed their expansive kingdoms in part by delegating certain powers to republics, subordinate representative bodies with elected leadership. In late medieval Castile, these republics included aljamas of Muslims and Jews who lived under Christian rule, as well as West Africans gathered under their judge in Seville. In its American colonies, Spain recognized small Indigenous republics, governed by local hereditary leaders or caciques, though it largely refused this political structure for the enslaved and free population of Africans and their descendants. This chapter introduces the origins and development of the model in Seville and Lima, where it served as a mechanism for gathering revenue for the Crown, a competitive restraint on local elites, and a means for minority subjects to pursue justice within their own law. It also became a means of encoding difference, as self-governance required embracing aspects of imperial discourse in order to make the republic intelligible to outsiders.
Entangled Authority in the Lima Valley
Authors: Graubart Karen B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The Lima Valley was reorganized into new pueblos de indios in the late sixteenth century. That process required investing new Indigenous leadership, as well as distributing property among the relocated inhabitants. Those towns offer a local view of the process, as caciques and cabildos worked out their new relationships. The records of the corregidor de los naturales, a Spanish magistrate with purview over greater Lima, also provide detail about how local communities self-governed. Over a few years, the corregidor’s notary documented hundreds of Indigenous men and women requesting licenses to leave the jurisdiction of their pueblos in order to contract with Spaniards or with members of other pueblos de indios. Indigenous wills also demonstrate that towns retained their own property regimes, even as Spaniards made incursions into their territories.
Places
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Any animal that moves from one place to another also knows where it is and how to get to other places. Although human infants do not move on their own for many months, the spatial representations and navigation processes found in animals develop spontaneously in infants and young children. These findings provide evidence for a second system of core knowledge, focused on places. Like the object system, the place system builds on perceptual representations of the environment but goes beyond them, bringing knowledge of places that are not in view. The place system also is unitary, early-emerging, present throughout life, and supportive of children’s learning of the geometric structure of their navigable environment. In adults, and children, this system operates automatically and unconsciously, and it calls on the same brain systems and cognitive processes that other animals use when they navigate. These findings converge to reveal a cognitive system with deep evolutionary origins at the foundations of human knowledge.
Agents
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Infants’ survival depends on the actions of the people around them. What do infants know about people and their actions? Infants endow people and other animate beings with the capacity to act: They cause their own motion, interact with objects on contact, detect objects and obstacles at a distance, direct their actions to distant objects, and act efficiently. Even before infants begin to reach for objects, pick them up, or manipulate them, they view other people’s actions on objects as causal, costly, and goal-directed. Based on these findings, the author hypothesizes that infants have an early-emerging system of core knowledge of people as agents. This system supports infants’ learning about other people’s actions and mental states, as well as the development of their own motor skills and action plans.
Core Social Cognition
Authors: Spelke Elizabeth S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Although the world of an infant is replete with living, animate beings, a subset of those beings has special importance for infants: the members of their own social world, who engage with them and with one another. From birth, infants engage with people who look into their eyes while speaking, expressing emotions, or gesturing. Very young infants imitate these movements, and they are predisposed to attend to others who imitate them. Infants also attend to the social interactions of other people whom they observe as third parties, expecting people to affiliate with the people with whom they have engaged. Based on these findings, the author hypothesizes that infants are endowed with a core system for representing their social partners as beings who experience states of attention and emotion like their own, and who share their experiences with the infant, and with one another, in states of social engagement.
The Brain on Spiritual Experiences
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Neuroscience has undergone a revolution in the last several decades that has allowed for studies of spiritual experience to become possible. Nearly all of what is known about brain processes was not known during James’s time. James did, however, anticipate the study of spiritual experience from a neurological perspective. Today, technological advances allow for the measurement of physiological and brain processes associated with spiritual experiences. To do this, neuroscientists use sophisticated neuroimaging equipment capable of revealing brain activity before, during, and after spiritual experiences. This chapter describes what neuroscience has to tell us about what is happening in the brain during the time that individuals have spiritual experiences.
Interpretations and Integration of the Experience
Authors: Yaden David B. , Newberg Andrew B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter, the first of Part III, moves from describing each type of spiritual experience one by one to considering a person’s psychological responses to these experiences. Spiritual experiences are often monumental moments in a life that require some kind of interpretation and integration within that person’s worldview. The previous chapters have shown that spiritual experiences feel real, or even “realer than real,” to those who have them. But a person’s interpretation of what they encountered during their experience is an important factor in how the experience impacts their life. Some ways in which an experience might be interpreted have been indicated, especially in regard to whether or not the individual believes that the experience was caused solely by brain processes or whether something supernatural was involved. This chapter describes the process of understanding a spiritual experience and makes clear that sometimes this process is best aided by a healthcare professional or even in some cases a religious leader.
The Kingdom of Ur
Authors: Garfinkle Steven J. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe kingdom of Ur ruled over southern Mesopotamia for a little over a century at the end of the third millennium BC. The kings of Ur followed in the footsteps of the earlier kingdom of Akkad and united the city-states of Babylonia, creating a new larger state. These kings also oversaw an expansion in administrative record keeping that makes this century one of the most richly documented eras in all of antiquity, and an important case study in early complex state formation. This chapter provides a survey of the background and history of the kingdom of Ur, and it explores key topics related to the growth of the state in early antiquity. The kingdom of Ur fell as spectacularly as it rose, and it occupies a significant place both in our modern reconstructions of the history of the ancient Middle East and in the ancient Mesopotamian conceptions of that same history. This chapter examines the sources that provide evidence for these reconstructions, as well as providing critical reassessments of the state’s political economy and strategic goals. The kings of Ur presided over a short-lived experiment in complex state formation during which they established ideological and administrative precedents for Mesopotamian rule for centuries to come, and helped nurture an enduring notion of Babylonian community. The state’s success relied on a tributary economy and a system of patronage that foundered when the later kings of the dynasty could no longer sustain it.
The Middle East after the Fall of Ur
Authors: Arkhipov Ilya 
Published: August 2022

AbstractDuring the Middle Bronze Age, Upper Mesopotamia, Syria, and the Levant lived through alternating periods of city-state networks, ephemeral great powers, and the domination by the region’s powerful neighbors. The first two centuries of the second millennium bc are a dark age for the region since very few texts have been preserved, although outside texts and archaeological data reveal continuing urban development and flourishing long-distance trade. Most of the written records available for the period come from the archives of Mari (ca. 1805–1761 bc), the largest royal archive ever discovered in the ancient Near East, and cover just four decades. The Mari letters contain information on political struggles, state administration, and diplomatic relations in a region dominated by the competing large-scale states of Mari, Ekallatum, Aleppo, Qatna, Ešnunna, Babylon, and Elam. The texts also describe a world where thriving city and palace life coexists with powerful nomad tribes, and Mesopotamian cuneiform civilization meets West Semitic (Amorite) culture. For the subsequent period until ca. 1600 bc, medium-size royal and private archives, in particular those discovered in Terqa, Šehna, Qattara, Harradum, Tigunanum, and Alalakh, give insight into the local history of several kingdoms on the eve of the Hittite expansion.
Quine as Feminist
Authors: Antony Louise 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Many feminist philosophers have argued that mainstream analytic epistemology is beset with masculinist bias, particularly in its conception of objectivity as impartiality. This essay argues that such criticism ignores one mainstream epistemological view—Quine’s “naturalized epistemology”—that has extraordinary promise as both an illuminating and an empirically grounded theory of knowledge, but also as a useful framework for the investigation and defense of feminist views. Among its other virtues, naturalized epistemology provides a solution to a problem this book calls the “bias paradox”: if impartiality is a bad ideal because all knowledge is partial and reflects particular points of view, how can we object to male philosophers’ reflecting their points of view?
The Socialization of Epistemology
Authors: Antony Louise 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This essay criticizes an ideal of inquiry it calls “Dragnet epistemology,” which holds that objectivity is the absence of any bias. This is an inappropriate ideal for human beings: Our epistemic limitations require us to depend on a variety of biases. Failure to recognize this fact, together with the false belief that science and other investigations succeed because they satisfy this ideal, has the negative political consequences of obscuring objectionable biases in prevailing opinion and delegitimating minority viewpoints. For this reason, epistemology has political import. If we are to be good knowers, the kind of knowers crucial to the health of a democratic society, we need to attend to the social dimensions of knowing. Genuine objectivity is a social virtue—that one that emerges only out of a healthy interchange among a host of single “sides.” That, in turn, depends upon equality in access to the organs of public communication.