bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
“Cloak, Tunic, Book, Cell”
Authors: Michelson David A. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the second phase in the development of East Syrian contemplative reading, its theological definition in the works of Babai the Great, an abbot of the Great Monastery on Mt. Izla. In the early seventh century, Babai wrote three commentaries on the fourth-century author Evagrius of Pontus, an influential theorist of Egyptian asceticism. Babai sought to harmonize Egyptian and East Syrian ascetic theologies. His reinterpretation exemplifies Evagrius’ reception into Syriac monasticism (the so-called “Evagriana syriaca”). This chapter documents how Evagrian literature served as staple ascetic reading materials in seventh-century Mesopotamia. The textual structure of the Evagriana syriaca itself modeled and embodied a variety of ascetic reading practices including: commentary, antirrhetical reading, psalmody, and contemplative reading. Babai sought to promote these practices within a framework of spiritual progress inherited from John the Solitary and Evagrius. Babai taught monastic readers both how to read Evagrius and how to read in an Evagrian contemplative manner, that is, as a step toward the divine vision found in theoria (contemplation). Babai’s works reflect a growing separation between the literary cultures of school and monastery in the Church of the East. Contemplative readers, influenced by Babai and Evagrius, rejected forms of scholastic reading as incompatible with their pursuit of divine knowledge. The end result of this phase in the development of East Syrian contemplative reading was that monks in the Church of the East now claimed their own distinctly Evagrian purposes for reading. The “book” had joined the cloak and cell as monastic essentials.
Born Out of Fire and Chaos
Authors: Marchi Simone 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter covers the concept of the Solar System’s origin and formation. It discusses how the Earth revolves around the Sun. The current paradigm of planetary formation needs collisions to form large rocky planets. Moreover, the slow accretion of a planet is mostly characterized by violent and massive collisions. The accretion of the Earth is also vital to the understanding of the origin of the ocean. Thus, the collisions play a role in shaping physical properties and indicating the differences between planets, such as Earth and Venus. The chapter also expounds on the celestial bodies found in the Solar System.
A Clash of Giants
Authors: Marchi Simone 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains the geometric nature of the universe. According to Johannes Kepler in 1596, the hierarchical organization of planets at the time was Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn with the sun in the centre. Kepler’s geometric universe was deemed to be heliocentric. The size of a plant’s feeding zone and radial extent is set through the balance between the gravitational attraction of the planet and the Sun. Moreover, planetary migration can occur by various processes such as the Nice model. The chapter also explores the respective theories of planet formation by Kepler and Gerard Kuiper. The chapter also recounts the exploration of the Moon through the Luna and Apollo missions.
Using English
Authors: Machan Tim William 
Published: October 2022

AbstractThis chapter considers various ways by which usage can organize historiography, focusing on two issues in particular. First, it considers how a usage-based historiography can impact, and circularly be justified by, language periodization, grammatical description, and assertions about the essence of English. Like other narratives, the cultivation of Standard English in particular creates its own evidence and complicates any attempts to see a different way to approach what Genette would call the story of the English language. And second, it argues that such historiography depends fundamentally on extralinguistic issues like emigration and national identity. At the most general level, suppressed or even excluded in such narratives are the genealogies and grammatical accounts that dominate other narratives. More particularly, any narratives rooted in belletristic remains and a standard language likewise overwrite competing accounts of change and variation in L2 speech communities.
Families and friends
Authors: Machan Tim William 
Published: October 2022

AbstractAt their most abstract level, genealogies and periodizations, like the other narrative paradigms discussed here, merge the story of a language history with its narrative—the facts of what happened with an account of them. Genealogies and periodizations are in reality declaratives that produce meaningful categories from isolated language phenomena. The categories themselves, in turn, produce still more phenomena, such as phonological shift, that can account for the process by which one period becomes another. This chapter consider genealogy and periodization in conjunction with one another, then, since both narratives focus on similar phenomena with similar results. As inevitable and valuable as each may be, they also obscure not only their own formations but also their impact on the story of English. Each naturalizes, the chapter argues, what are ultimately interpretive impositions on historical data.
When speakers make the difference
Authors: Machan Tim William 
Published: October 2022

AbstractDrawing on an increasing critical emphasis on historical pragmatics, the final chapter pursues a thought experiment about how the history of the language might appear in a user-based narrative about the period after English might be said to have left England. The chapter uses Anglophones as a general organizing principle and focuses on the dynamics between L1 and L2 speakers in order to consider how these data might produce a history of the language perhaps complementary to but certainly distinct from other narratives. The chapter does not so much offer a pragmatic history of English as, beginning with an account of the linguistic significance of Jamestown, identify the kinds of data on which a modern-era speaker-based narrative in particular would rely, including domains and usages as well as speakers. To put the matter concisely, a user-based narrative would conflate the question “What is English?” with “Who speaks it?”
Unpacking Economic Evidence
Authors: Mantzari Despoina 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins with some essential preliminary work that distinguishes economics from natural sciences and then explains how economic evidence is incorporated in rulemaking and adjudication and the specific challenges it raises for the error-correction function of judicial review. It specifically draws attention to regulatory disputes that present ‘polycentric’ elements and argues that such disputes invite a case-by-case assessment of the factors that may attenuate their polycentric dimension making them amenable to the adjudicative process; a task undertaken in Chapter 7. The chapter finally considers how the distinct rationalities of the legal and scientific-economic processes act as limits to the import of economic evidence in courts, foreshadowing the discussion in Chapter 4.
Imperfect Alternatives
Authors: Mantzari Despoina 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a map of the relevant institutional landscape and sets the scene for the comparative institutional analysis. It first introduces the main actors involved in the regulatory process in the US and the UK and then examines, in a systematic and comparative manner, the various procedures available for the review of economic evidence included in regulatory agencies’ decisions and the various types of scrutiny applied to agencies’ action; a highly complex area that has never been clearly stated. This exercise offers a useful institutional map of regulatory appeals in the two comparator jurisdictions that facilitates the examination of the rationales and determinants of the reception of economic evidence in the US and UK courts, undertaken in Chapters 5 and 6 respectively.
Towards a Complementary Relationship between the Court and the Regulatory Agency in the Realm of Utility Regulation
Authors: Mantzari Despoina 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers the institutional disadvantages of the courts that may warrant a high degree of deference, namely lack of economic expertise, limited access to information, lack of requisite institutional legitimacy, and courts’ susceptibility to ‘minoritarian bias’. It also highlights several institutional realities and procedural developments that may attenuate the weight of such comparative institutional disadvantages, such as courts’ specialisation in regulatory matters and the courts’ rules of procedure. The chapter then examines the institutional alternatives to a specialist court. It concludes that the best way to promote the error-correction function of judicial review in the assessment of economic evidence requires a balance to be struck, in which deference is accorded to regulatory agencies on institutional competencies grounds and some degree of epistemic diversity is introduced in courts.
Cassian the Oneirologist
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter turns from Evagrius to John Cassian (c.362–435) and his persistent interest in nocturnal emissions and the related phenomenon of sexual (wet) dreams. Not only medical, but philosophical and other accounts of nocturnal emissions provide context for Cassian here, with special attention given to Aristotle, Caelius Aurelianus, and late antique physicians who considered wet dreams as sites of illness and therapy. Cassian develops and in some ways transforms the medical approach to nocturnal emissions by including demonic instigation and refusing pharmacological or surgical therapies. In his fullest discussion (Conl. 22) Cassian uses a story of an anonymous monk to craft a diagnostic flowchart and therapeutic hierarchy for emissions. For him, they are indicators of ascetic progress, but also inescapable features of (male) embodiment, and the rules of engagement in the war of flesh and spirit. In this way, we can understand his distrust of eunuchs as masking the symptom rather than the cause, and also critique the popular, Foucauldian, reading and develop a more fluid understanding of Cassian’s ascetic subjects.
John Cassian’s Nosology of the Soul
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter continues studies of Cassian while shifting focus from dreams to passions, or vices (vitia). Cassian develops Evagrius’ “eight wicked thoughts” into the “eight principal vices.” He experiments over the course of the Conferences with several ways of organizing these and other related vices, though he generally relies on taxonomic approaches that differentiate between genera (the principal vices) and species (more specific manifestations). Cassian’s approach is best contextualized against Evagrius and wider traditions of organizing passions, virtues, and vices, in lists. However, Cassian inflects his lists of vices through a diagnostic study of thoughts and strong emotions as exteriorizations of interior dispositions. Thus, he ultimately hangs the eight principal vices on the tripartite soul in a complex medical analogy that provides a stable nosology of passions, relating transient emotional states to biopsychosocial disorders in interior dispositions.
Pathologies of Passion and Embodiment in the Ladder
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
Pathologies of thought, passion, and embodiment are at the heart of John Climacus’ Ladder of Divine Ascent. John draws together ideas from Evagrius, Cassian, Mark the Monk, and others to construct a schema for the development of trains of thought from a bare suggestion to a habitual way of thinking. This, combined with his attention to the mutual affectivity of soul and body, allows John to fashion a pathology of thought. For the passions, John develops and expands on the Evagrian “eight thoughts” through a series of demonic family trees. Using imagined tribunal scenes, which owe something also to magical texts, John examines the origins and manifestations of generic passions like anger, for example, from self-esteem to derisive laughter. For embodiment, John again uses family trees to describe the operation and dysfunction of digestion and sexual activity in relation to thought and ascetic practice. The conclusion explores John’s approach to fasting, its medical background, and the relation of all these points to confession.
Basil of Caesarea on the Spiritual Physician and His Galenic Competitor
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter uses Basil of Caesarea as interlocutor for a study of ascetic Christian ambivalence toward medicine. Authors from Origen to Diadochos of Photice differentiated between those who “use” medical healing and those who, out of faith or virtuosity, refuse it. In some stories, like Theodoret of Cyrus’ Religious History or the Apophthegmata Patrum, miraculous healings take place when professional physicians have failed. Basil of Caesarea offers a unique insight into the reason for using or refusing medicine, and the limits of its capacity, in his Fifty-Fifth Long Response in what is generally called his Asceticon. Basil argues that medicine is a divinely ordained art, built into creation prior to the damage of Adam’s fall and a means of God’s desire that humans assist each other. However, he also argues that not every disease requires or can even be helped by medical means. Those that arise from natural causes, which include morally condemnable modes of living, can be aided by medicine, though not always. Others are sent by God for moral correction or discipline, others by the devil out of malice, and some just to remind the very holy that they are still human. Medicine can do nothing for these, because their etiology lies outside its realm of expertise. The spiritual director, however, is tasked with differentiating these kinds of illness and recommending therapies accordingly. Thus, Basil presents the spiritual director as a greater expert than their medical counterpart, but in the same area of expertise.
Patient Physicians and Patient Disobedience in Cassian
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This chapter falls into two parts, the first of which draws out the qualities of an ideal spiritual “physician” from Cassian’s Conferences; the second traces the limits of a medical model in his Institutes. Cassian uses imagery of trailblazing to describe the importance of confession and self-disclosure to spiritual directors, but medical imagery to describe its dynamics. He presents the qualities needed for spiritual physicians through a story of failed direction and its correction by one Abba Apollo in the Second Conference, who teaches the importance of compassion and patience in cultivating trust and effecting healing. Likewise, Abba John in the Nineteenth demonstrates how to test possible directors as one would test physicians, and how they should demonstrate their spiritual expertise as medical. In Book 9 of the Institutes, Cassian reads the Apostle Paul’s Thessalonian correspondence as a director dealing with disobedient monks afflicted with acedia. He shows that Paul follows a therapeutic hierarchy but, faced with intransigent patients, resorts to sterner discipline as a teacher and then threats of punishment as a judge. In each persona, Cassian treats Paul as a monastic spiritual director but embeds him in the cultural discourses appropriate to each profession. An inverse proportionality emerges between efficacy and coercion, and so while directors may resort to punishment, they are at their best when operating as physicians.
A Physician, a Judge, and a Shepherd Walk into a Monastery…
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
This final chapter returns to the Ladder, but also takes in John Climacus’ other work, To the Shepherd. In these, John multiplies images for his spiritual director, favoring especially those of physician, judge, king, and shepherd. John uses these different images to explore both degrees of coercion in spiritual direction and different contexts for it. He is especially interested in expanding and nuancing the therapeutic hierarchy on display in church-order literature by means of a detailed analogy with a physician’s toolkit and expertise in dosimetry. The director learns to alternate harsher and gentler disciplines as well as to reserve more painful ones for more serious or persistent problems. These nuance John’s description of a monastery’s abbot as a king dispensing orders, while the regal imagery locates practices of confession and penance in a disciplinary organization. At other points, John describes private confessional encounters in medical terms, drawing especially on the manners of physicians and patients in intimate settings. For more public confessions, the same relationship is described through judicial imagery as John develops manners appropriate to that profession. Like Cassian and Basil, he deals with intransigent monks for whom he recommends amputation, in contrast to the “prison” he gleefully imagines in the Ladder’s Fifth Rung. Finally, John reconceives the monastic space as a clinic and its daily activities as a drama through which hidden realities come to light and the sick find healing.
Conclusions, and Prognoses
Authors: Zecher Jonathan L. 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
In the conclusion, after a brief recapitulation of points covered in the book, some consequences are drawn, especially as regards medical metaphors. Paul Ricoeur’s claim that metaphor works by seeing one thing as another leads to ultimately to one thing being another. In this case, through conceptualizing and interpreting practices of spiritual direction as medical encounters, expertise, and art, monastics and others formed through consumption of this literature learn to see themselves in those roles and to act accordingly. Spiritual direction becomes a medical art. Likewise, a medical conceptualization inflects the economies of power operative in monastic settings while opening the possibility of an upward spiritual mobility—the sick can not only be healed but also become physicians themselves. There is, therefore, a tension in the asymmetric relationships of spiritual direction and monastic communities. Finally, it is suggests that this study provides the basis for much-needed analysis of Byzantine penitential practices and a more nuanced understanding of Byzantine spiritual direction.
The Relational Constitution of Agreement (2)
Authors: Campbell David 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The law of the interpretation of contracts has been markedly improved by the discarding of ‘the old intellectual baggage of “legal” interpretation’ in the 1997 Investors case, for this seemed to show that contextualism was not opposed to, but was required for, ascertaining the intentions of the parties. That the perennial opposition between formalism and contextualism had hardly disappeared was surely signalled by the decision in Investors itself, which sacrificed the parties’ intentions to the pursuit of a social purpose. The fundamental issues, currently explored by the minimalist new contextualism, must be recognised to be, not ones of technical hermeneutics, but of moral respect for the outcomes of the parties’ agreements. But those agreements must be seen to give effect to intentions framed on the basis of mutual recognition, without which agreement is not possible. Good faith is essential, not as the imposition of exogenously determined outcomes, but as a condition of the parties’ intentions ever being able to be expressed in a contract. A complementary economic argument may be made about the necessity of trust for choice and exchange to take place.
The Relational Constitution of Bargain (3)
Authors: Campbell David 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The contractual devices which have historically been regarded as most acutely posing the problem of inequality of bargaining power are hire purchase and exemption clauses. The response to these gave rise to radical welfarist interventions in the common law which have been overtaken by the growth of a now very extensive consumer legislation. These interventions are believed to be justified because freedom of contract under the classical law extends a licence to solipsistic self-interest. But a common law of contract which institutionalised the mutual advantage which is the only justification of exchange could regulate inequality of bargaining power in a much superior way than could consumer legislation. To do this, the common law would have to incorporate conscious mutual recognition by the contracting parties into the requirements for making enforceable agreements.
The Relational Constitution of Remedy (1)
Authors: Campbell David 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
As the recent argument for recognition of ‘the performance interest’ shows, a focus on the solipsistic self-interest of the claimant leads to a belief that the function of the remedies for breach of contract should, allowing tolerated exceptions, be to enforce the performance of primary obligations. The positive law of remedies for breach of contract poses the problem for the performance interest as it appears absolutely replete with exceptions but this is because its function is radically different. Based on a default remedy of damages quantified so as to compensate for lost expectation, these remedies create ‘the Holmesian choice’ and ‘the efficient breach’. Far from this being a shortcoming, the law of remedies in this way facilitates the optimal response by contracting parties to the breaches which are inevitable when parties contract, as they must, with bounded rationality, so that the risk of error always attends an agreement to undertake primary obligations. The many great difficulties which attend our understanding of even such central doctrines as remoteness and mitigation, indeed that compensatory damages are the default remedy for breach, may be largely solved if we see the law of remedies as shaped by mutual recognition of the interests of both claimants and defendants.
The Spectrum of Contracts
Authors: Campbell David 
Published: October 2022

Abstract
The late Ian Macneil saw the main value of his work to be its demonstration that all contracts are relational. The distinction between discrete and relational contracts that drew such attention to Macneil’s work nevertheless has great value, but it must be interpreted in light of the sense in which all contracts are relational. Discrete contracts are based on the ‘presentiation’ of risk at the time of agreement. This requires the maintenance of strict liability for the allocation of presentiated risk, and so the general excuse of ‘impossibility’ recognised in the doctrines of common mistake and frustration has no role in the law of contract. Relational contracts deal with Knightian uncertainties by agreed contract planning which provides for the adjustment of obligations. This runs into the legal obstacle of the doctrine of the insufficiency of existing obligations. The necessary but ad hoc use of economic duress, promissory estoppel, and practical benefit to accommodate the existing obligations doctrine to relational contracting have left the doctrine completely incoherent. Coherence in this extremely important area requires distinguishing presentiated obligations, which must be strict, from relational obligations, which can be adjusted.