bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Optical fibre communication
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Optical fibres and their associated signal processing of laser pulses are the backbone of modern communications but, without exception, every aspect of their structure, and component items, rely totally on extremely fine and accurate control of impurities, which were once discussed as unwanted dopants and imperfections. The history and techniques to make the fibres are discussed from their initial usage in medical internal probes for visual inspection, their progress from a limited useful range of a metre (because of optical absorption) to networks measured in hundreds of kilometre length transporting, and sorting, millions of signals simultaneously. The challenges are to add dopants to vary their refractive index, remove those that absorb light, and add others to create fibre lasers and amplifiers, and to do all such steps simultaneously is an incredible achievement. Without optical fibres the world as we now know it could not exist.
Beauty from imperfections
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Gemstones and minerals are attractive and coloured because they include impurities. The chapter discusses how such impurities are located in the crystal lattice structures, and the differences that ensue between natural and synthetic crystal growth. Whilst the latter may be controllable (e.g. for 30 cm long rubies) they are small compared with some natural mineral examples. Examples cited range from gemstones to lasers, but progress is only made once there is knowledge of the lattice locations of impurities in the host structure. This is often apparent from the crystallography and shape of natural minerals. Perfection (i.e. accurate and uniform placement of the impurities) is essential for laser crystals, whereas high value natural gemstones invariably show visible flaws. Understanding involves the role of chemistry, ionic sizes and thermal processing, in addition to the dopants.
Valuable imperfections in crystal lattices
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Crystal lattice structures are prone to error with both localized faults of impurities or misplaced atoms, and more major long-range flaws. The chapter discusses the many ways in which a lattice may be imperfect, both at the localized level of nearby neighbours, or with larger grains, boundaries and inclusions. All types exist and variously offer beneficial or negative features for various properties of the material options and how they influence the overall properties. Some very simple, well-characterized defect structures are discussed and from there one tries to extrapolate to more complex systems. Imperfections are variously valuable or destructive, and therefore understanding and control are critical. In reality this is challenging and so the examples used here are idealized but, because they are based on simple structures, they are readily understandable.
Evolution achieved through imperfections
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Without genetic imperfections there would be no evolution of any life form and all progeny would be identical to their ancestors. Stasis is not ideal as it would mean an inability to evolve and survive new diseases, changes in climatic conditions or food sources. Factors involved in genetic changes (nominally imperfections) that offer diversity and alternative chances of survival are discussed. Where humans have played with genetic control, as in breeding of farm and domestic animals, there has been very varied success and often benefits in one aspect have been offset by negative features elsewhere. Hence human interventions in this field may be well intentioned but results certainly are not guaranteed to be positive, and with a long lifespan it is neither simple to readily study changes, nor to reverse them.
Improving our future lives
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This is truly an idealistic chapter as it is simple to recognize past mistakes in human activity, with all the weaknesses of behaviour for personal advancement and wanting power or wealth, that have led to wars and persecutions. Identifying typical human imperfections is simple, but trying to overcome them is perhaps an impossible challenge, not least as the faults of greed or power have often been the inspiration, or funding, for many of the advances which we now see as being very positive science. Our difficulty is to exploit the human weaknesses as motivation, but limit their extent so as to have progress without the negative aspects. Human imperfections can potentially destroy both countries and cultures, hence thoughts on how to attack such problems are considered.
The greatest challenges that we face
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
We tend to live in the present, both personally and politically, and this inhibits serious actions that involve the long-term future, unless one can see political or commercial advantage. Whilst there are claims that we are destroying the planet and its resources (a truly significant imperfection), the reality is that there is inadequate action to seriously address these issues. Not least is that over the last century population has increased eightfold by adding around a billion people every decade. This is unsustainable, and it should be an absolute key concern of all of us. The fact that it opens commercial markets, and profits, means we ignore the increase, although over two more generations we will have passed the window of opportunity to salvage humanity. This is an imperfection on the ultimate scale.
Political Institutions and Income Taxes
Authors: Andersson Per F. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The chapter analyses the link between political institutions and the adoption of income taxes. The main claim is that this link differs across different types of income tax. The personal income tax represents primarily an investment in fiscal capacity. Hence, its introduction depends crucially on political institutions that constrain executive power. The corporate income tax, by contrast, falls more heavily on the rich. As a consequence, its adoption depends critically on democratic institutions that allow for broad political participation. The chapter explores these predictions for a global sample of countries. The results support the contention that executive constraints facilitate personal income tax adoption, while corporate income taxes are more likely to be adopted by countries with broad suffrage rights.
Relative clause extraposition and PP extraposition in English and German
Authors: Francis Elaine J. 
Published: February 2022

AbstractChapter 6 applies theoretical concepts from earlier chapters to the interpretation of corpus and acceptability judgment data from several studies of relative clause extraposition and PP extraposition in English and German. It is shown that assumptions about form–meaning isomorphism influence how grammatical constraints that have a semantic component are interpreted, while assumptions about gradient grammaticality influence how lower acceptability ratings of structures that naturally occur in corpora are interpreted. It is further shown that by considering corpus data and data from elicited production tasks, it is possible to narrow down the range of plausible explanations for a given contrast in acceptability. Finally, it is argued that certain gradient patterns of acceptability are most plausibly interpreted as involving soft constraints—non-categorical grammatical constraints that encode the conventional preferences of language users.
Resumptive pronouns in Hebrew, Cantonese, and English relative clauses
Authors: Francis Elaine J. 
Published: February 2022

AbstractChapter 7 explores grammatical and processing-based constraints that affect acceptability judgments of relative clauses with a resumptive pronoun in Hebrew, English, and Cantonese. For all three languages, it is shown that some patterns of judgments are open to different theoretical interpretations with respect to the division of labor between grammar and processing. For such cases, it is argued that additional data from corpora and from other types of experiments can help determine the most plausible analysis. As in Chapter 6, it is argued that some patterns of data are plausibly interpreted as involving soft constraints in the grammar. Finally, the studies presented in the chapter are discussed in relation to the proposed typological distinction between grammatical resumption (Cantonese, Hebrew) and intrusive resumption (English). It is argued that a more nuanced interpretation of this distinction may be needed to allow for the synchronic representation of partially grammaticalized constraints.
Manhattan Phoenix
Authors: Levy Daniel S 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
In December 1835, former Mayor Philip Hone wrote in his diary how a vast fire raged across lower Manhattan, and how it “exceeded all description; the progress of the flames, like flashes of lightning, communicated in every direction, and a few minutes sufficed to level the lofty edifices on every side.” The fire devastated a large swath of lower Manhattan, clearing roughly the same number of acres as the World Trade Center bombing. Manhattan Phoenix explores the creation of modern New York after it emerged from the devastating Great Fire of 1835—a catastrophe that revealed how truly unprepared and haphazardly organized it was—to become a world-class city merely a quarter of a century later. The book charts Manhattan's almost miraculous growth, while interweaving the lives of various New Yorkers who took part in the city's transformation. Some are well known, such as the land baron John Jacob Astor and Mayor Fernando Wood. Others less so, as with the African American oysterman Thomas Downing and the Bowery Theatre impresario Thomas Hamblin. The book celebrates Fire Chief James Gulick who battled the blaze, and chronicles the work of the architect Alexander Jackson Davis who built marble palaces for the rich. It discusses the career of the merchant Alexander Stewart, who constructed the first department store, follows the struggles of the abolitionist Arthur Tappan, and records the efforts of the engineer John Bloomfield Jervis, who brought clean water into homes. And this resurgence owed so much to the visionaries, such as Frederick Law Olmsted and Calvert Vaux, who designed Central Park, creating the refuge that it remains to this day.
Overturning Manhattan
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the developments in Manhattan in the years before the 1835 Great Fire of New York. The seven-year-long British occupation of New York during the American Revolution stopped development. The British turned the city into an armed camp, building military earthworks along side streets and using some churches for stables and jails. Also, two fires ripped through Manhattan, one in 1776 and the other in 1778, both of which did enormous damage. Once the British surrendered New York in 1783, the town's leaders started pushing north and straightening out and widening the paths into the rural parts of the island. This reclaiming of the land went on for decades, and in the process, property owners filled in streams, marshes, and ponds. In 1811, a plan had been established for the grid pattern that stretches up the island, making New York a prime investment for the wealthy like John Jacob Astor. By the 1830s, New York was the nation's fastest-growing city and the largest in the New World.
London on the Hudson
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins by recounting Charles Dickens's visit to New York in 1842 and the huge party thrown in his honor. New Yorkers worried keenly how others saw them. They wanted to be seen as the leaders of American society, sought to be taken seriously, and worried how their city was viewed by those in places like London and Paris. Much of New York's self-celebration involved its expansion, and the boom that followed the 1825 opening of the Erie Canal and the Great Fire of 1835. The chapter details how New York's path to architectural distinction began with the success of architects Josiah Brady and Martin Euclid Thompson, and particularly with the arrival of Ithiel Town and his subsequent partnership with Alexander Jackson Davis. The presence of these designers coincided with an interest in classical architecture and the popularity of the Greek Revival style in the 1820s and 1830s. The chapter also looks at the development of posh areas like Washington Square, the growth of public and private education, and the popularity of cultural and social organizations.
A Southern City in the North
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the treatment of African Americans in New York. They endured segregation, exclusion, and debasement at all levels of American society—from work and housing to religion, health, and legal protection. In a nation sharply divided between states that allowed human bondage and those that did not, most in this city with close economic ties to the South were deeply racist. This state existed from the time of the city’s founding. Throughout the 1700s, New Yorkers regularly bought and sold slaves, with the state finally abolishing slavery in 1827. Yet despite increasingly widespread abolitionary efforts, slavery grew in some parts of the country in the years between the Great Fire and the Civil War. As if flourished in the south, there were numerous Black ministers and leaders in New York and the north like the restaurateur Thomas Downing who fought for the end of slavery and for the better treatment of African Americans.
The Approaching Storm
Authors: Levy Daniel S. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses how, even as the Civil War loomed on America's horizon, prosperity seemed to be on the march in New York. Beginning in the late 1850s, Central Park experienced its slow birth in the new uptown. By then, the city had become the cultural, religious, educational, and mercantile center of the Western hemisphere, and, given its large number of newspapers and magazines, a major communications link between East and West. Though New York might be thriving, the country was coming apart at the seams: the slavery divide had grown much wider. In May of 1854, Congress enacted the Kansas-Nebraska Act, which ended the geographic division set in place by the 1820 Missouri Compromise. Now popular sovereignty determined whether an incoming state would be free or slave, a move that only amplified division and tension over the issue of slavery. Indeed, the belief that the South would secede from the Union over slavery continued to grow, and with the election of Abraham Lincoln as president, states starting with South Carolina left and formed the Confederate States of America.
Universal Love
Authors: Krishek Sharon 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
When Kierkegaard speaks about the morality of love, he demands that it be not only unselfish but also universal. Romantic love, however, is essentially selective and exclusive, that is, not universal. Does this make romantic love essentially immoral? Endorsing universal love as a desirable ideal, this chapter explores what it means, and what it takes, to love universally. It argues that inasmuch as love is a joyful compassionate caring for an individual, and given the accessibility of the neighbor’s individual essence, it is the structure of the double movement of faith that makes the encounter with any neighbor love. Establishing the feasibility of universal love, the chapter demonstrates that the demand for universal love amounts to requiring that any interaction with a human being be that of love. And if so, romantic love is compatible with the demand for universality and hence does not pose any threat to morality.
The Philosophy of Logic
Authors: Maddy Penelope 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
what exactly are these logical This essay is the text of a retiring presidential address to the Association for Symbolic Logic. For a number of historical and sociological reasons, the largely mathematical membership of the Association is aware of the three great schools in the philosophy of mathematics at the turn of the 20th century—Platonism, Formalism, and Intuitionism—but unfamiliar with any school of thought in the philosophy of logic. This address was an effort to introduce the range of philosophical views about logic by rough analogy with the big three about mathematics. Along the way, it sketches the positions of Kant, the 19th-century German scientific materialists, Frege, Mill, early Wittgenstein, Carnap, Ayer, Quine, and Putnam, with gestures toward Descartes, Bolzano, and Russell, and ends with a second-philosophical alternative.
Reconsidering Reparations
Authors: Táíwò Olúfẹ́mi O. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Christopher Columbus’s voyage changed the world forever because the era of racial slavery and colonialism that it started built the world in the first place. The irreversible environmental damage of history’s first planet-sized political and economic system is responsible for our present climate crisis. Reparations call for us to make the world over again: this time, justly. The project of reparations and racial justice in the twenty-first century must take climate justice head on. The book develops arguments about the role of racial capitalism in global politics, addresses other views of reparations, and summarizes perspectives on environmental racism.
Disco’s Dead/Not Dead
Authors: Niebur Louis 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Triggered by the infamous “Disco Demolition” night at Comiskey Park in Chicago on July 12, 1979, at which a near riot accompanied the exploding of a crate of disco records, a backlash made the word “disco” a punchline overnight. Major labels dropped disco artists and producers, and mainstream musicians who had jumped on the bandwagon just as quickly threw themselves off. But in the gay enclaves of the Castro and elsewhere, people continued to dance. Dance music in gay clubs began incorporating aspects of rock, punk, and new wave into the music’s style while retaining the proud legacy of disco at its core. The “Disco Sucks” movement caused changes that were already occurring in dance music to accelerate, and in San Francisco, the arrival of DJs like Bobby Viteritti allowed for the evolution of the San Francisco sound, wholly electronic and more energetic than disco had ever been.
Introduction
Authors: Beckett Katherine 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 explains why mass incarceration has failed to improve public safety and makes the case for expanding our understanding of public safety and how it can be achieved. The chapter also shows that the criminal legal system response to lawbreaking has continued to intensify in recent years even as many states have enacted reforms aimed at reducing prison populations and incarceration rates have declined modestly. And although the policies and practices that have fueled the expansion of the justice system are routinely justified as crime-fighting measures, research shows that mass incarceration is a short-sighted, ineffective, costly, inhumane, and overly narrow approach to public safety. The remainder of the chapter provides an overview of the book. Part I explores three underrecognized dynamics that are working to bolster mass incarceration. Part II identifies three broad policy and political changes that would notably reduce the scale and power of the criminal legal system and racial inequities in it while also addressing the social problems to which it is a failed response.
The (D)evolution of White Supremacist Violence and the Mismeasurement of Terrorism
Authors: Byman Daniel 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
White supremacists today are often violent, but they are rarely able to achieve their expansive political objectives. White supremacists face a variety of problems: they often find it difficult to recruit without being discovered; they are usually broke, and as a result cannot sustain their organizations; the decentralization of the movement makes it difficult for them to follow any strategy and leads to constant infighting; and, in most countries, law enforcement and weak popular support limit their activities. Governments are able, if they try, to fight white supremacist violence effectively. Nevertheless, they are able to kill many people, and many strands of the movement are more violent than in the past. The threat of terrorism, moreover, should be measured beyond the lives lost. White supremacists often have a more profound political and psychological impact than their numbers suggest.
Computation as Implementation
Authors: Shagrir Oron 
Published: February 2022

AbstractMany accounts of computation associate it with the implementation of some abstract structure such as an automaton, algorithm, or program. This chapter focuses on David Chalmers’s account. Chalmers develops an account of implementation as a response to the so-called triviality results, which indicate that every physical object performs every computation, and he goes on to identify computation with implementation. The chapter presents a nuanced approach to Chalmers’s account. On the positive side, it suggests that his notion of implementation successfully circumvents the dire consequences of the triviality results. Additionally, it agrees that the implementation of some formalism is necessary for computing. On the negative side, it argues that implementation (in Chalmers’s sense) is not sufficient for computation. Many physical systems—such as rocks, stomachs, and hurricanes—do not compute, even when they implement a formalism of some sort.
Teaching Methods and Teacher Behaviors
Authors: Dorfman Jay 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a justification for establishing new teaching methods associated with technology-based music instruction (TBMI). It contains descriptions of personal dispositions that are often found, or are desirable, in teachers in this setting, including a willingness to experiment and ask for help; a focus on musical fundamentals; a desire to teach non-traditional music students; a deep knowledge, or willingness to acquire this knowledge, of software and hardware; and an interest in fostering creativity. The chapter contains descriptions of the physical layouts of some example TBMI classrooms and analyses of their strengths and weaknesses. It also includes a discussion of pacing and lesson design in TBMI.
Teacher Preparation Considerations
Authors: Dorfman Jay 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
When music departments do not offer a technology course specifically for music teaching, pre-service music teachers are often required to take courses in information technology or education departments that focus on general educational technology without having a content area emphasis. Frequently the activities in such courses are not directly related to the specific and unique skills a music teacher will need. This chapter addresses the traditions of pre-service music teacher preparation and how they relate to technology-based music instruction. Included are models of teacher preparation that might be considered with a focus on preparation based on Technological Pedagogical and Content Knowledge (TPACK).