bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Rapid Deployment and Effective Tactics (1994–1996)
Authors: Moskos Peter 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The NYPD became focused on crime reduction. Simple changes—a different uniform, a different gun, precinct house maintenance—improved police morale. Concurrently, Compstat became an effective—and often feared—system that both held police leaders accountable and propagated policing strategies. The size of the NYPD increased through additional funding and the merger with Housing and Transit Police. Examples of crime fighting tactics include policing gun offenders, the establishment of a bicycle squad, decoy squads, street prostitution, and auto thefts. While different problems required different solutions and tactics, they followed Jack Maple’s four-point crime-reduction strategy: accurate and timely intelligence, rapid deployment, effective tactics, and relentless follow-up and assessment. As crime declined, cooperation increased within the NYPD, as well as between the NYPD and city agencies, other law enforcement agencies, local DAs, and federal prosecutors. Federal prosecution helped bring down larger criminal operations.
What Needs Explaining
Authors: Smith Christian 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter explores empirical evidence for the major decline of traditional American religion, particularly among younger generations. It shows that religious affiliation and attendance have notably decreased across generations, from the Lost Generation to Generation Z, with the latter exhibiting increasingly weaker ties to religion. The chapter then highlights a reversal of the earlier trend where individuals became more religious with age, noting that Millennials and Generation Z are increasingly less religious. It discusses a brief increase in religious affiliation during the conservative 1980s, followed by a decline from the 1990s onward. Ultimately, traditional religion is increasingly viewed as culturally obsolete by post-Boomers, which means traditional religion has not only experienced losses but is itself at a loss in knowing how to deal with its new situation.
Imperial Military
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Security in Jamaica was dominated by the presence of the imperial garrison, which was supported in numerous ways by the planters in the island, who recognized that their own security depended on its effectiveness. Consequently the colonial state took on a growing number of expensive functions to assist the garrison, including the supply of barracks, wood, and water; the payment of allowances for lodging and medical care; the regulation of access to rum; the recovery of deserters; and the hire of military labourers to preserve the health of the men. The most extensive—and expensive—commitment was the vote of ‘island pay’ for the garrison, a subsidy for provisions that, at its peak in 1800, made up around half of the expenditure of the colonial state. Examining how the assembly was persuaded to vote the necessary funds demonstrates the vital role of politicking in the formation of the colonial state, not least since the agreement fell apart as the fragile consensus began to dissolve.
Intermezzo II
Authors: Graham Aaron 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The Baptist War in Jamaica in January 1832 triggered the end of slavery. Previous accounts have noted the growth in abolitionist pressure on the metropolitan government. Equally important, however, was the temporary financial collapse of the colonial state in Jamaica in the immediate aftermath of the Baptist War, since Jamaica was already at the limit of its fiscal and financial capacity and was unable to accommodate the surge in spending. The recent renegotiation of the island pay had demonstrated the assembly’s bad faith, and had shown that planters could no longer use it as political leverage. Key figures in the Colonial Office, especially the Under-Secretary of State, Viscount Howick, became convinced that only an immediate emancipation could resolve the military and financial, as well as moral and political, problems that the new government faced in Jamaica, and worked to persuade others of this fact. Howick’s intervention was decisive in making the pragmatic case for emancipation. The financial failure of the colonial state in Jamaica was therefore a decisive moment.
Huaylas (Ancash) Quechua
Authors: Molina-Vital Carlos 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter offers a sketch grammar of Huaylas Quechua (HQ) [HQ, ISO 639-3 qwh, Glottocode huay1240], one of the most studied Quechuan varieties. It includes a more comprehensive presentation of this variety to acknowledge previous literature, to include up-to-date information on dialectology, phonology, and morphosyntax, and to address some long-standing issues with previous literature. Among them, it describes the nominalizer -anqa as an actual-realis nominalizer in opposition to -na, a potential-irrealis one. It characterizes the perfective aspect suffixes -yku and -rku in terms of telicity and punctuality. For grammatical voice, this chapter argues against describing the middle voice suffix -ku as a reflexive, and in favor of describing -ka: as an instance of spontaneous voice. Also, it suggests that the iterative or careful action suffix -pa: is in fact an applicative with a meaning complementary to the benefactive -pu. The chapter concludes with a review of the basic literature for this variety and a sample text with interlinear morphological breakdown.
Aymara
Authors: Coler Matt 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter offers a grammatical description of Aymara [ISO 639-3: ayc, Glottocode: sout2996]. Aymara is an is agglutinative, suffix-only Aymaran language, spoken mainly in Peru and Bolivia. After providing an overview of the Aymaran family, I describe the complex phonology and phonotactics, with a special focus on morphophonological processes, before moving on to parts of speech and transcategorical operations. Thereafter, I describe nouns and nominal morphology followed by verbs and verbal morphology prior to outlining other suffixes which are neither nominal or verbal. After this morphological description, I provide an overview of syntax, including grammatical relations, constituent order, clause types, coordination and relativization, among other topics such as verbs of taking, and loanword integration. A text sample in the penultimate section provides a narrative in Aymara. I conclude with an overview of the literature.
Puquina
Authors: Emlen Nicholas Q. , Mossel Arjan , van de Kerke Simon , Adelaar Willem F. H. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter presents a description and a historical outline of the Puquina language [ISO 639-3: puq, Glottocode: puqu1242], a linguistic isolate that was spoken in the South-Central Andes until the early 19th century. Our linguistic description is based on a reanalysis of the sole surviving Puquina source: the Franciscan Luis Jerónimo de Oré’s Rituale seu Manuale Peruanum (1607), a manual for missionary priests working in the region. Our chapter presents a number of new findings regarding Puquina, including an account of the language’s morphophonemics; several newly described morphemes; a proposal regarding inverse marking; and an expanded and refined wordlist. The Puquina evidence presented by the 1607 text is fragmentary and often difficult to interpret, but much can be learned from its systematic analysis.
Híbito and Cholón
Authors: Alexander-Bakkerus Astrid 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Nowadays the languages Híbito and Cholón (ISO 639-3: hib, cht, Glottocode: hibi1243, chol1284) are extinct. Both were spoken in Northern Peru. Little is known of the former language (two wordlists), and there has been some discussion about the affinity between Híbito and Cholón. Notwithstanding the scarce information about Híbito, enough evidence can be deduced from the data to show that Híbito and Cholón are related to each other. More is known of Cholón. Besides two wordlists, there is a grammar of Cholón, Arte de la Lengua Cholona, written in 1748 by the Franciscan friar Pedro de la Mata. Based on Mata’s Arte, here I provide a modern description of Cholón. It enables us to get a clear overview of the structure of the language.
Small and extinct languages of Northern Peru
Authors: Urban Matthias 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of our understanding of the former linguistic diversity of coast and highlands Northern Peru, where in the 16th century as many as 12 different indigenous languages, many of which are only poorly known, were spoken: Tallán [Glottocode: tall1235], Sechura [Glottocode: sech1236], Mochica [ISO 693-3: omc, Glottocode: moch1259], and Quingnam (a.k.a. Pescadora) on the coast, Culli [Glottocode: cull1235] and likely further languages in the highlands, and Chirino [Glottocode: chir1297], Patagón, Bagua [Glottocode: bagu1249], Copallín (a.k.a. Copallen) [Glottocode: copa1238], Sácata [Glottocode: saca1239], Híbito (a.k.a. Jivito) [ISO 639-3: hib, Glottocode: hibi1243], and Cholón (a.k.a. Cholona) [ISO 639-3: cht, Glottocode: chol1284] on the eastern slopes. With distributions that roughly correspond to geographical barriers and different ecological zones, these languages, while mostly genealogically unrelated, show clear hallmarks of language contact in the lexicon and in phonological and phonotactic structure that can be interpreted as evidence for a distinctive northern Peruvian linguistic ecology. Moreover, the distribution of the languages in several cases suggest that they were acting as indexes of social or ethnic differentiation within major pre-Hispanic societies of Northern Peru.
The morphology of the nominal domain in the languages of the Central Andes
Authors: Krasnoukhova Olga 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter offers a typological overview of morphological structures and categories of the nominal domain in the languages of the Central Andes. It deals with pronominal and nominal number, attributive possession, case marking, gender, and classifiers. It also discusses demonstratives and semantic categories that they encode. Since adjectives are typically noun-like in the languages of this region, the word class of adjectives are treated in this chapter as well. Whenever relevant, languages of the Central Andes are compared to South American languages more generally and are situated in a larger cross-linguistic context. Some languages of the Central Andes show typologically interesting traits. Among these one can mention Chipaya, that uses a different genitive marker depending on the biological gender of the possessor, and the language Cholón, that encodes a gender distinction only in the 2nd person singular pronominal forms, but not in any other person. Furthermore, while it is cross-linguistically uncommon to derive plural forms of pronouns with a nominal plural marker, this is a very common strategy among the languages of the Central Andes and South America more generally.
Baḥr al-Ḥijāz
Authors: Damgaard Kristoffer 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter challenges the view that the Red Sea area was marginal to the economic history and argues that it was the centre of a vibrant trading environment from the seventh to the ninth centuries which should be investigated as such. The Late Antique/Early Medieval Red Sea may be seen as both a geographical and network-based nexus for global commodity movement in the entire first millennium ce. A final consideration that should be factored into the analysis is the impact that the political unification under Islamic rule had on commercial activities in the littoral. For the first time in history, the entire Red Sea came under the control of a single polity, namely, the nascent Muslim state.
The Politics of Trade
Authors: Vacca Alison 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
As a broad introduction to the history of trade in early ʿAbbāsid Armenia, this chapter assesses the extant sources to discuss merchants, goods, and trade routes. It acknowledges that most of the sources available in Arabic and Armenian are literary rather than documentary and, as such, retain keener perspectives on the concerns of both the political and religious elite than any detailed description of merchants. Accordingly, economic history must be read against the grain of our sources. By focusing on the foreignness of merchants, these sources suggest that Armenian cities were polyglot nexuses of global networks. Such an interpretation veers from current discussions of the relationship between a strong economy and the independence of medieval Armenian kingdoms.
Defining Science
Authors: Spencer Nick , Waite Hannah 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter traces the various attempts to define science in the UK and US since its formation as a recognisable discipline, distinct from natural philosophy, in the nineteenth century. It argues that, debates around the demarcation problem notwithstanding, this is an increasingly urgent task on account of the prominence of pseudoscience today, as well as well-attested problems internal to science, such as the apparent rise in ‘fraud, bias, negligence, and hype’. The chapter draws on philosophical sources (including the work of Robert Merton, Karl Popper, Larry Laudan, and Massimo Pigliucci) and legal ones (including the Overton Judgement, Edwards v. Aguillard, Kitzmiller v. Dover Area School District, and the British Science Council’s 2009 definition of science) to argue that a singular, ‘necessary and sufficient’ definition of science is not possible. Rather, it argues, following Pigliucci, that a Wittgensteinian ‘family resemblance’ approach is the most appropriate and coherent way to ‘define’ science. It puts forward an initial outline of what this might look like, highlighting four dimensions or ‘features’ of science: philosophical, methodological, cultural, and social. Thus science (1) is defined by certain philosophical axioms or presuppositions; (2) is characterised by a strict methodological approach; (3) demonstrates a particular attitudinal or cultural dimension; and (4) is an inherently communal and co-operative activity. It adds the important caveat that we must not limit our definition of science to this normative understanding, and that a full picture of science would also take into account the descriptive reality of science as it is actually practised.
Disaggregating Religion
Authors: Spencer Nick , Waite Hannah 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter draws on over a hundred interviews with scientists, philosophers, theologians, sociologists, and communicators, and builds on an initial disaggregation of the dimensions or ‘features’ of religion derived from legal, philosophical, and sociological analysis. From this new and extensive data source, it outlines five distinct dimensions or ‘features’ of religion, pertaining to (1) transcendence, (2) belief, (3) commitment, (4) the formalisation of belief in theology and doctrine, and (5) the formalisation of commitment in rituals, laws, and offices. Each of these covers a range of factors, or sub-features, and none is wholly discrete or watertight. For something to be called religion, it does not need to encompass all five features, or indeed any particular one of them. Instead, we adopt a Wittgensteinian ‘family resemblance’ approach to defining religion, which eschews hard category boundaries in favour of ‘fuzzier’ edges. The chapter concludes by showing how sometimes the apparent conflict between science and religion is a conflict literally by definition, with some people defining science and religion in direct opposition to one another.
Metaphysics
Authors: Spencer Nick , Waite Hannah 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter argues that both science and religion involve certain metaphysical commitments, and while these needn’t be in conflict, or indeed have any significant bearing upon the science and religion debate either way, this is nonetheless one of the areas within the science and religion landscapes where there commonly is tension. That tension resides primarily in the way in which science’s apparent commitment to naturalism comes into conflict with religion’s apparent commitment to supernaturalism. The chapter examines both of these, and shows that the conflict in this area can be defused, partially. Even when religion does exhibit a commitment to supernaturalism (some definitions of religion do not involve any such a metaphysical stance), that commitment need not be understood in a blunt, zero-sum opposition to naturalism. Correspondingly, science’s commitment to naturalism is far from straightforward, as demonstrated (1) by problems around the definition of ‘nature’, or corresponding terms (‘physicalism’, ‘materialism’) and (2) by certain scientific disciplines and presuppositions that sit at odds with (at least some conceptions of) naturalism. Having softened the edge of the blunt metaphysical conflict between science and religion, however, the chapter concludes that certain questions remain, and that metaphysics is an area where there is genuine and legitimate conflict between the two.
The Politics of Unpaid Labour
Authors: Pulignano Valeria , Domecka Markieta 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This book introduces a theory of the politics of unpaid labour, advancing our understanding of inequality within the context of precarious work. Arguing that this theory can help address the inequalities perpetuating the dynamics and processes underpinning stigma which surround the rise of precarious work under labour market reforms and societal and technological changes, the book forges a link between the micro properties of the social system and its macro-level structural patterns. The former relates to the motivations and meanings individuals attribute to the unpaid labour they perform in a context where employment is precarious, while the latter refers to how individuals build resilience through sustaining unpaid labour by accessing resources found within the private, social, and financial sphere of the family as well as in regulatory arrangements at the level of the state and other social institutions. The book’s empirical section is based on extensive research comparing meanings of unpaid labour in creative dance, residential care, and online freelancing in Europe. The theoretical section advances current discussion in three ways. First, it establishes the characteristics differentiating employment from self-employment, and how these lead to a revised definition of unpaid labour. Second, it illustrates that unpaid labour is both shaped by class and serves to reproduce class interests, revealing ongoing changes in welfare, employment, and state institutional policies. Third, it considers the necessity to establish conditions within the labour market conducive to genuinely cultivating and honouring the diversity of human capabilities and actions within labour structures and promoting their manifestation.
Establishing a Theory of the Politics of Unpaid Labour
Authors: Pulignano Valeria , Domecka Markieta 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter presents a novel theorization of the politics of unpaid labour. It looks at how the study of unpaid labour helps address inequality in precarious work, focusing on the class-based power structures of exploitation to explain how individuals experience the socio-economic activities surrounding work in their biographical histories in different ways. In essence, the theory behind the politics of unpaid labour advances our understanding of inequality in precarious work, explaining how the meanings attached to unpaid labour are embedded in different ways in individual income- and class-based features as well as employment structures and practices. These meanings also reflect the social norms underpinning stigma. The theory thus highlights the power dynamics generating the structural inequalities through which opportunities and resources to build resilience are circumscribed by class, including prestige, gender, and wealth.
Conclusion
Authors: Pulignano Valeria , Domecka Markieta , Grimshaw Damian 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The conclusion urges policymakers to carefully consider how a comprehensive set of interconnected protections can mitigate the impact of unpaid and precarious labour, thereby shaping a path toward inclusive and sustainable economic development. This approach is essential for ensuring the stability and security of society for all European citizens. The evidence presented in this book, and recalled in the conclusions, reveals that unpaid labour is not a peripheral issue but a fundamental aspect of the political economy of work in contemporary Europe. Too many workers in Europe find themselves in poorly designed or second-choice jobs, compelled to work unpaid hours, and struggling with insufficient paid work and limited opportunities for skill development. This situation has led to a highly segmented pattern of unpaid labour, with risks disproportionately affecting women, those with the least education, ethnic minorities, people with disabilities, and migrant workers.
Out-of-order reading
Authors: Thomas Julia 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter examines the ways in which illustrated texts were read ‘out of order’, with the images seen before the words were processed. This model of reading was facilitated and encouraged by cultural and cognitive factors. The display and placement of illustrations put them first, with the proliferation of frontispieces and illustrated covers corresponding to a mental predisposition to look at and seek out the pictures before reading the words. This out-of-order reading has some striking implications for how texts were approached and understood, as the chapter explores in an analysis of the frontispiece illustration that appeared in the first English translation of Honoré de Balzac’s novella Sarrasine. These prior illustrations shaped and defined how readers interpretated the words. They could also determine if the words were ever actually read. Seeing the illustrations first incited a readerly desire that compelled readers to begin to read, to continue to read, or to stop in their tracks.
Conclusion
Authors: Thomas Julia 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The Conclusion suggests that the sharp decline of illustration in fiction for adults in the early twentieth century was partly a result of the way that the reading of illustrated literature was defined in Victorian culture: as child-like, immature, and involving no intellectual labour. This decline also coincided with a questioning of the role of the ‘mind’s eye’ in psychology. In the twenty-first century, illustration has all but disappeared in the case of adult fiction, but it is still prevalent in other forms like newspapers and children’s books. For the trace of Victorian illustrative reading, we can look towards ‘digital’ or on-screen reading, which has been described in strikingly similar terms to the Victorian reading of illustrated texts: as a ‘shallow’ as opposed to ‘deep’ reading. The Conclusion argues not only that this binary opposition is incorrect but also that the synergies between Victorian and digital reading can provide an opening for how we understand the mechanics of digital reading today.
Administration of Estates in the Netherlands
Authors: Kolkman Wilbert D 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter describes and analyses the Dutch rules on the administration of estates. It starts with a historical overview, leading to the Civil Code of 1838, which was heavily influenced by French law. This was followed by a new Civil Code in 2003. The chapter sheds light on a number of aspects regarding the administration, such as the choices of the heirs, the position of the creditors, the role of the notary, and the distinction between informal and formal administration. As is shown in the conclusion, the Dutch system can be described as a flexible, private system with a high level of creditor protection.