bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Wesley’s Shadow
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 covers the early decades of Methodism in the United States, specifically with regard to Black churchgoers. John Wesley’s strong antislavery stance was part of the heritage of Methodism, but the movement’s success in the United States propelled the Church toward a series of compromises that accommodated slavery and slaveholders. As the denomination succumbed to racial caste, many Black Methodists broke away to form the African Methodist Episcopal and African Methodist Episcopal Zion Churches. Many Methodist leaders also embrace the colonization movement, which represented another accommodation to slavery and caste, and Black Methodists played an important role in the colony of Liberia. While southern Church leaders emphasized their commitment to Christianizing slaves, abolitionists fought to make their voices heard within the Church. Those tensions finally led to a schism over slavery in 1844 and the establishment of the Methodist Episcopal Church, South.
The Southwestern Confronts the Nadir
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 tells the story of the Southwestern Christian Advocate, the leading voice for the Black membership of the Methodist Episcopal Church. Beginning in the 1880s, the paper had a series of African American editors of varying militancy. A. E. P. Albert, at one extreme, played an important role in resisting streetcar segregation in New Orleans, a fight that ultimately led to the Plessy v. Ferguson Supreme Court decision. After Albert was replaced by the General Conference in 1892, subsequent editors E. W. S. Hammond, Isaiah B. Scott, and Robert Elijah Jones often began cautiously but became more outspoken in reaction to growing racial oppression. The paper spoke out strongly against Jim Crow segregation, lynching, and disfranchisement, helping to maintain a witness against racial caste within the denomination.
Turning Inward
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Chapter 8 focuses on the efforts Blacks made toward racial uplift both at home and through missionary work in Liberia, efforts that still failed to gain them the recognition they sought within the Methodist Episcopal Church. Frustrated in their efforts to advance within the denomination, Blacks in the M.E.C. increasingly looked to themselves during the early twentieth century. Events like the Young People’s Congress made uplift less about gaining white acceptance and more about strengthening the Black community. In their efforts to elect a bishop of African descent, Black leaders increasingly came to accept that such a bishop could only be elected if he were effectively restricted to working solely with Black conferences. Hopes for Atlanta were dashed by the violent riot of 1906. In Liberia, Alexander Camphor, frustrated in the insular and prideful community of Monrovia, became convinced that missions could be more effectively carried out in the interior among the indigenous groups, and he quit his position after ten years to undertake an unsuccessful campaign to raise funds for such a venture.
Walk Together, Children
Authors: Harris Paul William 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The participation of Blacks in Methodist Episcopal Church governance stood as a major barrier to reunion with the Methodist Episcopal Church, South, and growing calls to segregate them still further forced those African Americans to consider the limits of accommodation. Chapter 9 looks at some steps that were taken to allow “bishops for races and languages” and thus enable the election of bishops of African descent confined to working with their own people. Although organic union with the Church South remained decades away, a plan took shape that paved the way. The early years of the twentieth century also saw continuing frustrations in Liberia and the passing of aging white allies from the scene. Nonetheless, with the historically black colleges and academies of the Freedmen’s Aid Society continuing to turn out educated leaders, their prophetic hopes for racial reconciliation and advancement lived on.
Chinese Approaches to Welfare
Authors: Rühlig Tim Nicholas 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The chapter outlines the enormous importance of Word Trade Organization (WTO) law to China’s state control and its implications for China’s state-permeated economy and welfare system. The chapter demonstrates the PRC’s contradictory policies, not least by highlighting China’s good compliance record with adverse WTO Dispute Settlement Body rulings and contrasting this with China’s creativity in circumventing implementation of WTO law in the banking sector. In line with the core argument of the book, China’s contradictory policy is traced to trade-offs between different economic and nationalist legitimization needs and the varying degrees of influence of different actors within the party-state. The chapter ends by discussing the implications for the future international order, referencing two modes of action that provide China’s contradictory WTO policy with systemic relevance: China’s instrumental approach to law and its undermining of the key definitions that underpin the core vocabulary of international trade policy.
Zen Meditation as a Practice of Clearing the Heart-Mind
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains the importance of meditation for Zen in terms of what the Buddhist tradition calls the three levels of wisdom: received, intellectual, and experiential wisdom. As important as memorizing teachings and intellectually reflecting on them are, liberating wisdom can only be obtained experientially through holistic practice. Zen meditation is a non-discursive practice of clearing of the heart-mind. Rather than adding words, images, or thoughts to the mind, it proceeds by way of “subtraction.” It is only by letting go of all egocentric agendas that one can fulfill the ultimate aim of Zen, which is to become an egoless and effective vehicle for the great Bodhisattva vow to liberate all sentient beings from suffering. After explaining how Zen teachers have criticized misuses of secularized “mindfulness” techniques, the chapter ends with an account of the proximate benefits of practicing Zen meditation, such as reducing stress and increasing concentration and self-confidence.
The Buddha’s First and Last Lesson
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the Buddha’s Middle Way between a hedonistic indulgence of sense desires and an excessively ascetic denial of sense desires. It begins by recounting Siddhartha’s early sheltered and indulgent life in his father’s palace and his dramatic encounters with an old man, a sick man, a corpse, and a spiritual recluse. It then discusses how he experimented with extreme asceticism before discovering the Middle Way and becoming the Buddha. A common misunderstanding is corrected: the Buddha did not say that all desires should be abandoned. Rather, he distinguished between three types of desires: those that should be fostered (such as lovingkindness and compassion), those that should be eliminated (such as craving and greed), and those that require moderation (such as the desire for food and sleep). The Middle Way concerns the third type of desire. The Buddha taught us to be satisfied with what suffices.
The True Self Is Egoless
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains, from the perspective of Zen Buddhism, the Buddha’s teaching of anatman, a word that gets variously translated—for example, as “no-self,” “egolessness,” or “no-soul.” Debates among Buddhist traditions and scholars about how to understand the anatman doctrine are introduced. It is argued that the Buddha’s key philosophical doctrine of “interdependent origination” can be understood in terms of the “Ontological Middle Way” of a “process ontology”; things and selves exist, but as interdependent processes rather than as independent and permanent substances. Buddhism views the self as a “life-stream,” as a “process-self” rather than a “substance-self.” Zen understands the teaching of “no-self” to be compatible with its teaching of the “true self.” In Zen, the quest to know oneself paradoxically leads to an enlightening “not-knowing,” which entails an understanding of the interconnected and ungraspable nature of the true self.
But We Are Not the Same
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains how Zen attends to individuality and uniqueness as well as unity or oneness. The East Asian Buddhist metaphor of “water and waves” is used to explain the relation between the universal Buddha-nature and interconnected individuals. Among theological conceptions of God, this Zen Buddhist metaphysics best accords with panentheism, that is to say, with the idea that “all is in God.” A kōan from The Blue Cliff Record, in which one Zen master playfully assumes the name of another, is explicated in order to explain what the modern Zen philosopher Ueda Shizuteru means when he says that “the free exchange of the role of host is the very core of dialogue,” and, ultimately, what it means to say that we can take turns being the center of the universe.
Dying to Live
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter compares core teachings of Zen, Pure Land Buddhism, and Christianity. It begins with a reflection on some past and recent Buddhists and Christians who have thought that the two religions are either compatible or incompatible. It then explores the ways in which Buddhism and other traditions can provoke us into rethinking what we mean by “God,” and it suggests that Zen’s conception of the Unborn Buddha-mind is most nearly compatible with a panentheism that sees “all in God” rather than God as a transcendent being outside the world. Like the Gospel of Thomas and the Vimalakirti Sutra, Zen masters have understood the Kingdom of God and the Pure Land to be here and now for those who are awakened. The chapter ends by examining one of the deepest parallels among these traditions—namely, the idea that we have to pass through a “Great Death” in order to truly live.
Engaged Zen
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter connects Zen’s teaching of wholehearted engagement in the duties of everyday life with the modern movement of Engaged Buddhism. It explains how Mahayana Buddhism stresses the spiritual significance of everyday life in the midst of society. This is exemplified in the Vimalakirti Sutra and also in the lessons that Zen master Dōgen received from two monastery cooks who were totally devoted to caring for their communities. The founder of Engaged Buddhism, Thich Nhat Hanh, says, “Meditation is not an escape from society. Meditation is to equip oneself with the capacity to reintegrate into society, in order for the leaf to nourish the tree.” He teaches that we need to practice “being peace” in order to be capable of “bringing peace” to others. The chapter ends with a probing discussion of the relation between spreading peace and fighting for justice.
The Dharma of Karma
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the teaching (Dharma) of karma according to Zen Buddhism. Karma is related to the biblical teaching “You reap what you sow,” yet it is understood as a natural lawfulness at work in the universe rather than as punishments and rewards meted out by a supernatural deity. Karma is a teaching of moral and psychological causality. It entails self-determination, in the sense that “we make our habits, and our habits in turn make us.” It is not a strict determinism or fatalism, but rather a teaching of “situated freedom.” Although the teaching of karma has been misused in a manner that entails “blaming the victim,” the chapter concludes by suggesting how a proper understanding of karma can avoid this pitfall.
Being in the Zone of Zen
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter relates what Zen calls “no-mind” (Japanese: mushin) and “non-doing” (Chinese: wuwei) to what is popularly called “being in the zone.” It also relates these to what Hindus call “karma yoga,” to the idea from the Star Wars films of “using the Force,” to what psychologists call “the flow experience,” and to what cognitive scientists call “hot cognition.” When the modern Japanese Zen master Yamada Mumon says that “the goal of life is to play,” he is referring to what the Zen tradition has called “the meditative state of play.” Philosophers have called this kind of experience “autotelic.” The chapter concludes by critically examining the dangers of a half-baked “just do it” state of mind, and how Zen teachings and practices have in fact been misused for military purposes.
Sōtō and Rinzai Zen Practice
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains the differences between the meditation methods of the Sōtō and Rinzai schools of Zen. It begins by tracing the methodological disputes between these two schools back to the twelfth century, when the Linji (Japanese: Rinzai) master Dahui, who advocated the use of kōans, criticized the “silent illumination” taught by Caodong (Japanese: Sōtō) masters such as Hongzhi. The chapter presents these methods as distinct yet compatible. It explains Dōgen’s Sōtō Zen practice of “just sitting” and “non-thinking” as a matter of awakening to an open field of nondual awareness. The latter sections of the chapter discuss the Rinzai Zen practice taught by Hakuin of working with kōans, the enigmatic stories, dialogues, sayings, or questions assigned as topics of meditation and used to trigger and test a student’s awakening experience of kenshō or “seeing into one’s true nature.”
Death and Rebirth—Or, Nirvana Here and Now
Authors: Davis Bret W. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter treats the topics of death, rebirth, and Nirvana in Zen Buddhism. As with other Buddhist sects in Japan, death is the financial as well as spiritual business of Zen temples, even though the true purpose of Zen practice is the experience of Nirvana in this life, rather than aiming to be reborn in a Pure Land after death. Traditional Buddhist teachings about “moment-to-moment rebirth” in this life as well as rebirth between lives are explained, as are literal and metaphorical interpretations of the Six Realms of Rebirth in Samsara. The chapter also discusses how some pivotal kōans require practitioners to confront their own mortality, so that they may attain true life by way of undergoing a spiritual Great Death.
What People Really Want
Authors: Perkins Franklin 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Mengzi’s account of human motivation and natural dispositions. It starts by illustrating and supporting his claim that people have some actions they would rather die than do. If this claim is true, then people’s deepest motivation is not their own self-interest or even survival. The chapter then describes Mengzi’s categorization of these motivations into four types. Natural responses of compassion and care lead to the virtue of benevolence. Feelings of shame and disgust lead to rightness. The need for embodied expression of emotions, including feelings of deference and respect, lead to propriety. A natural tendency to distinguish and evaluate leads toward wisdom. The chapter concludes with a discussion of what Mengzi sees as most distinctively human.
Learning
Authors: Perkins Franklin 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter considers how Mengzi and other Confucians justify the importance of study and learning. As much as Mengzi talks about the goodness of our dispositions, he remains fully within a Confucian tradition that prioritizes learning, education, and self-cultivation. We cannot just trust our intuitions or feelings. The chapter discusses the Confucian reliance on tradition and how they defend it. It also includes a justification for the value of the humanities. The chapter concludes with an account of the ability a cultivated person has to adapt and modify what they know to fit the uniqueness of any given situation.
Temptations, Excuses, and Putting Ideas into Practice
Authors: Perkins Franklin 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Mengzi presents us with a philosophical vision of the meaning of human life, but his aim was to get people to act effectively in making the world a better place. That needs not just philosophy but concrete advice and practical guidance. With their sophisticated understanding of self-cultivation and long experience promoting social change, the Confucians gained insight into the temptations and distractions good people face, and the ways people can be co-opted by a corrupt system. This chapter gathers advice from Mengzi and other Confucians on how to deal with six temptations facing those concerned about the state of the world: wealth, prestige, compromise (selling-out), blaming others, lack of hope, and settling for having done enough.
Nursed in the Arms of Poverty
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter traces John Wesley Gilbert’s family origins (noting the possibility that one or more of his enslaved ancestors came to Georgia from Antigua), then examines his birth into slavery in 1863. It reconstructs his childhood and family life in Augusta, Georgia, and his early education in the public schools of that city. It examines his studies at the Baptist-sponsored Augusta Institute, a training school for black ministers and teachers. When the school moved to Atlanta and became the Atlanta Baptist Seminary, Gilbert moved to Atlanta with it to continue his studies but was forced to return home by lack of funds. The chapter then traces Gilbert’s work as a teacher in Augusta, followed by his enrollment at Paine Institute, a joint foundation of the white Methodist Episcopal Church, South (MECS) and the Colored Methodist Episcopal (CME) Church. The chapter focuses on Gilbert’s relationship with Paine president George Williams Walker, who would become Gilbert’s lifelong colleague and father figure. It also introduces other key figures in Gilbert’s life, including John Hope (later the first black president of what is today Morehouse College). The chapter ends in 1886, with Gilbert’s completing school as one of Paine’s first seven graduates.
Enduring Spirit
Authors: Lee John W.I. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter shows how historical memory about John Wesley Gilbert developed in the years after his death. It begins by considering the obituaries written soon after Gilbert’s death by Colored Methodist Episcopal (CME) minister J. A. Martin and by Gilbert’s close friend Dr. John Angelo Lester, then shows how both written records and living memories of Gilbert were lost by the 1930s. The chapter considers why memory of Gilbert remained alive in Methodist circles while his name was forgotten in the fields of Classics and classical archaeology. The chapter also celebrates the enduring spirit of Paine College, a true American treasure that has nurtured not only John Wesley Gilbert but many other African American men and women who have made distinguished contributions to our nation.
Non-State Armed Actors and International Legal Argumentation
Authors: Jo Hyeran 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Non-state armed actors (NSAAs) are individuals or groups that militarily fight for their political, economic, or social goals. Why and when would they have incentive to engage in international legal argumentation? What are the contents of the NSAAs’ legal argumentation and associated processes? What putative effects does it produce? This chapter characterizes NSAAs’ legal argumentation and presents some patterns and processes as to how NSAAs build their legal and quasi-legal arguments. The final part of the chapter discusses various putative effects NSAAs’ legal argumentation generates, in terms of persuasion, reciprocity, compliance, and potentially peace.
Argumentation through LawAn Analysis of Decisions of the African Union
Authors: Werner Wouter 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
There is a long-standing dispute between the African Union and the International Criminal Court. At one level, this dispute concerns legal-technical questions such as immunities of heads of states, the identification of customary law, or the scope of resolutions of the UN Security Council. However, underlying these legal disputes are highly political questions regarding recognition, respect, and equality. The African Union has addressed these questions in a series of formal Decisions, adopted by its highest organ, the Assembly of Heads of State and Government. These Decisions reveal what gives the more doctrinal debates their political bite. In addition, these Decisions present the stance of the African Union in the form and with the authority of law, thus binding member states and presenting a unified position vis-à-vis the International Criminal Court and other international audiences. Political struggles are thus partly articulated in legal form, a type of “argumentation through law” that attaches formal validity to claims about membership, recognition, and equality.
The Paths Diverge
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The white middle-class “Victorian” Americans of the decades beginning with the Civil War in the 1860s faced a series of cultural crises, including war, reconstruction, industrialization, urbanization, and rapid intellectual changes. The diverging paths in Protestant responses are here represented by the contrast between Henry Ward Beecher and the Blanchards, Jonathan and his son Charles. Beecher exemplified the progressive spirit of emerging liberal theology. God was revealed in the Bible but also in the Christian moral improvements of the modern age, such as in the defeat of slavery. Beecher presented a “Progressive Orthodoxy” that was part of a “New Theology.” Jonathan Blanchard, founder of Wheaton College (IL), was a biblicist evangelical abolitionist. He was also a postmillennialist. His son Charles, who succeeded him at Wheaton, was influenced by Dwight L. Moody, became a premillennialist, and promoted anti-modernist militancy of fundamentalism.
Two Revisions of Millennialism
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Prior to the Civil War, postmillennialism had been more common among most American evangelical Protestants than had premillennialism. Both were taught, however. After the Civil War, more progressive or liberal Protestants turned postmillennialism into a doctrine emphasizing the progress of modern civilization as evidence of the coming of Christ’s Kingdom on earth. William Newton Clark and A. C. McGiffert illustrate that approach. By contrast, the dispensational premillennialists developed a literalist reading of biblical prophecies. They divided world history into seven dispensations, each ending in human failure and divine judgment. At the end of our own last dispensation would be the “secret rapture” of the saints, a brief era of tribulation, and the return of Christ to set up a kingdom on earth for one thousand years.
The Fundamentals
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The Fundamentals was a twelve-volume series published between 1910 and 1915. The project was financed by oil magnate Lyman Stewart. A. C. Dixon, Louis Meyer, and Reuben Torrey served terms as editors. The volumes were collections of essays, some previously published. They anticipated the fundamentalist movement and helped furnish its name. The essays included topics such as criticisms of various modern “isms.” Some essays were personal testimonies. Some defended the integrity of the Bible. Some promoted Keswick teachings. Overall, the tone of the essays was not as strident as much of later fundamentalism. For instance, some writers allowed that God might have used biological evolution as a means of creation.