Spectrotemporal Modulation Discrimination in Infants With Normal Hearing
Authors: Noble Anisha R. , Resnick Jesse , Broncheau Mariette , Klotz Stephanie , Rubinstein Jay T. , Werner Lynne A. , Horn David L. 
Published: October 2022

Objectives:
Spectral resolution correlates with speech understanding in post-lingually deafened adults with cochlear implants (CIs) and is proposed as a non-linguistic measure of device efficacy in implanted infants. However, spectral resolution develops gradually through adolescence regardless of hearing status. Spectral resolution relies on two different factors that mature at markedly different rates: Resolution of ripple peaks (frequency resolution) matures during infancy whereas sensitivity to across-spectrum intensity modulation (spectral modulation sensitivity) matures by age 12. Investigation of spectral resolution as a clinical measure for implanted infants requires understanding how each factor develops and constrains speech understanding with a CI. This study addresses the limitations of the present literature. First, the paucity of relevant data requires replication and generalization across measures of spectral resolution. Second, criticism that previously used measures of spectral resolution may reflect non-spectral cues needs to be addressed. Third, rigorous behavioral measurement of spectral resolution in individual infants is limited by attrition. To address these limitations, we measured discrimination of spectrally modulated, or rippled, sounds at two modulation depths in normal hearing (NH) infants and adults. Non-spectral cues were limited by constructing stimuli with spectral envelopes that change in phase across time. Pilot testing suggested that dynamic spectral envelope stimuli appeared to hold infants’ attention and lengthen habituation time relative to previously used static ripple stimuli. A post-hoc condition was added to ensure that the stimulus noise carrier was not obscuring age differences in spectral resolution. The degree of improvement in discrimination at higher ripple depth represents spectral frequency resolution independent of the overall threshold. It was hypothesized that adults would have better thresholds than infants but both groups would show similar effects of modulation depth.

Design:
Participants were 53 6- to 7-month-old infants and 23 adults with NH with no risk factors for hearing loss who passed bilateral otoacoustic emissions screening. Stimuli were created from complexes with 33- or 100-tones per octave, amplitude-modulated across frequency and time with constant 5 Hz envelope phase-drift and spectral ripple density from 1 to 20 ripples per octave (RPO). An observer-based, single-interval procedure measured the highest RPO (1 to 19) a listener could discriminate from a 20 RPO stimulus. Age-group and stimulus pure-tone complex were between-subjects variables whereas modulation depth (10 or 20 dB) was within-subjects. Linear-mixed model analysis was used to test for the significance of the main effects and interactions.

Results:
All adults and 94% of infants provided ripple density thresholds at both modulation depths. The upper range of threshold approached 17 RPO with the 100-tones/octave carrier and 20 dB depth condition. As expected, mean threshold was significantly better with the 100-tones/octave compared with the 33-tones/octave complex, better in adults than in infants, and better at 20 dB than 10 dB modulation depth. None of the interactions reached significance, suggesting that the effect of modulation depth on the threshold was not different for infants or adults.

Conclusions:
Spectral ripple discrimination can be measured in infants with minimal listener attrition using dynamic ripple stimuli. Results are consistent with previous findings that spectral resolution is immature in infancy due to immature spectral modulation sensitivity rather than frequency resolution.