bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Four Views circa 1910
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Various emerging fundamentalists adopted a spectrum of views regarding the relation of Christianity to culture. At one extreme were the radical dispensationalists, such as Arno G. Gaebelein. Such leaders took seriously the implications of premillennial pessimism regarding culture, and condemned modern ideologies. They insisted that Christians must separate into pure churches. William B. Riley, by contrast, embodied the central tension in the movement between premillennial pessimism and continuing hopes for a more Christian America. Moody Bible Institute exemplified that same tension. Evangelist Billy Sunday dramatically embodied the tension between separatism and Americanism. William Jennings Bryan represents a third position, trying to preserve and reform Christian civilization in a progressive but biblically based direction. Conservative Presbyterians like B. B. Warfield and J. Gresham Machen, while staying away from direct political involvement, were more confident that biblically based and rational theological outlooks could challenge modern thought.
World War I, Premillennialism, and American Fundamentalism: 1917–1918
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
America’s entry into World War I transformed much of the emerging fundamentalist movement. It added a heightened sense of cultural crisis to other concerns. A good many fundamentalists at first opposed the war. Premillennialist journals, Our Hope and The King’s Business, emphasized fulfilled prophecies but opposed America’s entry into the war. William Jennings Bryan accepted the war only reluctantly. By contrast, Billy Sunday became a leading super-patriot. Modernist theologians, such as Shailer Mathews or Shirley Jackson Case, at first criticized the premillennialists who opposed the war. Soon, however, almost all emerging fundamentalists were taking positions such as that of William Bell Riley, as super-patriots. That would help establish a long-standing tension in the movement as a mix of premillennial cultural pessimism and American patriotic zeal to build a more Christian culture.
Fundamentalism as a Social Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Abstract: Early interpretations of fundamentalism tended to explain it largely as a social phenomenon. It was seen primarily as a reaction of rural and small-town culture to modernity and urbanization. Stewart Cole and Norman Furniss, and William McLoughlin offered versions of this theme. Ernest Sandeen, by contrast, argued that fundamentalism was primarily a theological movement based on dispensationalism combined with Princeton Theology’s view of the inerrancy of the Bible. Both these approaches contain elements of truth. Fundamentalists tended to be people of northern European ethnic stock. Fundamentalist churches grew rapidly among people who had recently moved to a new part of the country. One helpful analogy is that their experience might resemble that of immigrants, of finding their old ways being ridiculed by the mainstream culture. So they might feel like strangers in their own land.
Fundamentalism as an American Phenomenon
Authors: Marsden George M. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Distinctly American aspects of fundamentalism may be seen by comparison with similar movements with which fundamentalists were connected in Great Britain. One contrast is that anti-evolution was never nearly as popular among religious conservatives in Britain as in America. “The dynamics of unopposed revivalism” offers part of the explanation for the difference. England had a state church and a tradition of Christendom, while popular religion in the United States was dominated by revivalism. That helped contribute to tendencies in American popular religion to accept simple antitheses and dichotomies. While England had long traditions and historical development, American evangelicals tended to interpret history in common sense or either/or categories.
What Is Populism?
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter reviews scholarly definitions of populism, emphasizing the relation between the assertedly “thin” ideology of populism and the thicker ideologies that give it content, and reviews as well quantitative studies that show the populism in power tends to erode some constitutional basics. It argues that understanding specific populisms and their relation to constitutionalism requires attention to those thicker ideologies. Doing so suggests that there is no systematic relation between populism and constitutionalism, and that much of the asserted relationship comes from the accompanying ideologies rather than from the populism. After reviewing various components said to be associated with populism, such as a “we versus them” mentality and charismatic leadership, the chapter argues that populisms share at most a family resemblance, and that some features said to be associated with populism are also associated with non-populist political parties and leaders. There are, in short, varieties of populism. The argument aims at deflating claims about inherent or necessary conflicts between populism and constitutionalism, but does conclude that the populist emphasis on majority rule sometimes does conflict with the principle of entrenchment that is a component of thin constitutionalism.
The Problem of the Frankenstate
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Kim Lane Scheppele’s term, “Frankenstate,” signals that looking at constitutional changes one by one might be misleading when the changes cumulate to create a constitutional monster. This chapter examines the mechanisms by which discrete changes become problematic. It identifies problems that occur when changes, not necessarily intrinsically problematic, interact to cause difficulties. Another phenomenon is that such changes might signal the possibility that other changes are in prospect, which would be problematic—a version of the argument that the intent lying behind changes matters. The chapter concludes with some pessimistic observations about the possibility of devising institutional mechanisms to guard against creating Frankenstates and with observations about the relation between the “liberalism of fear” and reactions to contemporary versions of populism.
Guardrails and Institutions
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Steven Levitsky and Daniel Ziblatt have argued that constitutions are maintained not only by formal institutional mechanisms but by informal “guardrails,” most notably mutual tolerance and forbearance. This chapter interrogates the idea of guardrails and the associated idea of a pro-constitutional culture, both in general and in connection with populism. Although the guardrails are said to be located outside formal institutions, maintaining the guardrails requires some institutional activity such as militant democracy. The chapter argues that, as with eliminating some veto gates, breaking through a guardrail is not always anti-constitutional. Guardrails are specific to particular historical and institutional orders, and breaking a guardrail might indicate only that an old order is passing, without implying that the new order will be less constitutionalist.
Rejecting Democracy
Authors: Tushnet Mark , Bugarič Bojan 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Some populists sincerely want to expand the opportunities for ordinary people to govern themselves. Their advocacy for that goal is sometimes met with skepticism. This chapter examines three accounts of why some forms of government other than expanded democracy are desirable: technocracy, representative democracy to the exclusion of direct democracy, and libertarian governments whose reach is quite small. With respect to technocracy, the chapter argues that contemporary populism is a reaction to expanded technocratic governance, and sometimes a sensible one because technocrats tend to overlook the ways in which technocratic solutions fail to take all relevant values into account. Populists do not reject representative democracy entirely, but wish to supplement it with other modes of direct popular rule. Arguments from citizen ignorance underlie libertarian skepticism about the ability of collective political decision-making to advance the overall social good. The chapter points out some difficulties with the empirical evidence offered to support claims about voter ignorance. More important, it argues that ordinary people have “local knowledge” and “common sense” that they can and do use when they act politically: They are neither as ignorant nor as irresponsible as the libertarians contend.
Risorgimento Italy
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The following chapter provides the reader with a brief history of the Italian Risorgimento, the sociopolitical movement that led to the unification of the country in 1870. The importance of Risorgimento ideas and values in the life of Arturo Reghini, who was born only eight years after the birth of the Italian nation, is highlighted and explored, especially through the works of Mario Banti and Denis Mack Smith. An analysis of the main threads of the occult tradition that flourished in nineteenth-century Italy and their impact on Reghini is also attempted, with special relevance given to Freemasonry, Spiritualism, and the occult ideas of Italo/Roman primacy, which blossomed in Naples toward the end of the century and strongly informed Reghini’s worldview. A short excursus on the history of the Vatican State and the Roman question is also attempted, since this event influenced Reghini’s strong anti-clerical stance.
Fascism and Traditionalism
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
The chapter opens with a historical overview on Benito Mussolini’s rise to power in the early 1920s and then proceeds to analyze the Fascist phenomenon, comparing it to Traditionalism, and trying to highlight its modern and anti-modern aspects. A section of Chapter 6 is dedicated to the scrutiny of the relationship between Fascism and occult fringes, and the author tries to conclude whether there were any overlaps as may be found in the Nazism-occultism pairing. The latter part of the chapter is entirely dedicated to the birth of the Traditionalist school and to its founder, René Guénon. Through the use of hitherto unpublished correspondence between Guénon and Reghini, the author seeks to shed more light on the influence that Guénon had on the Italian Traditionalist contingent but also theorizes an influence on Guénon exerted by Reghini and other members of the Schola.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Giudice Christian 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This short chapter at the end of the work ties together the various strands and weaves them into a coherent tapestry, bringing to life a new form of anti-modern, right-wing, neo-Pagan, neo-Pythagorean, Traditionalist occultism that had been previously neglected by scholars such as Marco Pasi, Corinna Treitel, and Alex Owen. The existence of an intermediate pole between Theodor Adorno’s definition of occultism as a “metaphysics of dunces” and more recent scholarship’s portrayal of occultism as a solely progressive force is proven to exist and to constitute an under-researched facet of the occult revival. The use of Eisenstadt’s and Hobsbawm’s theories is also justified, and the idea of multiple modernities is backed by all the facts provided in Chapters 2 to 8. Other innovations brought forward by this text are highlighted by the author.
Recognizing Extremist Islam in Indonesia
Authors: Ramakrishna Kumar 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Salafabist extremism in the contemporary Indonesian context, employing the case of the well-known Salafabist extremist Aman Abdurrahman, putative leader of the pro-ISIS Jemaah Ansharut Daulah (JAD) terrorist network, as an entry point into the discussion. Arguing that Aman is best understood as a Salafabist extremist ideologue, the chapter, as in the previous cases, teases out the extent to which Aman displays the seven key characteristics of the religious—and in this case Salafabist—extremist, before, as previously, exploring the persons, places, and platforms of the Salafabist ecosystem in Indonesia and beyond that socialized Aman into his extremist beliefs. The chapter concludes by exploring the contemporary relevance of Aman Abdurrahman, arguing that his ideas and influence go well beyond operational direction of terrorist attacks. Indeed, they encourage the worrying wider trend of the “creeping Salafabization” of moderate, progressive Indonesian Islam.
Daily Economic Life in Times of War
Authors: Vignal Leïla 
Published: January 2022

The chapter explores the consequences of the destruction of the country on the economic life of Syria and Syrians. It examines different aspects of the Syrian economy in the war. It first shows how what remains of the economy has adapted to the conflict. It then analyses the development of an economy that is directly linked to the war, and explore what is conceptualised as the “economy of passage” which is based on the taxation of the mobility of goods and people. The chapter finally turns to the permanent self-organisation and readjustment that characterise the reproduction of daily economic life for ordinary Syrians in times of war – an economy of survival for the many. It aims to understand how people “cope in” but also “cope with” a new environment marked by conflict.
Determining a Purpose and a Focus
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the nature of programs and contexts and how problems or needs from within are discovered and addressed. The chapter briefly addresses the idea of data literacy using theory from both the action research and evaluation fields to address a variety of problems. This information will assist the reader with identifying the gap or need and with choosing an approach to explore that gap or need in the reader’s own context. The chapter introduces the logic model, a visual representation of a program, and demonstrates how the logic model can assist with both problem identification and the research approach. The chapter emphasizes the importance of (1) clear problem identification and (2) inclusion of stakeholders. The chapter explains the authors’ positionality with regard to problem identification and the research approach, and it provides vignettes from the field.
Ethical Challenges in Action Research and Evaluation
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Many authors have written about ethical issues associated with their and others’ research and evaluations. Some have discussed the unintended consequences of working with participants in their research, whereas others have argued the need for researchers to accept some risk in order to make advances in knowledge. Still others have equated adherence to professional standards in the field as representative of an ethical stance. This chapter addresses ethical considerations ranging from participant respect to institutional review board (IRB) approval. It discusses procedural ethics and practice ethics. The nature of standards in the evaluation and action research field is explored. The chapter explains the nature of IRB as a historical, international, and federal entity designed to guide the ethical treatment of humans within research. The chapter connects the idea of ethics to researchers’ own positionality and includes vignettes.
Interlude
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Data is what one collects from participants and/or the setting. Data can be numerical (counts, comparisons, etc.), textual (text-based), picture-/video-/audio-based, or observation-based. Once data is collected to answer a study or examination question, researchers have to make sense of it. Only with a rigorous collection of data and analysis of all the data required for the purpose of a study can a determination about merit or worth, or about the usefulness of the procedure, be made. This interlude provides a preparatory discussion of analysis, including what data is and what data is not and what that means for ethical practice and stakeholder inclusion.
Qualitative Data Analysis
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Qualitative data analysis differs substantially from quantitative data analysis. Qualitative data analysis is often iterative, which means procedures are repeated until there is a sufficient amount of data to provide information about a phenomenon or case. Qualitative data analysis is recursive, which means the analysis is repeated so researchers are immersed in data. Qualitative data analysis is holographic, which means that researchers are responsible and represented in our writing. Qualitative data analysis is critical, which means researchers are constantly reflecting on the process and questioning the outcomes. This chapter explores the process of analyzing and interpreting qualitative data, connecting data analysis to stakeholder inclusion, positionality, and ethics.
Quantitative Data Analysis
Authors: Rademaker Linnea L. , Polush Elena Y. 
Published: January 2022

Abstract
Many people tend to privilege evidence generated from quantitative research over, for example, qualitative research. Politicians and the public often demand “hard evidence” to support decisions. The descriptor ‘hard” often implies evidence generated by quantitative research. Although quantitative research and methods can provide good evidence, it is important for novice researchers to learn basic elements of quantitative data analysis in order to better understand and interpret their own research or that of others. This chapter discusses how to analyze and interpret quantitative data and connect data analysis to stakeholder inclusion, positionality, and ethics. The chapter provides additional resources for further exploration of quantitative data analysis.
The Structure of Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis book presents a unified explanatory account of the different grounds of tort liability in German law. It seeks to show that the different liability rules—strict, and fault-based—are united by the fundamental idea of outcome responsibility. The book argues that the modern tendency in German scholarship to consider strict liability and fault liability as different in kind and resting upon different normative foundations is mistaken. It also traces the history of fundamental tort concepts—individual rights, duty, fault—through important stages of their development. The book then uses this historical treatment to illuminate the modern position in German tort law, and European tort law more generally.
Delictual Liability in Roman Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter discusses delictual liability in Roman law. The early Roman law of delict and, in particular, the lex Aquilia with the requirement of iniuria, conformed to the sanction model of liability described in § 1. And quite unlike in the modern law, this was, at first, thoroughly justifiable, since the ancient law was indeed sanction-orientated and not focused upon compensation for a loss. It did not originally aim at the corrective distribution of losses to either individual legal subjects or society as a whole. Rather, the law of delict aimed solely at delimiting individuals' rights in relation to each other and thus at ensuring the actual, as opposed to simply financial, security of people's interests. It served as an avenue of retribution for wrongdoing, not the correction or undoing of loss. The fact that the sanction made reference to the loss suffered was grounded thus in the idea of justly assessing the poena, not in achieving a fair distribution of loss between the parties.
Sanction and Duty, Individual Rights, and Compensation: On the Rebirth of the Roman Law of Delict in Natural Law Discussions
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter evaluates how natural law has had a long-lasting, and still continuing, effect on the doctrinal understanding of the Roman law of delict. The unlawful act constitutes the basic category of the law of delict, and liability requires the breach of a duty of conduct; the notion of duties of care (Verkehrspflichten) is a clear expression of this. If Christian Thomasius sought to rip off the Aquilian mask of the actio de damno dato, as the Aquilian terminology of iniuria and culpa no longer reflected the reality of the compensatory tort law of his time, this applies all the more to the reformulation of tort law through the natural law doctrine of Christian Wolff. The elevation of the fault principle to axiomatic status was thus not only established in the nineteenth century, but was already in evidence in the natural law discussion of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries—the idea of liability for the breach of standards of conduct, and the accompanying fault principle, were necessary elements of the sanction-based system of liability of the dominant natural law literature. At least in theory, therefore, there is no more place for a compensation-oriented distribution of risks and liability: the idea of delimitation of domains of individual freedom has occupied the territory.
Steps towards a Modern Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter assesses how the gemeines Recht tort law system displays extensive similarities to the ancient Roman law, but seems to have little connection to the modern law. The most important of the original Roman law claims were the actio iniuriarum and the actio de dolo, which provided some protection against immoral infliction of economic loss; however, special actions, such as the actio de deictis vel effusis and the actio de pauperie, continued to exist for particular cases of property damage or bodily injury. In legal experience, the shift in understanding of tort law has not been limited to a few exceptional liability rules; it is really a shift which has also occurred within the traditional law of delict. The latter is also generally understood today to be part of a compensatory tort law which, as a whole, is geared towards fair distribution of protected positions and risks of loss between potential injurers and victims. It would be surprising if this development were not accompanied by difficulties within the doctrinal system, as it must ultimately lead to a decoupling of the law of delict from actual duties of conduct, with the result that the injurer's duty to insure could be a liability-grounding argument just as much as a victim's failure to do so could be a reason for denying their claim.
The Structure of Tort Law
Authors: Jansen Nils , Steel Sandy 
Published: January 2022

AbstractThis chapter explains that the structure of tort law considerations, contrary to a widely held view, provides no reason for a multiple-track systematization of tort law. Indeed, the splitting up of tort law into cause of action groups like delict, strict liability for risk, and sacrifice liability is a product of historical accident. Moreover, the separation of unlawfulness from fault is not convincing so far as unlawfulness, with the dominant doctrinal view, is understood in a conduct-focused way. Such a conception of unlawfulness leads, teleologically, to error because it implies a sanction model of liability. The law of delict is, however, best structured according to a legal-good-oriented model which justifies liability by recourse to considerations which may be decoupled from wrongdoing. The chapter then offers a doctrinal reconstruction of the current tort law, which satisfies the earlier elaborated requirements of normative appropriateness, clear liability rule formulation, and historical linkage. This restatement is restricted to the foundations of tort law, which have been the object of this study.