bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Before the Victorians
Authors: Goldman Lawrence 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first deals with the pre-history of Victorian statistics, examining the development of political arithmetic in Britain and ‘statistik’ in German states from the seventeenth century. Both disciplines described state and society numerically, through the collection of leading numeral indicators. Both sought to calculate population, wealth, and overall national strength. The pioneering demographic work of John Graunt and William Petty is explained and the subsequent development of political arithmetic is sketched across the eighteenth century. Similarities rather than differences between the two socio-intellectual traditions are emphasized, and political arithmetic is related to an earlier British antiquarian tradition of social and natural description and compilation. In the second part, the origins of the British statistical movement in the 1820s and 1830s are explained in relation to a varied set of social and political reforms in this era, and the intensification of the role of the state. Reforms of parliament and the franchise, of local government and the poor laws, of education and factory regulation, as well as the abolition of slavery and the financial compensation of former slaveholders, required calculations. The state needed accurate data and this stimulated the institutionalization of statistical collection and analysis both inside government, in new organizations like the General Register Office that collected demographic data, and in statistical societies formed in 1833–4 in Cambridge, London, and Manchester, which studied the profusion of numbers caused by the data revolution of the 1830s.
Alexander von Humboldt
Authors: Goldman Lawrence 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines the intellectual influence over the Statistical Movement of the German naturalist, Alexander von Humboldt. Humboldt was a renowned traveller, geographer and natural historian who influenced Darwin. He was also the second Foreign Member of the Statistical Society of London after Quetelet. Several members of the Cambridge Network, including Babbage, Herschel, and Whewell, had met him. Humboldt gave these natural scientists a new methodology with which to work, based upon exact and copious measurements in the field, calculation subsequently, and the search for patterns and for the order of nature in the numbers reviewed. All the intellectual founders of British statistics in the 1830s practised ‘Humboldtian science’, whether John Herschel mapping the southern skies, William Whewell studying tides, or Richard Jones analysing the different types of land rents across the cultivated world. Humboldt’s conception of the unity of nature was close in spirit to the natural theology in which these men were educated in Cambridge and to which many still subscribed: that there was a unifying supernatural force that ordered the natural world. This natural order could be revealed by patient observation and the collection of evidence, whether in nature or in society. Some of the earliest statements of purpose from the Statistical Society of London demonstrate the influence of natural theology in the programme of its intellectual founders. As Humboldt roved the planet to discover the key to natural order, so statisticians would explore society to discover the numerical principles of social order.
Mapping and Defining British Statistics
Authors: Goldman Lawrence 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides evidence of the organization and extent of British statistics in the mid-Victorian period. It utilizes four types of evidence. First comes William Farr’s speech in Brussels in 1853 at the inaugural meeting of the International Statistical Congress where he surveyed the different parts of the British bureaucracy that collected statistics, including the 1851 Census. Next, the sojourn in London in 1860 of the President of the American Statistical Association, Edward Jarvis of Massachusetts, is used to demonstrate the existence of an extensive academic and governmental statistical culture. Jarvis’s manuscript autobiography and letters give evidence of, and commentary on, this culture which he greatly admired. He introduced it to the United States on his return. Thirdly, the chapter surveys the genre of statistical compilation in the work of two notable compilers, George Richardson Porter and J. R. McCulloch. Their respective works, The Progress of the Nation (1836) and the Statistical Account of the British Empire (1837), went through many editions and gave Victorians patriotic accounts in figures of the development of British society. Finally, inspired by the work of Michel Foucault, the chapter examines the several typologies of statistics published by the Statistical Society of London. These laid out the subject-matter of the discipline and the different types of statistics to be collected. It is argued that, over time, practitioners came to appreciate that statistics was not a new science in itself, but a technique of value to almost every other academic and social pursuit.
The General Law of Social Production
Authors: Cammack Paul 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Marx’s general law of social production stems from his argument that capitalist competition gives rise to continued efforts to break each process of production down into ever-smaller constituent elements, without looking first at the ability of the human hand to perform new processes. This in turn compels workers to be versatile, flexible, and mobile in order to survive in the capitalist economy. In the advanced economies, and in particular in Europe, this tendency is hampered by the legacy of labour market and welfare institutions that protect workers from the impact of the changes in contracts, patterns of work, and forms of welfare or social protection that machine- and digital platform-led revolutions in production require. This chapter documents the intensive collaboration between the OECD, the World Bank, and the European Commission to secure welfare and labour market reforms with the objective of forcing ‘hard to reach’ groups such as youth or married women to enter the labour market or increase their participation. At the same time, these organisations advocate the replacement of ‘standard labour contracts’ with more flexible patterns of work, and a reduced onus on employers to offer permanence or rights to redundancy payments on dismissal. The chapter details efforts of these institutions to incentivise paid work, re-orient education towards work-related skills training and ‘employability’, and devise a ‘constitution’ for global competitiveness.
The Jena Years
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter concerns Herbart’s early education in Jena. Herbart was at the university there in his Wunderjahren, when Jena was the cultural heart of Germany. Herbart became the favorite student of Fichte, and attended all his lectures and joined the circle of his students. Already Herbart made some criticisms of Fichte: How could the ego posit a non-ego opposed to itself? This chapter also discusses Herbart’s early critique of Schelling, the prelude of his later break with idealism. Herbart charges Schelling with making the same mistake as Fichte; he assumes that the ego is essentially self-positing but then also claims that he opposes itself in positing a non-ego.
Bremen Sorrows, 1800‒1802
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the crisis in Herbart’s personal and family life after his return from Switzerland. It covers Herbart’s Bremen lectures, where one can see signs of a break with Fichte and a growing sympathy for romanticism. There is also a discussion of Herbart’s encounter with and reaction to Pestalozzi. One section treats Herbart’s first book, his ABC of perception. This work anticipates Herbart’s later realism.
Early Years in Göttingen
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses Herbart’s early years as a professor at the University of Göttingen. It covers mainly the theses he wrote for his doctorate exam and habilitation. One section examines his inaugural dissertation where he outlines his views on Plato’s ideas; another section treats his short writings from 1802 to 1805.
Practical Philosophy
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter is a detailed examination of Herbart’s Allgemeine praktische Philosophie, which was his chief work on ethics. It carefully considers the characteristic feature of Herbart’s ethics: its subordination of ethics to aesthetics. It examines the reasons Herbart gave for this perspective and his account of the difference between ethics and aesthetics. Herbart’s work was a systematic version of romantic aesthetics, making the fragmentary in romantic aesthetics into a unified system.
First Decade in Königsberg, 1809‒1819
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Herbart’s first decade in Königsberg where he was forced to take refuge from Napoleon. It investigates the Naturphilosophie behind his Königsberg dissertation, his Theoriae de attractione elemetorum principia metaphysica, which was an important work on the road to his mature metaphysics. It also considers Herbart’s growing alienation from the romantic movement and his critique of two romantic authors: Schelling and Steffans. One section considers his work on the origin of evil, and another treats his first political writings.
General Metaphysics
Authors: Beiser Frederick C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter is a close look at Herbart’s major work, his 1828 Allgemeine Metaphysik. It first looks at the first volume of the work, his long historical prelude which situated Herbart’s work in the early 19th century. It then examines each part of the second volume: his methodology (I), ontology (II), synechology (III), and eidology (IV). Special attention is paid to what Herbart means by “realism” and “idealism.”
Secular Separations
Authors: Kesselring K.J. , Stretton Tim 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Chapter 1 examines the suits for separations that women and men made to such secular venues as the Privy Council and two of its ‘equitable’ offshoots, Chancery and the Court of Requests. The records of these bodies show people making private marital separation agreements independent of the church courts before and after the Reformation arrived in England (and well before the 1650s, the decade to which Lawrence Stone had attributed their advent). Wives and husbands developed complex trust arrangements, supported by courts of equity, to bypass the restrictions of both ecclesiastical settlements and common law coverture in ways that let them live apart.
Conclusion
Authors: Kapoor Ria 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This conclusion understands the aftermath of an idea of the refugee that was reliant on a notion of self-determination that was not just limited to national independence but which aimed at transforming a hierarchical international order. Even as the emancipatory potential of self-determination dimmed, the prioritisation of the national pulpit has continued—even as the idea of who naturally belongs to the nation is undergoing a shift with recent citizenship laws—with impact on both humanitarian practice and the enjoyment of individual rights. India’s case is thus revealing of a wider trend, the right to asylum and the position of refugees subject to nation-state needs and desires, and ad hoc treatment used to break down rights that should accrue to all people. It thus asks if the question of refugees rests, above all else, on the collective identity of those receiving and offering assistance to them.
Introduction
Authors: Pipkin Amanda C. 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The introduction asserts that Cornelia Teellinck, Susanna Teellinck, Anna Maria van Schurman, Sara Nevius, Cornelia Leydekker, and Henrica van Hoolwerff earned the support and appreciation of their religious leaders, friends, and relatives by seizing the tools offered by domestic religious study and worship and forming alliances with prominent ministers who supported Further Reformation as well as by fostering relationships with other well-connected, well-educated women including many other authors and printers. Studying these devout women’s writings, networks, and biographies reveals a vibrant community of women and men who deployed their religious education, connections, and talents to bolster the Dutch Reformed Church by generating a literary offensive that fostered the Further Reformation. This revival movement shared important similarities with those engendered by English Puritans and German Pietists due to the exchange of ideas among Protestants who attended foreign universities, traveled for trade or leisure, and migrated in the face of religious persecution. These include an emphasis on women’s responsibility to teach children the faith and to encourage the practice of piety at home, which offered women religious authority across these distinct Protestant traditions.
Before we begin
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This opening chapter briefly introduces the concept that not only do imperfections occur across all aspects of modern technology and human behaviour, but, rather than being negative factors, they are instead absolutely essential for technological advancement. For the first few thousand years the pattern of human advancement was initially extremely slow, but it changed and exploded rapidly with the start of the industrial revolution during the last two centuries, and has been matched by an equivalent explosion in the world population. The chapter also emphasizes close parallels between scientific technology and human behaviour. This is excellent as it greatly aids understanding of the technologies, without the need for any prior scientific background. This level of presentation is key throughout the entire book.
A short log of technology from wood
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Wood is rarely considered as a high technology material but, in reality, it is more important than modern examples of, say, semiconductors or optical fibres. A historical list of uses is discussed, with examples from ancient usage for archery to modern furniture, decorative inlays, new variants of heat reflective and building coolant structures, as well as being the basis of many building materials. Dendrochronology of wood grain is extremely valuable in archaeology and dating of musical instruments, such as violins. Trees are similarly a key resource for medical and food stuffs, as well as being a key factor in controlling atmospheric carbon dioxide. A refocus and preservation on forests and tree species is, therefore, an essential factor in combating climate change and decisions of land usage.
Key features of chemistry and solids
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces simple ideas of chemical bonding with a focus on glass type materials. It includes the impact of additives and impurities on strength and colour of many minerals and transparent materials, and how the same dopant ions that produce colour can alter their chemical binding when heated. It notes that many of the visual changes are totally determined by the presence of impurities included in the material, at levels as low as parts per million. Hence, thermal changes in heating or cooling can generate different results in the same material. The consequences are visually recognizable and exemplified by materials such as ceramics, glass and enamels. The chapter offers insights into changing methods of glass manufacture, the role of ion size, and their specific ways of chemically binding together. No prior knowledge of the topic is required.
Photonics in the twenty-first century
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Photonics is a broad topic describing light based systems that are part of a wide range of technologies which have recently emerged in commercial systems. The central effort has been associated with signal processing for fibre optics, as this necessitates developments of lasers, pulse coding, multi-wavelength transmission and repeater units that function simultaneously and independently for as many as 100 carrier wavelengths, before wavelength-dependent separation, detection and routing. This is a phenomenal achievement that enables all modern communication. The chapter explains the simplicity of the concepts and design of examples of the technology. There are also far more complex proposals, such as early stage examples of invisibility cloaking, and recent progress with advances in photonics in medicine for both diagnostics and treatment.
Imperfections in music
Authors: Townsend Peter 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
Music is a universal pleasure, but totally individual in terms of our hearing response, cultural background, and the pleasure that different performances and genres of music generate. Our hearing is also individual and varies with age and lifestyle. There are immense differences between instruments, musical scales (around 80), concert halls, audio electronics and broadcasting, plus each of us has a unique hearing response. This provides both originality and pleasure (or the reverse). All these various differences may be viewed as imperfections, or as the source that is essential to our enjoyment of music. For example, there are tangible compromises with instrument construction, such as the use of an equal temperament scale on keyboard instruments to allow one to play with different key signatures (in fact it is a highly imperfect, and significant, detuning imposed on a piano).
Recessions and Tax Introductions
Authors: Papadia Andrea , Truchlewski Zbigniew 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The chapter argues theoretically that economic recessions spur tax introductions, and investigates this claim empirically. It finds that recessions have indeed sped up the adoption of some taxes in a global sample of countries as the ‘recessionist’ hypothesis would suggest. This effect was particularly pronounced for inheritance taxes and social security contributions. Yet it also finds that recessions slowed down the introduction of other taxes, most notably personal income and value added taxes. The chapter identifies a change of the relationship between recessions and tax introductions in the 1930s, arguably reflecting the emergence of new ideas in economics and policy making related to the Great Depression. It concludes with a case study of inheritance tax introductions during the Long Depression of the nineteenth century. The study shows how the interaction between recessions and tax introductions unfolded in Great Britain and elsewhere.
The Rise of General Consumption Taxes
Authors: Ganderson Joseph , Limberg Julian 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
The chapter analyses the spread of general consumption taxes. It makes two points. First, it shows that the initial introduction of a general consumption tax has boosted revenue-raising capacity in countries around the world. Typically, the first general consumption tax was not a VAT but a less technically sophisticated general sales tax. Second, the chapter uses event history analyses to demonstrate that the uptake of the first general consumption tax was facilitated by revenue needs arising from: (1) mass interstate warfare in the first half of the twentieth century; (2) the adoption of major welfare initiatives; and (3) a marked deterioration of public finances. The historical trajectories of three cases—France, Japan, and Chile—corroborate these findings and call for further study.
On distinguishing formal syntactic constraints from processing constraints
Authors: Francis Elaine J. 
Published: February 2022

AbstractChapter 4 explores ongoing debates in experimental syntax regarding the distinction between syntactic and processing-based effects on acceptability. Several types of arguments have figured prominently in the debates. Effects that have been claimed to favor a syntactic explanation include overgeneration of ungrammatical sentence types, cross-linguistic differences, resistance to repeated exposure effects, and resistance to individual differences in working memory capacity. Effects that have been claimed to favor a processing-based explanation include amelioration effects, isomorphism between acceptability ratings and time-sensitive measures such as reading time, repeated exposure effects, and effects of individual differences in working memory capacity. Each of these types of explanations is considered in turn, drawing on studies of syntactic islands, subject–verb agreement, missing VP illusions, and Superiority effects.
Introduction
Authors: Newton Travis 
Published: February 2022

Abstract
In framing orchestra management, this introductory chapter offers helpful context to the reader, suggesting a relationship-oriented approach to the topic. The various short-term, long-term, internal, external, and existential challenges of managing an orchestra are discussed, alongside relationship-oriented considerations that should be made. The introduction then describes the variety of internal and external relationships that are established and maintained by the orchestra manager. The importance of building trust amongst all stakeholders is emphasized as the ultimate goal of the orchestra manager. The introduction concludes by clarifying the scope of the book, pointing out special features, and clarifying terminology used throughout the text.
Turing’s Computability
Authors: Shagrir Oron 
Published: February 2022

AbstractThis chapter focuses on Turing’s analysis, which reduces effective computability to Turing machine computability. The analysis consists of two steps. The first is the formulation of restrictive conditions on effective computations by idealized human computers. The second is an outline of a reduction theorem, from human computability to Turing machine computability. The chapter discusses in detail the claim that the Turing analysis targets human computers, and explicates some aspects of this notion. It then argues that while this analysis of human computability is of immense theoretical and practical importance, it cannot be taken as the basis of machine computation.
Preamble to Machine Computation
Authors: Shagrir Oron 
Published: February 2022

AbstractThis chapter distinguishes between three kinds of machine computation, and characterizes the inclusion relations between them. The most general notion is that of generic computation. A second one is that of algorithmic computation, and the third, which is the focus of the book, is that of physical computation. The chapter starts with Robin Gandy’s characterization of machine computation, and argues that the account falls ambiguously between the different kinds of machine computation and fails to fully capture any of them. Next, the chapter analyzes the notions of generic, algorithmic, and physical computation, concluding that these notions are extensionally distinct.