bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Attempts to Reform the WHO Definition of Health (1997–1999)
Authors: Rauch Raphael 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter takes up a second episode in WHO’s history which has received little attention thus far: the attempt in the late 1990s to change the preamble to the WHO’s constitution—which contains the much-cited definition of health as ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’—to include the phrases ‘dynamic state’ and ‘spiritual dimension’. Even though the Executive Board agreed on this change, the World Health Assembly did not pass the amendment necessary to alter the preamble. This is sometimes interpreted as a rejection of a ‘spiritual dimension’ of health. As this chapter shows, this failure may also rather be understood in a broader context of a major attempt to reform the WHO, including complex structural and budgetary issues, which were postponed—together with the addition of a ‘spiritual dimension’.
Epilogue
Authors: Winiger Fabian 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The epilogue turns to the role played by religious actors in the WHO’s attempt to strengthen its partnerships with civil society during the Covid-19 pandemic. In many ways, the urgency of this global health crisis has solidified a trend, evident in the past two decades, for WHO to take seriously ‘spiritual’ concerns relevant to a significant population of WHO’s Member States. In early 2020, WHO created an internal taskforce, the Information Network for Epidemics (EPI-WIN), to communicate the organization’s public health advice during the Covid-19 pandemic. EPI-WIN soon introduced a model of ‘communities of practice’, through which the organization began a thus far unprecedented consultation with religious actors. While this remains a new development, it laid groundwork to introduce a framework for engagement with ‘faith partners’, hoped to deepen and formalize the organization’s engagement with a ‘spiritual dimension’ of health.
This Present Reformation in England
Authors: Guyer Benjamin M. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The chapter covers the chaotic reign of Charles I. The first section continues the story of British ecclesiastical convergence after the death of James VI and I, noting how liturgical changes and new bodies of canon law sought to inhibit the likelihood that something like the Scottish Reformation might reoccur in any of the British kingdoms. Before turning to civil war and its aftermath, the chapter then considers how Caroline authors discussed England’s “first reformation,” concluding that the phrase indicates less historiographical consensus than is generally assumed. The remaining sections look at how apocalyptic fears and militant realities formed the backdrop for the dawn of historiography on the English Reformation. With “reformation” a veritable battle cry among English religious dissenters, the first histories of the English Reformation painted a portrait of sixteenth-century religious history diametrically opposite the bloodshed of the 1640s and oppression of the 1650s. “Our English Reformation,” a polemical label directed against the militant “reformation” of the civil wars and its Scottish inspiration, gave rise to sustained historical analyses by authors such as Thomas Fuller and Peter Heylyn.
The ‘Birth’ of the Sick Note
Authors: Millward Gareth 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Although the National Insurance sick note was ‘born’ on 5 July 1948, medical certification has a much longer history. Like the British welfare state itself, one cannot understand the sick note without knowing the prewar welfare systems that provided both the blueprint for the postwar health and social security systems as well as warning about the sick notes potential weaknesses. This chapter begins by explaining why medical certification was central to William Beveridge’s plans for the new welfare state. Sickness benefit would reduce demand on the health system—and vice-versa—but only if access was restricted to those who ‘really’ needed it. The chapter then demonstrates how experience of the old National Health Insurance system had made doctors and administrators sceptical about whether sick notes were appropriate for the task. It concludes by analysing the debates between the BMA and the Ministry of Health over the creation of the NHS. Here, doctors complained bitterly about sick notes. Based on their experience in the interwar years, doctors saw sick notes as a waste of time and scientifically inaccurate. Yet, they worked better than any realistic alternative. Doctors eventually dropped their opposition, but the debates in the 1940s give vital context to those seen in the following decades.
Absenteeism and Postwar Rebuilding
Authors: Millward Gareth 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
With the NHS and National Insurance established, the sick note was immediately under scrutiny. This chapter focuses on the concept of ‘absenteeism’ and how the sick note became synonymous with it. Using the experience of four nationalized industries in the 1950s—the Royal Ordinance Factories, the National Coal Board, the Metropolitan Police, and the Post Office—the chapter demonstrates that the actual level of sickness in the population was not necessarily the determining factor of whether economic output or absenteeism could be described as ‘a problem’. The context of postwar rebuilding and the need to drive higher economic output to pay off substantial war loans was more important than whether the number of sick notes being issued was ‘really’ too high or too low. Similarly, for critics of the welfare state and the concept of nationalization, absenteeism could be mobilized to attack the government, middle managers, and workers. As the legitimator of sickness absence, the sick note appears regularly in policy documents and media coverage of the time. The arguments deployed here provide important context to later debates about absenteeism, but it must also be stressed that the peculiar circumstances of the 1950s heightened both the force and political significance of such arguments.
Chauvinists and Breadwinners in the ‘Classic Welfare State’
Authors: Millward Gareth 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The previous chapters demonstrated who the welfare state was designed for and how it was administered on the ground. However, certain groups were excluded from these plans, whether by ignorance or design. This chapter traces how the sick note was discussed in policy documentation in relation to marginalized populations. In doing so, it shows that the needs of the very poorest, people born outside the United Kingdom, and women were not always served well by the sick note system. Medical certification remained an important gatekeeping device, but often eligibility to state benefits was dictated by other qualifying criteria. This chapter therefore considers three areas up to circa 1980. The first is National Assistance—the social security system for those without National Insurance contributions. This was such an afterthought that when government sick notes were reviewed in 1949, nobody remembered to ask the National Assistance Board for their views. Second, the chapter analyses how immigrants were treated within sickness systems and how various prejudices and bureaucratic procedures contributed to systemic discrimination. Finally, the social security system considered married women a separate bureaucratic category, demonstrating how sickness and disability benefits were routinely denied to certain classes of woman. In particular, the curious ‘Housewife’s Non-contributory Invalidity Pension’ explains both the privileged position of working-age British-born men in the welfare state as well as the tensions created by greater demands from the British citizenry for equal treatment under the law.
The ‘Death’ of the Sick Note?
Authors: Millward Gareth 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Just as the ‘birth’ of the sick note in Chapter 2 owed much to events that had preceded it, so the idea of the sick note extended well beyond its ‘death’ in 2010. The Brown government replaced the ‘Med 3’ sick note with a ‘fit note’, designed to record what patients could do rather than what they could not. This would supposedly allow workers to return to paid employment quicker, as employers could make reasonable adjustments to work practices and environments and workers would not be encouraged to see themselves as ‘incapable’. This was the culmination of various developments in New Labour’s employment and social security policy since the late 1990s. This chapter explores these trends while also noting the increased surveillance and intervention by employers over short-term absences. The increase in ‘lean’ workplaces and precarious employment—combined with declining union power and collectivized sick pay—meant employers had less capacity to cope with unexpected absences. These discourses around absenteeism were met with resistance, a demonstrated in media headlines about employment tribunals and the way workers expressed their frustrations on the new medium of the World Wide Web. Combined, we see the 2000s was a decade of contrasts—on the one hand right-wing tabloids complained about ‘Sick Note Britain’; while on the other, there was increasing awareness about the need to respect the mental and physical stresses of work and provide adequate support.
Verbal nouns in Cicero’s narrative texts
Authors: Spevak Olga 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 3 deals with the use of various verbal nouns in three of Cicero’s texts: the treatise De divinatione, the speech Pro Milone, and a sample of letters to Atticus. It aims to describe their use and their properties, in particular the syntactic functions they fulfil in the clause. At the clause level, verbal nouns are used as subject or object with verbs of existence, happening, perception, and communication. They are also found as means or purpose adjuncts. They frequently express or imply arguments but they also show reduction of arguments: usually only one argument expressed, the other being implied from the subject of the clause or another constituent, or from the context. At the noun phrase level, verbal nouns occur with well-delimited groups of expressions requiring a complement (valency nouns). In narrative texts verbal nouns serve for condensation of information and textual coherence.
Verbal nouns in technical texts
Authors: Spevak Olga 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 4 investigates the use and the functions of -tio and -tus nouns in Cicero’s De inventione on rhetoric and Vitruvius’ De architectura on architecture, with some remarks on Frontinus’ report on Rome’s water supply. It shows that verbal nouns in -tio are a productive means for naming concepts, procedures, techniques, and ways of doing something. Nominalization with -tio nouns in technical texts serves purposes of generalization, including effacement of the agent (de-agentivization) and/or generalization of the object. In technical treatises verbal nouns often occur in definitions in complex noun phrases. In the treatise on architecture, the productive -tio nouns are used not only with a verbal meaning to refer to techniques, but also with a concrete meaning to name the objects created by a given technique. The criterion of collocation helps to distinguish both uses.
THE CAUSES OF EXTRATERRESTRIAL TYRANNY
Authors: Cockell Charles S. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractGiven the physical conditions in space, such as on the Moon and Mars, and the challenges to liberty they might cause, an attempt can be made to identify the forms and sources of tyranny in space. They emerge from political, economic, and social conditions. In particular, the control over vital resources and the isolation caused by vast spatial scales in space are two conduits for illiberal behaviour. Other factors provide fertile ground for the emergence of tyranny in space settlements. The identification of the conditions for tyranny in space provides the basis for considering how to mitigate these effects and construct societies in which humans can realise diverse forms of liberty.
THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENCE AND LIBERTY
Authors: Cockell Charles S. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractFor a society to function successfully beyond Earth, its scientific institutions must be capable of supporting the advancement of knowledge and technology as well as helping to secure the social conditions for liberty. For an extraterrestrial settlement to successfully produce innovations and ideas in a lethal environment, it must be capable of placing science centre stage in its institutional arrangements and encouraging the full and unrestricted development of original ideas. At the same time, the complex technical machinery that sustains people must not become a means of controlling them; instead, scientific education is essential for people to understand these complicated life-support systems and challenge decisions about them. How can science be used to benefit the social condition of extraterrestrial settlements? How should science and scientific organisations be organised beyond Earth? This chapter addresses these questions.
ENGINEERING LIBERTY
Authors: Cockell Charles S. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractTo enhance the chances of building successful free societies beyond Earth, engineering can be used to design structures and parts of settlements to mitigate or minimise the tendency for highly autocratic modes of governance. The design of settlements to discourage excessive centralisation, the capacity for overproduction of vital resources such as oxygen, and the diversification of production methods are examples of how engineering can be used to enhance the conditions for freedom. These ideas can be applied to the freedom of movement problem by improving the flexibility and mass production of spacesuits. Conditions for economic freedom can be advanced by improving the capacity for the movement of materials and people throughout the Solar System, primarily by constructing reliable, mass-produced spaceships. In other words, engineering can be used to plan for freedom.
EDUCATING THE FREE CITIZEN
Authors: Cockell Charles S. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractIt is crucial to the emergence of freedom beyond Earth that citizens are educated to understand aspects of liberty and the methods needed to survive in such harsh extremes, as well as given a scientific and technical knowledge of their environment. How do we educate the extraterrestrial citizen to create a society that will not only thrive, but will allow for the emergence of liberty in a fundamentally tyranny-prone environment? Education in science and technology will be important for people to understand the technology that enables them to survive. However, education in liberty, ‘planetary knowledge’, and critical-thinking skills (‘methods of life’) might also be considered to be a trinity that will help an extraterrestrial society be successfully established. In sum, an extraterrestrial educational environment conducive to liberty is envisaged.
A FREE COSMOS
Authors: Cockell Charles S. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractOuter space is a tyranny-prone environment, but we can create societies in which liberty is encouraged and nurtured by considering the political, economic, legal, scientific, engineering, artistic, and educational structures around which a society is formed. Within each of these areas is a set of institutions, and even a physical infrastructure, that can improve the chances of free government taking root beyond Earth. If this is done successfully, no free society can be definitely guaranteed, but the chances of mitigating despotisms beyond Earth can be improved and the environment for free societies rendered more fertile. Ultimately, the long-term future of human liberty more widely may rest on our capacity to develop free societies beyond Earth.
The Moral Metaphor System
Authors: Yu Ning 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This book presents a study of moral metaphors in English and Chinese, applying cognitive linguistics’ conceptual metaphor theory (CMT) to a comparative study of linguistic manifestation of the moral metaphor system rooted in the domains of bodily and physical experience. It intends to shed light on the metaphorical nature of moral cognition and how it is systematically manifested in language. The study sets out with the central goal to contribute to the discovery of potential commonalities that define moral cognition in general as well as the detection of possible differences that characterize distinct cultures concerning moral cognition. It probes into moral cognition at the cultural level as reflected in language, based on linguistic evidence from both English and Chinese and, to a limited extent, multimodal evidence from the corresponding cultures. The moral metaphor system under study is taken as consisting of three major subsystems, named in a shorthand fashion as “physical”, “visual”, and “spatial”. The three subsystems are clusters of conceptual metaphors, whose source concepts are from domains of embodied experiences in the physical world, and which are formulated in contrastive categories with bipolar values for the target concepts moral and immoral. The study is characterized by two keywords: system and systematicity. The former refers to the fact that metaphors (conceptual and linguistic) are connected in networks; the latter refers to the need that metaphors should be studied in such networks.
Moral cognition and embodied metaphor
Authors: Yu Ning 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter serves as an introduction of the study. It outlines the theoretical framework in conceptual metaphor theory and its research on moral metaphors grounded in embodied experience in physical and cultural environment. The study aims to approach moral cognition at the cultural level as reflected in language. To do this, it focuses on a comparative study between English and Chinese, looking at similarities and differences between them. The chapter also discusses how the study sees moral metaphors as forming a unified system with three subsystems, which are respectively named “physical”, “visual”, and “spatial”. To analyze this metaphor system, the study uses a mixed methodology with both lexical and corpus-based approaches.
Moral metaphors in anatomy and multimodality
Authors: Yu Ning 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter takes on anatomic and multimodal perspectives on moral metaphor analysis. It examines the nature of the moral metaphors with a decompositional approach to metaphorical-compound analysis (DAMCA), addressing some issues concerning their target and source concepts. The main arguments are: first, moral metaphors are not primary metaphors; second, they can be analyzed as multilevel structures composed of primary and complex metaphors, metonymies as well as literal propositions. This chapter also looks at the unity of the moral metaphor system with a focus on the three different sets of source concepts from the three subsystems. In addition, this chapter analyzes some examples of visual or multimodal manifestation of moral metaphors, showing how verbal and visual metaphors reinforce each other in instantiating conceptual metaphors in the moral metaphor system.
Logical Consequence
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter explains the central concept of this book — the concept of consequence relation, as well as its counterpart, that of consequence operator. We prove the main properties of these concepts. In addition, we show several ways in which consequence relations can be defined and modified. We pay special attention to the determination of consequence relations using logical matrices and inference rules. The first way leads to the Lindenbaum method and the Lindenbaum theorem. The second method is very natural, and we consider several of its options. In particular, we discuss in some detail the definition of consequence relations defined by modus rules. We also discuss in this chapter the idea of completeness.
Equational L-Consequence
Authors: Citkin Alex , Muravitsky Alexei 
Published: August 2022

AbstractWhile the equational consequence of Chapter 7 is a direct application of the concept of matrix consequence to E-matrices, the concept of equational L-consequence is an extension of Birkhoff’s “equational logic”; namely, in contrast to the equational logic, we assume that the equational L-consequence can be defined for any nonempty set of E-matrices. Also in this chapter, we show the connection between the equational consequence and the equational L-consequence and illustrate the latter concept with two examples: the class of Boolean algebras with equality and the class of Heyting algebras with equality. In addition, we define the Lindenbaum-Tarski matrices for the equational L-consequence and demonstrate the usefulness of this concept.
Where does love come from?
Authors: Harris Paul L. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Synthesizing ideas from psychoanalysis, ethology, and experimental psychology, John Bowlby argued that infants are born with a propensity to elicit and seek out comfort from potential caregivers, especially when anxious or uncertain. They form a secure attachment to those who offer such comfort, especially when caregivers do so consistently and reliably. Attachments are less secure if the caregiver is only intermittently available. These ideas about secure and insecure attachments have guided thinking about: (i) how children display disorganized attachment reactions to loving but nonetheless abusive caregivers; (ii) the nature of romantic attachments in adulthood; (iii) the nature of believers’ relationships to God; and (iv) the long-term consequences for development of severe emotional deprivation in early childhood. Overall, the findings underline infants’ early emerging ability to discern and remember who has cared for them and who has not.
How do children learn words?
Authors: Harris Paul L. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
In early childhood, typically developing children add around five new words to their vocabulary each day. Moreover, thanks to various biases and strategies, they typically infer the meaning of a newly encountered word correctly. Despite this widespread ability, children vary in the rate at which they build their vocabulary and its eventual size—with important repercussions for their progress in school. Environmental factors appear to play a role in these individual differences. Some children grow up in families where a talkative caregiver often engages them in connected conversation, whereas other children do not. Such variation in language input has subtle but detectable effects on early language processing: a rich linguistic environment helps infants to detect, recognize, and learn words more efficiently. That said, as children get older, the impact of genetic factors also becomes increasingly evident.
Do children live in a fantasy world?
Authors: Harris Paul L. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Freud and Piaget both adopted a negative stance toward young children’s early pretend play, implying that it is an escape from reality that is gradually suppressed as they become more rational and objective. However, toddlers use their knowledge of reality to make sense of what is happening in a make-believe world, realizing that it mostly obeys the same causal laws as the real world. Indeed, young children often think about what might have happened not in an escapist manner but in order to assess how an outcome was caused and how might it have been prevented, or how a transgressor deviated from what he or she should have done. In addition, children acknowledge the fantasy–reality distinction even if—like adults—they can be emotionally engaged by pretend and fictional episodes that they know to be merely fictional.