bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Review of Evidence
Authors: Whiteside Stephen P. H. , Ollendick Thomas H. , Biggs Bridget K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter reviews the research supporting the efficacy of exposure therapy for anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder. The chapter begins with a brief commentary on the importance of using research to guide clinical practice. It then reviews the evidence supporting exposure therapy for adult anxiety disorders. As with many areas of health care, the adult anxiety disorder research literature is larger than that for childhood anxiety disorders. As such, the former can provide answers to broad questions and includes more explorations of specific questions compared with the latter. Of course, children are not simply little adults, and conclusions from adult studies do not necessarily apply to childhood disorders. Thus, the empirical support for exposure therapy in children with anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder is presented in a subsequent chapter.
Implementing Exposure
Authors: Whiteside Stephen P. H. , Ollendick Thomas H. , Biggs Bridget K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents detailed steps for how to implement exposure therapy for the broad spectrum of childhood and adolescent anxiety disorders and obsessive–compulsive disorder. The chapter begins with descriptions of the three categories of exposure (in vivo, imaginal, and interoceptive), the symptoms for which they are best utilized, and the goals for their use. The chapter then discusses important considerations for the optimal implementation of exposure, including identifying symptoms, titrating level of difficulty, and monitoring response. Finally, the chapter presents the procedures for implementing exposure for common clinical presentations, including social anxiety, separation anxiety, generalized anxiety, contamination, not-just-right experiences, bodily sensations and panic, specific fears, and distressing memories.
Additional Resources
Authors: Whiteside Stephen P. H. , Ollendick Thomas H. , Biggs Bridget K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses additional resources to aid therapists in the delivery of exposure therapy. The chapter begins with materials and sources specific to the delivery of exposure, including a session-by-session outline as well as further reading, training, and technology. Next, the chapter reviews resources for addressing other aspects of childhood emotional and behavioral problems that may co-occur with anxiety and that require other techniques, such as disruptive behavior, depression, and trauma. Finally, the chapter briefly discusses avenues for locating other practitioners with an interest or expertise in exposure for child anxiety, such as training through professional organizations.
Mary Main, Erik Hesse, and the Berkeley Social Development Study
Authors: Duschinsky Robbie 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter explores the contributions of Mary Main, Erik Hesse, and the Berkeley longitudinal study. The Berkeley group generated the dominant approach to method and theory for the second generation of attachment research, and helped establish the priorities and values of the field over recent decades. The chapter argues for the importance of attentional processes for Main’s conceptualisation of minimising and maximising attachment strategies. Recognition of the centrality of attention to Main’s theory also helps makes sense of her introduction of the disorganised attachment classification, and her development of the Adult Attachment Interview. A particular focus of the chapter are the six-year systems for assessing attachment developed by Main and colleagues. The chapter also draws on an examination of the development of the Adult Attachment Interview coding system from the 1980s to the 2000s to offer clarifications regarding Main and Hesse’s ideas regarding ‘lack of resolution’ of loss and trauma.
Conclusion
Authors: Duschinsky Robbie 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The concluding chapter begins by reviewing key structural dynamics that have contributed to the present state of attachment research as a paradigm: the apparent accessibility of attachment concepts; the subtlety and complexity of its theory and methods; and the differentiation of a field of cumulative attachment research. The chapter then examines the problems the intersection of these structural dynamics have caused for communication between researchers and practitioners, with child welfare practice as an illustration. Threats to the credibility and apparent relevance of attachment research from such breakdowns have led to claims that the paradigm is reaching exhaustion. The chapter evaluates this claim and closes by considering what comes next for attachment research.
Focused Assessment with Sonography in Trauma (FAST)
Authors: Brandon Caroline , Moran Jaime , Sajed Dana , Kang Tarina 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter uses clinical vignettes and multiple-choice questions to explore core and advanced principles of the Focused Abdominal Sonography in Trauma (FAST), including the extended FAST (EFAST). The cases will assess image acquisition pearls and pitfalls, image interpretation, false positive and negative findings, and integration into patient management. Clinical vignettes will include stable and unstable patients presenting with blunt or penetrating trauma, as well as nontraumatic presentations in which the FAST may be used. Each case will include detailed explanations for correct and incorrect answer choices, incorporating landmark studies as well as the latest literature that clinical sonographers will find of interest. Topics include liver tip, double line sign, spine sign, hemopericardium, gastric fluid sign, phrenicocolic ligament, iliac vessels, seminal vesicles, lung pulse, lung point, and M-mode in pneumothorax.
Resuscitative Ultrasound
Authors: Mehta Ishan , Jun Dale , Guo Stephanie , Barjaktarevic Igor 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter uses clinical vignettes and multiple-choice questions to explore core and advanced principles of resuscitative ultrasound. The cases assess image acquisition pearls and pitfalls, image interpretation, false positive and negative findings, and integration into patient management and incorporate videos and images. Clinical vignettes include critically ill patients presenting with undifferentiated symptoms such as chest pain, shortness of breath, cardiac arrest, or hypotension. Each case includes a learning objective, a question, and detailed explanations for correct and incorrect answer choices, incorporating landmark studies as well as the latest literature that clinical sonographers will find of interest. Relevant references are also provided for each case.
Thoracic Ultrasound
Authors: Avila Jacob , Huang Calvin , Noble Vicki 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter uses clinical vignettes and multiple-choice questions to explore core and advanced principles of thoracic ultrasound. The cases assess image acquisition pearls and pitfalls, image interpretation, false positive and negative findings, and integration into patient management. Clinical vignettes include stable and unstable patients presenting with undifferentiated symptoms such as shortness of breath and chest pain. Each case includes detailed explanations for correct and incorrect answer choices, incorporating landmark studies as well as the latest literature that clinical sonographers will find of interest. Relevant references and sources for each case are also included, as well as keywords for each section.
Renal Ultrasound
Authors: Aminlari Amir , Macias Michael A. , Shah Virag J. , Medak Anthony J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter uses clinical vignettes and multiple-choice questions to explore core and advanced principles of renal ultrasound. The cases assess image acquisition pearls and pitfalls, image interpretation, false positive and negative findings, and integration into patient management. Clinical vignettes include stable and unstable patients presenting with undifferentiated symptoms such as abdominal pain, flank pain, or hypotension. Each case includes detailed explanations for correct and incorrect answer choices, incorporating landmark studies as well as the latest literature that clinical sonographers will find of interest. Relevant references and sources for each case are also included, as well as keywords for each section.
Bilateral Essential Tremor
Authors: Layton Kelly , Riley Jonathan , Schmidt Richard , Hoelscher Christian , Wu Chengyuan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Essential tremor can be a disabling condition that manifests with postural and action tremors. Hence, patients with essential tremor have difficulty performing basic activities of daily living, including eating and drinking. Though medical therapies such as beta-blockers and primidone may provide some degree of relief for patients, a subset of patients do not experience improvement with medical therapy. Deep brain stimulation targeting the ventralis intermedius nucleus of the thalamus is an effective intervention for essential tremor. Stimulation-induced side effects can include paresthesia from stimulation of the sensory thalamus and motor effects from stimulation of the internal capsule. Evidence supports performing surgery either with patients awake using intraoperative electrophysiological testing or with patients asleep using intraoperative radiological confirmation.
Tremor-Dominant Parkinson Disease
Authors: Zyck Stephanie , Duemani Reddy Gaddum 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Deep brain stimulation is an evidence-based treatment for Parkinson disease that has been shown to improve quality of life along multiple domains. Though ablation may be considered in patients with unilateral tremor dominance, deep brain stimulation has evolved as the dominant therapy as it can be performed bilaterally and can be adjusted with time. For patients with tremor as the dominant symptom, stimulation of the ventralis intermedius nucleus of the thalamus may be considered. For patients with tremor along with refractory bradykinesia or rigidity, stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus or globus pallidus internus can improve both the tremor and the other cardinal motor features of Parkinson disease.
Hypothalamic Hamartoma Causing Gelastic Seizures
Authors: Giridharan Nisha , Karas Patrick J. , Curry Daniel J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Hypothalamic hamartomas are rare lesions that are highly epileptogenic. The lesions are benign, heterotopic masses that occur due to anomalies in neuronal migration. They usually present as a specific epileptic syndrome characterized by laughing spells, and the epileptic syndromes can further generalize. The hamartomas are often small lesions that can be missed on magnetic resonance imaging, and their epileptic syndromes may not be easily localizable by scalp electroencephalography. Their hypothalamic location renders the open or endoscopic surgical approach challenging, with a significant amount of morbidity associated with it. The advent of laser thermal interstitial therapy has allowed treatment of these lesions with minimal morbidity and reasonable seizure control rates.
Intractable Spinal Spastic Paraplegia
Authors: Kinsman Michael , Smith Kyle , Sami Mariah 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Spasticity is a common medically refractory sequela of spinal cord injury. When medicines such as baclofen and tizanidine do not provide adequate benefit or when the side effects of these medications are impairing quality of life, surgical strategies can be considered. Percutaneous thoracolumbar radio-frequency rhizotomies and intrathecal baclofen delivery are two effective strategies for intractable spasticity. For patients being considered for intrathecal pump placement, an intrathecal trial of baclofen via lumbar puncture with pre- and postinjection assessment of spasticity is prudent. For patients with intrathecal baclofen pumps, baclofen withdrawal due to system failure is a serious complication that must be managed aggressively.
Allergic Diseases
Authors: Volcheck Gerald W. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Allergic diseases include atopic or immunoglobulin E (IgE)–mediated disorders that classically involve allergic rhinoconjunctivitis, allergic asthma, food and mediation allergy, and anaphylaxis. Although not mediated by IgE, certain diseases are often grouped with allergic diseases and include eosinophilic diseases, mast cell disease, nonallergic rhinitis, chronic rhinosinusitis, and primary immunodeficiency.
Arrhythmias and Syncope
Authors: Noseworthy Peter A. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Cardiac arrhythmias are due to disorders of impulse propagation (reentry) or impulse formation (abnormal automaticity or triggered activity). Reentry is the most common mechanism of arrhythmia and is further classified as macroreentrant or microreentrant. Macroreentrant arrhythmias have a discrete, definable circuit such as atrioventricular (AV) reentrant tachycardia (which are sustained as the impulse propagates across atrial, AV nodal, ventricular, accessory pathway, and back to the atrial tissue) or ventricular tachycardia (most often sustained around or through an area of myocardial scar). Microreentry occurs within a very small circuit and thus appears to arise from a single point in the myocardium.
Gonadal and Adrenal Disorders
Authors: Shah Pankaj 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter discussed the various adrenal and gonadal disorders that can occur: adrenocortical failure, Cushing syndrome, primary aldosteronism, pheochromocytoma and paraganglioma, adrenal incidentaloma, male hypogonadism, gynecomastia, amenorrhea, polycystic ovary syndrome, and hyperprolactinemia.
Lipid Disorders
Authors: Kapoor Ekta 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Lipid disorders result from genetic abnormalities in lipoprotein metabolism, other medical conditions (eg, type 2 diabetes mellitus, nephrotic syndrome, hypothyroidism, excessive alcohol use), and use of certain drugs (eg, corticosteroids, immunosuppressants). The most common disorders of genetic dyslipidemias are those of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol (LDL-C), which often lead to premature atherosclerosis in persons and their family members.
Pituitary Disorders
Authors: Shah Pankaj 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Hypopituitarism usually results from a deficiency of anterior pituitary hormones or, rarely, from tissue resistance to these hormones. Primary pituitary disease results from the loss of anterior pituitary cells and may be congenital or acquired. Hypothalamic hypopituitarism results from hypothalamic or pituitary stalk disease associated with the loss of hypophysiotropic regulatory hormones of the anterior pituitary cells. Functional hypothalamic disorders are common. Extrasellar disorders impinge on and impair the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary unit.
Genetics
Authors: Collins C. Scott , Wittich Christopher M. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chromosome abnormalities occur in 1 in 180 live births. One-third of these abnormalities are due to autosomal aneuploidy—an abnormal number of chromosomes. Risk factors for autosomal aneuploidy are maternal age 35 years or older and a previous birth of an affected child. The most common autosomal aneuploidy syndrome of full-term infants is Down syndrome.
Geriatrics
Authors: Tung Ericka E. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The overarching goal of the geriatric assessment is to develop a holistic understanding of the older patient as a means to identify emerging problems and individual capabilities. This information guides treatment, care coordination, and evaluation of long-term care needs. Assessment of the older adult requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses physical, cognitive, and psychosocial domains. The comprehensive geriatric assessment takes this approach a step further. It is targeted toward the frail older adult and involves an interdisciplinary team of geriatric care providers. Both the general assessment and the comprehensive assessment aim to enhance quality of life and optimize function. Given the time constraints placed on practicing physicians, a strategy of rapid screening of key geriatric domains, followed by a more in-depth assessment of worrisome areas, is an effective approach.
Physician Well-Being and Burnout
Authors: Vaa Stelling Brianna E. , West Colin P. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Physician burnout represents a public health crisis because of its high prevalence and serious consequences at all levels of the health care system. Physicians cannot provide optimal patient care when they are not well. Fortunately, the drivers of burnout and attendant solutions to reduce it and promote well-being are increasingly understood. With collaboration among individual physicians, health care organizations, and regulatory bodies, the field of medicine can achieve the desired goal of delivering outstanding patient care in a system where physicians experience joy in practice.
Preventive Medicine
Authors: Bonnes Sara L. , Adusumalli Jayanth , Stephenson Christopher R. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Preventive medicine focuses on preventing disease and keeping patients healthy. It has primary, secondary, and tertiary levels. In the primary level, disease is prevented before it occurs (eg, immunization, use of condoms to prevent sexually transmitted diseases), in part through use of health counseling.
Bleeding Disorders
Authors: Pruthi Rajiv K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Bleeding disorders consist of clotting factor deficiencies or inhibitors, vascular bleeding disorders, and platelet disorders (quantitative and qualitative). Each of these is broadly classified into congenital disorders and acquired disorders. The best screening tool to evaluate for a bleeding disorder is a thorough clinical evaluation (personal and family bleeding history and physical examination). The presence of a bleeding disorder may be suggested from inquiry into the presence and age at onset of spontaneous bleeding (eg, epistaxis, easy bruising, or joint bleeding), unusual or unexpected posttraumatic or surgical bleeding (including from dental extractions), and family history. A thorough clinical evaluation should also include review of medications and coexisting medical problems to identify clinical risk factors for bleeding.
Thrombotic Disorders
Authors: Pruthi Rajiv K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter describes the types of thrombotic disorders, risk factors, diagnosis, possible prevention, and treatment of these disorders. Venous thromboembolism, deep vein thrombosis, and pulmonary embolism are discussed, as well as abnormalities of the procoagulant and anticoagulant systems.
Immunocompromised Hosts
Authors: Beam Elena , Tosh Pritish K. , Sohail M. Rizwan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Infections in immunocompromised patients may occur in the clinical setting of neutropenia, B-cell and T-cell deficiencies, immunoglobulin deficiencies, complement deficiencies, and leukocyte dysfunction. Some patients have multiple defects due to both the underlying disease and its treatment.
Microorganism-Specific Syndromes
Authors: Beam Elena , Tosh Pritish K. , Sohail M. Rizwan 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
There are several human pathogens for which the microorganism is, in many ways, synonymous with the syndrome it causes. This chapter briefly reviews the microbiology, associated clinical syndromes, testing, and treatment for some of the most clinically significant pathogens, grouped by organism type.
Pulmonary and Mycobacterial Infections
Authors: Whitaker Jennifer A. , Tosh Pritish K. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Influenza causes annual, seasonal epidemics that lead to tens of thousands of deaths each year in the United States. Community-acquired pneumonia causes substantial morbidity and mortality among adults, the highest rates being in persons older than 65 years. CAP and influenza combine to be the seventh leading cause of death in the United States. Worldwide, Mycobacterium tuberculosis causes the most common type of human-to-human chronic infection due to mycobacteria. Parasitic infections of the lung are less common in the United States than in many other parts of the world.
Acid-Base Disorders
Authors: Qian Qi 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Simple acid-base disorders are defined by changes in pH and the initial change in 1 of 2 variables: serum bicarbonate (HCO3−) concentration and partial pressure of CO2 (Pco2). Low pH indicates acidosis, and high pH indicates alkalosis. The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation describes the 4 acid-base disorders and their compensatory changes. Mixed acid-base disorders are the presence of 2 primary acid-base disorders—specifically, one primary disorder with a compensation that is out of proportion to the expected estimation. There are 5 steps to analyzing acid-base status in a patient.
Acute Kidney Injury
Authors: Norby Suzanne M. , Kashani Kianoush B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Acute kidney injury (AKI) denotes a rapid deterioration of kidney function within 1 week of an insult to the kidney. AKI results in the accumulation of nitrogenous metabolites, along with fluid, electrolyte, and acid-base imbalances. The traditional classification system subdivides AKI into prerenal, intrinsic renal, and postrenal categories. Although AKI has a dominant cause in some patients, multiple factors usually contribute to its development. The management of AKI is mostly supportive because no therapeutic options are currently available. Determining and managing the risk factors associated with AKI are essential steps to decrease the extent of the injury.
Chronic Kidney Disease
Authors: Schinstock Carrie A. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide public health problem. In the United States, the prevalence of end-stage renal disease (ESRD) is increasing, especially among persons older than 65 years. More than 20 million people in the United States are thought to have CKD, and this population uses a disproportionate amount of health care resources. CKD is also associated with an increased risk of death, particularly from cardiovascular causes. Referral to a nephrologist should be considered when patients have AKI, stage 4 CKD, substantial proteinuria, unexplained hematuria or red blood cell casts, resistant hypertension, hereditary kidney disease, electrolyte abnormalities, or recurrent nephrolithiasis.
Neoplastic Diseases
Authors: Porter Alyx B. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Neoplastic diseases include tumors in the brain and central nervous system, primary central nervous system lymphoma, and systemic cancer. Brain metastases are the most common brain tumors. Epidural spinal cord compression is the most common cause of spinal cord dysfunction in patients with cancer and is frequently preceded by vertebral metastasis. Paraneoplastic disorders are associated with increased levels of circulating antibodies that are directed against neoplastic cells and attack membrane ion channels or intracellular proteins in neurons. Treatment of cancer with chemotherapeutic and biologic agents is frequently complicated by the development of neurotoxicity.
Cancer of Unknown Primary Origin and Paraneoplastic Syndromes
Authors: Wittich Michelle A. Neben 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Carcinoma of unknown primary origin (CUP) describes a metastatic disease for which the primary cancer cannot be identified. Of all invasive cancers, 2% to 6% are CUP. When a pathologic diagnosis is established, additional evaluation should be tailored according to the patient’s risk factors (eg, smoking and breast cancer risk), symptoms and signs, sites of metastasis, and the histologic diagnosis. Paraneoplastic syndromes are caused by factors other than direct tumor invasion or compression. They do not necessarily indicate metastatic disease. Paraneoplastic syndromes can be classified as endocrine, neurologic, dermatologic, or rheumatologic.