bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusion
Authors: Clary Christopher 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This conclusion reviews the major elements of leader primacy theory and how the theory explains the inability of India-Pakistan to escape from enduring rivalry as well as variation in conflict and cooperation within that rivalry. The theory implies that analysts and policymakers need to move beyond assessing strategic incentives alone in their attempts to understand the behavior of states in rivalry. The conclusion identifies limitations of the theory and avenues for further research, especially inquiry into (1) the interaction between elite influence and popular support, (2) understanding the varying degrees of political salience of different rivalries for the politics within rival states, and (3) applying leader primacy theory to other cases to identify its precise scope conditions.
Introduction
Authors: DeMeuse Eric J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides an overview of twentieth-century narratives of the history of ecclesiology. These narratives argue for the necessity of the reform in Catholic ecclesiology that was accomplished at Vatican II. The authors of these narratives locate early modern ecclesiology as the locus of the deformation requiring such a reform. However, such narratives suffer from a twofold methodological shortcoming, namely, they focus almost exclusively on only one genre (treatises de Ecclesia) and only one figure (Robert Bellarmine). Both of these methodological shortcomings truncate current accounts of early modern ecclesiology, and both are overcome in the present book, which branches out from treatises de Ecclesia to present a fuller picture of early modern ecclesiology, and also focuses on a figure other than Bellarmine (Francisco Suárez). This chapter then provides necessary biographical information on Suárez and an examination of the state of the question concerning his ecclesiology before providing an outline of the work.
The Church as a Way of Life
Authors: DeMeuse Eric J. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter presents Suárez’s answer to the question: “What is the Church?” as the necessary prolegomena to reflection on unity and catholicity. Suárez defines the Church as a congregation of the faithful, or “a political body.” The notion of the Church as a political body has been much criticized in contemporary ecclesiology. Nevertheless, the author argues that, while Suárez refers to the Church as a “political body,” he does not mean by this that the Church is an “ecclesial nation-state,” as some have accused. This chapter argues that Suárez’s preferred definition of the Church has firm roots in the Christian tradition and especially St. Paul, Thomas Aquinas, Ignatius of Loyola, and Pseudo-Dionysius, and further shows the priority that Suárez gives to the interior and invisible reality of the Church lived out by human pilgrims as a religion, or a way of life. Suárez here emerges as a theologian intent on distinguishing the supernatural reality of the Church from the nation-state.
Wayward Christian Soldiers
Authors: Saiya Nilay 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter attempts to explain how Christians become involved in political violence. It argues that Christian violence arises in contexts of Christian privilege or from actors seeking to unite church and state. Christianist institutions and ideas thus propel violence against religious outsiders who pose a threat to the status quo or otherwise do not conform to the ideal of the Christian nation. After briefly surveying the history of Christian violence, the chapter explores Christian participation in two contemporary forms of violence: war and terrorism.
Christianizing Foreign Policy
Authors: Saiya Nilay 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the topic of American foreign policy in the Middle East, looking specifically at how Christianist ideas espoused by certain politically influential evangelical communities have made it more difficult for the United States to pursue its national interest in the region and worsened the plight of indigenous Christian communities. It examines three cases: Israel, Iraq, and Iran, demonstrating the harm done by the Christianization of American Middle East policy since the turn of the millennium.
Looking Inward
Authors: Saiya Nilay 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter takes an inward look at what political privilege means for Christianity itself. It argues that while the damage inflicted by Christianist thinking on global politics has been great, the price exacted on the church itself has been even greater. Partnership between the church and state or efforts by the state to coopt the church for political ends serve to fundamentally distort the ministry and witness of the church, insofar as its vocation becomes tied instrumentally to the goals of the state. This chapter makes the paradoxical argument that while privilege contributes to secularization by eroding the witness of the church, church-state separation enables Christians to maintain a focus on their mission to spread the gospel.
The Political Geography of High-Speed Railways
Authors: MA Xiao 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Building on the findings of earlier chapters, this chapter unpacks the political geography of high-speed rails. Using an original data set on the construction of high-speed rails between 2004 and 2014, it shows that provinces and cities with leaders holding dual appointments at higher levels received preferential treatment from the central government. They were not only given faster permission to build their portion of the railway, but they were also connected to more lines and allowed to build more stations within their jurisdictions. This empirical exercise also rules out two alternative explanations, namely “loyalty purchasing” and “technocratic solutions.” Local leaders’ personal connections with top party leaders and most localities’ socioeconomic indicators are not associated with favorable treatment from the central government. These results lend support to the core argument that local bargaining power shapes the allocations of policy benefits in issue areas with fragmented central authorities.
The Islamic State in Africa
Authors: Warner Jason , Cummings Ryan , Nsaibia Héni , O'Farrell Ryan 
Published: June 2022

In 2019, Islamic State lost its last remaining sliver of territory in Syria, and its Caliph, Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi, was killed. These setbacks seemed to herald the Caliphate’s death knell, and many now forecast its imminent demise. Yet its affiliates endure, particularly in Africa: nearly all of Islamic State’s cells on the continent have reaffirmed their allegiance, attacks have continued in its name, many groups have been reinvigorated, and a new province has emerged. Why, in Africa, did the two major setbacks of 2019 have so little impact on support for Islamic State?
The Islamic State in Africa suggests that this puzzle can be explained by the emergence and evolution of Islamic State’s provinces in Africa, which it calls “sovereign subordinates.” By examining the rise and development of nine Islamic State “affiliates,” the authors show how, having pledged allegiance to IS Central, affiliates evolved mostly autonomously, using the IS brand as a means for accrual of power, but, in practice, receiving relatively little if any direction or material support from central command. Given this pattern, IS Central’s relative decline has had little impact on its African affiliates--who are likely to remain committed to the Caliphate’s cause for the foreseeable future.
Authoritarianism Reconfigured
Authors: Bank André , Bellin Eva , Herb Michael , Wedeen Lisa , Yom Sean , Zerhouni Saloua 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains how strategies and forms of authoritarian rule in the MENA have evolved greatly since the Arab uprisings. Sidestepping normative expectations for democracy and democratization, the chapter shows the primary pathways of change and persistence for many dictatorships. Many autocracies have become personalistic, bucking assumptions that rational leaders should protect themselves with hegemonic parties rather than cronies and sycophants. Most have become far more repressive since the uprisings, despite the costs of ramping up coercion. Others have catalyzed new modes of cultural domination that induce compliance through ideology. This chapter examines the shift in these different domestic practices, showing also at the external level how many regimes have also become imbricated in new networks of international support. These developments enrich prevailing theories about authoritarianism but also show how quickly regional events outpace them.
Public Opinion
Authors: Benstead Lindsay J. , Gengler Justin , Robbins Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
The past twenty years have witnessed an unprecedented expansion in the number and sophistication of scientific opinion surveys in Arab countries. The conventional view of the Middle East as a wasteland for survey research has lost any relation to reality. Instead, the MENA has become one of the most innovative sites for creative research about popular attitudes and beliefs, thanks to pioneering institutes and survey projects. It shows how such work clashes with old assumptions held by scholars unfamiliar with the region, such as those regarding the origins and persistence of public support for democracy, the myriad determinants of voting and electoral behavior, the changing texture of gender norms and women’s rights, and the coherence of youth politics, embodied by the generation that drove the Arab uprisings. It also surveys the rise of experimental approaches as a major methodological advance and discusses the procedural hazards of survey research as a data-collecting technique. Such methodological and ethical considerations will continue to drive forward innovative public opinion research.
The Elements of Earthly Order
Authors: Ali Saleem H. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Starting from the periodic table, this chapter lays out how humans have tried to order our understanding of the elements. There are many ways to categorize and label the elements depending on what factors we want to prioritize. The centrality of carbon as the life-giving molecule is considered on the basis of its particular proclivity for constructing large, ordered molecules. This also leads to a unique set of physical properties for some of its forms, such as graphene. Next, the chapter grapples with nuclear order and its importance in providing such high-energy density for human use. However, social order has been reluctant to accept the power of the atom as a source of “green energy”—often nonscientific reasons. Magnetic order in all its various forms is then presented as a way of linking physics to geology and human ability to navigate the planet.
Circularity, Cyclicality, and Sustainability
Authors: Ali Saleem H. 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Natural systems on Earth operate in cycles as a way of maintaining a steady state of functionality. Modern environmentalism has developed with a desire for human activities to emulate such circularity. Going back to Barry Commoner’s classic work The Closing Circle and his four laws of ecology, this chapter considers the development of the Biosphere concept. The centrality of hydrological order in such life-giving systems is then considered with a history of how water cycles were initially misunderstood and how systems thinking eventually led to more complex integrated work on biogeochemical cycles. Finally, the chapter considers Gaia theory and its critics (including the Medea hypothesis) with an eye toward the heuristic value of fanciful theories. The emerging concepts of planetary boundaries and “donut economics” are discussed as a transition is made to connecting natural systems to social order in the next section of the book.
Evolution as Americanization
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a narrative of how investment treaties evolved from older incomplete to recent, more complete agreements that draw heavily from North American treaty practice. The evolution of investment agreements was first marked by a decrease in contractual completeness as more comprehensive Friendship, Commerce, and Navigation treaties fell into disuse, and states started signing short bilateral investment treaties instead. Investment treaty design then evolved toward more completeness in three phases of innovation closely linked to changes in North American treaty practice: (1) in 1982, the United States launched its bilateral investment treaty program and incorporated novel obligations and flexibilities, (2) in 1992, NAFTA was concluded, which pioneered most of the content features associated with a new-generation of investment treaties, and (3) in 2004, the United States and Canada incorporated lessons learned from their experience as respondents in investor-state dispute settlement. These North American content features subsequently spread globally leading to an Americanization of investment treaty design. This only began to change in 2015, when states began exploring alternative gap-filling strategies such as greater emphasis on relational contracting (Brazil) and delegation to a standing tribunal rather than ad hoc arbitration (European Union).
Reversing Innovation through MFN
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter investigates a first mechanism, most-favored-nation treatment (MFN), by which new treaties are read like old ones and innovation is reversed. The chapter starts by showing that MFN has been used to roll back state-driven change in recent awards. It then discusses how a series of early investor-state dispute settlement (ISDS) decisions amplified through academic commentary popularized the notion of MFN as overriding treaty design differences to a point where tribunals accepted the incorporation of more favorable substantive provisions from third treaties via MFN without further analysis. While a growing pool of commentators and tribunals has since sought to correct this practice by rebutting unwarranted presumptions and aligning the operation of MFN in ISDS with other fields of international law, the idea that MFN overrides treaty design differences in significant ways continues to be widely held. The final part of this chapter shows that an expansive view of MFN’s ability to override treaty design differences is mistaken. Even if a generous interpretation of the clause is adopted, the impact of MFN on reversing treaty design innovation is much more modest than what is generally assumed.
Overriding Differences through Custom
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses customary international law as a second means for rolling back innovation and overriding treaty design differences. The chapter shows that tribunals have systematically confused when states contract on custom and when they go beyond it in more complete international investment agreements. Tribunals have misread efforts to tie investment protection to a customary law baseline as a mandate to increased investment protection based on the theory of a rapidly evolving customary international law. Other tribunals have mistaken general exceptions as codifying custom and decreased the flexibility states enjoy under more complete agreements. As a result, tribunals have overridden treaty design differences and read new treaties like old ones. The remainder of the chapter traces the historical interaction between treaties and custom to better understand when states meant to contract on or go beyond custom. It shows that there is considerable evidence that states crafted their more complete treaties to use custom as a floor for granting flexibilities and a ceiling for providing certain investment protections. The chapter concludes by offering guidance on how tribunals can support state-driven treaty design choices by recognizing when states meant to contract on custom and when not.
Tax-Style Multilateralization
Authors: Alschner Wolfgang 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains how interpretations (Chapter 7) and renegotiations (Chapter 8) can be scaled to update outdated treaties multilaterally by modeling investment treaty reform on the international tax regime. The chapter starts with a brief background on the ongoing multilateral investor-state dispute settlement reforms at UNCITRAL and argues that the UNCITRAL mandate is flexible enough to accommodate tax-style multilateralization. The chapter then dissects the merits of the procedure-before-substance paradigm that dominates the current UNCITRAL agenda and suggests that tax-style multilateralism offers a feasible and pragmatic alternative to tackle substantive and procedural reforms concurrently. The last section sketches out what a tax-style investment law multilateralization covering both substance and procedure could look like. On the one hand, it points to the ambulatory updating of international tax treaties through tax soft law that could inspire similar ongoing and informal interpretive processes in the investment regime. On the other hand, it discusses the Multilateral Instrument, which upgraded thousands of tax treaties in substance and procedure and which could inspire similarly ambitious hard law reforms to modify old investment treaties in light of new ones.
Life’s Affirmation and Denial
Authors: Kanterian Edward 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This paper seeks to challenge the interpretive orthodoxy that Nietzsche was unqualifiedly hostile to Christianity. Nietzsche’s opposition to Christianity is well-attested. He described Christianity as ‘the greatest misfortune of mankind.’ It is argued, however, that there are in fact significant similarities between Christian and Nietzschean values. Taking up an argument first present by Georg Simmel in 1907, the author argues that both value systems are to be subsumed under the same categories: the intrinsic value of the individual (man in Nietzsche, soul in Christianity), his struggle for deification, the tension between giving absolute value to the passing moment and being forced to subsume it under a transcendent whole which has a final value. In addition, the author points out several inconsistencies and ambivalences in Nietzsche’s attitude towards Christianity. Finally, he attempts to show that Nietzsche adopted, like Christianity, a life-affirming transcendent value-system, which is visible in his conception of Yes-saying. Thus his vision of a fully affirmative life in fact involves a reiteration of certain central elements of the Christian theological perspective.
The making of the Uralic nation-state languages
Authors: Laakso Johanna 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Among the Uralic languages, most of which are endangered, under-resourced, used largely in spoken in-group communication, and less well researched, Hungarian, Finnish, and Estonian stand out as well-documented nation-state languages with a strong literary tradition and use in all walks of life, including the domains of education, culture, business, and administration. As the only non-Indo-European state languages in continental Europe, these three languages have gone through similar developments: an ethnolinguistic awakening and consciousness-raising propelled by Romantic Nationalism, and an intensive language planning and modernization process, including the creation of numerous lexical neologisms and the standardization of a phonological or morphophonological orthography. In all these countries, language policies have been characterized by purism and prescriptivism, and all are challenged by globalization and new forms of modern multilingualism.
Lule Saami
Authors: Ylikoski Jussi 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This is the first English-language description of Lule Saami, an indigenous language spoken in Norway and Sweden. With nearly one thousand speakers, Lule Saami is the second most spoken Saami language. However, outside Saami linguistics it is often overshadowed by its immediate neighbour North Saami, the numerically strongest and best known Saami language that is often used to represent the whole Saami branch. While the general make-up of Lule Saami is in many ways similar to that of North Saami, it also has a number of features shared with other western Saami languages but lacking in North Saami. These features include nominal inflection with as many as eight morphological cases and the negative verb that is inflected in not only number (singular, dual, plural) and person, but also in tense. With its relatively free word order, Lule Saami has an intermediate position between North Saami (SVO) and South Saami (SOV).
Kildin Saami
Authors: Rießler Michael 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This is the first English-language description of Kildin Saami and the basic features of its phonology, morphology, and syntax. Kildin Saami is a critically endangered indigenous language of the Kola Peninsula in north-west Russia, with only about 100 active speakers. It is characterized by a complex phonology, a remarkably rich inventory of consonant phonemes and a highly fusional inflectional morphology, including the occurrence of several different kinds of non-linear morphological marking. In verb inflection, there is a special form for impersonal passive. The intensive contact with the Russian language has led to Russian influences in essentially all components of Kildin Saami language structure, especially in discourse pragmatics. The chapter includes a glossed text example.
Finnic
Authors: Laakso Johanna 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides an introduction to the Finnic (aka Fennic, Baltic-Finnic) languages, a group of closely related Uralic languages including Finnish and Estonian. The point of departure is their common protolanguage, Proto-Finnic, which can be reconstructed in great detail. After briefly dealing with the chronology, localization, and contacts of Proto-Finnic and its divergence, the chapter describes the main features of Finnic phonology, morphology (case, number, person marking, tense, and mood, non-finite, passive, and reflexive verb forms, negation, word formation), syntax, and lexicon with its important loanword strata. The aim is to provide a basis for the grammatical description of individual Finnic languages, to avoid repeating the all-Finnic features and to save space for the individual language descriptions.
Livonian
Authors: Laakso Johanna 
Published: June 2022

Abstract
Livonian is an acutely endangered Finnic minority language spoken in Latvia. The last traditional Livonian communities on the Courland peninsula were dispersed by World War II and Sovietization. The last generation of traditional speakers is now passing away, while activists are struggling to revitalize the language. In this chapter, the history and development of the Livonian language are briefly presented, while the main focus is on the distinctive features of Livonian in cross-Finnic comparison: the typological changes which were triggered by reductive sound changes and led to a more fusional morphology with complicated quantity and quality alternations in word stems, and the strong influence of the Latvian language. The chapter ends with a glossed text example.