bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Boyden Michael 
Published: December 2022

AbstractIntroducing the book as a whole, this chapter points to a major semantic transformation in what was understood as “climate” during the period between 1770 and 1860. At this time, the American tropics functioned both as the economic motor of the Atlantic economy and as a site of climatic anxiety and sensory confusion. The chapter argues that this conjuncture eventually resulted in the reconfiguration of climate from a spatial denominator for geographical zones on the world map into a temporal one. It illustrates this process by juxtaposing eighteenth-century debates on probable knowledge, and the role of climatic determination in it, with recent polemics on climatic change. In arguing that the temporalization of climate should be traced back to fraught encounters with the tropics, the chapter thus suggests a new genealogy for modern climate thinking predating the rise of climatology toward the end of the nineteenth century.
The Climatic Regime
Authors: Boyden Michael 
Published: December 2022

AbstractThis chapter details the book’s theoretical premises, which are derived from Reinhart Koselleck’s conceptual history. Koselleck argued that in modernity, certain words come to function as abstract metaconcepts that serve to helm public debate and organize the future. The introduction argues that the word “climate,” which originally was used as a marker of spatial difference, started to function as an expectation concept of this kind in Anglo-American discourse toward the late eighteenth century. This shift was most acutely in evidence in the Caribbean, where economic and political interests, industrial slavery, and massive ecological degradation clashed in dramatic ways with a new semantics of freedom and progress. As a result of such tensions, the chapter argues, the concept climate was subjected to a process of temporalization. This trend can be observed in the aesthetics of landscape description, particularly in the use of the picturesque aesthetic, which displays the heightened temporal sensitivity that also characterizes modern climate discourse.
God or Clockwork?
Authors: Stewart Robert 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter begins with the choice between external and internal influences on what we observe in the world—that is, between ‘God and clockwork’. By this we mean that the sciences exist as theories competing against preceding superstitions and have to work to distinguish themselves as ‘true’. An early example of this was the shift in astronomy from the Earth to the Sun as the centre for observed planetary motions. An important first principle in all research is the initial acceptance of ignorance—that there is something unknown in need of discovery. Analogies can be drawn with Renaissance-era maps and their newly empty spaces, or with the first periodic table of elements drawn up in 1869 with its gaps waiting to be filled in. However, retaining an awareness of ignorance, and the objectivity that stems from it, is challenging as a researcher, and it doesn’t get any easier.
Careful Observation
Authors: Stewart Robert 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Having accepted that there are things we don’t know and that need to be discovered, research often begins with the principle of careful observation and, through its use, the process of deriving wider truths—the theory of ‘induction’. The importance of observation is seen in the emergence of zoology, botany, and geology as scientific disciplines in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. These in turn led to the development of taxonomy, as a means of categorizing and systematizing descriptions of the living world. Species diversity and discoveries from palaeontology, in turn, supported a new way of thinking about creation, just as a physician with an interest in zoology came up with the idea of vaccination—all of them theories derived from observation.
Consensus
Authors: Stewart Robert 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Causal criteria are all very well, but it remains the case that research tends to move knowledge forward by gradual accumulation of evidence rather than game-changing single findings. This can be described statistically using Bayesian theory, or conceptually as ‘paradigm shifts’, and the process can be mechanized via systematic reviews. However, it still tends to come down in the end to consensus within research communities. This may work satisfactorily in many circumstances but is fraught with challenges when the end result requires public and political action, if there are vested interests involved, and if evidence only gradually becomes definitive. These have all been exemplified in the debate over anthropogenic climate change.
Power and politics
Authors: Stewart Robert 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Negotiating institutional and other power structures is another inevitable feature of a research career. Relationships are generally more civil in research than in other competitive fields, although there have been notable exceptions. Knowledge tends to advance inexorably but is still portrayed as the achievement of individuals—hence, there is ample scope for simultaneous discovery and the bad feeling and competitiveness that accompany this, compounded by longstanding inequalities that have been historically fostered by university systems. Researchers and politicians have had uneasy relationships throughout history, and the argument is made that the two fields are best kept apart where possible, as each inevitably compromises the principles of the other. Uneasy relationships with the general public underlie some of this, which often come down to the ‘whose consensus?’ paradox when communicating academic opinion.
How to be a Researcher
Authors: Stewart Robert 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This concluding chapter revisits what seem to be unchanging fundamental principles underlying research and outlines some practicalities of a research career—common challenges, personality types, leadership issues, and how to get started. The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic is considered up to the time of writing (early 2022), including public debates and challenges to ‘expert’ opinion. Given that research activities and careers have changed beyond recognition over the last 500 (and even 100) years, the safest prediction is that they will continue to do so; hence the importance of maintaining objectivity, scepticism, and flexibility, which is how research began in the first place.
Meditations on Beliefs Formed Arbitrarily
Authors: Schoenfield Miriam 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
Had we grown up elsewhere or been educated differently, our view of the world would likely be radically different. What to make of this? This chapter takes an accuracy-centered first-personal approach to the question of how to respond to the arbitrary nature in which many of our beliefs are formed. I show how considerations of accuracy motivate different responses to this sort of information, depending on the type of attitude we take towards the belief in question upon subjecting the belief to doubt.
Conclusion
Authors: Obendiek Anke Sophia 
Published: December 2022

AbstractThis chapter analyses normative justifications across conflicts. It develops an empirically grounded typology of four distinct visions of data governance that show how value orders are used in the resolution of conflicts. It outlines four distinct visions: local liberalism, digital economy, security partnership, and global cooperation. These visions specify different levels of restrictions for data use and sharing based on the proposed conceptualizations of data as a governable object as well as distinct justifications. The chapter further presents the central findings of the book, pointing to challenging actors, a stabilization mechanism, and the interlinkages with the normative structure of the field. In light of the emergence of new regulatory players such as China, the chapter finally assesses the potential for and implications of jurisdictional conflicts and their resolution across the globe.
Legality and the Sentence
Authors: Summers Sarah J 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
It is a fundamental principle of criminal law that offenders are to be punished for their crimes and not for other reasons such as lifestyle or character. The legality principle enjoys widespread recognition at the point of attribution of criminal liability. In addition, it is complemented in the procedural context by the requirement that the burden lies on the state to prove that a crime was committed. Much is made of the importance of the definition of the crime, of the obligation on the state to prove the various aspects of the charge, and yet at the sentencing stage it is common for factors to be taken into consideration which seem to have little to do with an offender’s culpability for the crime at issue. This chapter sets out to examine the importance of legality at sentencing and begins with an examination of the relationship between legality and the act and culpability requirements. It then goes on to analyse the case law of the European Court of Human Rights on Article 7(1) ECHR in order to establish the scope of the human rights principle at sentencing. This provides the basis for consideration of the compatibility of important sentencing practices, notably sentence enhancements for prior convictions, the treatment of confessions, and the extent of the sentence reductions in cases of diminished culpability or responsibility. This provides the basis for broader consideration of the role of legality as a limit on punishment.
Proportionality
Authors: Summers Sarah J 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
One of principal difficulties at sentencing is the determination of the appropriate sentence. In sentencing theory, the notion of proportionality between the offence and the sentence is of particular importance. The ECHR does not contain any express prohibition on disproportionate punishment and the ECtHR has proven reluctant to be drawn into discussions about whether a particular sentence is appropriate or not. Nevertheless, in view of the fact that state punishment impinges on the human rights of individuals, there is obviously potential for a requirement of proportionality between the interference with a human right and the sentence to act as a restraint on punishment. This chapter examines this issue by considering the relevance of the relationship between the sentence and the prohibition on torture and inhuman and degrading punishment, the right to liberty and security of person, the right to private life, the rights to freedom of expression and assembly, and in the context of the protection of property. It concludes by considering the significance of these issues for sentencing theory and practice.
Judicial Imposition of Punishment
Authors: Summers Sarah J 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The imposition of punishment is a judicial exercise. This is a clearly a requirement of procedural fairness. At the same time, the role of the judge at sentencing is of central importance to the characterization of punishment as lawful or just. There might be said to be consensus that the rule of law is dependent on some form of adjudication. The nature and extent of the judicial power to interpret the law is nevertheless very much contested. This conflict at the heart of the judicial role between activism and restraint in the interpretation of the law takes on particular resonance at the sentencing stage. Concern about the potential for judges to overstep their institutional mandate mirrors anxiety about judges usurping the will of the majority. Notwithstanding such concerns, it is argued in this chapter that sentencing provisions must be framed in such a way as to ensure that judges have sufficient room to prevent the imposition of punishment which violates the principles of legality, equality, or the respect for certain human rights, notably the prohibition on the imposition of inhuman or degrading punishment. This understanding of the importance of the judge allows for reconsideration of a number of sentencing practices and laws, notably the role of the judge in plea-bargaining proceedings, and mandatory and indeterminate sentences.
Aquinas, Analogy and the Trinity
Authors: Chua Reginald Mary 
Published: December 2022

AbstractIn this paper I argue that Aquinas’ account of analogy provides resources for resolving the prima facie conflict between his claims that (1) the divine relations constituting the persons are “one and the same” with the divine essence; (2) the divine persons are really distinct, (3) the divine essence is absolutely simple. Specifically, I argue that Aquinas adopts an analogical understanding of the concepts of being and unity, and that these concepts are implicit in his formulation of claims about substance and relation in the Trinity. I then show how Aquinas appeals to key structural features of analogical concepts, notably, the simpliciter/secundum quid characterization, to resolve apparent conflicts between the unity of substance and distinction of relations in the Trinity.
Being and Abstraction
Authors: van Inwagen Peter 
Published: December 2022

AbstractThere may be no satisfactory definition of ‘abstract object’, but philosophers do seem to be able to sort terms that purport to denote objects into two piles—the ‘abstract object’ and the ‘concrete objects’ piles. There may be widespread disagreement over whether ‘God’ or ‘Nessie’ or ‘Robin Hood’ denote anything, but there is no doubt that they purport to denote concreta, and no doubt that ‘1/0’ and ‘the Ricci curvature tensor’ and ‘the mixolydian mode’ purport to denote abstracta. The burden of the chapter is that those who assert the non-existence of abstract objects will find themselves contradicting themselves many times every day—and are therefore “ontologically committed” to the existence of abstract objects.
Competition theory
Authors: Abrams Peter A. 
Published: December 2022

AbstractChapter 4 analyses six recent, high-profile articles to determine to what extent they have adopted a consumer–resource approach, and have advanced our understanding of interspecific competition. Five were chosen because they were the most highly cited articles (as of 2020) published in 2017 or later. The sixth was published most recently, so has had less time to accumulate citations; it appeared in the same journal as the majority of the top five articles, and had an approach that was more consistent to that recommended here. Several other recent articles are discussed more briefly. The results show that many articles are based on models that either ignore resources, or adopt extremely simplified component functions to describe the dynamics of the consumers and resources. Others use simplified analyses that may not reveal the true outcome of competition; this is the case for the one article that argues strongly for a consumer–resource approach.
The negativity, constancy, and continuity of competitive effects
Authors: Abrams Peter A. 
Published: December 2022

AbstractThis chapter uses relatively simple consumer–resource models to show that several phenomena that are impossible under the Lotka–Volterra model are common in models with resources. For the vast majority of models, all common measures of competitive effect differ depending on the size of the initial change used to make the measurement. Adding, removing, or changing the growth rate of a second consumer can produce, alter, or eliminate population cycles, and thereby alter the interaction. Changes in stability are almost always associated with large magnitude changes in competitive effects. If the experimental change used to measure the interspecific effect causes resource extinction, this often causes a discontinuous jump in the magnitude of the competitive effect. In two-resource systems, the possibility of resource extinction in the presence of a single consumer can lead to exclusion of a second consumer. In this case, the later arriving of two competitors always excludes the earlier one, producing a ‘posteriority’ effect. Such effects have never been observed. In systems where resource immigration prevents exclusion, posteriority does not occur. Systems in which each species has an exclusive resource are particularly likely to have very nonlinear competitive effects, and coexistence may be guaranteed in spite of high overlap in consumption rate curves.
Relative nonlinearity and seasonality
Authors: Abrams Peter A. 
Published: December 2022

AbstractThis chapter continues the analysis of seasonal competition, begun in Chapter 8. It examines cases in which there are differences in the shapes of two consumer species’ demographic responses (functional and/or numerical response) to resource abundance. Temporal variation affects parameters other than the consumer’s per capita resource capture rate, including variation in the resource growth rate or in a neutral parameter of one or both consumers. As in Chapter 8, temporal variation can make exclusion either more or less likely depending on the details of the mechanism(s) driving that variation. Mutual invasibility of single consumer systems is often not required for coexistence. Alternative attractors are a frequent occurrence in these systems, and different period lengths of temporal environmental variation can result in qualitatively different effects on coexistence. The complicated outcomes are largely due to interaction of the environmental seasonality with the inherent periodicity of one or both consumer–resource interactions.
Consumers and resources in space
Authors: Abrams Peter A. 
Published: December 2022

AbstractCompetition always has some spatial component, and this chapter explores the main effects that spatial subdivision has on competitive interactions. After a brief general description of various ways in which spatial issues can be modelled, the chapter explores a metacommunity approach, in which interactions occur within discrete patches, and movement can occur between any pair of patches. This means that competition and coexistence can be measured locally or globally, with the latter measurement being more appropriate for comparison with homogeneous systems. Measuring the shape of competitive interactions in the whole system is affected by the different effects of a neutral parameter in those patches, and by extinctions within patches. In systems having logistic resources where one consumer experiences environmental change, extinctions occur first in patches that have larger contributions to the total competitive effect. This produces a concave relationship between total population size and mortality. Random movement of resources must occur at quite high rates to make a metacommunity approximate a homogeneous system. Random movement of two consumer species at different rates in a metacommunity can lead to coexistence or produce exclusion of the superior consumer. Adaptive consumer movement often makes the abundances of two consumers less sensitive to changes in a neutral parameter of one of them. Adaptive movement may increase or decrease the synchrony of consumers in systems with cycles. More work on mathematical descriptions of adaptive movement is required to better understand competition in metacommunities.
Canada’s Long March against Tobacco
Authors: Callard Cynthia 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
After toying with the idea of restrictions in the early 20th century, Canadian governments only began developing policies to reduce smoking in the 1960s after the link between smoking and cancer was firmly established. Half a century later, they are still at it. The comprehensive set of tobacco control policies implemented in Canada, and now embraced by a global tobacco treaty, has focused on reducing the demand for tobacco products. Early approaches in the 1960s and 1970s relied on public education about the health risks and encouraging smokers to quit. By the mid 1980s, the insufficiency of this programmatic approach was recognized, and governments moved to impose and progressively tighten regulatory controls on marketing. Once ubiquitous promotions, like billboards, retail displays, sponsored events, and colourful packages were removed from the Canadian social environment. Measures to protect citizens from the harms of second-hand smoke began in the mid 1970s and, by 2010, to clean the air of workplaces and public venues, decreasing the social acceptability of smoking. Tobacco taxes, once used purely to generate revenues for the government, became recognized as a powerful public health tool to deter use with higher prices. The success of this set of demand-reduction policies can be measured in the reduction in the percentage of Canadians who smoke—from one-half of adults in the mid-1960s to about one-sixth today. The limits are seen in the industry’s continued ability to recruit new smokers to replace those who quit and die.
Modernizing Canada’s Research Universities
Authors: Tupper Allan 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
This chapter examines Government of Canada policies that profoundly altered Canada’s research universities. It argues that the federal university research policies are examples of successful public policies. The chapter shows how such initiatives as the Canada Research Chairs, the Canada Foundation for Innovation, and a program for the federal funding of the indirect costs of federal research grants were priorities for Liberal prime minister Jean Chrétien’s majority governments in the late 1990s and early 2000s. It notes how these programs were made possible by the governments’ receipt of unexpected budget surpluses. Chrétien insisted that a priority for the expenditure of these surpluses was university research, which he saw as essential to building Canada as a force in the emerging ‘knowledge economy’. A small group of university presidents, advisors in the Prime Minister’s Office, and senior officials in the Department of Finance spearheaded the policies. The policies established Ottawa as the dominant force in Canadian university research policy and strengthened federal links with major research universities including the University of Toronto, University of British Columbia, and McGill University. The chapter also shows how Chrétien’s policies have stood the test of time and were supported by Prime Minister Harper’s Conservative governments. The chapter notes how the federal policies created a clear set of policy winners and losers.
Managing Canada’s National Parks
Authors: Shepherd Robert P. , Simsovic Diane , Latourelle Alan 
Published: December 2022

Abstract
The creation and management of Canada’s national parks has been a policy success due to several features of institutional governance: its ability to remain non-partisan; its responsiveness to the needs and aspirations of its various stakeholder communities; and its ability to act as an independent steward enjoying political and bureaucratic commitment to its mission. Canada’s first national park was created in 1887 in response to economic concerns for revenue generation, but this rationale has evolved over time respecting and integrating matters of biological diversity, environmental sustainability, and public enjoyment. The Parks Canada agency has demonstrated a unique capability to balance these various purposes, while at the same time doing so in a way that has earned a national and international reputation for effective results-based management and collaborative relationships with Indigenous peoples, provinces/territories, and municipalities. The chapter provides a snapshot into the management of national parks and historic sites using mission mystique (Goodsell, 2011b) and Compton and ‘t Hart’s PPP framework (2019), drawing the conclusion in part that Parks Canada culture is committed to stewardship and the public good.