bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Wind Power Generation
Authors: Eicke Anselm , Eicke Laima , Hafner Manfred 
Published: May 2022

AbstractWind power plays a major role in the decarbonization of the power sector. Already now, it supplies increasing shares of the global energy demand. This book chapter provides an overview on the economics of wind energy and highlight global trends in the wind sector. It describes the technical characteristics of onshore and offshore wind energy and explains how these affect the economic competitiveness of the respective technologies. The authors describe how wind power, as an intermittent source of energy, can be integrated into power systems. They also discuss how renewable energy support schemes contribute in fostering the deployment of wind power.
The Economics of Energy Networks
Authors: Bonzanni Andrea 
Published: May 2022

AbstractAndrea Bonzanni provides an overview of the economics of transporting electricity and gas through networks, critically discussing the numerous similarities and the crucial differences between the two energy carriers. The chapter describes the physical and economic properties of energy networks, focusing on their monopolistic nature and the implications for electricity and gas systems. It goes onto review how energy networks are treated in competitive energy markets, how access to networks functions and what arrangements are established to ensure efficient economic outcomes and equal treatment of all market participants. Finally, it explains how access to energy networks is charged and how network users exchange energy within a network.
Economics of Gas Transportation by Pipeline and LNG
Authors: Molnar Gergely 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThe relatively low energy density of natural gas on a volumetric basis—almost 1000 times lower compared to crude oil—makes it one of the most challenging and expensive primary fuels to transport from the wellhead to the burner tip of end-consumers. Internationally traded natural gas is typically transported either in gaseous form via long-distance pipeline systems or in the form of liquefied natural gas on ships (LNG carriers). This chapter provides a focus on the economics and commercial aspects of these large, often multibillion-dollar infrastructure projects characterized by high upfront investment costs—and requiring complex risk-sharing mechanisms between all parties involved.
The Trading and Price Discovery for Coal
Authors: Fernández Alvarez Carlos 
Published: May 2022

AbstractFernández offers a view of coal production, consumption and trade both at global and regional level. Given China’s dominance of coal markets, this chapter describes the geography of Chinese coal supply chain in some detail. Fernández briefly explains some concepts of geology and mining to facilitate a better understanding of the different coal qualities and grades, which play a more important role in coal trading and pricing than for other fossil fuels. This chapter offers a historical perspective of the evolution of the international coal market to describe the current market, very dynamic and liquid, with increasing variety of qualities. Fernández concludes with a brief note on the recent developments of the coking coal markets and derivatives in China, a proof of that dynamism.
The Trading of Electricity
Authors: Vassilopoulos Philippe , Lahmar Elies 
Published: May 2022

AbstractAfter having introduced the theoretical foundations of electricity markets and some of the main design features such as marginal pricing of electricity, spatial distribution of electricity prices and the question of system adequacy, the authors discuss how they function in practice. After a description of the functioning of wholesale electricity markets with a focus on the derivatives and the spot market, the authors analyse their main features such as trading venues, traded products, rules and the processes but also some key trends that can be observed. Going forward, with the energy transition, electricity systems around the world are undergoing nascent but profound changes as market architecture and regulatory framework evolve to meet ambitious climate targets while maintaining efficient investment incentives and security of supply. The authors highlight the need to identify the future requirements of the power system and align them with global policy objectives in order to adapt and enhance the way electricity markets generate social welfare.
Energy Demand Drivers
Authors: Château Bertrand 
Published: May 2022

AbstractCountries with similar level of economic development and energy prices may show significant differences as regards energy/cap and dynamics of energy demand in relation to GDP and prices. Climate, endowment in natural resources and geography are obviously discriminating factors. Policies and cultural habits also, through technology choices and social behaviour orientations. This chapter helps to better understand which are the actual drivers of energy demand and how they play. It proposes first an overview of the issue: the actual needs behind energy demand, the specific role of actors and social forces in the energy dynamics and its timing and so on. It then discusses in greater depth the critical aspects of energy demand in the three consuming macro-sectors: industry, transport and buildings. Finally, the determinants of increasing electrification are discussed.
Energy Subsidies
Authors: Moerenhout Tom 
Published: May 2022

AbstractEnergy subsidies are widespread among OECD and non-OECD countries and exist for all energy types. Governments often give noble and legitimate rationales for the introduction and continuation of various energy subsidies, but the reality of energy subsidy policies is nearly always more complex than the stated rationale. Governments have tried to balance the energy trilemma by implementing several types of energy subsidies at once. This has resulted in a complex political economy of pervasive subsidies across energy production and consumption. Even when some policy priorities clearly change, the phasing out of existing subsidies may prove politically challenging when powerful vested interest groups exercise their influence over governmental decision-making. This chapter goes in depth on the types, size, objectives, and politics of subsidies to fossil fuel consumption and production and those to renewable electricity.
Disruptive Technologies
Authors: Genoese Fabio 
Published: May 2022

AbstractHistory shows that sudden disruptions are very rare in the energy industry, due to the relatively slow diffusion process of new technologies. Technological change is always ongoing but has remained manageable and predictable so far, given the long technical lifetime of assets in the energy industry. However, in some sectors disruption could be imminent, largely driven by consumers, because their purchasing decisions are not only guided by economic principles. Rooftop solar has already demonstrated its disruptive potential between 2008 and 2012, mainly triggered by generous government incentives at that time. In the forthcoming decade, a new disruptive wave could be triggered by easy-to-install solar kits and affordable multi-junction cells, which increase the amount of solar energy per square metre that a panel can harvest. Moreover, current technology trends indicate that a new wave of electrification is imminent, this time targeting the transport and heating sectors. This by itself would constitute a major disruption of the energy industry. Instead, whether hydrogen could also give rise to a disruption will mainly depend on energy policy and how seriously the fight against global warming is pursued.
Economics of Oil Refining
Authors: Favennec Jean-Pierre 
Published: May 2022

AbstractRefining is a key element of the energy industry. We use gasoline and diesel for transport, not crude oil. The evolution of the refining industry from a simple process to manufacture kerosene the key product at the end of the nineteenth century to a very sophisticated process to deliver high-quality products for sophisticated engines now is impressive. Less demand in Europe, more demand in Asia has deeply changed the structure of the industry with closures of facilities in Europe and development of large, sophisticated plants in the Middle East and Asia. The economics of refining for long very poor are improving with the adaptation of the industry.
Energy and the Economy in Sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Copinschi Philippe 
Published: May 2022

AbstractSub-Saharan Africa embodies a paradox. Although the region is blessed with energy resources and has long attracted the oil and gas industry, the majority of its population lacks access to energy, especially electricity, which hinders their economic and social development. For decades the dominant discourse, from governments as well as international development agencies and economic actors, has considered that the exploitation of its energy resources would prompt the economic growth of the continent by giving the countries the financial means to undertake development strategies. Unfortunately, the reality seems much bleaker as most energy producing countries in Sub-Saharan Africa seem to underperform in terms of economic development, plagued by the so-called resource curse. Nigeria, the main oil-producing country on the continent, offers a dramatic illustration of this situation. However, a new approach has recently emerged which focuses on the development of access to energy for the population. As a consequence, all over the continent new initiatives have been put in place to boost access to energy for the local population. This access has at last been acknowledged as a key driver for economic development.
Economics of Hydrogen
Authors: Robinius Martin , Cerniauskas Simonas , Madlener Reinhard , Kockel Christina , Praktiknjo Aaron , Stolten Detlef 
Published: May 2022

AbstractRobinius et al. provide valuable information needed for a discussion of the potential role of hydrogen for decarbonizing energy systems. They first discuss major technical and economic characteristics of hydrogen supply systems, followed by potential end-use applications of hydrogen fuels of different origin (“color coding”), fuel supply cost estimates, and an overview of the various hydrogen production, supply, and storage options. Hydrogen-related policy and regulatory aspects are discussed as well as safety and public acceptance issues. Finally, it deals with the willingness to pay of consumers for different alternative fuel vehicle characteristics. The review concludes by arguing that “green hydrogen” is widely accepted among consumers, that costs are expected to decline rapidly with the market diffusion of hydrogen technologies, and that policymakers’ and business interest is presently on the rise.
Economics of Power Generation
Authors: Hafner Manfred , Luciani Giacomo 
Published: May 2022

AbstractThis chapter provides an introduction to the economics of electricity generation, presenting the major economic differences between the multiple power generation solutions and highlighting the comparative advantages and disadvantages of each. In order to provide a satisfactory treatment of power generation technology and economics, a single chapter would have expanded beyond a practical dimension: accordingly the discussion has been divided into a general introduction and a sequence of specific chapters each devoted to a different generation solution: thermal power based on fossil fuels (coal, oil, and gas), thermal power based on nuclear fission, hydroelectricity chapter, solar power, wind power, geothermal power, and power from tides and waves. The present introductory chapter explains where on the load curve the different power generation options should be placed depending on costs, the issue of dispatchability, as well as the difference in the economic cost approach between dispatching and future capacity planning. Also flexibility mechanisms to integrate a large share of non-dispatchable renewable energy sources are discussed. Finally, issues related to space occupation and locational constraints are addressed.
Charged moments in W3 higher spin holography
Authors: Zhao Suting , Northe Christian , Weisenberger Konstantin , Meyer René 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
We consider the charged moments in SL(3, ℝ) higher spin holography, as well as in the dual two-dimensional conformal field theory with W3 symmetry. For the vacuum state and a single entangling interval, we show that the W3 algebra of the conformal field theory induces an entanglement W3 algebra acting on the quantum state in the entangling interval. The algebra contains a spin 3 modular charge which commutes with the modular Hamiltonian. The reduced density matrix is characterized by the modular energy and modular charge, hence our definition of the charged moments is also with respect to these conserved quantities. We evaluate the logarithm of the charged moments perturbatively in the spin 3 modular chemical potential, by computing the corresponding connected correlation functions of the modular charge operator up to quartic order in the chemical potential. This method provides access to the charged moments without using charged twist fields. Our result matches known results for the charged moment obtained from the charged topological black hole picture in SL(3, ℝ) higher spin gravity. Since our charged moments are not Gaussian in the chemical potential any longer, we conclude that the dual W3 conformal field theories must feature breakdown of equipartition of entanglement to leading order in the large c expansion.
Four-derivative corrections to minimal gauged supergravity in five dimensions
Authors: Liu James T. , Saskowski Robert J. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
We study four-derivative corrections to pure $$ \mathcal{N} $$
N
= 2, D = 5 gauged supergravity. In particular, we find that, up to field redefinitions, there is a single four-derivative superinvariant that one can add to the action, up to factors of the two-derivative action. Consequently, this selects out a unique set of coefficients for the four-derivative corrections. We confirm these coefficients (in the ungauged limit) on the BMPV solution.
Consistent and non-consistent deformations of gravitational theories
Authors: Barbero G. J. Fernando , Basquens Marc , Díaz Bogar , Villaseñor Eduardo J. S. 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
We study the internally abelianized version of a range of gravitational theories, written in connection tetrad form, and study the possible interaction terms that can be added to them in a consistent way. We do this for 2+1 and 3+1 dimensional models. In the latter case we show that the Cartan-Palatini and Holst actions are not consistent deformations of their abelianized versions. We also show that the Husain-Kuchař and Euclidean self-dual actions are consistent deformations of their abelianized counterparts. This suggests that if the latter can be quantized, it could be possible to devise a perturbative scheme leading to the quantization of Euclidean general relativity along the lines put forward by Smolin in the early nineties.
Renormalization of gluonic leading-twist operators in covariant gauges
Authors: Falcioni Giulio , Herzog Franz 
Published: May 2022

Abstract
We provide the all-loop structure of gauge-variant operators required for the renormalisation of Green’s functions with insertions of twist-two operators in Yang-Mills theory. Using this structure we work out an explicit basis valid up to 4-loop order for an arbitrary compact simple gauge group. To achieve this we employ a generalised gauge symmetry, originally proposed by Dixon and Taylor, which arises after adding to the Yang-Mills Lagrangian also operators proportional to its equation of motion. Promoting this symmetry to a generalised BRST symmetry allows to generate the ghost operator from a single exact operator in the BRST-generalised sense. We show that our construction complies with the theorems by Joglekar and Lee. We further establish the existence of a generalised anti-BRST symmetry which we employ to derive non-trivial relations among the anomalous dimension matrices of ghost and equation-of-motion operators. For the purpose of demonstration we employ the formalism to compute the N = 2, 4 Mellin moments of the gluonic splitting function up to 4 loops and its N = 6 Mellin moment up to 3 loops, where we also take advantage of additional simplifications of the background field formalism.
Endocytic trafficking of GAS6–AXL complexes is associated with sustained AKT activation
Authors: Poświata Agata , Kozik Kamila , Miączyńska Marta , Zdżalik-Bielecka Daria 
Published: May 2022

AbstractAXL, a TAM receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK), and its ligand growth arrest-specific 6 (GAS6) are implicated in cancer metastasis and drug resistance, and cellular entry of viruses. Given this, AXL is an attractive therapeutic target, and its inhibitors are being tested in cancer and COVID-19 clinical trials. Still, astonishingly little is known about intracellular mechanisms that control its function. Here, we characterized endocytosis of AXL, a process known to regulate intracellular functions of RTKs. Consistent with the notion that AXL is a primary receptor for GAS6, its depletion was sufficient to block GAS6 internalization. We discovered that upon receptor ligation, GAS6–AXL complexes were rapidly internalized via several endocytic pathways including both clathrin-mediated and clathrin-independent routes, among the latter the CLIC/GEEC pathway and macropinocytosis. The internalization of AXL was strictly dependent on its kinase activity. In comparison to other RTKs, AXL was endocytosed faster and the majority of the internalized receptor was not degraded but rather recycled via SNX1-positive endosomes. This trafficking pattern coincided with sustained AKT activation upon GAS6 stimulation. Specifically, reduced internalization of GAS6–AXL upon the CLIC/GEEC downregulation intensified, whereas impaired recycling due to depletion of SNX1 and SNX2 attenuated AKT signaling. Altogether, our data uncover the coupling between AXL endocytic trafficking and AKT signaling upon GAS6 stimulation. Moreover, our study provides a rationale for pharmacological inhibition of AXL in antiviral therapy as viruses utilize GAS6–AXL-triggered endocytosis to enter cells.
‘Investing’ in care for old age? An examination of long-term care expenditure dynamics and its spillovers
Authors: Costa-Font Joan , Vilaplana-Prieto Cristina 
Published: May 2022

AbstractWe study the dynamic drivers of expenditure on long-term care (LTC) programmes, and more specifically, the effects of labour market participation of traditional unpaid caregivers (women aged 40 and older) on LTC spending, alongside the spillover effects of a rise in LTC expenditure on health care expenditures (HCE) and the economy (per capita GDP). Our estimates draw from a panel of more than a decade worth of expenditure data from a sample of OECD countries. We use a panel vector auto-regressive (panel-VAR) system that considers the dynamics between the dependent variables. We find that LTC expenditure increases with the rise of the labour market participation of the traditional unpaid caregiver (women over 40 years of age), and that such expenditures rise exerts large spillover effects on health spending and the economy. We find that a 1% increase in female labour participation gives rise to a 1.48% increase in LTC expenditure and a 0.88% reduction in HCE. The effect of LTC spending over HCE is mainly driven by a reduction in inpatient and medicine expenditures, exhibiting large country heterogeneity. Finally, we document significant spillover effects of LTC expenditures on per capita GDP.
Numerical simulation of transverse compression and densification of wood
Authors: Yan Shi , Eichhorn Stephen J. , Toumpanaki Eleni 
Published: May 2022

AbstractDensification is commonly adopted to increase the mechanical performance of wood, but research on the micromechanical behaviour of the material during transverse compression is limited. Robust numerical models will enable better predictions of the performance of wood during compression and optimise the manufacturing process of densified wood minimising experimentation. The densification stress–strain response of wood after chemical treatment is reported via numerical simulations. A 3D finite element model of wood microstructure is studied under transverse compression using ABAQUS/Explicit software. A lower cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin content in the chemically treated wood is considered in the material parameters of the cell wall, and an ideal elastoplastic material model is used to represent the nonlinear stress–strain response. Parametric studies regarding the cell wall thickness, yield stress and chemical treatment are also considered. The numerical predictions agree well with microscopy studies of densified wood, and the nominal stress–strain curve obtained is similar to experimental findings under transverse compression as found in the literature. The cell wall thickness and yield stress are found to significantly affect the compressive stress–strain response of wood.
Ecosystem engineering kelp limits recruitment of mussels and microphytobenthic algae
Authors: Shelamoff Victor , Umanzor Schery , Layton Cayne , Tatsumi Masayuki , Cameron Matthew J. , Wright Jeffrey T. , Johnson Craig R. 
Published: May 2022

AbstractEcosystem engineers often exert strong effects on the recruitment of other species through modification of the local abiotic and biotic environment. In 2015, artificial reefs in eastern Tasmania (− 42.64693, 148.01481) spanning seven different patch sizes (0.12–7.68 m2) and supporting four densities of transplanted kelp (Ecklonia radiata at 0, 4.1, 8.2 and 16.4 kelp m−2) were used to determine how the patch size and density of this ecosystem engineer influenced the recruitment of microphytobenthic (MPB) algae, and a secondary ecosystem engineer, the mussel Mytilus galloprovincialis. Increasing kelp density and patch size inhibited the establishment of subcanopy MPB algae on settlement slides and reduced the recruitment of mussels in standardised rope fibre habitats (RFHs). The productivity:biomass ratio (P:B) of mussel recruits tended to be lower on small reefs and reefs without kelp, relative to larger reefs with high densities of kelp. Canopy shading and reduced cover of turf algae appeared to negatively impact the recruitment of MPB algae and mussels, whilst reduced sediment accumulation on the reefs due to the kelp was also negatively associated with mussel recruitment. These findings highlight the role of ecosystem engineering by kelp in inhibiting the establishment of other species which may additionally impact community dynamics and primary and secondary productivity. The limited capacity of small kelp patches to inhibit the recruitment of other organisms supports the notion that fragmented patches of ecosystem engineers could be more suspectable to adverse outcomes from species interactions making them less resistant to shifts towards an alternative ecosystem state.