bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
406-P: Effects of Butyrate Supplementation on Inflammation and Kidney Parameters in Type 1 Diabetes—A Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled Trial
Authors: TOUGAARD NINNA H. , FRIMODT-MOELLER MARIE , SALMENKARI HANNE , STOUGAARD ELISABETH BUUR , MATTILA ISMO , HANSEN TINE W. , LEGIDO-QUIGLEY CRISTINA , HÖRKKÖ SOHVI , FORSBLOM CAROL , GROOP PER-HENRIK , LEHTO MARKKU , ROSSING PETER 
Published: May 2022

Background: Fecal calprotectin, a marker of inflammation, is increased in persons with type 1 diabetes (T1D) and kidney disease. This may be explained by a reduction of butyrate-producing bacterial species in the gut. Butyrate supplementation has beneficial effects on intestinal inflammation in inflammatory bowel disease but has never been tested in persons with T1D.
Objective: To assess the effect of sodium butyrate on fecal calprotectin and other inflammatory markers, kidney parameters, hba1c and gastrointestinal symptoms in persons with T1D and intestinal inflammation.
Methods: Randomized placebo-controlled, double-blind, parallel clinical study including 53 participants with T1D, albuminuria and intestinal inflammation (elevated fecal calprotectin) . Participants were assigned to receive 3.6 g sodium butyrate daily (n=28) or placebo (n=25) for 12 weeks. Primary endpoint was fecal calprotectin changes, and additional outcomes were fecal short chain fatty acids, intestinal alkaline phosphatase activity and immunoglobulins; serum lipopolysaccharide, serum C-reactive protein, albuminuria, kidney function, hba1c and gastrointestinal symptoms.
Results: Mean age of the participants was 54±13 years, 43% were women, diabetes duration was 30±15 years and median [Q1:Q3] urinary albumin excretion was 46 [14:121] mg/g. Median fecal calprotectin in the butyrate group was 48 [26:100] μg/g at baseline and change was -1.0 [-20:10] μg/g, the median in the placebo group was 61 [25:139] μg/g at baseline and change was -12 [-95:1] μg/g. Difference in change between groups was not significant (p=0.24) . Neither did we find an effect of butyrate compared to placebo on the other fecal and circulating inflammatory markers, kidney parameters, hba1c or gastrointestinal symptoms.
Conclusion: Oral butyrate supplementation for 12 weeks did not reduce fecal calprotectin in persons with T1D and intestinal inflammation.

Disclosure
N.H.Tougaard: None. P.Groop: Advisory Panel; Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Other Relationship; Astellas Pharma Inc., AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Mundipharma, Speaker's Bureau; Medscape. M.Lehto: None. P.Rossing: Consultant; Astellas Pharma Inc., AstraZeneca, Bayer AG, Gilead Sciences, Inc., Merck Sharp & Dohme Corp., Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi, Speaker's Bureau; Eli Lilly and Company. M.Frimodt-moeller: None. H.Salmenkari: None. E.Buur stougaard: Other Relationship; Novo Nordisk. I.Mattila: None. T.W.Hansen: Stock/Shareholder; Novo Nordisk A/S. C.Legido-quigley: None. S.Hörkkö: None. C.Forsblom: None.
410-P: Preoperative Diabetes Optimization and Clinical Outcomes
Authors: MENDEZ CARLOS E. , WALKER REBEKAH J. , GARACCI EMMA , PFEIFER KURT 
Published: May 2022

A diabetes optimization pathway for elective surgical patients with uncontrolled diabetes (A1c&gt; 8%) has been in place at our institution for the last 5 years. Although we reported on improvement in glucose control before surgery in patients undergoing the intervention, impact on longer-term clinical outcomes was not known. We extracted EPIC medical record data for adult surgical patients in the diabetes optimization program between January 2016 and October 2021 (n=85) . The control group had uncontrolled diabetes and underwent surgery but had no intervention (n=1,111) . Logistic regression, GLM and Cox proportional hazard models were used to investigate relationship with 30 day complications, glucose at surgery, and overall mortality. Table 1 shows bivariate comparisons for the study cohort. The rates of perioperative complications were numerically lower in the intervention group, however, were not statistically significant. Unadjusted regression analyses found significantly lower glucose at surgery (β =-14.19, 95% CI=-27.94,-0.43) , and significantly lower hazard ratio for overall mortality (HR=0.34, 95% CI=0.13,0.93) for the intervention. After adjusting for demographics, clinical risk, and comorbidities, only glucose at surgery maintained significance (β =-16.89, 95% CI=-30.83,-2.95) . Prospective studies or a larger sample may be needed to confirm findings.

Disclosure
C.E.Mendez: Advisory Panel; Monarch Medical Technologies . R.J.Walker: None. E.Garacci: None. K.Pfeifer: None.
411-P: Potential to Utilize DNA Methylation as a Biomarker to Predict Major Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) Risk in Type 1 Diabetes (T1D)
Authors: MILLER RACHEL G. , MYCHALECKYJ JOSYF , ONENGUT-GUMUSCU SUNA , ORCHARD TREVOR J. , COSTACOU TINA 
Published: May 2022

DNA methylation (DNAme) has been associated with risk of future CAD in the general population and is a potential target for pharmacological intervention. In T1D, DNAme has been associated with microvascular complications but its association with CAD has not been examined in this high risk population. Thus, we performed an epigenome-wide association study (EWAS) of DNAme and 28-year major CAD (CAD death, nonfatal myocardial infarction) incidence in an observational T1D cohort. Whole blood DNAme was assayed via Illumina EPIC beadchip in the Pittsburgh Epidemiology of Diabetes Complications (EDC) study of childhood onset (&lt;17 years) T1D (n=400; mean age 29, T1D duration 21 yrs) . After quality control DNAme at 683,597 CpGs was analyzed in Cox models for time-to-CAD, adjusting for T1D duration, sex, smoking pack-years, estimated blood cell composition, and technical/batch covariates. Over 28 years 102 (25%) developed major CAD. DNAme at two CpGs was associated with lower CAD risk: cg06125996 (Chr 5, NLN; log HR per 5% DNAme= -1.10, p=6.0e-11) and cg051638 (Chr 9, CARD9; log HR= -0.97, p=1.2e-08) . Other associations with FDR&lt;5% included CpGs in MRPS21, ZNF428, PCMTD1, and LYRM4. KEGG pathway analysis of all CpGs with FDR&lt;10% (n=44) suggested enrichment for renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system, lipid metabolism, and immune system pathways. In GWAS we identified methylation quantitative trait loci (QTL) associated with DNAme at cg06125996 and cg05163804, three of which were annotated as expression QTLs in GTEx including SNPs in genes involved in insulin receptor signaling (SIK2) and cytokine activity (CMTM2, CMTM4) , and calcium ion binding (EFHB) . DNAme was not correlated with cross-sectional HbA1c at either CpG and adjusting for baseline HbA1c did not alter CpG-CAD associations. Our results demonstrate that DNAme may be an early marker of CAD risk in T1D, but the potential role of glycemic exposure in this association is unclear and warrants further study.

Disclosure
R.G.Miller: Stock/Shareholder; Becton, Dickinson and Company. J.Mychaleckyj: None. S.Onengut-gumuscu: None. T.J.Orchard: None. T.Costacou: None.

Funding
American Diabetes Association (1-19-JDF-109) ; NIH/NIDDK R01-DK034818, Rossi Memorial Fund
417-P: Prevalence of Nonalcoholic Fatty Liver Disease (NAFLD) in Children with Type 1 Diabetes (T1D) and Its Association with Arterial Stiffness
Authors: ZEIAD RAWAH , CRESPO MARICRUZ , WOOD JAMIE R. , FARRELL RYAN M. 
Published: May 2022

Background: Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is the most common chronic liver disease in children. NAFLD has become increasingly recognized in pediatric populations with type 1 diabetes (T1D) . Also, NAFLD is emerging as an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) . Arterial stiffness is an index of subclinical atherosclerosis and can predict cardiovascular events and mortality.
Objectives: The aim of this pilot study was to estimate the prevalence of NAFLD in children with T1D and to examine the relationship between NAFLD and arterial stiffness.
Subjects and Methods: A cross-sectional pilot study of 18 children (age 7-20 years) with a diagnosis of T1D for at least 5 years without secondary causes of chronic liver disease. The main study measures included: 1. Detection of fatty liver in children with T1D measured by controlled attenuation parameter (CAP) using FibroScan and 2. Measurement of arterial stiffness by pulse wave velocity (PWV) using SphygmoCor. We also aimed to measure hepatic fibrosis by FibroScan and insulin sensitivity (IS) by using a validated surrogate marker.
Results: The prevalence of NAFLD was approximately 19% of study participants. We found positive correlations between CAP and PWV values, which suggests higher arterial stiffness with higher degree of fatty liver. Median PWV was higher in participants with steatosis compared to those without steatosis, 6.vs. 6.5 m/s. We also found negative correlations between IS and both arterial stiffness and steatosis (R=-0.56, p=0.038) , (R=-0.56, p=0.063) , respectively.
Conclusions: Our findings suggest that NAFLD is common in participants with T1D and in this study was associated with higher arterial stiffness. Our study is consistent with previously reported associations between decreased IS and presence of microvascular complications. Larger randomized controlled trials are required to evaluate whether NAFLD predicts the incidence of CVD events in T1D.

Disclosure
R.Zeiad: None. M.Crespo: None. J.R.Wood: Research Support; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Insulet Corporation, MannKind Corporation. R.M.Farrell: Stock/Shareholder; Dexcom, Inc., Tandem Diabetes Care, Inc.

Funding
18117-FRAP 2020-21
419-P: Chronic Kidney Disease, Type 2 Diabetes, and the Risk of Major Cardiovascular Events in Coronary Artery Disease vs. Peripheral Artery Disease Patients
Authors: SPRENGER LUKAS , MAECHLER MAXIMILIAN , VONBANK ALEXANDER , LARCHER BARBARA , MADER ARTHUR , LEIHERER ANDREAS , MUENDLEIN AXEL , DREXEL HEINZ , SAELY CHRISTOPH H. 
Published: May 2022

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a paramount indicator of cardiovascular risk and is highly prevalent in patients with established cardiovascular disease, especially among those with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) . Peripheral artery disease (PAD) confers an even higher risk than coronary artery disease (CAD) . How cardiovascular risk compares between PAD and CAD patients when analyses are stratified by the presence of CKD is unclear and is addressed in the present study.
We prospectively recorded major cardiovascular events (MACE) over 10.0±4.7 years in 1356 patients who had stable CAD, of whom 18.4% had CKD, and in 382 patients with PAD, of whom 20.9% had CKD. Four groups were analyzed: CAD patients without CKD (CAD/CKD-; n=1106) , CAD patients with CKD (CAD/CKD+; n=250) , PAD patients without CKD (PAD/CKD-; n=316) and PAD patients with CKD (PAD/CKD+; n=66) .
The incidence of MACE was lowest in CAD/CKD- patients (27.2%) and significantly higher in CAD/CKD+ patients (49.6%; p&lt;0.001) , in PAD/CKD- patients (40.9%; p&lt;0.001) , and in PAD/CKD+ patients (56.9%; p&lt;0.001) , who in turn were at a higher risk than CAD/CKD+ or PAD/CKD- patients (p=0.015 and p&lt;0.001, respectively) . The risk of MACE did not differ significantly between CAD/CKD+ and PAD/CKD- patients (p=0.063) . In Cox regression analysis after multivariate adjustment including gender, age, BMI, hypertension, history of smoking, LDL-C, and HDL-C the presence of PAD versus CAD (HR=1.51 [1.25-1.84]; p&lt;0.001) , CKD (HR=1.85 [1.51- 2.26]; p&lt;0.001) and T2DM (HR=1.53 [1.29-1.83; p&lt;0.001) were mutually independent predictors of MACE.
We conclude that CKD, T2DM and the presence of PAD versus CAD are mutually independent predictors of MACE.

Disclosure
L.Sprenger: None. M.Maechler: None. A.Vonbank: None. B.Larcher: None. A.Mader: None. A.Leiherer: None. A.Muendlein: None. H.Drexel: None. C.H.Saely: None.
422-P: Predictive Role of Triglyceride-Glucose Index on All-Cause Mortality and Incidence of Vascular Events in Type 2 Diabetes (T2D) : A 13-Year Follow-Up Observational Study
Authors: GAROFOLO MONIA , LUCCHESI DANIELA , GUALDANI ELISA , FALCETTA PIERPAOLO , GIAMBALVO MASSIMO , FRANCESCONI PAOLO , DEL PRATO STEFANO , PENNO GIUSEPPE 
Published: May 2022

Triglyceride glucose index (TyG-i) is an alternative marker of insulin resistance and an independent predictor of CV events; yet its prognostic value in T2D remains poorly assessed.A cohort of 961 T2D was followed-up for 13.1±2.8 years. Vital status was retrieved on December 31, 2017 and data for CV events were available for 947 of them. TyG-i [ln (fasting triglycerides (mg/dL) x fasting glucose (mg/dL) / 2) ] was calculated at baseline and divided in tertiles (thresholds: 8.97 and 9.51) . Events were assessed by Kaplan-Meier (K-M) curves and HRs (95% CI) by unadjusted and adjusted Cox regressions (Cox-r) in TyG-i tertiles.At follow-up, 229 (23.8%) subjects died (18.25 x 1000 PYs) ; CV events occurred in 273 (28.8%; 25.68 x 1000 PYs) , coronary events (CHD) in 181 (19.1%; 16.20 x 1000 PYs) , hospitalization for heart failure (hHF) in 82 (8.7%; 6.79 x 1000 PYs) , cerebrovascular events (CVE) in 1 (10.7%) , peripheral vascular events (PVE) in 39 (4.1%) , ESRD in 71 subjects (7.5%; 5.87 x 1000 PYs) . On K-M, CVD (24.2%, 25.6% and 36.7%; p=0.001) and CHD (14.5%, 17.1% and 25.9%; p=0.001) increased with TyG-i. All other outcomes increased across tertiles in a not significant manner. On unadjusted Cox-r, cumulative incidence of CV events and CHD increased significantly across TyG-i tertiles (T3 vs. T1) for major CVD (HR 1.65, 95% CI 1.24-2.20, p=0.001) and CHD (1.91, 1.33-2.74, p&lt;0.00for) , or marginally for PVD (1.99, 0.93-4.29, p=0.078) . After adjusting for age, diabetes duration, age at diagnosis, sex, BMI, active smoking, HbA1c, uric acid, fibrinogen, hypertension, dyslipidemia, prior CVD, CKD, retinopathy and neuropathy, HRs still increased with TyG-i for CV events (T3 vs. T1, 1.96, 95% CI 1.44-2.67, p&lt;0.0001) , and CHD (T3 vs. T1, 2.03, 1.40-2.93, p&lt;0.0001) .
In conclusion, TyG-i was significantly and independently associated with CVD and CHD, suggesting that it may be a simple yet valid marker for risk stratification in T2D.

Disclosure
M.Garofolo: Employee; Eli Lilly and Company. D.Lucchesi: None. E.Gualdani: None. P.Falcetta: Speaker's Bureau; Abbott Diabetes. M.Giambalvo: None. P.Francesconi: None. S.Del prato: Advisory Panel; Applied Therapeutics, Eli Lilly and Company, Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, Novo Nordisk A/S, Sanofi, Consultant; Menarini Group, Research Support; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Speaker's Bureau; AstraZeneca, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Eli Lilly and Company, Merck & Co., Inc., Sanofi, Stock/Shareholder; Novo Nordisk A/S. G.Penno: Advisory Panel; Eli Lilly and Company.
439-P: Disparate Effects of Menopause on Cardiovascular Risk in Women with Type 1 Diabetes
Authors: WISE HALEY K. , MALECHA EMILY , CHARTIER-LOGAN CATHERINE J. , PYLE LAURA , KESHAWARZ AMENA , SNELL-BERGEON JANET K. 
Published: May 2022

Introduction: Women with type 1 diabetes (T1D) are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease (CVD) , and menopause increases CVD risk. However, little is known about menopause and CVD risk in T1D.
Methods: Women with (N=64) and without T1D (n=63) ages 47-55 years were examined for CVD risk factors and surrogate CVD markers: pulse wave velocity (PWV) , augmentation pressure (AP) and pulse height (PH) , brachial artery distensibility (BrachD) , and subendocardial viability index (SVI) . Body composition was measured by Dual Xray Absorptiometry. Menopausal status was determined by self-report. CVD markers were examined by diabetes and menopausal status using linear regression models adjusted for age.
Results: Mean ± SD age was 51±2.5 years in women with T1D and 51 ± 2.4 years in women without diabetes (p=0.32) . The percentage postmenopausal did not differ (30% vs. 32%, p=0.8) between T1D and nondiabetes women. As shown in the table, women with T1D had higher systolic blood pressure and measures of arterial stiffness (PWV, AP, PH, and BrachD) and lower SVI than women without diabetes. Menopause was associated with a greater loss in fat free mass and a greater increase in PWV and AP among women with T1D compared to women without diabetes.
Conclusions: Women with T1D have worse CVD markers, and menopause is associated with greater increases in arterial stiffness and loss in lean body mass than in nondiabetes women, independent of age.

Disclosure
H.K.Wise: None. E.Malecha: None. C.J.Chartier-logan: None. L.Pyle: None. A.Keshawarz: None. J.K.Snell-bergeon: Stock/Shareholder; GlaxoSmithKline plc.

Funding
American Diabetes Association (7-13-CD-10)
443-P: Structural Echocardiographic Abnormalities in T2D: Mexico Cohort of Take Care of Me Program
Authors: SAHAGÚN-SÁNCHEZ GUILLERMO , BHOGRAJ CHARIT , GUTIÉRREZ-FAJARDO PEDRO , RODRIGUEZ-VALADEZ FLORISA , LAVALLE-GONZALEZ FERNANDO J. , VAZQUEZ-MENDEZ ESTEFANIA , MEZA-LEDEZMA OMAR 
Published: May 2022

Rationale: Due to gaps in detecting subclinical cardiac abnormalities in T2D, we evaluated prevalence and clinical manifestations of early echocardiographic (echo) abnormalities in primary care in Mexico.
Methods: Mexico cohort of the ongoing ‘Take CaRe of Me program’ enrolled 2760 people with T2D (between 7 Dec 2020 - Dec 2021) and no cardiorenal disease per index visit history. We present descriptive data of documented echo performed by cardiologists as routine clinical care (499) in high-risk T2D identified by Systematic Coronary Risk Evaluation (ESC 2019) .
Results: With mean age of 54.2±11.4 years, 55.4% were females and 189 patients (37.9%) had echo abnormalities — left ventricular hypertrophy (21%, 105) , left atrial enlargement (24.2%, 121) , diastolic dysfunction (6.8%, 34) , pulmonary hypertension (5.4%, 27) and valvular disease (4.8%, 24) . Substantial proportion of people with echo abnormalities had high or very high CV risk (Table) . Overall, 23 people had presumptive diagnosis of pre-HF based on symptoms and echo. Per documented data, 18 people had HF with preserved ejection fraction (EF) , 4 had mid-range EF and 1 had reduced EF.
Conclusion: Structural abnormalities are prevalent in 37.9% of people with T2D referred for an echo, even in absence of symptoms. Timely diagnosis of silent structural heart abnormalities in T2D is an opportunity for using novel cardiorenal pharmacotherapy for preventing HF.

Disclosure
G.Sahagún-sánchez: None. C.Bhograj: None. P.Gutiérrez-fajardo: None. F.Rodriguez-valadez: None. F.J.Lavalle-gonzalez: Speaker's Bureau; Abbott Diagnostics, AstraZeneca, Bayer AG, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Eli Lilly and Company, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Novo Nordisk, Sanofi, Servier Laboratories. E.Vazquez-mendez: None. O.Meza-ledezma: None.

Funding
The preparation of the abstract was funded by AstraZeneca Pharma Limited.
444-P: Associations of LDL-C with New-Onset Coronary Artery Disease (CAD) According to HDL-C Levels and Glucose Status
Authors: YAMADA MAYUKO H. 
Published: May 2022

Whereas elevated LDL-C is a major risk factor for CAD, the inverse association between HDL-C levels and risk of CAD is well-known. Although insulin resistance and glucose intolerance are associated with low HDL-C levels, it is not clear whether the association of LDL-C with CAD differs depending on glucose status and HDL-C values. We examined associations of LDL-C with new-onset CAD according to HDL-C and glucose status using a nationwide claims database on 600,6individuals during 2008-20with no history of CAD. Cox proportional hazards model identified risks of CAD events among combinations of tertiles of HDL-C and sextiles of LDL-C according to glucose status. During a mean follow-up period of 5.6 years, 2,391 CAD events occurred. CAD risk increased from lower LDL-C levels accompanied by lower HDL-C levels regardless of glucose status (Table) . Compared with the highest tertile of HDL-C and lowest sextile of LDL-C, groups with the highest tertile of HDL-C and highest sextile of LDL-C and the lowest tertile of HDL-C and highest sextile of LDL-C had approximately 4-fold and 9-fold, respectively, increased risks of CAD regardless of glucose status. Despite the necessity of a lower LDL-C target for people with than without diabetes, our results demonstrated that the necessity of modulating the LDL-C target according to HDL-C levels is not affected by concomitant diabetes.

Disclosure
M.H.Yamada: None.
45-OR: Less Favorable Response to Anti-VEGF Therapy in Patients with Diabetic Macular Edema and Decreased Baseline Outer Retinal Layer Thickness
Authors: MITZNER MARGALIT G. , FICKWEILER WARD , ROBINSON DEVON B. , BOUMENNA TAHANI , AIELLO LLOYD P. , SUN JENNIFER 
Published: May 2022

Early identification of patients who are more likely to respond to anti-VEGF therapy for diabetic macular edema (DME) would improve patient management and allow for more rapid assessment of new therapeutic targets. This study evaluated retinal thickness variables and their association with anti-VEGF therapy response in patients with DME. We identified patients at the Joslin Diabetes Center who received their first anti-VEGF injection for DME between 1/2016-12/20 and assessed mean change in visual acuity (VA) and central retinal thickness (RT) at 6 mos. A good VA or RT response to anti-VEGF therapy was defined using thresholds of letter and retinal thickness change as follows: eyes with baseline VA of ≥20/32, ≥5 letters; 20/40-20/70, ≥letters; ≤20/80, ≥15 letters and eyes with baseline RT of &lt;375µm, &gt;10%; 375-449µm, &gt;20%; &gt;449µm, &gt;25%. A total of 151 eyes from 126 patients fell into the following responder groups: both VA and RT response (32.5%) , only VA response (21.9%) or RT response (11.3%) , and neither VA nor RT response (34.4%) , with 57.0% of all eyes exhibiting VA response and 43.7% exhibiting RT response. While diabetes duration, A1c, and blood pressure were not associated with responder group, decreased baseline thickness of the outer retinal layer (ORL) was more likely to be present in eyes with neither VA nor RT response (β=-.018; 95% CI -0.03 to -0.01; P=.006) . Improvement in mean VA was associated with younger age (β=.004; 95% CI 0.001-0.007; P=.01) . Decreased baseline ORL thickness (β=-.003; 95% CI -0.0to -0.001; P=.01) and increased baseline inner retinal layer (IRL) thickness (β=.0004; 95% CI 0.0001-0.0007; P=.02) were associated with less VA gain at 6 mos. These findings suggest that decreased baseline ORL thickness is associated with less favorable outcome after anti-VEGF therapy and may be a potential biomarker for treatment response in patients with DME.

Disclosure
M.G.Mitzner: None. W.Fickweiler: None. D.B.Robinson: None. T.Boumenna: None. L.P.Aiello: Consultant; KalVista Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Novo Nordisk, Stock/Shareholder; KalVista Pharmaceuticals, Inc. J.Sun: Consultant; American Diabetes Association, American Medical Association, Research Support; Adaptive Sensory Technology, Boehringer Ingelheim International GmbH, Genentech, Inc., Jaeb Center for Health Research, Janssen Pharmaceuticals, Inc., Novartis Pharmaceuticals Corporation, Novo Nordisk, Optovue, Incorporated, Physical Sciences, Inc, Roche Pharmaceuticals.

Funding
American Diabetes Association (7-21-PDF-022) ; National Eye Institute (R01EYE26080-01) ; National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases and National Institutes of Health (DP3-DK-094333-01) ; JDRF (17-2013-310) ; The Dianne Nunnally Hoppes Fund; The Beatson Pledge Fund