bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Democracy's Child
Authors: Gash Alison L. , Tichenor Daniel J. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Democracy’s Child places young people at the heart of pivotal conflicts, decisions, and transformations in US politics. From the March for Our Lives and Black Lives Matter, to Gay Straight Alliances and the Dreamer and Sunrise movements, the prominence of young people as agents of change are unmistakable in contemporary political life. Yet as the book shows, these movements reflect a long history of youth political mobilization and leadership, including Progressive Era labor organizing and 1960s civil rights and anti-war activism. Children also are crucial subjects of government and adult control, inspiring contention in nearly every realm of public policy, such as education, social welfare, abortion, gun control, immigration, civil rights and liberties, and criminal justice. And young people are regularly leveraged in political life as influential symbols of innocence and deviance, or treated as political collateral (as the spectacle of “kids in cages” under the Trump administration’s “family separation” policy vividly captures). In a narrative that ranges from history and law to young adult literature, Democracy’s Child reveals why the control, leveraging, and agency of young people shapes and defines our political landscape. Along the way, the book provides information about age or childhood as a potent category that combines with gender, race, class, immigration status, or sexual orientation to produce powerful systems of privilege or disadvantage.
Natural Law and Ethical Necessity
Authors: Sachedina Abdulaziz 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The chapter undertakes to further establish a natural connection between juridical methodology and Islamic ethics in interpretive jurisprudence. It elaborates juridical theology based on humanity’s equality in decoding the basic moral law infused in human nature through reason. Islamic political theology, with its goal of establishing a just public order, laid the doctrinal groundwork for the Muslim community to work toward reaching a consensus about the need for a peaceful and just relationship with other faith communities on the basis of common human nature under the universal divine law of justice. Nonetheless, even though coercion in the matter of one’s choice of spiritual path was ruled out, the Qur’an did not overlook the necessity of providing some workable principle like universal human nature (fit}ra) to serve as a foundation for what is good and what we ought to do to manage just interhuman relations.
The Ethics of Interpretive Jurisprudence
Authors: Sachedina Abdulaziz 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter relates law and ethics to highlight the ethical presuppositions of legal methodology. Legal theory derives its epistemology from philosophical theology and the critical study of traditional materials used to provide reliable textual information to formulate judicial decisions. Philosophical theology (kala&gt;m) and juridical methodology have undertaken to relate ethics to divinely ordained orthopraxy as a major part of justificatory reasoning for the derivation of rulings dealing with social ethics. However, traditional revelation-based jurisprudence (al-ijtiha&gt;d al-shar‘ī) has adamantly resisted any suggestion that it needs to strike a partnership with and be guided by the secularity of interpretive ethics (al-ijtihad al-‘aqlī) to infer morally sound and universally applicable ethical and religious opinions.
Hellenism in the Distance
Authors: Kirkland N. Bryant 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter studies Herodotean evocations in Dio Chrysostom’s Borystheniticus (Or. 36). Although the Borystheniticus has long been recognized as situating itself in the Herodotean mold, this chapter argues that the Herodotean backdrop is far from straightforward; indeed, ambiguous hypotextual activations of Herodotus’s Scythian logos inflect the oration from start to finish and are essential to its meaning. The oration’s climax, in which Dio claims to quote a myth of the Persian Magi on the cycles of cosmic history, presents a world in flux, in echo of the historical cycles of Herodotus’s text, and permits the Magi to speak with historiographic authority. That the myth itself has been shown to be Greek, not Persian, ironizes the whole operation, allowing Dio to sound Herodotean while also rearticulating the Hellenic usurpation of alien wisdom.
Acts of God
Authors: Kirkland N. Bryant 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter analyzes Herodotean presences in Pausanias’s Periegesis with a particular focus on the reception of Herodotean views on divinity, fortune, and human happiness. It analyzes intratextual patterns in Herodotus before turning to Pausanias’s intertextual echoes of the same. It demonstrates how the interpretation of natural disasters in both writers shows their attempt to balance rationalizing inquiry with asseverations about the role of the divine. The chapter also reveals how Pausanias’s motifs of divine justice allow him to comment on the fate of prominent individuals such as Sulla as well as on collectivities and cities. The chapter ultimately argues that Pausanias’s structuring of his work according to Herodotean patterns leads to interpretive ambiguity: Pausanias’s Herodoteanism not only archaizes but also speaks obliquely to the future.
When Metaphor Becomes Myth
Authors: Lesch Charles H.T. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter revaluates Jean-Jacques Rousseau’s democratic theory of solidarity by revealing the religious sources behind his most important political concept: the “general will.” The chapter begins by probing Rousseau’s account of the causes of social pathology and his program for solidarity. It then examines Rousseau’s philosophy of free will and its relationship to the general will. Finally, it shows how Rousseau developed the general will by secularizing three concepts from the theologian Nicolas Malebranche: divine occasionalism becomes the act of voting; the “general will of God” becomes the “general will of the citizen”; and the “good of humanity” becomes the “good of the state.” Yet Rousseau’s political theology contains a religious remainder. As a theological concept, the general will rests on a model of divine agency. But no comparable form of agency can originate from the body politic. The result is a logical dependency of the general will on its theological origins that vitiates Rousseau’s democratic program for solidarity.
The Kernel of Unreason at the Heart of Enlightenment
Authors: Lesch Charles H.T. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter uncovers theological elements in Immanuel Kant’s ethical theory of solidarity by analyzing a core feature of his moral philosophy: spontaneity. By examining his unpublished, “silent decade” writings, the chapter demonstrates that Kant, far from abandoning his early interest in Rousseauian politics for pure philosophy, realized that the two were inexorably linked: he developed spontaneity not only to guarantee freedom, as is often argued, but also to better realize social solidarity. The chapter then shows how Kant assembled spontaneity by secularizing ideas from theology. Human spontaneity is like a miracle. And the source of that spontaneity—the self, or “I”—is like God. Finally, the chapter offers a new reading of Kant’s political theory, describing how he built a new theory of solidarity centered around spontaneity—“the ethical community”—in his late work on religion. It concludes by arguing that Kant’s political theology contains religious remainders that threaten its rational integrity.
The “Other” and the “I”
Authors: Lesch Charles H.T. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter offers a new reading of Emmanuel Levinas to develop solidarity as sacrifice, an original account of liberalism’s moral psychology and concept of the self. The chapter begins by uncovering the crucial place of Alexandre Kojève’s interpretation of Hegel for how Levinas diagnoses solidarity’s pathologies. Kojève reveals to Levinas that nonrational solidarity is both necessary for liberalism and dangerous. The chapter then illustrates how Levinas navigates this tension by turning to classical Jewish thought. First, he looks to medieval Jewish philosopher Moses Maimonides’ negative theology. By apprehending people as having their own kind of “holiness,” Levinas argues, we forge a solidarity that transcends reason without the dangers of irrationalism. Second, he draws from biblical ideas about sacrifice to develop a striking new theory of how the self develops. The “I,” Levinas insists, is something we must earn through concrete acts of sacrifice for other people. We develop moral personalities attuned to power asymmetries, committed to others, and sensitive to vulnerability.
Technology Transfer and Trade Tariffs
Authors: Orlik Thomas 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter points out that the destruction of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the U.S. in World War II pushed China’s rulers to develop their own nuclear capability. It elaborates how the threat of mutual destruction seen by China as the only guarantee against the threat of U.S. imperialism. It also recounts how China completed the march toward nuclear status by detonating a 22-kiloton device in in the deserts of Xinjiang in the Northwest of the country. The chapter highlights Hu Jintao’s inheritance of an economy primed for growth, outlining China’s entry into the World Trade Organisation, closure of thousands of state-owned enterprises, and clean-up of bad loans in the banking system. It details what China had done to move up the value chain, which was critical to sustaining its rise toward high income status.
The Bubble and the Virus
Authors: Orlik Thomas 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter refers to the time U.S. and China inked a “phase one” trade deal on January 15, 2020, which drew a line under years of rising tariffs and shrinking goodwill. It points out the strangeness of the year 2020 that started on a note of optimism but ended with the biggest loss of life since World War II and the biggest drop in global output since the Great Depression. It also recounts how President Donald Trump settled for forcing China to buy a few tons more soybeans and cubic meters of liquified natural gas as the hostilities of the trade war ended. The chapter discusses the price for the combination of reflexive secrecy and local incompetence that marred China’s initial response to the Covid crisis, which in the end proved heartbreakingly high. It details how the Chinese government aimed to monopolize information on the outbreak, reprimanding Dr. Li Wenliang.
Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine
Authors: Way Lucan Ahmad 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 5 discusses the (limited) democratic success of Georgia, Moldova, and Ukraine, and the oscillations between “democratic moments” and more authoritarian periods, which stem from a combination of three factors. First, authoritarian weakness has prevented the more hard-core authoritarian rulers from consolidating power. Potential autocrats have not been able to consistently rely on coercive forces to repress challengers, and their partisan support base has been fickle. Second, media and parties from the authoritarian periods have remained on the scene, ensuring that the opposition can spring back from temporary defeats. Third, although Russia has exerted pressure on these countries to enter its authoritarian sphere, a modicum of Western influence has made it costly for rulers to engage in the most egregious abuses of power.
The Puzzle of Timor-Leste
Authors: Bermeo Nancy 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 6 explores the situation in Timor-Leste, where democracy has survived as a result of changes to the polity and its leaders that took place over the course of a brief civil war and a long war for independence from Indonesia. First, the country’s anti-democratic political and economic elites were so brutalized by Indonesia’s occupation that they either disappeared from the scene or gave themselves over to a new, democratic mindset. Second, the independence struggle forged a unified and inclusive national identity that helped overcome the ethnic and ideological cleavages that had contributed to their prior vulnerability to Indonesian aggression. Third, the war gave rise to a broad array of heroic political leaders with viable electoral constituencies, resulting in a pluralistic post-independence political landscape. Finally, the exigencies of the national struggle forced militias to coalesce into a national army divorced from any one political party and subordinate to the authority of democratically elected leaders.
Meritocratic Empires?
Authors: Guha Sumit 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter argues that in South Asian governance ca.1600–1947, the creation of a meritocratic state that draws from talent across society was subordinated to more pressing issues of political management. The most important was ensuring compliance and fealty. The chapter briefly considers the place of merit, favor, and loyalty under three regimes: the Mughal Empire; the East India Company government that successfully took over the Mughal realm after 1760, and the British imperial administrative establishment created in the mid-nineteenth century. The basic structure of the British bureaucracy has been inherited by later governments in India and Pakistan in 1947.
Introduction
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter situates the debate within the Buddhist history of ideas and draws parallels with contemporary epistemology. It introduces the main protagonists: Taktsang Sherab Rinchen, Tsongkhapa, Khedrupjé, Panchen Losang Chögyen, Jamyang Shepa, Purchok Ngawang Jampa, Mikyö Dorjé, and Wangchuk Dorjé. It charts the fault lines in the debate and what’s at stake for Buddhist thought and practice, particularly the problems global error theory raises for any attempt to develop a coherent theory of knowledge. We begin with the Indian antecedents of the controversy, examining how disputes regarding the proper interpretation of Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti unfolded in India and then were transmitted and expanded in Tibet. The “A Word about Words” section analyses key terms in Sanskrit and Tibetan that will appear in the rest of the study: problems with translating them into English, their etymologies, and nuances that are crucial for understanding the implications of the stances adopted by the debate’s protagonists.
The Philosophical Issues at Stake
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines the significance of the debate sparked by Taktsang and subsequently pursued by his opponents and supporters, all of whom attempt to reconcile problems that arose in the interpretation of the doctrines of emptiness and the two truths. This task is crucially important for the enterprise of Buddhist philosophy and practice. What does it mean to describe relative (or conventional) truth as “truth,” given that all perceptions of ordinary beings are overlaid by fundamental error? If buddhas only perceive reality as it is, how could they share the erroneous cognitions of nonawakened beings? And if they do not know conventions, does this undermine the Buddhist doctrine of their omniscience (sarvajñatā)? We examine the implications of Taktsang’s “three contexts”—the unexamined and unanalyzed, slight analysis, and thorough analysis—and evaluate whether they are able to do the philosophical work he requires for his system of philosophy and practice.
The Gelukpas and Their Opponents
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter begins with an examination of the historical and political background of the controversy, particularly conflicts between Gelukpas and Sakyapas fighting for power in central Tibet. Following Tsongkhapa’s death in 1419, the Gelukpas became increasingly powerful, and they challenged the hegemony of the Sakyapas, who had ruled Tibet as regents of the Mongol Empire during the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The Karma Kagyüpas—who would later become key protagonists in the debate and would uphold and expand Taktsang’s critique—were also central players who opposed the Gelukpas philosophically and politically. We examine polemical moves by the Gelukpas, including a curious document attributed to Taktsang in which he purportedly recanted his youthful errors in attacking Tsongkhapa and identified himself as a devotee of the Geluk founder. This short work is only found in Gelukpa sources and appears to be an attempt to defang Taktsang’s challenge by insinuating that he came to recognize his errors and embrace Tsongkhapa’s system.
Panchen Losang Chökyi Gyaltsen’s Response
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines the first major Gelukpa response to Taktsang, Panchen Losang Chögyen’s Lion’s Roar of Scripture and Reasoning. We explore how he provides point-by-point rebuttals to each of Taktsang’s “contradictions.” We begin with an overview of the arguments put forward by both Taktsang and the Panchen Lama, and then evaluate how successful the latter is in his rebuttal. In a number of places he mischaracterizes Taktsang’s position or attributes to him ideas that he does not endorse or explicitly rejects. Nonetheless, much of the Panchen Lama’s response has philosophical traction, although he fails to score a definitive checkmate of his opponent. The Panchen Lama’s charge that Taktsang’s approach would lead to an antinomianism that is incompatible with Buddhist ethics and karma theory is particularly important: if there is no reliable truth, then how can ordinary beings have confidence in any judgments or in Buddhist principles?
From Three Contexts to None
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines treatises written by the eighth and ninth Karmapas, Mikyö Dorjé and Wangchuk Dorjé, in defense of Taktsang. Wangchuk Dorjé outlines a radical approach to Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka: Mādhyamikas hold no positions and only engage in debate through the use of reductio arguments. Even this statement is not a position, but rather a description of the Prāsaṅgika approach. Any statement is only made “from the perspective of others” and implies no philosophical or doctrinal commitments on the part of Mādhyamikas. Madhyamaka denies everything, and then rejects denial. No positive statement or philosophical claim can legitimately be part of Madhyamaka qua Madhyamaka.
Unforgotten Dreams
Authors: Yakherds The 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe focus of this chapter is Purchok Ngawang Jampa’s response to Taktsang. Purchok begins with an appeal to meditative experience: Taktsang, he claims, overestimated his own level of understanding, and this is the basis for his erroneous claims regarding Tsongkhapa’s system. Tsongkhapa was an emanation of Mañjuśrī (the bodhisattva of wisdom), and so was inerrant in his presentation of Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka; but Taktsang, as a beginner in meditation, failed to grasp the subtleties of Tsongkhapa’s philosophy. Purchok then moves to the most philosophically interesting parts of his response. He defends the notion that Prāsaṅgika is antifoundationalist and argues that valid knowledge of conventional reality can be found through nonfoundational epistemic instruments. Purchok adopts an “anthropological approach”: he relativizes warrant to the proper functioning of epistemic instruments. Epistemology is not prescriptive, but rather descriptive of the way we discuss and define justification.
How to Think Philosophically about the Status of Conventional Epistemic Warrants
Authors: Thabkhas Geshe Yeshes , Thakchöe Sonam , Duckworth Douglas , Garfield Jay L. , Powers John 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter was written by Geshé Yeshes Thabkhas, an eminent Gelukpa scholar and philosopher. He defends Tsongkhapa’s approach to epistemic warrants, incorporating points made by the other Geluk authors (Panchen Losang Chögyen, Jamyang Shepa, and Purchok Ngawang Jampa). He adopts a pragmatist approach to epistemic warrants: epistemic practices that consistently result in proper functioning and that are corroborated by subsequent experience tend to persist over time, while those that fail these tests are discarded. He analyzes the implications of the Buddhist understanding of conventional phenomena—that perceptions of them are overlaid with mistaken notions regarding their ontological status—but argues that this does not preclude the possibility of knowledge that is valid on the conventional level. Taktsang negates too much, and if one were to extend his ideas to their logical conclusions, effective action would become impossible, as would the Buddhist path.
Investigation into the Authenticity of Conventional Phenomena
Authors: Tsering Tashi 
Published: August 2022

AbstractIn this chapter, Khenpo Tashi Tsering, Dean of Sakya Studies of the Central Institute for Higher Tibetan Studies, defends Taktsang’s analysis of epistemic warrants and his characterization of antifoundationalist Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka. He builds on the arguments of Mikyö Dorjé and Wangchuk Dorjé and also incorporates key points from Gorampa Sönam Sengé’s presentation of Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka. He argues that when Nāgārjuna and Candrakīrti assert that they have no theses, we should take them at their word. This is precisely what antifoundationalism entails. Tsongkhapa’s attempt to merge the foundationalist epistemology of Dignāga and Dharmakīrti with Prāsaṅgika Madhyamaka is fundamentally misguided. There is no common standard of truth, as evidenced by the fact that different types of beings perceive their environments through the medium of their respective sense media.
The Fight for the Future
Authors: Moore Scott M. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Science, technology, and innovation have always been an essential part of China’s development strategy—including for the purposes of military modernization and state control. In the early twenty-first century this sustained investment began to pay off, as China partially closed the gap with developed economies in emerging fields such as artificial intelligence and biotechnology. This narrowing edge stoked a growing sense of technological competition between the United States and China. But there are few signs that China is about to surpass other nations in technological development, and innovation is often beneficial to everyone. Moreover, using technology to gain military, economic, and geopolitical advantage is more about organization, people, and culture than it is about technology itself.
Conclusion: Jackpot
Authors: Cohen Jonathan D. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Every week, one in eight American adults buys a lottery ticket, holding on to their own hope for a life-changing jackpot. The lottery is the sole mechanism by which many Americans think their fortunes might change. Even amid a disruption to the national economy with the outbreak of the COVID-19 pandemic, lottery sales increased. Americans were not going to stop taking chances on a jackpot. States, too, have not stopped their quest for gambling revenue. Lotteries legitimized state-run gambling, facilitating the passage of commercial casinos and sports betting. State lottery commissions are currently engaged in a campaign to hook younger Americans on the dreams of a jackpot. Statesneed to think seriously about regulating their lottery operations and considering whether state-run gambling is a proper endeavor for American government in the twenty-first century.