bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Administration of Estates in Roman Law
Authors: Lohsse Sebastian 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Roman law was governed by the principle that administration of the estate lay with the heirs (in the technical sense). A Roman testator was thus free to choose an administrator if only he appointed this person as heir. At the same time, testamentary freedom allowed the testator to burden his heirs with testamentary dispositions which, potentially, might exhaust the estate and leave the heir with nothing but administrative tasks. Such dispositions, however, threatened the acceptance of the inheritance by the heir, which, in turn, was a precondition for the validity of these dispositions and thus for the carrying out of the testator’s wishes. Accordingly, Roman law had to find a balance between testamentary freedom, the interests of the heir, and the interests of other testamentary beneficiaries. In effect, this balance meant that the testator could not appoint an heir as administrator without leaving him at least a minimum beneficial entitlement.
Administration of Estates in Italy
Authors: Christandl Gregor 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The key actor in the administration of estates in Italy is the heir, who is the person nominated as such by the deceased’s will or by virtue of the rules on intestacy. The heir succeeds to the entire patrimony of the deceased, which consists of all transferable rights and obligations of the deceased at the time of death. Yet, as there can be no heir without prior acceptance, the law provides a system of temporary administration until acceptance occurs. This is accomplished by granting those called to inherit but who are not (yet) heirs certain limited powers to preserve the estate and to prevent the dispersal of assets. Where possession of the estate assets is not yet taken by these persons, the court, on its own motion or at the request of an interested person, can appoint a curator with extensive powers to wind up the estate.
Administration of Estates in Germany
Authors: Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The rules on estate administration in the German Civil Code remain within the conceptual framework of Roman law. At the same time, it was clear to those who drafted the Civil Code that the ‘contemporary’ version of Roman law could not be taken over without modifications. In particular, it was seen to be insufficiently attentive to the interests of the estate creditors. The other major systems prevailing in nineteenth-century Germany also did not commend themselves as models to be adopted. An attempt was therefore made to devise a new set of rules. This resulted in an extraordinarily intensive drafting process and in a sophisticated regime of unparalleled complexity. It has, unfortunately, failed to meet the requirements of legal practice.
Administration of Estates in England and Wales
Authors: Kerridge Roger 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
In England and Wales, the administration of the estates of deceased persons is carried out by personal representatives, so called because, until the late nineteenth century, they did not deal with realty but only with personal property. Personal representatives appointed by will are called executors, and the formal confirmation of their authority is by grant of probate. Where there is no appointment by will, personal representatives are appointed by the court and are then called administrators. It is the personal representatives’ duty to gather in the deceased’s assets, to pay the estate’s debts, and then to make distribution to the beneficiaries. Executors may be beneficiaries, and administrators are normally chosen from among the beneficiaries, but personal representatives who are beneficiaries should take care not to confuse their duties and their entitlements. Although their histories differ, there are many similarities between personal representatives and trustees.
Administration of Estates in Scotland
Authors: Reid Kenneth G C 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Until 1964 in Scotland, the deceased’s moveable estate was administered by an executor, chosen by the deceased by will or appointed by the court, while the immoveable estate devolved to the heir nominated by law who, as universal successor, succeeded to both the assets of the deceased and the liabilities. Today, both moveable and immoveable property are administered by the executor or executors, whose appointment must be confirmed by the court, following an application supported by an inventory of the deceased’s assets. Confirmation transfers the estate to the executors, who hold it in a patrimony separate from their private patrimony. In relation to the deceased, they are universal successors; in relation to the beneficiaries, they are trustees and subject to fiduciary duties. There is a simplified procedure for estates of £36,000 or less; even so, more than half of all estates are wound up informally and without obtaining confirmation of executors.
Administration of Estates in Australia and New Zealand
Authors: Vines Prue , Peart Nicola 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The modern law governing administration of deceased estates in Australia and New Zealand originated from English law, and the needs and customs of the indigenous people were almost completely ignored. Estate administration relies on the idea of the separate estate which is administered by an executor or administrator. The modern law is strongly focused on efficiency and dispute resolution. In recent years, the values and customs of First Nations people in Australia and the Māori people in New Zealand have become better recognized, as has the acknowledgement that they had sophisticated legal systems that continue to operate. Succession law in Australia is a matter for states, and thus multiple systems varying from the English pattern arise. This chapter outlines the processes to be carried out by legal personal representatives in administering the separate estate of the deceased, going through the process of paying debts and distributing assets to the beneficiaries.
Administration of Estates in the People’s Republic of China
Authors: Pißler Knut Benjamin 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Due to the sharp increase of private wealth since the 1980s, estate administration has become of considerable importance in the People’s Republic of China. As the existing rudimentary rules were insufficient to give adequate protection to the interests of the parties involved, a comprehensive reform was carried out as part of the Chinese Civil Code of 2020. A key institution of the new regime is the estate administrator, who mandatorily intervenes in every succession case and who has a duty to protect the safety and integrity of the estate and to safeguard the legitimate rights and interests of the heirs, legatees, and creditors. Another core element of the reform is the concept of overlapping liabilities. However, even after the reform, there are a number of issues that are not explicitly solved, regulated, or addressed.
Epilogue
Authors: Reid Kenneth G C , Schmidt Jan Peter , Zimmermann Reinhard 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Systems of administration of estates should be quick, simple, and cheap to operate. Equally, they should make sure that estate assets are given the correct persons in the correct order of priority. These twin aims exist in a state of tension, for the simpler the system, the greater the risk of unpaid creditors and beneficiaries and of successors being burdened with excessive liabilities. Simple systems typically employ the ‘integrated’ mode of administration, where the deceased’s estate is absorbed into the estate of the heir. This is only used in civilian countries. The more complex ‘separate’ mode of administration is characteristic of common law countries, but is usually also found, as an option, in civil law systems. In reality, however, the option is not often chosen, and the integrated mode of administration predominates. That this should be so is, in some civilian countries at least, a source of criticism and concern.
From Mutual Insults to Mutual Respect (and Back)
Authors: Wolf Reinhard 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
During the Trump presidency, US–North Korean relations experienced an astounding shift from disrespect to respect, making these years particularly useful to assess the impact of regained respect. As expected, the initial escalation of mutual insults and other status infringements first worsened the nuclear crisis Trump had inherited from his predecessor, Barack Obama. By contrast, the later turn to respect had less dramatic consequences: whereas Trump rewarded Kim’s personal flattery and ‘friendship’ with numerous US concessions, newly attained respect exerted much less influence on Pyongyang’s policy—even though the Kim–Trump summits had accorded North Korea unprecedented status recognition. Overall, the case confirms the theoretical expectation that disrespect is more consequential than respect. Thus, it cautions against hopes that respectful gestures can rapidly overcome decades of mistrust and military confrontation.
The Many Roads to Gettysburg
Authors: Smith Adam I. P. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
There were many roads to Gettysburg, but all began with slavery. White people debated whether the Civil War was “really” about the enslavement of human beings on American soil, but African Americans knew it was. In Pennsylvania, Black people faced multiple layers of discrimination, but they still knew from personal experience that there was a stark and terrifying difference between a society in which it was legal to own human property and one in which it was not. This chapter explains how slavery shaped the American republic in the years leading up to the war, including the society of a small town in a free state like Gettysburg, PA.
HONK! Activism
Authors: Garofalo Reebee 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter traces the ancestry of the HONK! Festival of Activist Street Bands back to the military brass and percussion units that led invading armies into battle and discusses inversions of the military model as civilian populations acquired and adapted these weapons of war to local cultural practices, including civic functions and religious ceremonies, as well as opposition and protest. Topics include transforming tools of conquest into instruments of resistance, joy, and celebration; alternative pedagogies for teaching and learning diverse cultural forms and styles; putting the public back into public space, as privatization threatens to limit public discourse; and using instrumental music as an activist strategy and a political statement. Initially written in 2016 and updated after that, the chapter can be read as a period piece describing a particular moment in the history of HONK! activism, but its lessons continue to be relevant to the current situation.
Anglophone Political Song in Eighteenth-Century Ireland
Authors: Haslett Moyra 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
Among the earliest-printed songs in Ireland are the political songs of Dublin’s prosperous English-speaking population—politicians, lawyers, clergy, tradespeople, and gentry. With the political campaigns and controversies which arise across the eighteenth century—particularly the Wood’s halfpence affair (1722–1725), the candidacy of Charles Lucas for a parliamentary seat (1748–1749), and the Volunteer movement (1779–1784)—the printing of partisan song becomes a marked feature of Dublin print culture and, increasingly, that of Irish regions: Belfast, Cork, and Downpatrick, for example. These three political controversies of the eighteenth century can be seen to inaugurate the strong traditions in which print culture bolsters the dissemination of political song, which would proliferate in the revolutionary years of the 1790s and beyond.
Indigenous Ontology and International Law
Authors: Clark Cristy , Poelina Anne 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This chapter examines the ontological foundations of international law and their impact on Indigenous peoples, with a particular focus on Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples in Australia. It argues that international law’s concepts of sovereignty, civilization, nature, and rights are grounded in a distinctly Western, modernist ontology that has been used to justify colonialism and environmental exploitation. This ontological framework contrasts with many Indigenous ontologies, which tend to emphasize relationality, reciprocity, and obligations to Country. The chapter explores how this ontological clash has affected Indigenous peoples through the imposition of international law norms in domestic legal systems. It then considers how Indigenous peoples are actively challenging and reshaping international law’s ontological foundations through interventions in both international and domestic forums. Key examples include the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, the successful human rights communication regarding climate change made by Indigenous claimants from the Torres Strait Islands, and recent Australian jurisprudence recognizing Indigenous ontologies. By unsettling international law’s foundational concepts, these Indigenous legal interventions open up possibilities for ontological and legal pluralism. The chapter argues that such pluralism is necessary to address the global environmental crisis and achieve social and ecological justice. It concludes that embracing Indigenous wisdom and ontologies in international and domestic law could transform our collective response to planetary challenges.
Global Perspectives on Indigenous Archaeologies
Authors: Smith Claire , Pollard Kellie , Kumar Kanungo Alok , May Sally , López Varela Sandra L. , Watkins Joe 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This handbook examines the transformative shifts in Indigenous archaeology, driven by Indigenous peoples’ calls for control over their intellectual and cultural heritage, and the discipline’s growing embrace of Indigenous methods, values, and theoretical frameworks. It highlights how interdisciplinary approaches and Indigenous priorities are reshaping archaeology into a field that addresses global challenges such as climate change and food security, while fostering equitable and ethical partnerships with Indigenous communities. This volume explores key themes, including the decolonization of archaeological theory and practice, the integration of Indigenous worldviews, and the recognition of Indigenous science as a critical contributor to sustainable futures. It underscores the importance of Indigenous leadership in research, ethical relationality, and the potential of archaeology to promote social justice and cultural survival. Ultimately, this handbook advocates for a reconceptualized archaeology—one that is inclusive, multivocal, and dedicated to community building and addressing humanity’s shared challenges.
Section IV: Ethnoarchaeology
Authors: Kumar Kanungo Alok , Smith Claire 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
This section explores the integration of Indigenous oral histories, ethnohistorical, ethnoarchaeological, and archaeological methods to advance understanding of Indigenous knowledge systems and their contributions to sustainable futures. It highlights the challenges of preserving oral traditions amidst colonization, modernization, and legal disruptions, emphasizing their role in safeguarding alternative worldviews and ecological wisdom. Case studies from India, Australia, and the Torres Strait Islands demonstrate the nuanced interplay between traditional practices, material culture, and modern conservation efforts, advocating for collaborative approaches with Indigenous communities. It underscores the importance of treating Indigenous science as rigorous and valuable, displaying its potential to enrich archaeological research and policy initiatives. Ultimately, the chapters in this section call for renewed commitment to ethnoarchaeology as a vital discipline for reconstructing lost knowledge and addressing contemporary challenges by fostering respectful, long-term relationships with Indigenous peoples.
Agrarianism
Authors: Kent-Carrasco Daniel 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
During the last five centuries, agrarian struggles have been at the heart of most, if not all, popular and massive mobilizations against capitalist imperialism and Western colonialism. This chapter approaches the widespread persistence and impact of agrarian struggles across the Global South by focusing on the political, economic, and discursive dimensions of agrarianism and its vexed relationship with contrasting modernist narratives of revolution and progress. It starts by tracing the main contours of intellectual and ideological debates around the “agrarian question” and the ways in which these influenced political mobilization in the imperialized world. It then follows different trajectories of agrarian struggle in Latin America, Asia, and Africa by focusing on three broad moments. First, it explores the centrality of agrarianism and peasant mobilization in different agendas of anticolonial politics. Second, it focuses on the ways in which agrarianism served as a crucial node of legitimation and tool of transformation for Third World regimes. The last section looks at the resurgence of peasant and agrarian mobilization in the context of the global neoliberal onslaught headed from the North Atlantic in the closing decades of the twentieth century.
Visual Discourses of Identity-Making
Authors: Schlag Gabi 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO’s identity-making is best understood through a discourse approach that investigates the Alliance’s articulation of textual and visual sites. Such an understanding helps uncover the ways in which NATO’s collective identity is made and projected. Visual discourse analysis is applied to NATO’s 2022 Strategic Concept and the accompanying themes of ‘NATO 2030’. Two nodal points are identified in that discourse: seeing NATO as a gender-equalizing alliance and as a perpetual and affective community of people, not only states. A closer look at the textual and visual discourses that establish self-ascribed meanings and truths is key to understanding both change and persistence in NATO.
The North Atlantic Treaty
Authors: Orr R. James 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The interrogation of the text, history, and significance of the North Atlantic Treaty, NATO’s founding text, is essential for understanding NATO’s evolution since 1949. Building on earlier attempts by European nations to provide for collective defence, the Treaty was a response to the Soviet Union’s looming presence in post-World War II Europe. This chapter explains how the Treaty provisions were drafted so as to authorize roles for NATO that would extend beyond collective defence to include collective support for political and economic security. The language of the Treaty, its foundation on the purposes and principles of the United Nations and the commitment of its membership to common principles of governance (even when those principles are strained) has provided the basis for organizational evolution and enlargement as global circumstances have changed. The Treaty is short in length and flexible in meaning. That economy of articulation has allowed NATO to adapt to myriad challenges and changes of external circumstance in the decades since its first adoption.
The Secretary General
Authors: Hendrickson Ryan C. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
As NATO has evolved, so too has the role of the Alliance’s political leader, its Secretary General. Recent Secretaries General have exercised leadership in NATO in ways that were impossible during the Cold War. The heightened visibility of NATO summits (organized and chaired by the Secretary General) has helped in this regard. While there is much truth to the proposition that leaders of international organizations often have limited political influence, in NATO’s case the Secretary General can, under certain conditions, have a significant impact on the Alliance’s direction. Here, the United States’ willingness to permit leadership opportunities for the Secretary General is essential. Leadership opportunities have grown considerably after the Cold War as NATO has welcomed new members, adopted new policy initiatives, and managed vastly different military operations that have gone far beyond the mission of containing the Soviet Union.
Burden-Sharing
Authors: Zyla Benjamin 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
The share of gross domestic product (GDP) devoted to defence-spending is an unsatisfactory indicator for assessing an ally’s contribution to NATO. However, it remains a key benchmark for assessing burden-sharing in policy circles and in scholarship. That said, there is an equally significant burden-sharing story to be told that focuses on allied contributions to crisis management operations. NATO interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo in the mid-1990s and in Afghanistan from 2002 to 2014 were intended to stabilize fragile states and suppress belligerent local actors. With the exception of the International Security Assistance Force (ISAF) in Afghanistan, the Europeans did not free-ride on the Americans as is commonly believed. On the contrary, at an operational level (or at the output level of analysis), the Europeans exceeded their expected aggregate contribution militarily. This chapter suggests that examining input and output variables is insufficient to judge the quantitative balance of contributions to NATO operations. These variables should be supplemented by two others—outcomes and long-term impacts. Both are currently understudied in the burden-sharing debate.
What Is NATO for (Redux)?
Authors: Clarke Michael 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO’s rationale during the Cold War was derived from its role as a collective defence alliance geared to countering the threat posed by the Soviet Union. During this period, NATO also acted as a collective security alliance designed to maintain cooperative relations among the allies. Because the external threat was clear, Alliance politicians were not called upon to examine NATO’s purposes very closely during the Cold War. The end of the Cold War complicated (even undermined) NATO’s purpose. But the Alliance soon emerged as a robust collective security actor. Collective defence, meanwhile, was restored as a key preoccupation as Russia became more assertive. The Russian invasion of Ukraine renewed NATO’s role as a military alliance; that role was authoritatively set out at NATO’s 2022 Madrid Summit and the follow-on in Vilnius in 2023. Alliance management remains a complex balancing act between the sometimes competing purposes of collective defence and collective security. But NATO will remain relevant and essential to Euro-Atlantic security for the foreseeable future.
Who Is NATO for?
Authors: Wolff Andrew T. 
Published: February 2025

Abstract
NATO has established an evolving set of criteria for determining the accession of new members. These criteria have sometimes entailed a tension between an enlargement that is premised upon extending a community of values and one that is more attuned to strategic benefit for the existing membership. This tension goes all the way back to NATO’s founding. It continued with the Cold War accessions of Greece and Turkey, and later West Germany and Spain. Since the end of the Cold War, NATO has doubled its membership through multiple rounds of enlargement to Central and East European countries. Initially, the promotion of liberal-democratic values dominated post-Cold War enlargement thinking, but later rounds of enlargement have displayed more strategic considerations. The chapter concludes with a discussion of possible future enlargements and considers the argument that an expansive membership may undermine the internal cohesion and strategic coherence of NATO.