bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Dominance of Public Funding for Private Provision in the US Healthcare System
Authors: Grogan Colleen M. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The US healthcare system is a complex public/private sector system with significant implications for health equity, quality of care and excessive health service and non–health service costs. It encompasses four major entitlements: Medicare, Medicaid, employer-based health insurance, and the subsidized marketplace under the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act (ACA). Two policy designs characterize the system. These involve contracting with private actors to provide and administer publicly funded benefits and providing “private benefits.” Under this system, private actors have the right to make claims on the state that shape US entitlements through tax policy. Under this system, cost limits on private actors is difficult to achieve. This system also presents challenges affecting health equity and the quality of healthcare.
Not Even a Physiologist
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Hill was raised by a single mother, Ada, in southwest England. His education depended on winning scholarships first to Blundell’s School and then to Trinity College Cambridge. At school, he was an outstanding athlete and rifleman. He read mathematics at Cambridge, placing third in the competitive Wrangler exams before switching to physiology on the advice of his tutor, Walter Fletcher. His first two research papers on cell membrane receptors and on hemoglobin function, both overlooked for decades, are among the most significant of his entire career. The head of the Cambridge physiology department, J.N. Langley, ignites his muscle research by suggesting he consider frogs’ muscle as a thermodynamic machine. First travel abroad to study German physiology laboratories.
Heat and Lactic Acid
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Fletcher and Hopkins published the first accurate account of the generation of lactic acid during muscle contraction and its disappearance when oxygen is available during recovery. Langley set his new research student, Hill, to measure the heat produced during muscle activity to extend the earlier experiments. The tiny temperature changes that Hill recorded both during contraction and relaxation reflected the underlying chemical reactions. Meyerhof’s colleague, Weizsäcker, came to work in Hill’s laboratory and proved that oxygen is not necessary for the conversion of chemical energy into mechanical activity in muscle. Oxygen is necessary, however, for the removal of lactic acid. Hill predicted that about 20 percent of lactic acid is oxidized, while the majority is reconstituted into a precursor molecule. Another visitor, Jakob Parnas, disagreed and believed lactic acid was all burnt up. Meyerhof, in Kiel, described the unity of biochemical reactions between simple organisms such as yeast and animal cells.
Revolutions in Physiology and Power
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
In 1930, Lundsgaard from Copenhagen showed poisoned muscle fibers could still contract but generate no lactic acid. He explained to Hill, “the lactic acid formation only plays quite a secondary role for the liberation of energy during the contraction.” Meyerhof invited Lundsgaard to his new lab in Heidelberg and their subsequent work prompted Hill to proclaim “a revolution in muscle physiology.” Lohmann continued to study the high-energy phosphate molecule, ATP. Meyerhof came to the realization that hydrolysis of ATP, with the release of a burst of energy, is the primary event leading to contraction. Meyerhof’s group also continued to unravel the multiple steps of glycolysis and identified a large proportion of the coenzymes that facilitate the process. Hitler’s ascent early in 1933 cast a pall over German universities. Meyerhof was acutely aware but thought it would be short-lived. Hill helped to create the Academic Assistance Council in the United Kingdom.
Deliverance
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Hill became an MP for Cambridge University in 1940, giving him a backbench view of the dramatic events in the House of Commons with Churchill as prime minister. With the threat of invasion, many foreign academics supported by the AAC were interned and Hill led efforts to have them released. He saw his main role to be a nuisance and as such could be a fearless critic of the persecution of the war, and afraid to attack Churchill openly at times. As a professor at the University of Pennsylvania, Meyerhof became active in the lab again, but his priority was to secure Walter’s escape from France. He wrote regularly to Hill as a distant but diligent observer of the war and expressed uncompromising views on the restructuring of postwar Germany, as well as the fate of the Jews.
Restoration
Authors: Brown Andrew 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Although events tilted against the Axis in 1942, both Hill and Meyerhof recognized that notions of victory were premature. Hill, while tireless in his humanitarian efforts, made a forceful case in the House of Commons that the greatest benefit would come from the relentless prosecution of the war. By 1943, he allowed himself to consider postwar life. He visited India to review the status of the universities, research and development, and health services there. After an arduous five-month tour, his comprehensive report suggested many improvements later adopted. Returning to London, he spearheaded a Royal Society review of Post War Needs. Meyerhof believed the traditional power groups in Germany needed to be destroyed economically and politically before any attempts at re-education. After the defeat of Germany, he was appalled at the self-pity of some of his former colleagues, who did not seem to accept the unprecedented catastrophe that Germany had visited on the world.
The Philosophy of Race in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Although toward the end of the eighteenth century Immanuel Kant had introduced a conception of race based on hereditary characteristics, both natural and moral, the dominant conception of race for much of the nineteenth century was based in readings of history. Racial differences were visible in history, and to a large extent they were understood to determine history. This tendency is illustrated with reference to Hegel and Gobineau. For much of the century the debate between monogenists and polygenists was at the forefront of the discussion of race, but in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, race mixing or miscegenation, which was increasingly seen as a biological threat, became the center of attention. The philosophers discussed in this chapter include John Stuart Mill, Herbert Spencer, Friedrich Nietzsche, and W. E. B. Du Bois.
Racial Science in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
In the middle of the nineteenth century, Josiah Nott of Mobile, Alabama, was on the hunt for arguments that would help to defend the so-called Southern way of life. He had some success at the time in attracting some support for polygenesis from American scientists more reputable than he was, such as Louis Agassiz and Samuel George Morton, but it was only as the Civil War was drawing to a close that his ideas began to take hold in France. It was around that time, too, that his argument against race mixing as a potential threat to human survival began to find an audience. By the end of the nineteenth century, it was being incorporated into the new science of eugenics.
Ottobah Cugoano’s Place in the History of Political Philosophy
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Ottobah Cugoano’s Thoughts and Sentiments on the Evil of Slavery is perhaps the most powerful attack on slavery of the late eighteenth century. It is also remarkably relevant still today for its account of responsibility, its attack on gradualism, and its understanding that any judgment about the means appropriate to ending slavery should be proportionate to the evil of slavery itself, which was considerable. Cugoano’s significance is established by contrasting his arguments with those of other philosophers from Francis Hutcheson to William Paley and Thomas Gisborne. Seen in this light, the neglect by historians of philosophy of Cugoano in particular and of the debate around slavery in particular is a blot on the discipline.
“Our Duty to Conserve”
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
W. E. B. Du Bois’s “The Conservation of Races” is removed from the philosophical debates surrounding it during the 1990s in order to restore it to its original context. The question Du Bois was asking was not whether the concept of race as such should be preserved but whether racial differences, specifically those that defined the Black race, should be preserved or obliterated, a question he answered by referencing the ideals associated with each race. For him it was an existential question. To what extent was he a Negro and to what extent an American? The question impressed itself upon him in this form not only because of the “separate but equal” doctrine but also because race mixing was being seen by many White Americans as an existential threat to both the Black and the White race.
Frantz Fanon’s Engagement with Phenomenology
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
With the recent heightened interest in Frantz Fanon’s relation to psychopathology, his relation to phenomenology is in danger of being overlooked in spite of the fact that he seems to have focused a great deal of his attention on how they work in combination in a number of authors he cited, none more so than Karl Jaspers. The importance of existential phenomenology for Fanon in Black Skin, White Masks is especially profound in the enigmatic conclusion with its references to Maurice Merleau-Ponty, Günther Anders, and, of course, Jean-Paul Sartre. Using the conclusion as a decisive clue, one can return to Fanon’s initial account of the relation of regressive analysis to what he called the book’s progressive infrastructure and unlock a reading in which the central aim of the book is an account of temporality that allows for an open future.
Nature, Culture, and Race
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
When in 1950 UNESCO proposed a strategy against racism that is still widely appealed to, it relied heavily on a distinction between biology and social anthropology that was rooted in a certain way of distinguishing nature and culture. Following a genealogy of that distinction, this chapter argues that the core of the UNESCO argument against racism was that race was exclusively a biological concept and that once use of the word came into conformity with the best biology, racism, in the sense of discriminating against someone on account of their biological race, would be eradicated. Racism was thereby narrowly defined as parasitical on a false biology: it was no more than an epistemological error that could be corrected by education. Meanwhile, discriminating against people on account of their culture was left intact. Claude Lévi-Strauss, who had participated in formulating the 1950 UNESCO Statement on Race and who had at that time written in its support, subsequently saw some of its shortcomings.
Existentialism against Colonialism
Authors: Bernasconi Robert 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Jean-Paul Sartre’s Critique of Dialectical Reason and Frantz Fanon’s The Wretched of the Earth both sought to offer accounts of colonialism as a form of systemic racism. They did so starting from lived experience, but they understood that accounts of lived experience remain fundamentally unintelligible when abstracted from the material system in which that experience is located. This is true even for those who share that experience. Lived experience becomes concrete only in the light of the material system that produces it, while the material system remains opaque without the illumination brought to it by concrete lived experience. They shared the conviction, first, that only dialectics can bring these two together and, second, that the colonial system is only fully revealed in revolutionary praxis.
But It Shall Not Come Nigh Thee
Authors: Jenkins Philip 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Over the past century, many modern people have resorted to Psalm 91 in very traditional ways. They particularly seek its aid in times of war or political chaos, such as the Second World War. The psalm has enjoyed a major revival during times of sickness such as the COVID pandemic. The psalm is the subject of extensive writing and myth-making by many churches and religious leaders, and it has developed a huge presence on the internet. The range of legends and folktales is immense, and so is the number of material items available with Psalm 91–related themes or texts. This reflects the widespread belief in demons in evangelical and Pentecostal subcultures in many countries. The psalm has inspired authors and composers, including C. S. Lewis and Charles Williams. The psalm is the source for the very popular hymn “On Eagle’s Wings.”
The Anvil Chorus
Authors: Rothstein William 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The so-called Anvil Chorus from Verdi’s Il trovatore is a peculiar piece, and its peculiarity is only partly explained by its othering of the ethnic group portrayed, the Romani of northern Spain. The piece is not in a single key, but certain pitches and groups of pitches recur. Insight is gained by applying modal rather than tonal categories and by considering harmony secondary to melody. The piece’s form does not fit any standard category, but it approximates the verse–prechorus–chorus form of late twentieth-century rock music. The piece illustrates differences between Italian and German music of the early and mid-nineteenth century.
Musical Form
Authors: Rothstein William 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
To understand the conventions of primo ottocento opera requires an understanding of its musical forms. Philip Gossett’s distinction between kinetic and static movements is key. Kinetic movements include action and are harmonically open-ended; static movements contain reflection and reach full closure. For static movements, the lyric form becomes very common after 1830. Lyric forms exist along a continuum from simple to complex to borderline. For numbers in multiple movements, the solita forma described by Basevi, Gossett, and others establishes a set of formal expectations against which unfamiliar numbers may be understood. These expectations differ for each movement of the form.
Tonal Coherence in Rossini’s Italian Operas
Authors: Rothstein William 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
Rossini usually begins and ends his operas in different keys, but with rare exceptions he begins and ends each operatic number in the same key, perhaps with a change from minor to parallel major. Some of Rossini’s numbers last twenty minutes or more; occasionally, two potentially separate numbers are fused into one. The significance of tonal return on such a large scale is not always clear in Rossini’s operas. Long numbers do not necessarily compose out a single triad in Schenker’s sense; tonal return is not equivalent to Auskomponierung. Later Italian composers did not consider tonal return an aesthetic requirement in opera.
Ernani to Attila (1844–1846)
Authors: Rothstein William 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
The musical coloration, or tinta, of Verdi’s Ernani has multiple aspects, including a predominance of lyric form, recurring motives, and a distinctive handling of harmonic systems (relative major–minor pairs). Several of the principal characters use a focal melodic pitch, or sonorità, as a means of characterization; in the final trio, Silva’s horn acts as a sonorità. Act 3 of Giovanna d’Arco qualifies as a super-number, a series of numbers that coheres as a musical whole. The prologue to Attila exhibits an unusual degree of tonal coherence: one can speak of a global tonic, C, to which other keys relate.
Wittgenstein on Rules
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This book offers a new “bipartite” reading of Wittgenstein’s treatment of rule-following and the foundations of semantics in his seminal Philosophical Investigations. On this reading, Wittgenstein’s remarks are split between two logically distinct projects marked by different guiding questions, presuppositions, and methodologies. The attribution of this thoroughgoing bipartite structure resolves a number of internal tensions in the text, and reveals Wittgenstein’s controversial remarks on human agreement to exhibit a surprising attentiveness to, and plausible treatment of, a blurring of the semantics/metasemantics distinction arising in Wittgenstein’s treatment of foundational semantic questions. The book then turns to an extended engagement with Kripkensteinean meaning skepticism. While on the reading offered Wittgenstein never countenanced meaning skepticism, his work in the foundations of semantics gives us the resources to develop an unusual naive reply to the skeptic not yet explored in literature. It is argued that the Wittgensteinean reply is simple, effective, generalizable, and theoretically “light-weight,” so that a theorist of almost any stripe could in principle take it up.
The Grammatical Investigation (§§199–242)
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides evidence that after the termination of the Justificatory Investigation, Wittgenstein takes up a second project that I call the “Grammatical Investigation.” This project is governed by a methodology Wittgenstein describes in his scattered remarks on “philosophical grammar,” which show that the investigation is metalinguistic (that is, about the use of words) and metasemantic (that is, about the use of semantic words like “meaning” in particular). The chapter runs through four particular grammatical investigations given in the text, and uses them to extract a number of characteristic features of the Grammatical Investigation that distinguish it from the Justificatory Investigation. In particular, grammatical investigations are not marked by substantive presuppositions and they employ the methodology of enumerating cases (especially “contrast cases”) that Wittgenstein reserves for family resemblance terminology.
Agreement (§§240–242)
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter exploits the bipartite reading to frame Wittgenstein’s controversial remarks on human agreement at the end of the rule-following sections of the Philosophical Investigations. It begins by distinguishing several senses of the word “agreement,” and shows how these senses figure in different ways in the Justificatory and Grammatical Investigations. This reveals how easy it is to conflate the senses of agreement and their involvement in these different projects. Finally, against prevailing views, the chapter defends the claim that human agreement plays a role for Wittgenstein no different from several other “grammatical” features (regularity, training, purposeful activity), and that Wittgenstein instead singles human agreement out for special treatment because it raises a distinctive kind of circularity challenge for his grammatical methodology. The chapter concludes by showing how Wittgenstein took himself to be able to avoid that circularity challenge by exploiting analogies with measurement.
The Twofold Investigation
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter steps back to explain why Wittgenstein engaged in two distinct projects in the rule-following sections of the Philosophical Investigations, and why he juxtaposed and even interwove those projects. The chapter begins by showing how anxiety caused by the abrupt termination of the Justificatory Investigation is helpfully allayed by the upshot of the Grammatical Investigation. It then explores how the twofold project helpfully exhibits precisely the overarching structure for addressing philosophical problems that Wittgenstein describes in his explicit remarks on philosophical methodology. Finally, the chapter notes how the treatment of the Justificatory Question can be viewed as Wittgenstein’s attempt to critique some of his earlier philosophical views in the Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus.
Kripkensteinean Skepticism through a Wittgensteinean Lens
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter develops one way of understanding of the force behind Saul Kripke’s formulation of meaning skepticism and explains how this challenge takes on a distinctive shape within Wittgenstein’s approach to foundational questions. The chapter begins by arguing that on the reading of Part I, Wittgenstein is beholden to produce a nontrivial answer to the meaning skeptic that does not merely dismiss skeptical worries as borne out of confusion. The chapter then explains that because of Wittgenstein’s commitment to “meaning” being a family resemblance term, the answer we should expect Wittgenstein to supply to the meaning skeptic would take on a form that the skeptic may not have anticipated.
Relativism
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter notes that although the “Wittgensteinean” reply to the meaning skeptic through the use of notions of uniformity is importantly distinct from the reply to the skeptic that Kripke attributes to Wittgenstein, it may share with the latter reply a commitment to a certain kind of relativism. Ultimately, this relativism is a familiar, benign form of relativism of language—a relativism in what our words can mean. What is distinctive about the Wittgensteinean view is when and how this kind of relativism arises. Several thought experiments giving rise to this relativism are explored, and its distinctive features are discussed.
Kripke v. Wittgenstein
Authors: Shaw James R. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter sides with many standard critics of Kripke’s reading of Wittgenstein, but stresses that the exegetical problems with Kripke’s approach all trace to a single failure: the failure to distinguish between the Justificatory and the Grammatical Investigations. The chapter emphasizes that in spite of this misstep, Kripke manages to keep many of the most important lessons of Wittgenstein’s discussion in view. A further consequence of this reading is that the form of skepticism attributed by Saul Kripke to Wittgenstein is (as some have suspected) in fact an ingenious creation of Kripke himself. Wittgenstein is not to be credited with formulating the problem, but rather for giving rich foundations for semantics among which we can locate the resources for a solution.
Identity Meanings and Resources
Authors: Burke Peter J. , Stets Jan E. 
Published: November 2022

Abstract
This chapter explains that identities are meanings, and individuals act to maintain these identity meanings in interaction. The analysis of meanings begins with a discussion of signs and symbols, which is an important distinction when understanding other issues that follow in the chapter such as how to measure meaning, and how to understand resources. The measurement of meaning is then reviewed, including using a semantic differential to measure people’s responses to how they see themselves. People control and maintain meanings by manipulating actual and potential resources. The distinction between actual and potential resources is discussed. Because identities maintain the patterned and coordinated flow of resources, known as the social structure, the reader sees how identities create and maintain the social structure. However, the connection between identities and social structure is a two-way street. Identities create social structure, but it also is true that social structure provides the situations and context in which identities operate.