bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
BIRD BRAINS
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter evaluates birds’ brains and intelligence. To make up for their smaller size, birds’ brains are efficient, cramming into very small spaces computing power more in line with much larger brain volumes. This spatial efficiency of birds’ brains is only the beginning of their bragging rights, and birds themselves are one of the stronger arguments against using straight brain size to measure intelligence. Intelligence is an incredible adaptation and it is a critical part of why humans are so successful and live so long. The chapter then considers how longevity and intelligence interact, another feature that humans share with many birds. Birds do not reach quite the heights of intelligence that humans do, but research suggests that just about every bird species has quite a formidable brain, capable of abstract reasoning. The most intelligent birds, like crows, show a remarkable similarity to our own primate relatives in their abilities.
LEARNING TO SING
Authors: Martinho-Truswell Antone 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter studies observational learning, or social learning, in both humans and birds. There is a type of learning from each other so rare and so impressive that it is one of the very few traits that some scientists still argue is completely unique to humans. This is the human ability to which only the birds even come close: language. There are three groups of birds that have been shown to be vocal learners: the parrots, the hummingbirds, and the songbirds—the passerines. The songbirds first emerged in Australia, and this is still where one can hear the oldest and most complex of their ‘languages’, that of the lyrebirds. Nevertheless, birdsong is not language. Nothing in the animal kingdom comes close to the nuance and complexity, the layered multi-dimensionality, the flexibility, or the scalability of human language. What we do share with many birds, however, is a system of communication that is learnt, and that relies on a shared understanding of sounds and a combination of sounds that are transmitted from parent to offspring through behaviour, not genetics.
Peasants and landscapes
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
The west midland region is defined here as the counties of Gloucestershire, Warwickshire, and Worcestershire, three modern shires with origins before 1066. In this chapter, the region is characterized, with its rivers and hills, counties and dioceses, communications, and the landscape mapped in its various divisions of champion, woodland, wold, and forest. The key question is—who formed the landscape? After considering the role of lords, who for example created impressive settings for their residences, peasants are seen as important agents in clearing new land, participating in the planning of fields and settlements, and by abandoning their holdings, weakening villages in the period of population decline after 1350.
Family and household
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter looks at households, which typically consisted of parents and children, amounting often to between four and six members, but variants could include siblings or members of the older generation, or unrelated individuals, most often servants. The inhabitants, or at least the head of the household, decided on the design of houses, which provided a varying degree of comfort. The character of family life depended on the norms and expectations of the church and the adult male heads of households. Expectations of discipline and hierarchy were designed to provide enough labour from household members, and to secure an orderly succession of property.
Peasants and their crops
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Peasants managed the land according to traditional ‘field systems’ which were subject to rules and in theory were difficult to change. In practice they overcame these obstacles to innovation, and fields were constantly being remodelled, with additions of new land, more intensive cropping, piecemeal enclosure, enclosure by agreement, and partial conversion to grazing. Crops varied across the region according to growing conditions and demand, leading to marked regional differences and changes over time. Horticulture and gathering made a significant contribution. Techniques were similarly variable and subject to improvement. The common interest, and that of individuals, were in constant tension, and every change met with some controversy and resistance, but often for good reason. The most important sustained change involved the shifting balance between arable and pasture.
Peasant farming
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Animals were kept for their utility for riding, carrying, and traction, for the contribution that they made to household diet, but also as an important source of cash. Wool, dairy produce, meat, surplus animals, skins, horns, tallow, wax, and honey were all sold, and animals were leased or hired out. Animals were managed by peasant family members, with specific roles for women, but also keeping them was delegated to common herds. Animal welfare in general posed many problems, including the provision of housing. Feeding livestock included contentious management of common grazing, and driving flocks and herds to distant pastures. Many methods were used to market animals and their products, involving complex networks of middlemen.
Peasants and towns
Authors: Dyer Christopher 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Peasants played a large part in making towns. Towns were founded by lords who granted privileges and sometimes devised a street plan, but local people sometimes were first to settle at well-connected centres and begin to trade. The urban population consisted mainly of migrants from the country. Peasants kept urban markets supplied with their surplus produce, while peasant demand for manufacturers gave employment to urban artisans. Money and credit flowed back and forth between town and country. Continued peasant engagement with the market helped to keep towns afloat when reduced populations and trade slumps threatened their prosperity after 1400. Towns and villages were clearly different, but urban and rural cultures had some similarities. This chapter will examine peasant involvement in towns and assess the consequences of the interaction between town and country.
The Circumstances of Constitutional Pluralism
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the types of issues which pose challenges for our contemporary constitutional theories which form the subject-matter of the book. It introduces the idea of the circumstances of constitutional pluralism as the features of the world which necessitate pluralist constitutional theories which it identifies as the fact of a plurality of applicable norms and institutional authority claims over the same set of individuals as well as disagreement surrounding the concept of constitutionalism and whether, and the extent to which, it can be successfully ‘exported’ to the transnational level. It introduces the division of the book into two parts reflecting the particular puzzles that the circumstances of constitutional pluralism raise for ideas of plurality and pluralism, understood in terms of legality and legitimacy, respectively. The chapter also provides a short overview of the other chapters of the book.
The Possibility of Constitutional Plurality
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This first chapter to examine the circumstances of constitutional pluralism from the viewpoint of constitutional plurality looks at an objection to using the tools of legal theory to theorize this plurality. Legal theoretical accounts of legal systems have been critiqued for being incapable of accounting for law which is not the law of the state. The chapter examines the extent of this ‘plurality problem’ by breaking the charge down into three claims made against legal theory: a strong, an intermediate, and a weak claim. Analysing the problem along these lines, the chapter concludes that legal theory’s plurality problem is not particularly profound and that much of the resources of legal theory can be exploited to theorize constitutional plurality, a potential which is explored in the next chapter in respect of international law.
What’s Right with (Transnational) Constitutionalism?
Authors: Mac Amhlaigh Cormac S. 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the various critiques of constitutionalism and transnational constitutionalism as normative theories of legitimate authority considered in the previous two chapters. It outlines a general approach for a normative theory of (transnational) constitutionalism based on an ‘interpretive’ understanding of political value as developed in the work of Ronald Dworkin. On this approach, the concept of constitutionalism is best understood as an interpretive concept whereby disagreement about the concept of constitutionalism is understood in terms of rival interpretations of its political value as seen in its best light. This, in turn, leads to a holistic approach to political value drawing upon Dworkin’s related thesis of the unity of value. This general approach, the chapter concludes, provides a promising way of addressing the various critiques of (transnational) constitutionalism considered in the previous chapters and provides a solid foundation for a normative theory of transnational constitutional pluralism to address the legitimacy questions raised by the circumstances of constitutional pluralism.
The use ofnayra‘eye’ in Muylaq’ Aymara
Authors: Coler Matt , Kaal Bertie , Banegas-Flores Edwin 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThe chapter provides an analysis of the body-part word nayra ‘eye’ in a variant of Aymara spoken in the Peruvian village of Muylaque, known as Muylaq’ Aymara. The word nayra has a broad semantic range and provides a rich basis from which to consider the analogical and metaphoric interplay between time and its interdependency with space, in view of the evidential nature of spatial cognition and cultural variation in the way languages reflect how peoples ‘see’ their worlds. Original material used in this analysis facilitates reflection on narrativity and cultural aspects of worldview construction in Aymara. Using a theoretical perspective, the focus is on the epistemic qualities of timespace, or chronotope, as expressed in Muylaq’ Aymara in relation to the fundamental cognitive role of the eye in making sense. The analogical epistemic ground of the expressed world and its reference world allow temporal and spatial references to be regarded as representative of cognitive mediation between absolute realis, social realis, and imaginary realis. The problem is that time is neither a discrete category, nor is it always expressed verbally, but it is presumed as common knowledge. Nevertheless, time can be constructed lexically, linguistically, and metaphorically. We demonstrate that the notion of ‘chronotope’ fits the linguistic Aymara way of expressing present experience and past knowledge as a window on the here and now, while acknowledging the lack of evidential ground in future projections. Hence, knowledge is vision and is provided by the body part nayra (eye).
Body parts in Toba
Authors: Cúneo Paola , Messineo Cristina 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter examines different lexicalization patterns of body-part terms and their relation to the linguistic description of emotions in the Guaycuruan language Toba/Qom of the Gran Chaco. One interesting aspect is the semantic shift from the domain of the human body to the emotional domain. Both external (visible) and internal (not visible) body parts in Toba/Qom are used in expressions referring to attributes, states, and human behavior related to emotions and cognition. These expressions show regular patterns of lexicalization. Apart from analyzing the specific constructions in which the body-part nouns participate, this chapter also explores how this links to Toba/Qom people’s concept of person.
Tariana body parts in North Arawak perspective
Authors: Aikhenvald Alexandra Y. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractIn many languages, terms denoting parts of a human body have special grammatical properties. In Tariana, a North Arawak language from north-west Amazonia (Brazil), external and internal body parts are obligatorily, inalienably, possessed. They are used in double-object constructions, where the body part and its owner are both marked as objects. Terms for internal and external body parts can occur with classifiers in derivational function. Bodily fluids and detachable parts (such as ‘hair’) are treated as optionally possessed and do not participate in double-object constructions; they do not occur with classifiers. Of all the terms for internal body parts, only -kale ‘heart’ can refer to the locus of emotions and feelings, and the essence of a human being (notably in shamanic incantations); in this sense it has a number of special features. Unlike other body-part terms, including ‘heart’ as a physical part of human body, it cannot take classifiers; nor does it occur in double-object constructions. It occurs in double-subject constructions: ‘I am sad’ translates in Tariana as ‘My heart I-shrink’, where both ‘my heart’ and ‘I’ have subject properties. Differences in the grammatical behavior of the term ‘heart’ in its two distinct meanings reflect the ways in which the entity is conceptualized. Grammatical properties of internal and external body parts are then compared with their cognates in the closely related North Arawak languages Baniwa of Içana-Kurripako and Piapoco, within the context of the Arawak language family.
The grammar of body parts in Apurinã
Authors: Facundes Sidi , Freitas Marília , Lima-Padovani Bruna Fernanda 
Published: August 2022

AbstractThis chapter presents an analysis of body-part terms in Apurinã (Arawak), examining their morphosyntax and semantics. This language shares the same nonpossessive marker of other Arawak languages, preserves a possession-marking pattern that is likely to reconstruct to earlier stages in the family, with a clear alienable–inalienable distinction, where, in the second, body-part terms play a prominent role, with marking patterns distinct from those of kinship terms. Besides its contribution to improving knowledge of Apurinã and Arawak, the results presented here provide important data on the role of frequency in defining (in)alienability, on how constructions where meronyms recur possessed may grammaticalize into compounds with classificatory functions, and on how the class of body-part terms extends to other concepts.
Body-part nouns, prefixation, incorporation, and compounding in Panoan and Takanan
Authors: Zariquiey Roberto , Valenzuela Pilar M. 
Published: August 2022

AbstractA fundamental open question in South American classificatory linguistics is whether the abundant lexical and grammatical affinities exhibited by the Pano and Takana languages from Western Amazonia are due to genetic inheritance or prolonged language contact. Although the proposal of a Pano-Takana stock has traditionally been accepted in the literature, it has since been disputed. In this chapter we show that several body-part nouns in proto-Pano and proto-Takana are not only very similar but exhibit regular sound correspondences. Furthermore, we claim that the similarities between body-part expressions in Pano and in Takana go beyond the mere lexicon. Although it is true that only Pano languages exhibit body-part prefixation, Takana languages feature body-part noun incorporation and compounding. We argue that Pano body-part prefixation can in fact be interpreted as a historical development from source constructions like body-part noun incorporation and compounding, as they are synchronically found in Takana. The lexical and gramatical correspondences found among body-part constructions in Pano and Takana languages provide new evidence in favor of the Pano-Takana hypothesis.
Trends
Authors: Potter Lois 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Chapter 7 recognizes that the closure of theatres in 2020–21, the longest since the seventeenth century, encouraged some trends that had already become apparent in the theatre: the demand for more and better roles for women and actors from ethnic minorities, as well as for the representation in Shakespeare’s plays of non-binary sexual relationships. Identity politics calls in question the concept of acting as imitation or impersonation, sometimes arguing that certain characters should be played only by those who belong to the same category (neurodiverse, disabled, racial); the opposite has also been argued, particularly in the case of race. Many Shakespeare productions given on zoom during lockdown were even more inclusive in their casting than live theatre had been. That so many actors want to play Shakespeare is, the book concludes, the main reason why he is so widely performed.
The Scope and Aims of This Book
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter introduces the notion of natural modality and sets out the aims of the book. After introducing the core metaphysical concepts used throughout the book, three main approaches to natural modality are distinguished, which are called the ‘mosaic’, ‘law-driven’, and ‘property-driven’ theories. After offering preliminary reasons for taking a property-driven approach, the chapter sets out the main features of the new property-driven theory that is to be developed in the book, called ‘Modal Platonism’. According to Modal Platonism, properties are universals which exist even if they are not instantiated. These universals ground the various modal relations in which they stand and are the metaphysical source of laws and behavioural dispositions.
The Platonic Theory of Dispositional Directedness
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter motivates a Platonic theory of modality by arguing that it offers the most plausible account of dispositional directedness. According to those who take dispositions metaphysically seriously, dispositions have a built-in orientation toward their manifestations, as illustrated when we say that solubility is the disposition for dissolving, or that elasticity is the disposition for stretching. Many realists have found the relation of dispositional directedness to be mysterious, however, not least because a disposition can exist even if the associated manifestation is never instantiated. It is argued that the Platonic theory provides the best solution to this puzzle. On the Platonic picture, a manifestation universal can exist even if it is never instantiated, and thus Platonism can straightforwardly explain what it is that unmanifested dispositions are directed towards.
Objections and Replies
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses twelve potential objections to the core Modal Platonist theory developed in previous chapters. In doing so, the discussion further clarifies various aspects of Modal Platonism and shows how one can defend the theory. The objections, which are raised as if in a discussion with an imaginary interlocutor, cover issues relating to realism, reduction, the multiple realization of dispositions, the epistemology of properties and dispositions, Humeanism, grounding and explanation, meta-grounding, causal overdetermination, dispositional directedness, the Eleatic reality principle, and naturalism. The chapter shows that there are good replies at the Modal Platonist’s disposal, and identifies areas that would benefit from further investigation.
Instantiation and Repeatability
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter addresses the so-called one over many problem, which challenges us to explain the phenomena of property instantiation and property repeatability. On the property-driven approach, the issues of property repeatability and natural modality are intimately connected, because the law-like patterns of dispositional behaviour in the world will depend on property repeatability. It is argued that Platonism is able to provide a good explanation for one over many facts. In developing this idea, it is argued that Platonic property instantiations are essentially dependent on the universals which are their (non-spatial) constituents. In contrast, the rival Aristotelian view of universals does not offer a satisfactory explanation for one over many phenomena, because such universals ontologically depend upon the very instantiation facts that they are supposed to explain.
Probabilistic Laws
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
Natural modality theorists have a tendency to focus on cases involving deterministic dispositions and laws, but if some interpretations of physics are to be believed, some laws are probabilistic. This chapter argues that Modal Platonism is well placed to provide a satisfactory account of probabilistic laws and dispositions (propensities). The discussion begins by focusing on D. M. Armstrong’s theory of probabilistic laws. Although some aspects of Armstrong’s view are attractive, it is shown that Armstrong’s Aristotelian conception of universals creates serious difficulties. In particular, Armstrong’s theory struggles to accommodate so-called single-case probabilistic failures, which occur when a single-case chancy disposition fails to manifest what it is capable of. In contrast, these are problems which the property-driven Modal Platonist framework avoids.
Summary
Authors: Tugby Matthew 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter provides a brief summary of the main arguments and conclusions of earlier chapters, including: the introduction to the core metaphysical concepts used and the property-driven theory of Modal Platonism developed in the book; an overview of how Platonism can explain what it is that unmanifested dispositions are directed towards; arguments against the dominant ‘dispositionalist’ property-driven approaches; responses to potential objections to the book’s core theory; an overview of how Modal Platonism is well placed to provide a satisfactory account of probabilistic and functional laws; and the placement of Platonic theory of natural modality within the broader project of explaining all modal facts in terms of second-order relationships between Platonic properties.
Damned Lies and Statistics
Authors: Jena Debdeep 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter discusses the following questions: • Why is it necessary to update the Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of particle energies? • How does quantum mechanics combined with thermodynamics lead to the Fermi-Dirac and the Bose-Einstein distributions? • What are the properties of the Fermi-Dirac and Bose-Einstein statistics that differ significantly from the classical Maxwell-Boltzmann statistics, and under what conditions are they the same? • When and how should we apply the quantum statistics in semiconductor materials and devices?
Perturbations to the Electron’s Freedom
Authors: Jena Debdeep 
Published: August 2022

Abstract
This chapter develops a matrix approach to perturbation theory to explain how to • Use simplifications of non-degenerate energy eigenvalue systems to develop non-matrix based, algebraic results of perturbation theory. • Become comfortable with the analytical Rayleigh-Schrodinger and Brillouin-Wigner non-degenerate perturbation theory results, and learn when to apply them. • Appreciate that the matrix version of perturbation theory is always applicable, both for degenerate and non-degenerate problems by applying it to examples in preparation of its use in semiconductors.