bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Anciens et nouveaux produits en commerce international
Authors: Kindleberger Charles. P 
Published: August 2023

Old and new goods in international trade.

Structural changes are probably linked to the process of innovation and to the repercussions it induces through imitation. We may distinguish between a structural effect — i. e. a tendency to specialize in new, expanding industries, or old, contracting industries — and a competition effect — i. e. a tendency to lower costs by improving old methods of production. But the distinction must not be strained : many «new » goods are merely substitutes for, or new ways of producing, «old» goods.
The introduction of new goods is not random but systematic and asymmetrical : it is often due to the demonstration effect of the dominant economy which imposes its techniques or standard of living.
The effect of price and income elasticities and the balance of payments : except when an innovation stimulates the innovating country's exports, and the price elasticity of the import demand of foreign countries is low, the value of the innovating country's exports will rise and the current balance of payments’ equilibrium will be disturbed. In the short run, capital movements will offset this ; in the medium run, the law of comparative advantage will determine a new equilibrium ; in the long run, imitation will catch up on innovation.
The effect of innovation on the European terms of trade : the terms of trade of European countries that have tended to specialize in new goods since the end of the XIXth C. seem to have been consistently more favourable than those of European countries that have not. During the same period, the terms of trade of industrial Europe as a whole deteriorated against the United Stales, improved against regions of recent settlement, remained constant against other regions.
Note sur «le degré d’intensité capitaliste» des investissements dans les pays sous-développés
Authors: Dobb Maurice , Lisle Edmond A. 
Published: August 2023

A note on the degree of capital intensity in under-developed countries.

Discussion of the policies of underdeveloped countries is governed by the dogma that, since a scarcity of capital relatively to labour is a usual characteristic of such countries, capital investment needs there to take the form of projects with a «low capital intensity». The form in which the above principle is stated rests on the assumption of a given stock of capital equipment in existence as the country's heritage from the past, and or the assumption that the rate of new investment is given.
But the choice between more or less capital-intensive forms of investment should depend not on the existing ratio of available labour to capital, treated as a slock, but on precisely the same considerations as those which determine the choice between a high and a low rate of investment — namely, the importance to be attached to raising consumption in the immediate future, compared with the potential increase of consumption in the more distant future which a particular form of investment will make possible. There is no reason to suppose that an under developed country should always choose a lower rate of investment than a more developed one — if anything the converse, since, although the lowness of existing consumption per head may put a high premium upon raising it in the near future, the effect upon productivity (and hence upon potential consumption in the more distant future) of a given increase in the (relatively small) stock of capital is likely also to be abnormally large.
A simple model, gradually refined, illustrates the argument.
Qu’appelle-t-on convertibilité ?
Authors: Küng Emil 
Published: August 2023

What is called convertibility ?
Convertibility has a host of different meanings or degrees whether it refers to residents or to non-residents.
For residents, full convertibility implies the freedom to import goods and services and to export capital. The extend of quantitative import restrictions and for exchange control determines the precise degree of convertibility.
For non-residents, full convertibility implies the freedom to transfer balances on current and on capital accounts. More or less rigid blocking of balances determines the exact degree of convertibility here too.
Besides the limitations on convertibility that depend on the type of financial operation, then may also be geographical limitations : payments’ arrangements may be bilateral, multilateral within a certain area or multilateral over the whole world.
Any further move towards convertibility that is not accompanied by a wider liberalisation of trade would be of little value.
La situation financière des pays d’outre-mer et le Trésor public
Authors: Julienne R 
Published: August 2023

The French financial situation is affected in no small measure by financial and economic trends in French overseas territories.
Although financial autonomy is still the rule for these territories , the volume of expenditure financed through the French budget has increased since the war. This is mainly due to a sharp increase in capital expenditure. Over 20 % of gross capital formation and nearly 80 % of all public invest¬ ments in overseas territories are financed through the French budget. This explains the dominant role of the French public authorities in the framing of the development plans of the territories.
Further public transfers from France to these territories are due to the working of the monetary systems of the franc area : the French monetary authorities have to cover the balance of payments deficit of the overseas territories.
Note sur l’étude et la politique du développement des firmes
Authors: Wickham Sylvain 
Published: August 2023

Current literature on the firm consists either of analyses in terms of abstract models or of monographs describing particular entreprises. There is need for operational models in this field , i. e. for an analysis that :
1/ lends itself to verification on the basis of existing data ,
2/ can serve as a guide to policy.
The questions such an analysis should answer concern : a) the measurement of the firm's growth in terms of its size and in terms of its assets’ structure ; b) the control of the firm's management , and the firms' internal and external relations.
Economic development requires that established firms expand and new firms appear. The above analysis already provides useful conclusions for a policy which aims at stimulating such development : action against large firms as such should be more discriminating — anti-trust proceedings, e. g., do not necessarily ensure efficiency and progress. The capital market is notoriously imperfect, especially as regards risk capital for new ventures : there is scope, here too, for more positive credit and fiscal policies which would encourage new enterprise.
La théorie de la concurrence monopolistique du Professeur E. H. Chamberlin
Authors: Krier Jane 
Published: August 2023

Prof. E. H. Chamberlin’s theory of monopolistic competition
Prof. Chamberlin’s theory of monopolistic competition is both a new theory of prices, the resultant of monopolistic and competitive forces , and a general reassessment of the theory of the firm, the author introducing new variables alongside the traditional price variable. These characteristics show the work's originality and explain why , in his preface to the French edition, Prof. Perroux speaks of Prof. Chamberlin's “General Theory". Among the new lines opened up for research, the analysis of advertising is the most important. But before generalizing the work of Prof. Chamberlin it is necessary thoroughly to understand its meaning and with this object a number of particular aspects are discussed.
Note sur les conjectures des oligopoleurs
Authors: Keirstead Burton Seely , Weldon J.C. 
Published: August 2023

A note on the expectations of oligopolists
The solution of a duopolistic situation depends upon subjective uncertainty and the application of a general theory of expectations. The normal framework of oligopolistic situations is made up of price agreements and unbalanced competition. The agreed price is fixed by a dominant group and any surplus demand, remaining unsatisfied at that price, is met by small firms acting as if they were in a competitive situation.
It is suggested that the hypothesis of single value expectations in the case of duopoly is a special case and that the most usual situation is one of real uncertainty where a probability calculation is not possible.
In the real world the strategies used in duopoly are neither very varied nor very complex and imply normally an agreement on pricing. In oligopolistic situations a determinate solution also implies an agreement on prices. Empirical studies in Canada suggest that this is frequent and that the remaining demand is met by small marginal firms.
Le cinéma français et l'oligopole des rentiers
Authors: Oger Éric 
Published: August 2023

The french film industry and the oligopoly of rentiers
This is an enquiry into the existence of a rather singular type of oligopoly in the French film industry. The units concerned are three in number, each of large size ; two are private and the third public (whose continued existence, it is true, is not certain). The two private units are based on an international financial structure and they are also linked together financially. Each of the three units forming the oligopoly is built up along vertical integration lines (projection, distribution, production). The two private units also possess equipment goods. The oligopoly is hardly expansionist in character. It profits from a given situation in order to continue in existence. It intervenes relatively little in actual production. It is in no way concerned with the culture aspect of the consumption of its products but only with customers ; one could even say with inevitable customers. It is a rentiers' oligopoly.
Effondrement et relève de l'économie européenne : 1947-1954
Authors: Triffin Robert 
Published: August 2023

The study integrates the different approaches commonly used in the discussion of inflationary and balance of payments problems. It shows that data on the balance of payments, the national income, and monetary and banking activities converge in an analysis of the inflationary process.
The causes and characteristics of the 1947 crisis in European external payments are described as the background to the recovery from 1948 to 1954. However , the explanation of this recovery, which is described by the balance of payments statistics, must be sought in the overall pattern of Europe’s production and expenditures, in the domestic monetary policies which financed, or held down, the external deficits, and in the double impact of domestic monetary liquidity and international cost competitiveness on Europe’s export and import levels. These aspects of European recovery are dealt with in the following sections of the study.
The final abatement, in Western Europe, of both internal inflationary pressures and balance of payments deficits came about as a result of the restoration of overall monetary balance. This implied the end of current credit monetization, the reabsorption of previously created monetary liquidities by production increases, monetary purges, balance of payments deficits or price increases, and the adaptation of exchange rates to the new pattern of international prices.
By 1953 or 1954, this process of monetary readjustment could be regarded as completed in most European countries. The obstacles to the restoration of currency convertibility in Europe no longer lie in a weakness of its economy, in a persistent tendency to inflation, or in shortage of dollars, but in fears and uncertainties regarding the future harmonization of nationalistic trade and monetary policies in an interdependent world.
Le repli vers la convertibilité
Authors: Tew Brian , Niveau Maurice 
Published: August 2023

As a result of defensive action by the British Government at a time when the pound was relatively weak , nearly all non-resident sterling balances have acquired de facto convertibility. This situation has arisen as a result of the successive changes in the status of transferable sterling since the end of the war.
The reform of March 1954 extended the use of transferable sterling to alt countries outside the sterling and dollar zones and abolished the distinction between the use of transferable sterling for current and capital account transactions.
The two ways in which transferable sterling can be converted into dollars — commodity convertibility, sale of transferable sterling on the free market — are described in relation to the nature and origins of the supply of and demand for transferable sterling for these purposes.
In February 1955 the weakness of transferable sterling necessitated support from the Exchange Equalization Account. Since then the rate for transferable sterling has rarely fallen more than 1 % below the official rate. This implies that transferable sterling is now convertible de facto at a rate slightly below the official sterling exchange rate. It would be difficult now to go back on this decision. It is suggested that this sort of convertibility is better adapted to modern conditions than the convertibility of the text-books.
L'évolution des places de New-York et de Londres depuis la dernière guerre
Authors: Hackett John W. 
Published: August 2023

It is suggested that the normal market analysis approach to the study of financial centres does not fully account for1 the nature of the activities and means of action of these centres. The point of view adopted here is that of a monetary and financial complex. It is suggested that the notion of a monetary and financial complex makes it possible to incorporate directly in the analysis the problems of the non-market aspect of modern financial centres such as the interdependence of public and private activities and the non price relationship between the units of the centre. In this way the linked growth of individual units of a monetary and financial centre can be determined more precisely than by the use of a concept of external economies. In the first part of the study the structures of the New York and London monetary and financial centres are examined. The nature of the units, both public and private, of the two centres is studied and the contrasts and simila¬ rities between the two centres noted. The relationships between the units of the centres and between New York and London are reviewed under three. headings : price relationships, flow relationships, expectation relationships. Finally, the volume of the activity of the two centres is studied and compared as regards long-term investments, short-term capital , and reserves.
The second part of the study examines the dialogue between New York and London since 1945. Using the analysis of the structure of the two centres developed in the first part, it seeks to assess the nature and results of the dialogue during the post-war years.
La théorie des trois secteurs et le développement économique
Authors: Okyar Osman 
Published: August 2023

The three sector theory and economic development
The author recalls Ihe nature of the analysis adopted by Colin Clark in his demonstration of the evolution of the occupational structure in western industrial economies and the criticisms of the three sector theory presented by Bauer and Yamey.
The criticisms made by the latter authors led to the conclusion that any observed correlation between economic progress and occupational distribution is more the result of statistical chance than a proof of an economic law.
The evolution of the occupational structure in Turkey from 1927 to 1950 furnishes ihe statistical basis for an evaluation of the three sector theory in relation to the study of economic development. The statistical evidence for Turkey does not correspond to the evolution which the theory of the three sectors leads us to expect.
It is suggested that the examples chosen by Colin Clark, drawn as they are from developed capitalist societies, do not help for an analysis of economic growth in under-developed societies. In the latter, where the capitalist mentality and structure are not present, ihe absence of a well-defined occupational specialization makes it impossible to build a theory of economic development on the basis of the growth of the tertiary sector.
La théorie de la croissance et l'expansion régionale
Authors: Milhau Jules 
Published: August 2023

Theory of growth and regional economic expansion
The problem of inequalities in regional development in France is becoming serious and various efforts to remedy the situation are being made. However , it is not certain that present policy is inspired by a correct theory of economic growth.
Nevertheless, in France, economists have contributed a great deal to the study of economic growth — notably, the notion of « development poles » and the study of the modalities of expansion generated by a «leading » industry or firm. The appearance of such growth poles, or « leading » activities, cannot lake place in any type of surroundings. There is a difficult problem of choice involved. In some cases the appearance of growth poles is spontaneous, but elsewhere it has to result from state activity. In a planned economy this can be decided by authority, but in a capitalist economy the profitability of private firms is the guide, though the State can give a start to private industry.
One of the most important obstacles to a rational choice of centres for the establishment of growth poles is the resistance of the environment to innovation : in particular, less populated regions offer less resistance than densely populated ones.
These considerations of a general nature are applied to the example of the development of a region in France — the Bas-Languedoc.
La politique monétaire britannique et la zone sterling
Authors: Opie Redvers G. 
Published: August 2023

British monetary policy and the sterling area
In 1955 and 1956, the United Kingdom has had recourse to an increase in Bank rale and to credit restrictions in order to limit internal inflation and to check the deterioration of the balance of payments situation. The present article sets out to examine the repercussions, on the other countries members of the sterling area, of British monetary policy.
Before 1914, the success of British monetary policy in re-establishing equilibrium of the balance of payments rested on the fact that overseas countries were dependent on conditions prevailing on the London money market. Since then, conditions in the world economy have changed notably but, nevertheless, monetary conditions in overseas sterling area countries are still affected by events in the United Kingdom.
Today, in the sterling area, both economic problems and the institutional framework of monetary systems differ greatly. In 1955 and 1956, some sterling countries, notably Australia and New Zeland, were suffering from inflation and balance of payments deficits, though for different reasons than the United Kingdom. In others, there were no inflationary tendencies. In only one overseas Sterling area country, South Africa, is there anything ressembling a developed money market. As a result, the similarities observed, since 1955, between the evolution of the monetary situation in Great Britain and in other sterling countries cannot be attributed mainly to the co-existence of identical economic and institutional conditions. What , then, explains the spead to the rest ot the sterling area of the influence of recent monetary policy in Great Britain ?
The main factor which explains this phenomenon is the dependence of other sterling countries on the London capital market. Long term issues in London fell notably in 1955 and short-term borrowing became more expensive. Overseas sterling countries reacted to some extent by appealing to other financial centres or by increasing financial facilities offered by their own banking systems. Nevertheless, although overseas sterling area countries were able to turn to some extent, to other sources for short and long term finance, their action was not a completely adequate substitute for the London market and had the result, as well, of tightening monetary conditions in other European and North American financial centres and in each of the sterling countries îhemselves. The course of monetary conditions in each of the sterling area countries since 1955 is examined in detail.
It is concluded that economic problems in the United Kingdom since 1955 , and the policy adopted to deal with them, have imposed severe strains on the other countries of the sterling area which, if they countinue for a long time, or, are repeated, will weaken notably the economic cohesion of the area.
L'évolution capitaliste à la lumière de l'économie keynésienne
Authors: Kaldor Nicholas , Mouly Jean 
Published: August 2023

Capitalist evolution in the light of keynesian economics.
The author notes that progress in production and living standards in capitalist countries since the war has been at least as great, if not grater , than during the previous hundred years. Although capitalism does not necessarily secure full employment, historical experience indicates that real wages do rise with increased productivity and that the share of wages in the national income does not tend to fall.
The defects of capitalism, such as unemployment , fluctuations, and concentration of ownership, do not appear to be unavoidable either since the work of Keynes and of other economists.
The author notes that, in many respects, Marxian prophesies regarding the evolution of capitalist societies have been proved incorrect by experience. He presents an alternative theoretical scheme concerning the laws of the evolution of capitalism which is based on keynesian economics.
Échanges extérieurs, profits d'entreprise et gains des nations
Authors: Weiller Jean 
Published: August 2023

Foreign trade profits and national gains from trade.
Recent discussions concerning the conditions of international trade (Marshall aid, regional groupings, common-market ) question the operation attributed to the law of comparative costs. Statistical observations of the structure of international trade seem also at variance with this law. The author concentrates on one factor which explains these divergences — the role of profits.
For Ricardo, the essential element determining trade currents is cost of production. This conforms to his method of static economics. Rut if we are concerned with the conditions of economic growth present in the world to day, we have to consider other factors. Leontieff has shown that the structure of United States’ foreign trade does not correspond to the structure which relative prices and factor proportions would lead us to expect. Part of this difference may be atiribued to differential profit margins. Such margins are not just temporary phenomena but condition the growth of foreign trade whether they are profits due to innovations or to imperfect market structures.