bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Evolution and Gestalt of the Swiss Constitution
Authors: Biaggini Giovanni 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter sets out the structure, the basic concepts, and the evolution of the Swiss constitution from when it was first conceived until today. It describes the significant developments in the creation of the first constitution of 1848 and its later amendments and full revisions of 1874 and 1999. The chapter shows how the Swiss Confederation was built on the basis of the constitution and how fundamental principles such as democracy, rule of law and federalism have shaped and remain important cornerstones of Swiss constitutional law until today. It delves into the institutional organization of the federation, assessing both political and judicial actors and their role in the constitutional order. Eventually, it explains how constitutional identity has been elaborated and is understood from a legal perspective.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the British Constitution
Authors: Loughlin Martin 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents an account of the historical development of the British constitution. Situating it in the context of an evolving tradition of European constitutional practice, it seeks to explain the British constitution by presenting it as a distinctive variant of the European way of governing. By focusing on its unusual history and unique characteristics, including its unwritten character and adherence to a basic principle of parliamentary sovereignty, it highlights the difficulties experienced by the British in participating in the creation of a ‘common public law of Europe’ through the project of continuing European integration.
Introduction
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The Introduction begins with a brief sketch of the life of Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) who is famous as the originator of the Garden City movement. He has previously been seen largely within the history of town planning, and the Introduction discusses the existing historiography, revealing that he continues to influence thinkers and theorists of various types. The purpose of the book is explained, which is to provide a biographical study of Howard that locates him within his religious context, shaped by Congregationalism, overlaid by influences from Spiritualism and other new religious movements. It is argued that understanding his religious context sheds new light on Howard’s personality and motivations, ideas which will be explored further throughout the rest of the book.
The Early Years of Exploration 1850–1876
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins by exploring Ebenezer Howard’s childhood as the son of confectioners in the City of London, and discusses his education, and early employment as the secretary of Joseph Parker, the well-known Congregational minister of the Poultry Chapel. Parker and his context are discussed in some detail. The second half of the chapter discusses Howard’s years in America, first as a farmer in Nebraska, and then as a shorthand writer in Chicago. In these years he read widely and developed intellectually, and he made an important connection with the American Spiritualist Cora Richmond.
The Days before To-morrow 1890–1898
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the period during which Howard was working on the book that outlines the Garden City idea, To-morrow: A Peaceful Path to Real Reform which was published in 1898. Family issues, the support of Lizzie Howard, and that from London’s Congregational community are discussed, together with Howard’s interactions with London’s land and housing campaigners. Howard’s promotion of his ideas through public meetings and talks in churches are highlighted, and the early drafts of the book are discussed. The content of the book is analysed, together with its launch and reception at Rectory Road Church, and the publication of the revised edition, Garden Cities of To-morrow in 1902.
The Path to the First Garden City 1899–1904
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explains how the Garden City Association developed from being in 1899 a tiny band of like-minded friends who were mainly within the London Congregational community, to a nationally significant organization that was able to found the first Garden City at Letchworth in 1903. Explanatory factors include the particular culture of the fin de siècle, the sustained support from the press, Howard’s own skill as a publicist able to maintain support from many quarters, the interest and involvement of women and the robust management of the first Garden City from Ralph Neville and Thomas Adams. The chapter discusses the final years and death of Howard’s wife Lizzie. It also considers the ways in which Howard, and some of his ideas, became increasingly marginalized, as power began to shift towards the directors of the Garden City Pioneer Company.
The Spiritual Life of the First Garden City 1904–1918
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter poses the question of how religion re-rooted itself in the newly created community of Letchworth Garden City. It analyses the range and diversity of religion in the town in the years before the First World War. Letchworth Free Church, the early ecumenical experiment that faltered as individual nonconformist denominations were established, is discussed. In addition to this, Letchworth’s particularly liberating spiritual atmosphere, which provided a fertile environment for Quakers, the Alpha Union, Theosophy, and various forms of free thought is explored. The chapter investigates Letchworth’s Roman Catholic community, under the leadership Adrian Fortescue, its intriguing parish priest, and concludes with a discussion of the impact of the First World War on the town. Other figures significant in Letchworth’s religious history discussed here include Charles Purdom, Juliet Reckitt, Annie Lawrence and Bruce Wallace.
Verse Forms
Authors: Putter Ad 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the range and interest of various Middle English verse forms, strict and loose, in a series of close encounters with early and late medieval poets, focusing first on metre, then on rhyme, and finally on alliteration. It also sets the verse forms favoured by Middle English poets in the context of Latin and vernacular poetry in other languages and in the material context of the manuscript page. Poems discussed include early Middle English poems such as Ormulum, King Horn, LaƷamon’s Brut, Dame Sirith, and the Harley lyrics, and later fourteenth-century poems by Chaucer, Gower, and the Gawain-poet.
Poetic and Literary Theory
Authors: Galloway Andrew 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
What we call poetic and literary theory occupied a wide range of medieval intellectual culture, in settings and approaches that can be divided into two parts: first, rhetorical analysis and rules, and second, more abstractly philosophical and theological analyses. Often treated separately, both strands are surveyed in this chapter, which examines the settings and methods both of the ‘rhetorical arts’ and the ‘commentary tradition’. The chapter shows how both traditions seeped into English poetry between the twelfth and fourteenth centuries, influencing poetry’s presentations of literary forms, purposes, and authorship, especially in the poetry of Chaucer, Gower, and Langland. Yet poetry in English across these centuries also implied its own versions of poetic and literary ‘theory’. Chaucer and Gower especially appropriated such theory to their own ends, making the boldest but far from the only contributions by poets to medieval literary theory.
Poetry and National History
Authors: Eckhardt Caroline D. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines verse narratives of England’s (or Britain’s) past, in which national identity was constructed as changing through time, from a postulated Trojan origin through subsequent waves of conquest, settlement, and struggle, with the Arthurian reign often given prominence. Generally classed as chronicles and dated prior to c 1400, these English verse narratives demonstrate great generic porosity in relation to romance, hagiography, and other forms; deep affiliations with Latin and French traditions; and extensive variation in alliteration, rhyme, and other poetic characteristics. The manuscripts show that most of these narratives had an active ‘working life’ after their estimated time of composition and thus they contributed to the circulation of English poetry into the fifteenth century or beyond. Chronicles discussed include Laȝamon’s Brut, the Metrical Chronicle attributed to Robert of Gloucester, the Short Metrical Chronicle, Castleford’s Chronicle, and Robert Mannyng’s Chronicle, with comparisons to Barbour’s Bruce and Clerk’s Gest Hystoriale.
Saints’ Lives and Sacred Biography
Authors: Winstead Karen A. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys poetic approaches to composing the lives of saints in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries. The virgin martyr legends comprising the Katherine Group, written during the first quarter of the thirteenth century, occupy the nebulous territory between verse and prose. Four renderings of St Margaret’s encounter with the dragon, written in the fourteenth century or late in the thirteenth, illustrate varied uses of the poetic form. Geoffrey Chaucer’s life of Cecilia, William Paris’s life of Christine, and the anonymous Saint Erkenwald, all composed during the last quarter of the fourteenth century, demonstrate that the generic experimentation associated with Ricardian romance and dream visions was also occurring in hagiography, presaging the formal experimentation that would gain momentum during the fifteenth century.
Piers Plowman
Authors: Zeeman Nicolette 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the authorship, historical moment, and narrative shape of Piers Plowman. It foregrounds the poem’s distinctive combination of uncompromising critique and inspirational poetics. It illustrates how the poem’s dynamic allegorical narratives are made up of multiple discourses and genres but also locked into the local work of poetic and scriptural word play. The chapter homes in on the poet’s anxiety about the misuse of understanding and the fantasy of complete knowledge. It argues that the spiritual understanding proposed by the poem is not only shaped by love but also by an increasingly subtle dialectic of ‘asking’ and ‘listening’, and their correlative virtues of eagerness and patience, epistemological deferral and openness to grace. By the scene of the ‘tree of charite’, asking and listening have become the manifestations of transformed modes of spiritual apprehension. The poet is showing us how to read his poem.
Reception of the Middle English Poetic Tradition
Authors: Boffey Julia 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers aspects of the survival and reception of fourteenth-century poetry in English, looking not only at innovations in fourteenth-century verse writing that would prove especially influential but also at the range of works from different geographical areas that had a continuing life and appeal beyond 1400. It highlights late-fourteenth-century and early-fifteenth-century experiments with form and metre, illustrating in selected extracts some of the effects of these, and investigating also some characteristics of poetic language that exerted increasing traction. With reference to traditions of both English and Continental verse writing, it discusses aspects of the practice of Chaucer and Gower, and a newly inflected consciousness in the reception of their work of an English poetic tradition, of the role of the author, and of the significance of feeling in relation to creativity.
Boundaries of Selfhood
Authors: Hagberg Garry L. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter brings the preceding chapter’s issues into contact with questions and answers concerning the distinctive ways in which human selves are (and, against too facile presuppositions concerning autonomy, are not) bounded, relating this to a discussion of the ways in which human experience is, and instructively (again, against too facile empiricist presuppositions) is not, bounded. Questions of multiple versus singular interpretations, of art and of persons, are considered here, along with the sense of rightness (and wrongness) that can emerge in interpretive contexts. Lastly, the chapter discusses our descriptions of our own actions, the way that figures into self-description and self-understanding, and Virginia Woolf’s observations on the special difficulties of capturing in words the sensibility of the person to whom an event occurred.
Moments of Self-Definition
Authors: Hagberg Garry L. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter articulates, in the light of all the preceding, a conception of reading, of literary engagement (or, by extension, engagement with any psychologically mimetic narrative), that exhibits its own complex architecture within the reader’s inner world. The nature of this reading is bifurcated into outward-directed and inward-directed parts. In examining what emerges as this kind of self-compositional reading, this chapter uncovers (a) the often underappreciated role belief acquisition plays in identity construction and the special way that literature allows us an imaginative opportunity to “try on” beliefs, (b) the self-constitutive authority exerted within the act of making resolute decisions concerning what we would do if…, and (c) the refining of self-individuation that ensues from an attentive metaphorical identification with a protagonist.
The Sense of Self
Authors: Hagberg Garry L. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter investigates the possibility of “rewriting” the self, considered in connection with the special case (because forgiver and forgiven are the same person) of self-forgiveness. The role of words, and their function in reaching both into the past and projecting into the future, is closely examined here. This leads to an examination of rereading, what it is, why we do it, what it means for our understanding of word meaning, and how this all connects to the idea of “rereading” the self and the self’s composed narrative. Rewriting and rereading are intertwined with issues of self-reinvention, self-redescription, and self-understanding. The chapter closes with a discussion of the importance that the seeing of connections, in Wittgenstein’s sense, has for self-narrative composition and for the larger notion of the self as a work-in-progress.
The Reformation and the Emergence of Protestant Orthodoxy
Authors: Kolb Robert 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Out of several medieval elements emerged profound changes in defining ‘Christian’ belief and practice, as Luther, Zwingli, and other reformers formulated their forms of fundamental Christian topics in the early sixteenth century. These topics included sin and natural human potential, human righteousness, the authority of Scripture and of tradition, the sacraments, the church, and public ministry. The method of teaching and formulating theology also changed, initially rejecting Aristotelian forms on many levels, but gradually restoring elements of his system, in order to facilitate methodical theological investigation, pedagogy, and exchange of ideas among the confessional groups. Late-seventeenth- and early-eighteenth-century theologians, including the progeny of the Reformation, significantly altered the presuppositions underlying theological pursuit, so that subsequent theological enterprise depended ever less on Reformation thinking.
Early Modern Catholic Theology in German-Speaking Lands
Authors: Wallnig Thomas 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines the early modern history of the Holy Roman Empire, viewed from the perspective of Catholic theology. The introductory part discusses the position of the problem by way of its medieval antecedents, like the antagonism between pope and emperor, and by introducing some pertinent research debates, like that about Konfessionalisierung. The following parts are organized in chronological order and roughly correspond to the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth centuries. Each section sets the stage with a political summary of the period, and then provides a characterization of its Catholic theology, first in general terms, and then by way of three exemplary theologians (the Jesuit Jakob Gretser, the Benedictine Paul Mezger, and the Augustinian Canon Eusebius Amort). Major political developments, like the Thirty Years’ War, are discussed along with their theological repercussions, while major ecclesiastical events, like the Council of Trent, are viewed with respect to their consequences for Catholic Germany.
German Pietism
Authors: Shantz Douglas 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins by examining some general features that mark German Pietism as a theology, including its modernity, eclecticism, and innovations in promoting chiliasm, conventicles and new Bible translations. The rest of the chapter considers some leading Pietist theologians, notably Philipp Jakob Spener, August Hermann Francke, Joachim Justus Breithaupt, Joachim Lange, Nikolaus Ludwig von Zinzendorf, Johanna Eleonora Petersen, Johann Albrecht Bengel and Friedrich Christoph Oetinger. The chapter argues that, within Pietism, theology was oriented towards experience, individualism, and the modern world. Pietism passed on notions of Christian perfection and social progress to the Enlightenment era. Pietism nurtured a democratization of theology, encouraging a self-confident laity, including women, to study the Bible and express themselves on theological matters.
The Protestant Enlightenment
Authors: Carlsson Eric 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents Germany’s Protestant Enlightenment as an effort by Lutheran and Reformed scholars and clergymen from the 1690s to the 1790s to update Christian theology to meet the perceived religious and intellectual needs of the times. The theological Enlightenment comprised several currents and phases, including eclecticism, theological Wolffianism, rationalism, and neology. The theological Aufklärer sought to present a credible alternative to both orthodoxy and unbelief that was grounded in reason and religious experience, open to new modes of thought, and fortified by rigorous scholarship, and that would form the basis for individual and societal transformation. In the process, a gradual shift occurred in the locus of religious authority, from an emphasis on the objective contents of faith to the experience of the believing subject. The Protestant Enlightenment fostered a religious individualism and a dialectical stance towards the Bible and inherited dogmatic traditions that would fundamentally reorient the theological enterprise.
The Counter-Enlightenment and Erweckungsbewegung
Authors: Betz John R. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The ‘Counter-Enlightenment’ and ‘Erweckungsbewegung’ were two important movements that influenced the intellectual and spiritual life of the late eighteenth century. While the former was more of an intellectual movement in response to the Enlightenment, the latter was a spiritual movement associated with the renewal of both the Protestant and Catholic churches. Although the two movements are rarely treated together, they in fact go together. Since they are much too large to discuss in any detail here, however, the following chapter seeks to shed light on both movements by focusing on the curiously mediating figure of Johann Georg Hamann (1730–1788), and his connection to other figures, including Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi (1743–1819), Thomas Wizenmann (1759–1787), Johann Michael Sailer (1751–1832), and the so-called Münster Circle.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Holzem Andreas 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This introductory chapter presents a critical survey of political, social, and legal changes from 1781–1806. Theological research around 1800 was significantly influenced first by the Enlightenment and then by the French Revolution. Protestant theology at the universities was subject to strict sovereign supervision, but at the same time participated in the enlightened criticism in philosophy and natural science. Indeed, the reform universities of Göttingen and Halle thoroughly changed academic studies. Apart from the universities, the monasteries and academies of the Imperial Church were important sites of Catholic theology. The Catholic Enlightenment grappled with the Tridentine Reform and the Ratio Studiorum of the Jesuit Order as intensively as the Protestant Enlightenment with Orthodoxy and Pietism. Austrian Josephinism and Prussian enlightened absolutism expected religion and theology to contribute to national reform and tolerance. In the end, however, the Napoleonic Wars introduced entirely new conditions for Christianity. With the secularization of 1803/6, essential foundations of Catholic theology were lost, and thus the denominations started the nineteenth century with very unequal conditions.
Early German Romanticism and the Characteristics of Religion
Authors: Whistler Daniel 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter charts a transformation in the meaning of ‘the critique of religion’ at the end of the eighteenth century—from the beginnings of the atheism controversy in early 1798 to the religious turn of early German Romanticism in late 1799. The Romantic group developed an approach to religion based around the practice of characterization and, in so doing, attempted to refocus critical attention on characterizing religious singularities, i.e., the positivity of positive religions. The production of this religious positivity is figured in Friedrich Schlegel as a dialectic process moving from natural religion to new religious singularity; in Schleiermacher as a virtuous circle between generic and singular religious truths, and in Novalis as a reversal by which the singularity of a positive religion grounds universal reason.
Romantic Art and Theology
Authors: Busch Werner 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In conjunction with its influence within philosophical and theological circles, the emergence of Romanticism in the early nineteenth century exercised a deep influence in the visual arts. In the first third of the nineteenth century, Romantic motifs and sensibilities were enthusiasticly received and developed in religious artwork by artists such as Philipp Otto Runge, the Riepenhausen brothers, Caspar David Friedrich, and the Nazarenes. This chapter considers the influence of Early Romanticism on artistic movements of early nineteenth century, examining the impact of early Romantic texts by Wilhelm Wackenroder and Ludwig Tieck and their description of Kunstreligion (art-as-religion), the mystical and geometric structure of Philipp Otto Runge’s Tageszeiten cycle, the aesthetics of contemplation and religious experience in the work of Caspar David Friedrich, the allegorical stylization of form as an expression of religious sentiment among the Nazarenes, and the strong influence of the Nazarenes upon the Catholic Renewal Movement.