bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Import Tariff and Export Subsidies
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
International trade among countries has hardly been unrestricted or has been purely market driven. Countries do intervene by restricting or promoting trade through different instruments like tariffs, import quotas, export subsidies, voluntary import restraints, etc. Some countries are more inward-looking and adopt import-restriction policies. Some countries are more outward-oriented and thus adopt export promotion policies. There are varieties of objectives for such trade interventions—restrictions or promotions. Such objectives can be achieved through different instruments of trade intervention that broadly categorize into the ones that regulate or affect prices of the traded goods and the ones that regulate the volume of trade. This chapter focuses on the former category, i.e., price instruments. More precisely, it discusses the different rationale for trade restriction through import tariffs—national welfare, revenue for the exchequer, protection of domestic import-competing industries, and redistribution of national income among factor owners—and welfare implication of trade promotion through export subsidies. The chapter also highlights on the symmetry between import tariffs and export taxes, and between export subsidies and import subsidies.
Market Failure, Distortions, and Trade Policy
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Gains can be realized from trade according to comparative advantage if commodity prices correctly reflect the marginal benefits and marginal costs. Otherwise, the pattern of trade driven by cross-country price differences and consequent scope for arbitrage may lead to a kind of specialization that is not exactly in line with the true comparative advantage of the country. This entails specialization losses rather than gains from such trade. Such cases of prices incorrectly signalling costs and benefits—cases of market failure—may arise due to variety of reasons including, most importantly, production and/or consumption externalities. In general, market failures caused by the production and consumption externalities are examples of distortions in an economy. Distortion is a situation of Pareto sub-optimal or socially sub-optimum production and consumption of commodities. Government intervention is therefore needed to improve upon the social welfare through reallocation of resources and consequent changes in the otherwise sub-optimal production and consumption of commodities. Should international trade be restricted in such cases? Should an import tariff be imposed to correct the wrong specialization that free market leads to and to induce producers to specialize according to the true comparative advantage of the nation? The answer depends to a large extent on the nature and source of a distortion. This chapter provides a detailed accounting of different kinds of distortion and in light of those analyse whether and when trade intervention is a first-best or an optimum policy.
Trade, Growth, and Inclusion
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces to the students the relationship between trade and growth that involves a two-way causality. International trade affects growth of aggregate output of trading nations largely through improvement in factor productivity and also through demand augmenting effects. However, as both theories and empirical evidences show, the export-led growth depends much on what a country exports rather than on how much a country exports. On the other hand, the output growth caused by factors other than international trade, such as technical progress, domestic capital accumulation or population growth, affects the volume of trade. If the country is large in the world market in the sense that its actions influence world commodity prices, the growth in output may worsen its TOT, and consequently may make growth immiserizing. It is for this TOT effect that the welfare implication of the growth in output in an open economy contrasts with that in a closed economy. This chapter also highlights on inclusiveness of export-led growth. Not all types output growth have the same implications for the poor and the unskilled workers. Certain types of growth may create very little opportunities for the unskilled and the low-skill workers and widens the gulf between them and the skilled workers. Such types of growth have very little impact on poverty, since most of the poor either have no skill or have low levels of skill, and large adverse impacts on income inequality. Thus growth may be exclusive rather than inclusive.
Services Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
With the advent of the telecommunication and transmission technology many services that had long been considered as purely domestic (or non-traded) activities, have become tradable, such as financial services (like banking and insurance) and business services (like software development, call centres, consultancy services including medical advice, and the like). All these service activities have the inherent characteristics of non-requirement of physical transportation of product, and therefore have the scope of digitization. Thus, services are no longer just inputs to goods traded, but are themselves traded as final consumption. There are certain features of services itself that makes services trade distinctly different from commodity trade. The determinants of comparative advantages of nations in services are also not exactly the same as those for commodities, though there are some broad similarities. An interesting recent dimension of services trade is virtual trade in intermediate services driven by the time zone differences in countries engaged in such trade/exchange of services. Typical example is trade in business processing services between India and the United States. Non-overlapping time zones can itself establish comparative advantage for nations and form the basis of trade between them. Thus, geographical distance, which usually constrains international trade in goods by increasing cost of transporting goods from one country to the other, may actually promote virtual trade in intermediate services. All these different dimensions of services trade are discussed in this Chapter.
Product Standards, Regulations, and Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The goods traded amongst countries are often subjected to different sets of international standards and regulations. For example, the richer countries often impose minimum quality standards and environmental standards on the goods imported from the poor countries, and require core labour standards being maintained—particularly regarding not using child labour—while producing the export goods. Regulating trade through these different product standards is justified by the richer countries as creating a level playing field by removing undue comparative advantages of the poorer countries that arise from their differential and lower product standards. The poorer countries, on the other hand, perceive these standards and regulations as non-tariff barriers in disguise. This chapter discusses these arguments of unfair trade and counter-arguments of protectionism, and distinguishes between different types of product standards and regulations in terms of their implications for trade and investment flows across nations. Dimensions and implications of each of these standards are however different from the other. For example, trade sanctions against ecological dumping and trade sanctions against the use of child labour in production of traded goods have altogether different implications. Trade sanctions against child labour may actually backfire and do more harm than good to the child workers as they may be pushed to non-traded activities, and, worst of all, to more hazardous and sometimes unethical works. Competition among the developing countries to attract FDI through lowering of environmental standards, on the other hand, may lead to race-to-the-bottom thereby making all worse off.
World Trade Organization and Trade Agreements
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the functions, aims, and structure of the WTO and the trade policy rules and agreements that it implements and administers. It introduces to the students the dispute settlement mechanism of the WTO and the decision-making process there. Salient features of some of the multilateral agreements like Agreements on Agriculture, Agreement on Rules of Origin, Agreements on TBT and SPS, Agreement on TRIPS, and Plurilateral Trade Agreements on Government Procurement, are also discussed.
International Currency Systems and Exchange Rate Regimes
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

AbstractIn the present day, the international currency system that defines the parameters of the foreign exchange market—a market where national currencies are exchanged and traded—acts as the money-changers of the yesteryears. Essentially, international currency system is a facilitator that provides a set of internationally agreed rules and means of payment acceptable between the buyers and the sellers of different nationality with different national currency units. The international currency system has been marked by three different phases. The first was the gold standard system during 1875–1944. The second phase was the Bretton Woods system (1944–71) during which the gold standard system was replaced by gold-USD exchange standard. The third and the current phase began with the abandonment of the Bretton Woods system during the 1970s and adoption of a flexible exchange rate system by many countries. This chapter discusses these different phases of the international currency system, the flexible exchange rate regime, and departures from it through interventions of different kinds in the foreign exchange markets by countries to protect their national interests. India’s exchange rate policies in the 1990s to mitigate its BOP crisis are discussed as a case study.
Currency Regimes Revisited
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The present system of flexible exchange rates has not been too successful in sustaining output growth and containing inflation rates in the developed world. This has led many economists and policymakers to float the idea of reviving the Bretton Woods system of international currency management. This has also revived the debate over the relative efficacy of pegged and floating exchange rates in the developing world in promoting employment and growth and in stabilizing output and income fluctuations. The initial success and subsequent crisis in the Euro zone have also reopened the issue of an optimum currency area. This chapter makes a summary comparison between a pegged exchange rate regime, and broadly speaking, a flexible exchange rate regime. However, it is difficult to make a once for all choice in favour of a particular exchange rate regime. Neither the theory nor the country experiences are very conclusive in this regard. Both regimes have their benefits and costs. Suitability of a particular regime, however, depends on the policy target of a country.
Pseudo-Noun Incorporation and Differential Object Marking
Authors: Driemel Imke 
Published: April 2023

AbstractPseudo-noun incorporation describes a phenomenon in which an argument forms a “closer than usual” relation with the verb. This book provides a detailed cross-linguistic study of pseudo-noun incorporation, based on elicitation with speakers of Tamil, Mongolian, Korean, Turkish, and German. Five diagnostics are applied across eleven noun types in each of the languages under consideration. What emerges is a coherent effect of pseudo-incorporated arguments that maps loss of case marking to obligatory narrow scope, lack of binding and control relations, and a potentially restricted movement pattern. This book provides a unifying theory that is able to capture all properties with a single assumption. Pseudo-incorporation effects result from noun phrases that are made up of a nominal and a verbal category feature. Implemented in a derivational framework, the nominal feature is active early in the derivation being responsible for c-selection and nominal modification, the verbal feature is active late and crucially derives the effects we have come to recognize as pseudo-noun incorporation. One important empirical contribution of this study stems from the observation that pseudo-incorporation does not have to be the only reason for optional case marking. Tamil and Korean provide evidence that only a subset of optionally case-marked noun types also show a correlation with scope, binding, control, and movement constraints. This insight enforces the conclusion that the same language can make use of both pseudo-noun incorporation and differential object marking.
Methodology and main results
Authors: Driemel Imke 
Published: April 2023

AbstractThis chapter develops the methodology of the cross-linguistic study. In contrast to the better known phenomenon of noun incorporation, pseudo-noun incorporation is much more difficult to diagnose, as it does not display a visible morpho-syntactic process indicating that the noun and the verb undergo some kind of fusion. Hence, the diagnostics are described in detail for each language. Apart from introducing the sample set and discussing the elicitation methods and the number of consultants, the main results are summarized for each of the languages under investigation. The overview clearly reflects the size restriction on the noun types which have been observed in the literature to be able to pseudo-incorporate. One notable exception is Korean, where pseudo-incorporation extends to proper names, weak definites, and 1st/2nd personal pronouns.
Pseudo-incorporation as a category change phenomenon
Authors: Driemel Imke 
Published: April 2023

AbstractIn this chapter, I present the main idea of this book. The effects of pseudo-incorporation can be explained by an analysis along the lines of category change from a nominal to a verbal category. This idea is incorporated into the system by feature stacks, that is features which are accessible in a predetermined order in the course of the derivation. The lack of case marking, the scope inertness, and the lack of binding and control properties all point to fact that the argument has undergone a change to a verbal category. Accordingly, PNI-ed arguments show the same movement patterns as VPs. The chapter motivates the main idea, spells out the theoretical assumptions, and implements the approach in a derivational, phase-based framework in the first three sections. The last section discusses why category change is not analyzed with a layering approach, as it is traditionally assumed for nominalization.
“A Purse in Common”
Authors: Rappoport Jill 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Gaskell’s final, unfinished novel has interested critics for the way its two sibling pairs struggle for scarce resources. Yet the novel attempts to replace competition with common interest, privileging mutual over individual benefit in a model of sibling relations that pools resources, giving emotional connection both an economic counterpart and a grounding in alternative evolutionary strains. By juxtaposing sibling relations with visions of marital unity and discord, Gaskell shows how extralegal economic practices can promote well-being and intimacy within both family ties. The marriage plot of Gaskell’s novel is as much a story of how to be a good brother, sister, or friend as the story of a developing heterosexual romance. Wives and Daughters shows how changing economic relationships can advance the needs of both.
“That Blent Transmission”
Authors: Rappoport Jill 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Daniel Deronda responds to women’s changing property rights through Gwendolen’s story and also its “Jewish plot” of cultural inheritance. Together, the narratives map contemporary tensions between social and legal definitions of ownership. If, as the chapter suggests, the novel’s so-called “English marriage plot” uses diamond theft to stage the competing economic claims of wives and sons, its “Jewish plot” uses stolen diamonds to resolve this familial conflict by consolidating more fluid kinship ties. This “blent transmission” of spiritual inheritance counters the fraught transfer of Gwendolen’s diamonds through a form of inalienable property that, despite “theft,” adheres to its path of descent. Eliot’s expansive conception of family ties beyond marriage, her understanding of non-monetary property value, and her defense of socially sanctioned transmission over property law also point to the shortcomings of that law and suggest some of the ways in which legal rights and individuals’ priorities attending personal property diverge.
Afterword
Authors: Rappoport Jill 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The Afterword turns to contemporary workplaces to consider the legacies left by Victorian stories of women’s property. This brief conclusion notes that the Victorian discipline of economics emerged precisely as women’s financial rights were changing. Pointing to a neglected but highly suggestive conjunction of legal and theoretical developments, the afterword speculates on what this neglect has meant for women’s economic lives today. Finally, it argues that a keener sense of the continuities between Victorian fictions and twenty-first-century labor markets might allow a better understanding of the economic challenges women still face and eventually even help to improve these financial circumstances.
Informality and work status
Authors: Fields Gary S. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The most important determinant of the livelihoods of households is how much they earn for their labour. People in informal work are more likely to be low earners, to live in poverty, and to make fewer transitions into the higher-paying work status groups. This chapter begins, in the first section, by defining the terms ‘informal economy’, ‘informal sector’, and ‘informal employment’. It describes the six-category work status used throughout the case studies presented in the book. The two following sections then investigate why we should differentiate between work status groups and what we can learn by analysing work status groups and the transitions between them.
Informality, labour transitions, and the livelihoods of workers in Latin America
Authors: Maurizio Roxana , Monsalvo Ana Paula 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Despite the increasing trend in labour formality over the 2000s in Latin American countries, informality continues to be one of the most distinctive features of the labour markets in this region. This chapter studies the incidence and heterogeneity of labour informality in six Latin American countries from a comparative and dynamic perspective. Two contrasting labour mobility patterns appear: on the one hand, the proportion of formal workers who maintain the work status of origin or move up the job ladder is significantly higher than those who transition into lower-paying work status groups; on the other hand, despite the high labour turnover experienced by lower-tier informal wage-employees, most of them failed to move up the wage ladder. Wages are the highest for formal workers and the lowest for lower-tier informal jobs. Education raises the probability of transiting into a better job and the chances of better wages within informal occupations.
Self-employment and labour market dynamics of men and women in El Salvador and Nicaragua
Authors: Alaniz Enrique , Espino Alma , Gindling T. H. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the authors study the labour market dynamics of men and women in El Salvador and Nicaragua, focusing on the factors that help men and women move into an advantageous labour market state from an unfavourable state and whether these factors differ between men and women, specifically examining the influence of specific characteristics and personal characteristics in this process. They consider ‘advantageous’ states to be formal wage-employees and self-employed workers with a decent income or a successful and growing firm. Among the findings are that education and access to public services, such as utilities, promote transitions into advantageous states.
The dynamics of off-farm self-employment in the West African Sahel
Authors: Fidèle Sènakpon , Dedehouanou Ange , Alia Didier Yélognissè 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This study uses detailed household-level data to analyse off-farm self-employment dynamics in Mali and Niger. It adds to the literature that acknowledges the existence of heterogeneities in informal work and the body of evidence on informal self-employment in fragile and conflict-affected countries. It finds that self-employed workers are more represented in the lower-tier informal work status, with a particularly high percentage in Niger and among female, rural, youth, and old adult workers in both countries. The study also finds that monthly average earnings from self-employment are lowest among lower-tier informal workers, who also have a low probability of transitioning out of this status. However, household-related factors such as asset and livestock holdings and non-labour income may play an important role in helping these vulnerable groups of workers move up the self-employment ladder, especially in the event of shocks.
Informal–formal transitions in work status in sub-Saharan Africa
Authors: Danquah Michael , Schotte Simone , Sen Kunal 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Informal forms of economic activity is the norm in many sub-Saharan African countries. Most businesses are informal in the way they operate, and major and essential economic activities are dominated by informal businesses. An important question in this regard concerns the extent to which informality itself is a persistent state. Using panel data from Ghana, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda, this chapter examines the likelihood of workers moving from lower-tier to upper-tier informal work and to formal work (and vice versa), as well as the earning implications of such transition. Our results reveal that informal workers in the lower tier, particularly workers in lower-tier self-employment tend to remain locked in this tier of informality. We find a significant earnings gain for workers who make the transition from lower-tier to upper-tier employment. Policymakers would therefore need to devise specific policies that seek to enhance the productivity of lower-tier informal works.
Bugs and bivalves
Authors: Milburn Josh 
Published: April 2023

AbstractOnly sentient animals have rights. This chapter distinguishes four senses of ‘sentience’, arguing that beings with valanced phenomenal experience (‘narrow sentience’) have rights. We can include non-sentient beings in our food system, but what of those who might be sentient? How do we translate the moral rights these animals may have into legal rights? The chapter argues that we should treat ‘Probably Sentient’ beings as if they are sentient, and treat ‘Probably Not Sentient’ beings as if they are not. Meanwhile, we should treat ‘Plausibly Sentient’ beings as if they have one right: the right not to have (what our best estimates suggest would be) suffering inflicted upon them. This rules some invertebrates (e.g. decapod crustaceans) out of our food system. But some (e.g. oysters and jellyfish) will find a place readily, and others (e.g. insects) will find a place with caution.