bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
For-Profit Philanthropy
Authors: Brakman Reiser Dana , Dean Steven A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
For-Profit Philanthropy reimagines the history of philanthropy law, revealing it not to be a tool to subsidize private efforts to benefit the public but a strategic arrangement binding ordinary Americans and elites together in a common purpose. Rather than providing for pure private (no tax or regulation) or public (highly progressive taxes or tight regulation) control over the vast resources amassed by the wealthiest Americans, in 1969 Congress struck a Grand Bargain with both sides. That Grand Bargain preserved private autonomy by imposing a regulatory framework that elevated the public’s voice through detailed timing, targeting, and transparency requirements. Philanthropy law uses the private foundation form to ensure that elites must each year spend a small but meaningful portion of their assets pledged to the public. The foundation also imposes prophylactic targeting restrictions on transactions separating a funder’s business and political interests from their philanthropy. Foundations must also disclose to the public more about the sources and uses of their assets than any other business or charity. Far more assertive regulation would have been possible in the absence of the Grand Bargain’s minimum standards of accountability. Today, innovations from commercially affiliated donor-advised funds to strategic corporate philanthropy to philanthropy limited liability companies set that Grand Bargain aside to provide elites with greater autonomy and privacy. Private ordering, targeted regulation, or a new strategic bargain could strike a modern balance, preserving the benefits of this long-standing partnership. For-Profit Philanthropy offers a detailed roadmap to show how it could be accomplished.
Commercially Affiliated Donor-Advised Fund Sponsors
Authors: Brakman Reiser Dana , Dean Steven A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The donor-advised fund (DAF) works like a debit card for charitable spending. Donors transfer assets to a sponsor entity, which holds the assets in an account until the donor advises the sponsor to contribute them to a charity. Sponsors were once community foundations providing guidance to donors on needs and organizations in their local regions. Today, sponsors affiliated with commercial investment firms dominate the field. DAF sponsors affiliated with commercial entities have come to account for four of the ten largest recipients of charitable funds in the United States: Fidelity Charitable, Goldman Sachs Philanthropy Fund, Schwab Charitable Fund, and the Vanguard Charitable Endowment Program. This chapter explores the potential impact of this dramatic shift on the future of philanthropy. The emergence of DAFs as platforms for giving could supercharge philanthropy. At the same time, they reduce accountability, concentrating control in the hands of society’s elites while obscuring their influence.
Positive Masculinity and Brooklyn Nine-Nine
Authors: Lawson Robert 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter 7 focuses on ‘positive masculinities’ and explores how men are encouraged to pursue healthier conceptualizations of masculinity. Since the media plays a key part in setting out cultural scripts and expectations of masculinity, this chapter then presents an analysis of the television comedy show Brooklyn Nine-Nine to examine how men use language to connect with others, build relationships, and demonstrate affiliation with friends and loved ones, subsequently subverting and destabilizing hegemonic forms of masculinity. Given that the intersection of language, masculinity, and television is a somewhat unexplored area, this chapter is important in improving our understanding of the role the media plays in promoting alternative constructions of masculinity.
A “Pious” History of the Earth? 1500–1650
Authors: Dal Prete Ivano 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter 4 details how the new natural, geographical, and ethnographical knowledge that Europe’s colonial expansion depended on shook the foundations of the medieval Earth. The radicalization of religious tensions, the Protestant and Catholic reformations, and the rise of biblical literalism shattered the barriers that for centuries guarded the autonomy of natural philosophy from theology, and vice versa. Restrictions to intellectual freedom all over Europe came with unprecedented calls for a Christianized science of nature. Yet, the new orientations often broadened the scope and breadth of traditional Earth history rather than outright replacing it. In Catholic Europe, authors were only required to state that the world had a beginning, not to uphold a recent one. A created world of undetermined age continued to inform much of the relevant literature.
Conclusion
Authors: Dal Prete Ivano 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
As the French Revolution engendered the socially conservative Napoleonic Empire rather than the dreaded democratic new order, milder versions of diluvialism and an ancient Earth became again more acceptable. During the nineteenth century, however, growing evidence against the Flood along with Darwinian natural selection kindled the revival of biblical literalism on the one hand, and on the other, of the “conflict thesis” that singled out Christianity as a major obstacle to the progress of humankind. Both strands built upon the belief, by then well established, of the historical opposition of Christianity to an ancient Earth. During the twentieth century this flawed yet almost universal historical narrative nurtured Flood Geology and the growth of Young Earth creationism, as conservative Christians (including prominent US politicians and state legislatures) have found it tempting to undermine evolution by casting doubt on the millions of years it requires.
“You Are Like My Only Friend, Idc If You Are 12”
Authors: Lorenzo-Dus Nuria 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines digital sexual groomers’ styling of self and others, aligning these to their ability to gain—and exploit—their target’s trust. The analysis shows that digital sexual groomers seek to lure targets by closely aligning self- and other (target) styles. To do so, they falsely present self and target as fully complementary in stances of sexual expertise, communicative openness, and victim-oriented avidity. The groomers display sexual expertise and are willing to share it with the target, who is willing to acquire it. The groomers also exploit cultural rhetoric that digital sharing is good: they perform emotional self-disclosure, especially concerning negative, vulnerability-triggering feelings, which ignite mutual reciprocity cycles from their target. And they display intense interest in the target, who is ascribed a stance of being worthy of their avidity. This requires complex facework toward the target that simultaneously resorts to politeness (positive and negative) and impoliteness strategies, with consequently variable levels of closeness- and non-imposition-based behavior, on the one hand, and encroachment-based behavior, on the other. Finally, the analysis also shows that digital sexual groomers place considerable emphasis on cultivating a sense of exclusivity with their target. Individuals who may already have an affective bond with her, typically parents and friends, thus become the groomers’ opponents—the main obstacle to their exclusivity and secrecy needs. Consequently, groomers style their opponents in negative and less favorable ways than those used to style themselves and their target.
Reasonableness and Risk
Authors: Keating Gregory C. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The law of torts is fundamental. Any mature legal system must contain a body of law addressing what we owe in the way of obligations to respect each other’s physical and psychological integrity, property, privacy, freedom of action, reputation, and so on. If people were free to injure and interfere with one another in any way that they wished, we would still be in a state of nature. Yet if the law of torts is fundamental, it is also elusive. One hundred and fifty years ago, Oliver Wendell Holmes opined that tort law was not “a proper subject for a law book.” Holmes soon changed his mind, but to this day, leading torts scholars assert that the law of torts is so fundamentally fragmented that the only adequate way to describe the field is to say that it encompasses some civil wrongs that do not arise out of contract. This book argues that the law of torts is a fundamental legal institution because it establishes an essential form of justice among persons. Tort is about what it is that we owe to each other in the way of reciprocal responsibilities not to interfere with, or impair, essential interests that we possess simply because we are persons. Tort law’s rhetoric of reasonableness thus reveals its fundamental moral commitment. Tort law seeks to impose responsibilities not to impair or interfere with each other’s urgent interests on terms that are justifiable both to those protected, and to those burdened, by its terms.
The Importance of Interests
Authors: Keating Gregory C. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Contemporary tort theory is a contest between two moral outlooks. One outlook takes law and morality to be concerned with producing states of the world in which some value—usually well-being—is maximized. This outlook is consequentialist. The other takes law and morality to be concerned with relations among persons—with what it is that people owe to one another. This outlook is deontological. The deontological concern with relations among persons underlies an avowedly formalist account of tort law that rallies around the battle cry that tort is “private law.” Theorists of tort as “private law” understand tort as a law of equal freedom and insist that the substance of the law of torts can be extracted entirely from its form. This view goes wrong by both asking and making too much of form. It asks too much of form when it attempts to make sense of the private law of torts eschews all talk of interests. We cannot understand or justify the law of torts without attending to the fact that urgent individual interests—in physical integrity, in psychological well-being, in privacy, and more—play a fundamental role in the law of torts. Rightful relations among persons are a matter of substance as well as form. Tort law can only establish our equality and independence if it guards urgent interests against impairment and interference. The view of tort as “private law” makes too much of form when it presents tort as a private fiefdom walled off from surrounding legal fields. Tort is one member of a family of institutions responsible for protecting us against unwarranted impairment and interference.
Strict Responsibilities
Authors: Keating Gregory C. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter Six explicates and defends tort law’s two major forms of strict liability. Strict liabilities hold actors accountable for inflicting harms that the law does not think they should have avoided. One form protects powers of control that the law assigns to people over their own persons and property. These liabilities are strict in the sense that they may be imposed on conduct that is excusable. People may be reasonably unaware that they are violating other people’s powers of control over their persons or property and yet do so. These strict liabilities rests on the defensible premise that predicating liability on fault would unacceptably compromise people’s sovereignty over their own persons and possessions. A second form of strict liability identifies a kind of conditional wrong. It expresses the judgment that—in the circumstance at hand—it is not wrong to inflict harm, but it is wrong to harm-without-repairing. Harm-based strict liabilities embody the same principle of fairness that underlies the takings clause in U.S. Constitution. In some cases, it is unfair to foist the burden of unavoidable physical harm inflicted by some activity on those whose misfortune it is to find themselves in the path of the activity. Reparation rights this unfairness and averts what would otherwise be a wrong. Absent reparation for harm done, those who engage in, and profit from, the infliction of injuries that should not be avoided exploit those who suffer serious injury. Both forms identify genuine tortious wrongs.
The Heterogeneity of Tort
Authors: Keating Gregory C. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Contemporary tort scholarship is torn between a nightmare that torts is merely a motley collection of heterogeneous wrongs and a noble dream that a single unifying value or idea lies latent beneath the field’s turbulent surface. Chapter Eight argues against both theses. Against the grab-bag view, Chapter Eight argues that the role of tort law is stable. By specifying interests important enough to warrant the law’s protection, tort law establishes an essential part of our security as members of civil society—an important part of what John Stuart Mill called “the groundwork of our existence.” Tort law’s diverse regimes of responsibility can be understood as matters of what we owe to each other with respect to coercively enforceable obligations not to interfere with and impair each other’s urgent interests. The stability of tort law’s role and the persistence of its core concerns over time coexist, however, with internal turbulence and incompleteness. Tort is torn between competing principles of fault and strict liability; between individualistic and collective conceptions of responsibility; and many of the interests that it takes to be urgent enough to warrant its protection change over time. Tort is incomplete because there are forms of interference and impairment to which it cannot adequately respond. Most vividly, tort cannot respond adequately to irreparable injury. Chapter Eight argues that we should accept the pluralism of the normative conceptions that inform tort law and welcome the arguments to which tort law’s heterogeneity gives rise as proof of the field’s intellectual vitality.
The Prehistory of English and the Other Indo-European Languages
Authors: Leben William R. , Kessler Brett , Denning Keith 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
English belongs to the Germanic branch of the Indo-European family, which goes back five to six thousand years. French, which earlier chapters have shown to be a rich source of English words, belongs to the Italic branch, as does Latin. Greek belongs to the Hellenic branch of Indo-European. In their descent from Indo-European, these languages all underwent their own sets of changes. Remarkably, thanks to the regularity of sound change and despite the passage of millennia, it’s possible to retrace the origin of many English words back to their Indo-European source. To demonstrate this, the present chapter presents one of the major sound changes, Grimm’s law, and shows the correspondences between a variety of English words and the original sounds in the ancestral language.
Natural General Intelligence
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Since the time of Turing, computer scientists have dreamed of building artificial general intelligence (AGI)—a system that can think, learn, and act as humans do. Over recent years, the remarkable pace of progress in machine learning research has reawakened discussions about AGI. But what would a generally intelligent agent be able to do? What algorithms, architectures, or cognitive functions would it need? To answer these questions, we turn to the study of natural intelligence. Humans (and many other animals) have evolved precisely the sorts of generality of function that artificial intelligence (AI) researchers see as the defining hallmark of intelligence. The fields of cognitive science and neuroscience have provided us with a language for describing the ingredients of natural intelligence in terms of computational mechanisms and cognitive functions, and studied their implementation in neural circuits. The book describes the algorithms and architectures that are driving progress in AI research in this language, by comparing current AI systems and biological brains side by side. In doing so, it addresses deep conceptual issues concerning how perceptual, memory, and control systems work, and discusses the language in which we think and the structure of our knowledge. It also grapples with long-standing controversies about the nature of intelligence, and whether AI researchers should look to biology for inspiration. Ultimately, the book aims to provide a bridge between the theories of those who study biological brains and the practice of those who are seeking to build artificial brains.
The value of action
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces reinforcement learning (RL). It begins by discussing what is unique about this framework, in which agents that use a control policy to take actions that affect the environment. The chapter introduces the concepts of the Markov decision process and the value function, and basic RL algorithms such as temporal difference learning, and how these relate to classical and operant conditioning in animals. It discusses the neural implementation of reward-guided learning in the basal ganglia and hippocampus. It considers the problem of exploring effectively, and how other intrinsic rewards, such as curiosity, empowerment, or agency, may be required to allow agents to learn intelligent behaviours. The chapter ends by discussing controversial claims about the primacy of RL as a framework for AI research.
The control of memory
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how memory can be used to facilitate complex forms of control. It opens with simple ways in which memory can accelerate learning, such as eligibility traces. It goes on to discuss the distinction between familiarity and recollection, and the role of the medial temporal lobe in one-shot learning. It considers how a dual-process model of memory helps agents solve the problem of continual learning in a changing world. Subsequently, the chapter discusses recurrent memory architectures, and how they allow agents to maintain and gate information for control. It relates these systems to working memory systems in the primate prefrontal cortex. Finally, the chapter considers meta-learning and neural program induction as theories of how agents learn to execute simple mental programs.
Alcohol: No Ordinary Commodity
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Casswell Sally , Graham Kathryn , Huckle Taisia , Livingston Michael , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Sornpaisarn Bundit 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This book is about alcohol policy: why it is needed, how it is made, and the impact it has on health and well-being. It is written for both policymakers and alcohol scientists, as well as the many other people interested in bridging the gap between research and policy. It begins with a global review of epidemiological evidence showing why alcohol is not an ordinary commodity, and it ends with the conclusion that alcohol policies implemented within a public health agenda are needed to reduce the enormous burden of harm it causes. The core of the book is a critical review of the cumulative scientific evidence in seven general areas of alcohol policy: pricing and taxation; regulating the physical availability of alcohol; modifying the environment in which drinking occurs; drink-driving countermeasures; marketing restrictions; primary prevention programmes in schools and other settings; and treatment and early intervention services. The final chapters discuss the current state of alcohol policy in different parts of the world, the detrimental role of the alcohol industry, and the need for both national and global alcohol policies that are evidence-based, effective, and coordinated. This book shows that opportunities for evidence-based alcohol policies that better serve the public good are clearer than ever before, as a result of accumulating knowledge on which strategies work best.
Restrictions on marketing
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Casswell Sally , Graham Kathryn , Huckle Taisia , Livingston Michael , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Sornpaisarn Bundit 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Extensive research shows support for the causal effects of exposure to, and engagement with, alcohol marketing on beliefs, norms, consumption, and hazardous drinking. This chapter critically reviews the literature and highlights the expanding role of digital marketing. Much research has focused on young people, but there is increasing concern over other vulnerable groups, given the unprecedented targeting of individuals and ‘lookalike’ audiences via algorithmic analysis of digital data. Most attempts to restrict marketing are partial, and therefore, the evaluation literature is limited. Vested interests have established voluntary codes, but evidence indicates they are ineffective. Conclusions regarding the likely effects of marketing bans are based on theoretical understanding and empirical evidence about the way in which marketing has its effects and its measured impacts. Conclusions are also informed by research on tobacco advertising where the impacts of restrictions are established and widely accepted.
Modifying the drinking context: reducing harm in the licensed drinking environment and other contexts
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Casswell Sally , Graham Kathryn , Huckle Taisia , Livingston Michael , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Sornpaisarn Bundit 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews interventions intended to reduce alcohol consumption and related problems by modifying the drinking context. These interventions can focus on drinkers themselves, the environments where drinking occurs, regulations and policing of drinking contexts, or the broader community. Interventions are directed toward commercial drinking venues (bars, pubs, clubs), as well as other drinking locations such as parties or sports venues. These interventions are popular because they can target specific problems and contexts and draw on multiple approaches simultaneously. However, their effectiveness varies according to the content of the intervention, how it is implemented, countervailing forces that can weaken impact, and the situational and broader cultural context. Although generally less effective than broader policy interventions, such as higher taxation, interventions to modify the drinking context are a useful element in the mix of strategies for preventing alcohol-related problems.
Alcohol policies: a consumer’s guide
Authors: Babor Thomas F. , Casswell Sally , Graham Kathryn , Huckle Taisia , Livingston Michael , Österberg Esa , Rehm Jürgen , Room Robin , Rossow Ingeborg , Sornpaisarn Bundit 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The final chapter of the book presents a synthesis of existing knowledge about evidence-based strategies and interventions that can be translated into alcohol policy. The extensiveness of the options with evidence of effectiveness (53 out of 69 options evaluated) shows that the policy solutions developed to deal with alcohol are not only numerous, but also extraordinarily diverse, ranging from individual therapeutic services for persons with alcohol-related problems to population-level strategies designed to influence the affordability, availability, and allure of alcohol for the general consumer. The Best Practices, according to the authors’ consensus ratings, are restrictions on affordability, availability, and accessibility, as well as marketing controls and drink-driving deterrence measures. On the basis of the evidence arrayed in this book, extraordinary opportunities exist to strengthen the policy response to alcohol-related problems.