bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Theories of Fair Distribution
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter develops the main contemporary theories concerned with the fair distribution of both divisible and indivisible goods. It begins by discussing vague generalizations about fairness, which guide the formulation and assessment of more specific theories. Next, it characterizes problems of fair division, a simple example of which is presented. It also discusses how cooperative game theory bears on questions of fair distribution. It presents John Broome’s influential account of how to allocate divisible goods fairly among the claimants as well as Broome’s view of the fair distribution of indivisible goods. The chapter turns to problems for Broome’s theory, and it considers what fairness requires when claims to goods differ both quantitatively and in strength, and it defends a fragment of a theory of fairness. The chapter ends with a discussion of two other philosophical theories of fairness, which are due to Larry Temkin and Matthew Adler.
What Is a Fair Allocation of Health Care?
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how to apply accounts of fair distribution to the assessment of the distribution of health care. The objective is a theory of fair health care allocation that can be used to evaluate the criticisms of cost-effective allocation. This chapter first examines whether individuals have claims to health care and what determines their strength. It then develops criticisms of the view that the fair distribution of health care involves proportional satisfaction of claims to health care. It argues for a reinterpretation of the problem from which distributions of health care are fair to the conditions in which access to health care is fair and addresses the question of how the costs of treatments bear on the fairness of the combinations of health care to which individuals have access. Finally, the chapter returns to the question of how to specify a fair distribution of health care in the light of the heterogeneity of health problems and treatments.
Fair Chances
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the “fair chances” objection to cost-effective allocation—that it is unfair to allocate health care to those who can most benefit from health care before doing anything to treat those who would benefit substantially but not as much. The chapter first provides this criticism with a philosophical foundation in Broome’s theory of fairness, but it challenges Broome’s theory and it raises questions about whether the fair chances objection has much force. The chapter develops a hypothetical case that brings out implications of the fair chances objection, and suggests further qualms concerning Broome’s theory. The chapter concludes by considering how moral concerns that are separate from fairness and enhancing health bear on the assessment of cost-effectiveness.
Does Cost-Effectiveness Fail to Give Sufficient Priority to Severity?
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter responds to the objection that allocation guided by cost-effectiveness fails to place sufficient weight on the severity of health problems. If treatments T and T′ cost the same and are equally effective, but the recipients of treatment T would be worse off if untreated, then many believe that T should be funded before T′. The chapter first distinguishes acute and chronic severity and presents data showing that survey respondents support the severity objection. But it points out ambiguities in prioritizing severity. After considering how to implement greater priority for severity, it lays out problems that undermine the intuitive appeal of prioritizing acute severity. It then criticizes the main arguments that are invoked to support the conclusion that fairness requires prioritizing chronic severity, and it argues that compassion and solidarity do not justify the severity objection. The chapter concludes with speculations concerning why so many people mistakenly endorse the severity objection.
To Aggregate or Not to Aggregate
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter responds to the argument that health policy should not treat or prevent minor ailments when it might instead alleviate major illnesses, even if the treatment of minor ailments is more cost-effective. In addition to challenging the general view that small harms are not relevant to major harms, the chapter argues that minor health conditions, unlike small harms, pose risks of major harms, which makes ignoring them untenable. Discussion begins with a response to John Taurek’s argument against ever aggregating. That case faces serious objections, and it is not pertinent to questions concerning the allocation of health care. The chapter then presents the most plausible development of a partial aggregation view and discusses difficulties that require refinement of the partial aggregation view. It then offers three criticisms of the partial aggregation view. Finally, the chapter responds to the claim that despite its drawbacks, partial aggregation is superior to the aggregation implicit in cost-effective allocation.
Discrimination
Authors: Hausman Daniel M. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the objection that cost-effectiveness is discriminatory. It identifies three discrimination complaints and distinguishes these complaints from the fair chances and severity objections. It argues that the discrimination derives both from the way in which health measurement systems assign values to morbidity and mortality and from the way that cost-effective allocation makes use of those values. The chapter considers what makes some kinds of discrimination acceptable, even desirable, whereas other instances are intolerable. It scrutinizes an alternative way of valuing health improvements, healthy years in total, that assigns equal value to life-saving and thereby avoids the most egregious discrimination that is implicit in measures of the effectiveness of health care. However, the chapter also points to flaws in the alternative and argues that the discrimination criticism of cost-effectiveness cannot be resolved by changing the measure of effectiveness. The chapter concludes with a way to avoid the wrongful discrimination that c-e allocation may involve.
Politics in the New State
Authors: Willis Michael J. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The Algerian state was born directly out of the liberation struggle against French colonial rule by the nationalist FLN movement. The nature of the struggle and the FLN shaped politics in the newly independent state, notably through traditions of collective leadership, secrecy, factionalism, and the influence of the military. Independent Algeria's first president Ahmed Ben Bella came to power thanks to the support of the military and was removed by it in 1965. Head of the military, Houari Boumediene, consolidated state institutions and his own power as president in the 1960s and 1970s. President Chadli Benjedid struggled to assert himself over factionalized elites in the 1980s and faced challenges from Islamists, the Kabyle region, and economic crisis. Countrywide unrest in October 1988 led to an opening up of the political system and the holding of multiparty elections. Stunning victories by the Islamic Salvation Front (FIS) party led to the abandonment of elections and the banning of the FIS in 1992. Chadli's successor, President Mohammed Boudiaf, was assassinated after five months, probably by elements within the regime. Algeria drifted into civil conflict as armed Islamist groups emerged to challenge the new military-dominated government.
Politics and Economics
Authors: Willis Michael J. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Algeria's economy is dominated by the country's substantial oil and, especially, its gas resources (hydrocarbons). Fluctuations in international energy prices consequently greatly affected politics through underwriting periods of stability during periods of high prices and provoking instability when prices fell as they did in the 1980s. The steady rise in international energy prices soon after Bouteflika became president in 1999 allowed him to rebuild the country's shattered infrastructure and recruit political allies among the country's new business elite who secured government contracts in return for political and financial support for the president. Living standards of ordinary Algerians improved, but clear weaknesses of sluggish growth, youth unemployment, and minimal foreign investment remained. Falling energy prices from 2014 threatened a return to economic crisis and renewed political instability as Algeria rapidly ate into its accumulated financial reserves. Crisis had not yet hit by the time of the mass demonstrations of 2019 which were more motivated by anger at the rise in rampant official corruption. The arrest and prosecution for corruption and embezzlement of many of Bouteflika's senior ministers and most of his prominent supporters in the business community followed Bouteflika's resignation. However no notable change occurred in economic policy.
The Fall and Rise of Political Opposition
Authors: Willis Michael J. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
A notable feature of the Algerian politics from the 1990s up until 2019 was the absence of a strong, organized political opposition to the regime. Opposition political parties played a diminishing role as they failed to attract significant levels of public support and were marginalized by the regime through manipulated elections and promotion of clientelist parties allied to the regime in the shape of the RND and FLN. Civil society associations similarly failed to organize opposition as they became co-opted and manipulated by the regime. Widespread localised protests failed to unite as they became mechanisms for securing resources from the government rather than campaigns for broader political reform. This explains the failure of Algeria to develop a major protest movement during the "Arab Spring" of 2011. The emergence of the hirak mass protest movement in 2019 proved that the absence of an organized opposition was not evidence of Algerians' content with the way they were governed. The movement organized weekly mass protests eschewing the leadership of parties, associations or individuals, and uniting opposition across the political spectrum. It was characterized by its persistence and its steadfast commitment to non-violence, having learned the lessons of the upheavals of the 1990s.
Algeria and the Outside World
Authors: Willis Michael J. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Domestic politics in Algeria played out against a backdrop of significant changes in international politics. These were felt more directly than before because Algeria re-emerged onto the international stage following a decade that had seen it preoccupied and isolated by its own internal crises. Events and changes in Algeria's immediate regional environment exposed the country to new threats and challenges. The popular uprisings that shook the Arab world from 2011 led to the fall of established rulers in Tunisia, Egypt, and Libya and the consequent collapse of state structures in Libya and Mali, the two states with which Algeria shared its longest borders. Consequently, Algeria came to be confronted by international terrorism. These developments obliged Algeria to shift its existing foreign policy priorities away from relations with Europe and the United States to its immediate region. This led Algeria to adopt a more activist foreign policy, seeking to stabilize neighbouring states through providing mediation in their internal conflicts and participating in regional and international initiatives. In this way and helped by its relative domestic stability up until 2019, Algeria came to be regarded as a respected and newly influential regional power.
The Return of Sovereignty
Authors: Auer Stefan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractBetraying its core ideal, the European Union has unwittingly exacerbated the crisis of representative democracy. The chapter traces the twists and turns of post-Second World War European history against the background of the key ideas that have shaped the European project. The relationship between democracy and national sovereignty, for example, is discussed, drawing on thinkers as different as Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Carl Schmitt, Hans Kelsen, Alexandre Kojève, Jürgen Habermas, and Jan-Werner Müller. The push towards a more post-national Europe has backfired, making Europe more technocratic. The chapter concludes by arguing that the recent series of crises that Europe has experienced has exposed the limitations of the technocratic mode of governance, which has failed to deliver on the promise of freedom, security, and justice.
A Post-Sovereign Europe? Germany, Eurozone, Refugee Crisis
Authors: Auer Stefan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter sketches Europe's transformation under Germany's reluctant leadership and points towards its limitations. Germany was a dominant player in the eurozone crisis, instrumental in shaping both the EU-Russia and EU-Ukraine relationship after the Euromaidan revolution in late 2013 and it was at the centre of the migration crisis in 2015. Germany's role is examined via conflicting understandings of sovereignty and democracy, and the way in which they were challenged by the politics of emergency. The chapter contrasts the vision of a post-sovereign Europe, advocated by the likes of Jürgen Habermas, with the views of the German Constitutional Court, which has constrained the process of EU constitutionalisation by arguing that democracy requires a demos. Finally, the chapter offers a critical analysis of the German Chancellor Angela Merkel, who like no other political leader in Europe came to embody two conflicting impulses that shaped European politics: the politics of emergency and the technocratic reliance on depoliticised rules. A post-sovereign Europe is becoming ever more post-democratic.
A Sovereign Europe?
Authors: Auer Stefan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter interrogates the contradictory impulses that have shaped French conceptions of European unity, spanning Alexandre Kojève's proposal for a "Latin Empire", Charles de Gaulle's vision of a "Europe of nations" and Emmanuel Macron's conception for a "sovereign Europe". In their different ways, they all sought to enable France to play a prominent role in Europe. Conversely, the sovereign Europe that many people in France want was the one that voters in the United Kingdom rejected, leading to Brexit. Another focus of this chapter is the UK's ambiguous relationship with the European Union. To some extent, France and the UK can be seen as mirror images of each other. For both countries sovereignty remains important, but while France seeks to regain it through Europe, the UK seeks to reclaim it outside, or even against Europe. The chapter concludes by arguing that Brexit should be viewed as indicative of the growing disillusionment with a project that is perceived as removed from the very people it is meant to serve--EU citizens.
A Sovereignist Europe?
Authors: Auer Stefan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThe focus of this chapter is on the countries of Central Europe, particularly the Czech Republic, Hungary, Poland, and Slovakia, whose historic legacies made them less receptive to the visions of Europe dominant in the West. If Europe as a political project is to resonate in this region, it needs to be conceptualised as one derived from--and being conducive to-- liberal nationalism. The chapter discusses the reasons for the erosion of the quality of democracy and the rule of law in these new member states. It concludes by arguing that democratic backsliding needs to be addressed primarily at the level of member states. Authoritarian liberalism at the EU level does not offer an adequate response to illiberal democracy.
Exhuming Bodies
Authors: Bank Leslie , Sharpley Nelly 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThe tightening of Covid restrictions in relation to the management of bodies and burial practices created great consternation in rural areas. Covid bodies were managed by mortuaries and funeral parlors which required that bodies be wrapped in multiple layers of plastic to avoid infection. Families of the deceased thus had very little access to the bodies of their loved ones prior to burial and could not wash them or communicate with them before they were buried in the ground. This challenged families whose belief system was based on direct communication with the dead to usher them safely into the afterlife and the cult of ancestors and spirits. Covid burials proved to be hopelessly inadequate vehicles for such rites of passage and social reproduction. As a result, many residents and returning migrants, tormented by dreams of their suffering deceased relatives sweating in plastic bags, exhumed dead bodies and instituted illegal reburials. Others reinitiated banned customary practices to begin to repair the spiritual wounds left by the pandemic. The chapter provides a detailed account of rural struggles to restore dignity and spiritual security in the time of Covid.
The Time of Cholera
Authors: Arnold David 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Cholera, the ur-pandemic of the nineteenth century, had its undisputed origins in South Asia, becoming pandemic from 1817 onwards. The chapter examines the historical and epidemiological reasons why deltaic Bengal proved so conducive to the production and spread of this disease. The waterborne character of cholera underpinned its association with Hindu bathing festivals and epidemics linked to the absence of clean drinking water during famines; a connection via water is also made to migrant Indian labor and the health of the army. In considering whether cholera created a sense of human injustice or was regarded as natural misfortune, the chapter discusses vernacular ideas of disease-causing and disease-preventing deities as well as the colonial preoccupation with climate as a determinant of disease and the manner of its spread. It describes the gradual introduction of a colonial public health system, including from the 1890s prophylactic inoculation, but further intervention was held back by the regime's fear of provoking an Indian backlash through the use of more overtly coercive measures.
Orphans of the Storm
Authors: Arnold David 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Returning to the question of mortality, the chapter reflects on the various estimates of deaths from influenza made at the time and the unreliability of the statistical data. It measures the experience of those who survived the pandemic as widows and orphans against the paucity of post-pandemic labor and the incentives famine and contagion created for labor migration within India. It turns to the question of memory and memorialization and considers why, despite the extreme incidence of sickness and mortality, there appears to have been so little recollection of the pandemic in India in contrast to the memorialization of the dead of World War I and the Gandhi-led nationalist upsurge of the postwar years. While thus not part of the established historical narrative of modern India and Indian nationhood, there is nonetheless testimony to the grief and suffering experienced by individuals, just as the pandemic mortality in India in 1918–19 subsequently became a dramatic marker for anticipating or measuring subsequent pandemic episodes.
Trump’s Withdrawal from the JCPOA
Authors: Monshipouri Mahmood 
Published: January 2023

AbstractIn this chapter, I critically assess Trump's Iran policy within the larger context of the Middle East with an eye toward gauging the net results of this policy and its wide-ranging implications. The key question raised in this chapter is whether or not the application of the "maximum pressure" policy yielded the outcome favoured by the Trump administration. This chapter argues against this contention, demonstrating how the Trump administration's disjointed and dangerous policy of "maximum pressure" pushed Iran further into the arms of Russia and China, and revealing other detrimental regional implications from the failed policy.
Conflict Minerals, Inc.
Authors: Vogel Christoph N. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
In the twenty-first century, the relationship between violent conflict and natural resources has become a matter of intense public and academic debate. As a result of fervent activism and international campaigning, the flagship case of "conflict minerals" has captured global attention. This term groups together the artisanal tin, tantalum (coltan), tungsten and gold originating from war zones in Central Africa. Known as "digital minerals" for their use in high-end technology, their exploitation and trade have been singled out in numerous media and United Nations reports as a key driver of violence, provoking an unprecedented popular outcry and prompting transnational efforts to promote "conflict-free", ethical mining. Focusing on the eastern Democratic Republic of the Congo, Conflict Minerals, Inc. is the first comprehensive analysis of this phenomenon. Based on meticulous investigation and long-term fieldwork, this book analyzes why the campaign against "unethical" mining went awry, and radically disrupted eastern Congo's political economy. It dissects the evolution of the conflict minerals paradigm, the policy responses it triggered and their impact on artisanal miners. Vogel demonstrates how Western advocacy and policy have relied on colonial frames to drive change, and how White Saviorism perpetuates structural violence and inequality across global supply and value chains.
Ethical Monopolies
Authors: Vogel Christoph N. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter combines ethnographic insights with survey data into the impact of transnational minerals regulation. Through the prism of iTSCi, a private sector-led mineral traceability initiative, it explains how due diligence and transnational regulation impact local livelihoods, market access, and the fluidity of property regimes. The chapter explains how new, incoming regulation contributes to disarticulating supply chains and creating buyer-end monopolies. Justified by the need to offer due diligence by tracing mineral bags from mines to markets, iTSCi works through a territorializing logic of incorporating specific mining sites into its clean supply chains. This, the chapter highlights, has two major implications. In those sites included in the traceability scheme, local producers are forced into monopsony (buyer-end monopoly) and face pressure due to the lack of competition among trading houses and smelters. In other mining sites, not (yet) partaking in the scheme, miners are de facto excluded from access to legal markets. Both scenarios lead to decreasing local revenue. The chapter then closes with a broader reflection on the disjuncture between the demands of Western consumers and the livelihoods of mining communities in eastern Congo. It argues, similar to other policy fields, that the definition of global values and morality is a highly contested and diverse playing field.
Epilogue
Authors: Pacheco Pardo Ramon 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
South Korea is no "shrimp among whales" anymore as of 2022. It has one of the strongest democracies in the world, one of the ten largest economies in the world, a globally recognized culture, and a society that makes its leaders accountable. At the same time, South Korea has to adapt and respond to issues and changes affecting fellow developed countries, such as higher levels of inequality, declining birth rates and an ageing society, the changing role and expectations of women, or growing immigration and multiculturalism. Looking at the country's history, one can predict that South Korea will continue to evolve, adapt to change, and successfully strengthen its democracy, develop its economy, promote its culture, and bring social change.