bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Howard and Welwyn – the Second Garden City 1919–1928
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the fortunes of the Garden City movement in the immediate post-First World War period. It explains how Howard’s younger disciples, Frederic Osborn and C.B. Purdom ‘refreshed’ the concept of the Garden City in the years after the War, and the circumstances that led to the building of the second Garden City at Welwyn, from 1919. It discusses the design of the town by Louis de Soissons, and the development of religious institutions during the first decade of Welwyn’s development. The chapter examines the final decade of Howard’s life, as he became less involved in the life of the Hertfordshire Garden Cities, and more preoccupied with the International Garden Cities and Town Planning Association, as well as with his lifelong project to build a reliable stenography machine. The chapter concludes by discussing the circumstances of his death, and the debate about who should write his biography.
The Poetic Field, I
Authors: Dance Richard 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The ‘Middle’ phase in the story of English often impresses us as a period of enormous change and diversity. This chapter introduces the continuities as well as the differences between Old and Middle English, and explores some of the ways in which Middle English varied—through time and across space, and in the range of origins represented by its word forms. The main focus is on texts at the so-called ‘transition’ from Old English to Middle English, with case studies of the linguistic resources and expressive choices of two twelfth-century poems from opposite sides of England, the Soul’s Address to the Body and the Ormulum. The chapter then moves forwards in time and asks what an examination of language means for our appreciation of the poetic qualities of two famous literary monuments of the later fourteenth century, the works of Geoffrey Chaucer and of the Gawain-poet.
The Poetic Field, II
Authors: Echard Siân 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores Latin poetry written or circulating in medieval Britain, with a particular emphasis on works from the twelfth and thirteenth centuries. Each writer exemplifies a particular strand of Anglo-Latin writing: classical epic, satire, religious writing, and writing ‘in place’—that is, writing that concentrates on English spaces and an imagining of Englishness. The writers dealt with are Joseph of Exeter, Walter of Châtillon, Nigel Whiteacre, Reginald of Canterbury, John of Garland, Lawrence of Durham, and Henry of Huntingdon. The chapter opens and closes with consideration of what it meant to write in the Latin tradition for poets who were conscious of the authority of the classical past and the challenge of the multilingual present.
The Poetic Field, III
Authors: Busby Keith 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
After a brief discussion of the terms ‘Anglo-Norman’, ‘the French of England’, ‘Anglo-French’, and ‘insular French’, this chapter offers perspectives on the ways in which both insular and Continental texts in French provided models for poetry in Middle English. The demise of English as a literary vernacular following 1066 has been exaggerated, but the establishment by colonisation in the islands of French-speaking aristocrats, ecclesiastics, and an associated clerical class opened up French verse as a medium for all kinds of literature and introduced new genres and modes to the islands. Many early texts in Old French verse are of insular origin and English authors writing in Anglo-Norman may be regarded as ‘precocious’ and even as ‘English literature in French’. Continental literature in French was also read in England and influenced poets writing in Middle English throughout the Middle Ages. The linguistic situation in England was multilingual, with some manuscripts containing texts in French, English, and Latin.
The Poetic Field, IV
Authors: Flood Victoria 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter offers an overview of the Welsh poetic field as it intersects with the English in the centuries following the Edwardian conquest of 1282–3. From the early-fourteenth-century Harley lyrics, to English Arthuriana, and late-medieval Welsh and macaronic poetry, it explores the evidence for cross-cultural and cross-linguistic interaction, noting the mediating role of Latin and French material in the circulation of Welsh names and thematic content in English-language literary culture. It suggests that during this period we find the clearest evidence of the direct influence not of Welsh poetry on English but of English language and literature on Welsh, in the English vocabulary and apparent familiarity with the English popular lyric in the writings of Chaucer’s contemporary, Dafydd ap Gwilym, as well as in the English–Welsh macaronic dialogues of the fifteenth century and the writing of English poetry in Welsh orthography.
Poetry in Its Age
Authors: Bertolet Craig E. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys a few mostly anonymous fourteenth-century poems outlining a specific grievance and identified by scholars as satires or complaints. Some poems, such as those by Laurence Minot and the anonymous Richard the Redeless, address a grievance originating either from a specific individual or event. Others, such as The Simonye, Wynnere and Wastoure, and Pierce the Ploughmans Crede, broadly condemn certain socioeconomic practices adversely affecting society. The chapter also surveys some poems from the British Library MS Harley 2253, which contains works that fall into either category. Although all these works are historical poems, they do not record historical events. Instead, they are poetical reactions to, or impressions of, the individuals and practices seen to be influencing their poet’s world.
Doctrine and Learning
Authors: Yeager Stephen M. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines didacticism in Middle English poetry, which both occasioned and shaped poetic forms and narratives developed for the purposes of knowledge production. ‘Poetic’ uses of language like metre, rhyme, and alliteration are pleasing in part because they are easy to remember, so poetic forms have long served to literally encode memorialised cultural authority in the contexts of their use. Though modern readers tend to prioritise personal expression as a source of formal innovation, in Middle English these innovations are more typically occasioned by the pressures of maintaining cultural continuity. This chapter applies this claim to homiletic compendia such as The Orrmulum, The Prick of Conscience, Handling Synne, and Physiologus; to documentary poems such as The Charter of Christ; and to proverb collections such as The Proverbs of Alfred. It concludes with readings of formal self-consciousness in the innovative debate poems The Owl and the Nightingale and Parlament of the Thre Ages.
Religious and Didactic Lyrics
Authors: Renevey Denis 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the concepts of form and performance in religious and didactic lyrics written between c 1150 and 1400. It also considers the emergence of themes such as the Passion events and the praise of the Virgin Mary, as well as moral and penitential topics. After a brief discussion of St Godric’s hymns, the chapter addresses in greater detail verse from the ‘Wooing Group’—more particularly ‘On god ureisun of ure lefdi’—assessing the specific function of verse as part of meditative practice. It also explores how some of the religious lyrics of BL MS Harley 2253 would be read in the context of a whole book-reading experience. The didactic function of lyrical religious poetry is explored further in some of the para-liturgical lyrics of William Herebert and the insertion of lyrics in epistolary tracts of religious guidance by Richard Rolle.
Non-Cyclic Romances of Love
Authors: Purdie Rhiannon 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks at a selection of romances that do not belong to one of the traditional ‘matters’, but which are instead united by a genre-signalling focus on passionate love. It investigates how this is reconciled with romance’s broader concerns with social order and the kinds of personal bonds which either reinforce or threaten it, considering love that is variously pre-pubescent, homosocial, platonic, or passionate, from the viewpoints of men and women. It also considers the interaction of some of these texts with the great ‘matters’, and what could be called their ‘prosody of emotion’, or exploitation of poetic and narrative form.
The Matter of Britain
Authors: Archibald Elizabeth 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
When English writers translated and adapted French Arthurian romances, and created new ones of their own, they used a strikingly wide range of verse forms. There are many local variations in stanza structure (number of lines, rhyme schemes); and alliterative writing, derived from the Old English tradition, requires a complex vocabulary of many synonyms, including unusual words often found only in these texts. Chaucer mocked many aspects of romance style in his ‘Tale of Sir Thopas’, but Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is not the only Middle English Arthurian romance to show considerable sophistication in both style and content. Texts discussed include the tail-rhyme Sir Percyvell of Galles, the alliterative Awntyrs of Arthur, the Alliterative Morte Arthure, and the Stanzaic Morte Arthur.
The ‘Matter of England’
Authors: Johnston Andrew James 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter is concerned with the so-called ‘Matter of England’-romances. As opposed to much previous criticism that tended to rate these romances’ literary quality low and focused primarily on political and thematic issues, this contribution seeks also to provide an outline of the specific aesthetic choices that shape the texts. Using Horn, Havelok, and Guy of Warwick as principal examples, the chapter examines the romances’ central structural and rhetorical characteristics, touches briefly on their perspective on history, and highlights aspects such as their feigned orality, their capacity for fabliau-like humour, and their generic flexibility. Among other things, this chapter argues that (some of) these romances cultivate a deliberately anti-courtly stance and exploit their seemingly naïve traditionalism for meta-poetic purposes.
The Gawain-Poet
Authors: Cooper Helen 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines what can be known, deduced, or guessed about the Cotton Nero manuscript, the language of the poems, their likely poet, and their possible patronage context. The poetics of the four poems are analysed for their different qualities: Pearl for its complex artistry and its code-switching between human and divine language; Cleanness and Patience as homiletic works, but containing much human sympathy and some fine storm scenes; and Sir Gawain for its subtle narratology and deployment of a rhetoric specific to alliterative poetry. The poems display a wide etymological range of vocabulary, from Old Norse to Latin; a close familiarity with the text of the Bible; and wide reading in French.
Chaucer’s Courtly Poetry
Authors: Lawton David 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
For all the many shifts in Chaucer’s career (of audience, literary models, and sources), he remains a courtly poet throughout, not least in his allegiance to the Roman de la Rose, his constant probing of love, memory, and pain, and his commitment to the perfection of poetic craft. A key movement is from a dominant structure of complaint in his dream poetry, in which narrative is arrested in the emotional state of the speaker, to a poetics of narratorial complicity developed in Troilus and Criseyde, itself linked to a philosophical and Boethian engagement with cultural memory and foreknowledge. The chapter also explores the classicising depth Chaucer is concerned to provide for Troilus, and in his invention of Alcestis in the Prologue to the Legend of Good Women.
John Gower
Authors: Yeager R. F. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
John Gower composed poetry for readers literate in French, Latin, and English. Accordingly, this chapter approaches his work as a trilingual oeuvre, stressing that any understanding of Gower’s poetics cannot be based solely on his Middle English verse. Rather, an accurate assessment properly requires familiarity with his Anglo-Norman and Latin work as well, as his artistry devolves from, and interconnects with, each in interaction with the other poetries. The chapter is arranged in three sections, according to language, and as far as possible chronologically within each section. Matters of rhyme, metre, diction, imagery, influences, and sources are examined throughout, the latter in a limited way, insofar as they find relevance for better comprehension of Gower’s poetic practice.
Beginnings of Historical Criticism
Authors: Legaspi Michael C. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The beginnings of historical criticism in academic German theology of the early eighteenth century coincided and merged with developments in the study of church history, specifically those arising from the church-critical perspective of Johann Arndt and, more proximately, the publication and reception of Gottfried Arnold’s ground-breaking Unparteyische Kirchen- und Ketzer-Historie (1699–1700). The civil philosophy of Christian Thomasius programmatized a different, though related, approach to understanding the Christian past. Fresh historical contextualizations of the biblical writings in this period arose from a contemporary theological crisis concerning the relation of the established Lutheran Orthodox churches to ‘true Christianity’. It is in the space between these two things, one a sociopolitical reality and the other a theological ideal, that we may note the emergence of new perspectives and, correspondingly, new attempts to re-examine the history of the churches and, eventually, the sacred history found in Scripture itself.
Translation, Bildung, and Dialogue
Authors: Franks Paul 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
A distinctively German version of Judaism developed between 1783, when Mendelssohn and his associates began to publish their German translation of the Pentateuch, and 1938, when Jewish communal life was extinguished. This version of Judaism focused on Bildung, which it construed as a modified version of tikkun: the reparation of the divine image in which the human was created. In the nineteenth century, Bildung-based Judaism developed into two branches, one focusing on ethical monotheism, the other on Torah im derekh erets (Torah along with the way of the land). Both emphasized that Bildung was a project shared by Jews and their non-Jewish neighbours, but the former branch expressed this project in universalist terms, while the latter chose a particularist mode of expression. In the twentieth century, a third development emerged, also with kabbalistic roots, emphasizing the role of dialogue in Bildung, and promising to unite what was best in the two branches. The concepts of ethical monotheism, Torah im derekh erets, and dialogical Bildung, emerging from the German-Jewish experience, have remained central to post-Holocaust Jewish thought.
The Early Theological Reception of Kant’s Religious Philosophy
Authors: Hunter Ian 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The early theological reception of Kant’s religious philosophy is usually depicted as a process in which biblical ecclesiastical religions were forced to adapt to a philosophy that had uncovered their inner rational foundations. This chapter shows to the contrary that while Kant and his followers saw his religious philosophy in this way, leading Lutheran and Catholic theologians received it quite differently: not as the inner rational truth of their faiths but as an external religious rival. This meant that the theological reception of Kantian religious philosophy did not take place as the progressive unfolding of a rational philosophy within historical ecclesiastical religions. Rather, it assumed the form of an unpredictable series of conflicts, adaptations, and repudiations that occurred when a novel philosophical religion was resisted by the public ecclesiastical faiths that it sought to supplant.
The Pantheism Controversy in the 1780s
Authors: Bienenstock Myriam 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The publication in 1785 of the ‘Letters on the Doctrine of Spinoza’ triggered in Germany a powerful Spinoza cult which had not been willed by F. H. Jacobi, their editor: he had perceived the growing enthusiasm for Spinoza, also manifested by Herder and Goethe, and wanted to react. Rather than waging war on Spinoza himself, he targeted Mendelssohn the Jew and the Berlin Aufklärung, also other famous contemporaries whom he summoned to choose between reason and faith. Many preferred to declare themselves ‘Spinozists’. Kant resisted, but Fichte evolved an influential form of pantheism disparagingly called by Herder ‘transcendental Spinozism’. Herder’s own aesthetical pantheism developed into a highly successful yet much criticized philosophy of history. The figure of Spinoza also marked the life and works of Goethe, the ‘great heathen’, and of ‘the great heathen No. 2’ Heinrich Heine, who gave a social and political meaning to pantheism, that ‘clandestine religion of Germany’.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Ravenscroft Ruth Jackson 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This survey chapter examines how theological assumptions and ideas contributed to the formation of German nationalist ideas during the cultural and political upheavals of the Napoleonic Wars, in the period between the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, and the founding of the Deutscher Bund in 1815. In doing so, it considers significant emergent historiography and scholarship on the cultural and political developments in the period. The chapter outlines how intellectuals including Friedrich Schleiermacher, Wilhelm von Humboldt, and G. W. F. Hegel contributed to the notion of a unified German nation. It explores the genesis of discourse around the notion of a German Kulturnation, and considers Johann Gottfried von Herder’s influence on conceptions of national identity. It also introduces subsequent chapters in this part of the volume by making connections between the theological agenda of the early German nationalists and contemporary views on the place of theology in the university.
Theology and Early Historicism
Authors: Zachhuber Johannes 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the historical turn in German intellectual life at the turn of the nineteenth century and its impact on theology. Two aspects are pivotal: the revolutionary social changes of the time create a sense of rupture between past and present; and radical criticism calls into question the reliability of historical sources. Historicization seeks to address both through a transformation of history into a rigorously methodical science while drawing on contemporaneous philosophy for models of reintegrating past reality into the contemporary horizon. Theologians played an active part in this development, but their work cannot be understood without their wider context. The chapter discusses Lessing and the Fragment Controversy; philosophies of history in Kant and Schelling; and the theological adaptation of these ideas in Schleiermacher, Marheineke, and de Wette.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Schaefer Richard 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores those political coordinates that would have been significant for theologians in German-speaking central Europe between 1815 and 1830. It seeks to chart the horizon against which theologians would have understood their work as having distinctly political implications. It begins by enumerating some of the relevant political continuities that straddled the watershed year of 1815. More specifically, it looks at how the restoration agenda was always already enmeshed in reformist political dynamics that included: the constitutional question, debates over the status of Jews, and the challenges that stemmed from the forced ‘mediatization’ of smaller states into larger ones. It then assesses the Congress of Vienna and the Holy Alliance in connection with various trans-confessional revival movements spreading across central Europe. It argues that the Congress was an epoch-defining ‘event’, one that helped shape, not only the course of the talks, but the much more profound sense that this was a unitary moment of history. The chapter examines the creation of the German Confederation, before surveying the political ‘crises’ that emerged during 1815–30. It explores reactions to the Reformation Tercentenary and the Wartburg festival of 1817, and it looks at the reaction to the murder of the author August von Kotzebue in 1819. The most immediate result was the promulgation of the Carlsbad Decrees throughout the German Confederation mandating strict censorship and a policing of the university. But the larger effect was to galvanize the now defining chasm separating progressive and reactionary politics.
Mediating Theology
Authors: Aubert Annette G. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Modern perceptions of mediating theology are often confined to broad definitions, with most attention given to a core group of mediating figures. This chapter defines mediating theology within a modern German university context, which includes Friedrich Schleiermacher’s theological agenda and various versions of mediation associated with his heritage. It discusses an international group of mediating theologians who both confronted post-Enlightenment cultural challenges and engaged with science. Mediating professors laboured within the context of the nineteenth-century intellectual revolution while addressing Protestant beliefs in light of new advances in historical scholarship. This chapter reviews these contributions to academic theology as important markers of the progress of modern Protestantism, exploring how mediation played a key role in shaping new attitudes involving modernity and religion.
Strauss and the Life of Jesus Controversy
Authors: Ledger-Lomas Michael 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter asks why contemporaries viewed the publication of David Friedrich Strauss’s Das Leben Jesu, kritisch bearbeitet (1835) as an ‘electric shock’, when many elements of its mythical interpretation of the gospels were not particularly new. Strauss made a radical contribution to the debate about scientific theology when he first argued that it must begin with presuppositionless criticism and secondly sought to publicize anti-supernaturalist findings of that criticism. Yet once banished from academic institutions, Strauss could not revolutionize German theology from within. Nor contrary to what historians once argued did he intend his book to have a politically or socially revolutionary impact on German lands. Yet the chapter suggests that tracing the transnational reception of Das Leben Jesu and its appropriation for a range of reforming agendas might offer a new way to understand its enduring impact.
Ludwig Feuerbach and the Challenge of Atheism
Authors: Gooch Todd 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
After situating Feuerbach’s early defence of pantheistic idealism in its historical context, this chapter points out significant theoretical differences between the interpretation of the Christian faith proposed by him in The Essence of Christianity (1841) and a different position he sought to articulate in subsequent works after having renounced ‘speculation’ in favour of ‘sensualism’. These include The Essence of Faith According to Luther (1844) and the Lectures on the Essence of Religion (1851). The chapter goes on to consider the theological reception of Feuerbach’s ideas in the twentieth century before suggesting some ways in which his ideas remain relevant for theology today.