bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Conclusions
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 37 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Violence
Authors: Willis Roxana 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses violence in the research community: it examines violence through the framework of mutuality rather than through the lens of individualistic motivation, to offer a stronger account of the phenomenon. A fuller picture of mutuality is developed by drawing on historical analyses of ritual fighting norms in eighteenth- and nineteenth-century England, which are shown to continue into the present, though in forms affected by contemporary conditions. Relatedly, the concept of the ‘moral economy of violence’, influenced by E. P. Thompson, is revisited; it is proposed that this concept is most helpful when understood through the lens of mutuality, and not read through the framework of autonomy, which risks distorting local meanings. Countering the tendency to view violence as a means of securing individual status and respect, this chapter indicates that force may be used to challenge power imbalance and restore a sense of equilibrium among the collective. This explains why bullying is widely frowned upon, motivating as well as limiting the use of violence. Moreover, the collective appraises fights more generally—to recognize them as fair, they ought to have just cause and use proportional force. Lastly, strategies to displace violence are examined, including the use of tough language, the practice of ‘name-and-shame’, and beliefs in karma, which are once again made intelligible through the framework of mutuality.
Moral Dilemmas
Authors: Willis Roxana 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Prior to Chapter 7, the book explains certain conflicts, tensions, and violent incidents predominately via the framework of mutuality. Yet, as this chapter explores, the framework of autonomy is also available to shed explanatory light on these phenomena. As the dominant framework, imbued with legitimacy and upheld by the state, autonomy has a central place in the research community. However, precariously positioned persons may sometimes strive to act in accordance with autonomy while structural conditions prevent them from meeting its standards. The chapter begins by detailing the immoral figure as it features in the autonomy framework, which is captured by the historical figure of the ‘tramp’—the inverse image of the respectable citizen. The discussion then explores how precariously situated persons might exhibit their commitment to autonomy in a thinner sense: rather than living an (unattainable) autonomous existence, one critiques the moral failings of similarly positioned others and in so doing demonstrate oneself as respectable. Three moral dilemmas are subsequently investigated, each revealing how community members unable to meet the standards of autonomy engage in complex ethical deliberations to justify their behaviour. When people cannot act in accordance with autonomy, they do not operate in a moral vacuum, but draw on the alternative framework of mutuality. The daily practice of moral deliberation detailed herein demonstrates a potential approach for criminal lawyers to respond to the reality of framework pluralism.
Questions of Moral Motivation
Authors: Willis Roxana 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The final chapter returns to the issue of racial tension in the research community, building on the discussion of ‘foreigners’ in Chapter 5. In conditions of framework plurality, the moral motivation behind a person’s actions might be unclear and require assessment. Therefore, when racial tensions surface, the motivation could appropriately be explained by the framework of mutuality, or autonomy, or as racism simpliciter. The chapter contributes to these questions by reflecting on hate crime legislation in England and Wales, under which the usage of certain words may evidence racial hostility. Countering this assumption, a thicker exploration of language usage is advanced: although hostile language may indicate an assertion of superiority, at times derogatory expressions operate at a deeper level, to counter distinction and overcome power imbalances. Several practices are explored in relation to this argument, including banter and efforts to neutralize distinction. In the second part of the chapter, the discussion extends to equality law; as with hate crime legislation, although race is recognized as a protected characteristic, class is not. The law achieves this by individualizing the concept of race. Consequently, equality law becomes another source of tension in the research community, the legal emphasis on difference undermining collective appeals to solidarity and conformity. However, precariously situated persons are not passive in this process and yet again find ways to ‘personalize the state’. This emic account indicates that mutuality is a vital framework, which legal scholars and law reformers ought to take into consideration.
LATE ANTIQUITY AND THE MIDDLE AGES
Authors: Turner Anthony 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThe four sections of this chapter describe time instruments in the Byzantine and Arab–Islamic worlds—sundials, water clocks, and the introduction of European weight and spring-driven clocks and watches. The account of activity in Arabo/Persian Islamic regions is discussed through to the twentieth century. It discusses in detail the sundials and water clocks used in Medieval Christian Europe (mainly in an ecclesiastical context), and investigates thoroughly the origins of the oscillator as the controlling element—the escapement—for a gear train. It also describes the origins and first use of sand-glasses and also covers the use of fire clocks (usually candles) in Islam and the Latin West.
PUBLIC CLOCKS FROM THE THIRTEENTH TO THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURIES
Authors: Addomine Marisa 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter discusses and defines the nature of a public clock from the thirteenth to the eighteenth centuries, explains the change from rural timekeeping to urban needs for monitoring the hours, and explores its uses as well as its constituent parts. It then considers the regional variations in the making of what was a very local production, including turret clocks, frames, escapements, flat-bed movements, and the advent of the pendulum, and provides examples of early public clocks. It then sets out for the reader the fundamental, even revolutionary, changes effected in the mechanism in the late seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries.
THE STRUCTURES OF HOROLOGICAL MANUFACTURE AND TRADE
Authors: Turner Anthony 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter presents a survey of the social and economic structure underlying the making of clocks, watches, and sundials throughout Europe in the Early Modern period. From their beginning until at least the eighteenth century, and to some extent even today, they were usually luxury objects to be coveted and displayed. It covers the intrinsic part played by the workshop space, particularly in the urban setting, in horological manufacture. It provides a detailed description, sometimes using first-hand accounts, of the sources of raw materials, the organization of manufacture, and the distribution of finished products. It gives due weight to regional variations.
MUSICAL AND AUTOMATON CLOCKS AND WATCHES
Authors: Kerman Sharon 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter describes in chronological order the use of music in clocks and watches, from the simplest chiming of bells, to elaborate melodies, combined with lifelike automaton figures and covers the period from the Late Middle Ages to the twentieth century. The chapter covers the mechanisms of both clocks and watches. It also discusses the important export trade to the Far East, as well as the development of singing bird mechanisms, and provides examples of the latter, including those of Jaquet Droz and Leschot, the most prestigious makers of mechanical singing birds in the second half of the eighteenth century.
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY CLOCK EXPORTS FROM BRITAIN TO THE EAST INDIES
Authors: Smith Roger 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThe chapter offers a case study in clock exportation from Britain to the Far East, primarily India and China. It describes the production of the high-value goods required for this long distance and difficult commerce, including the role played by the Dutch East India Company and the British East India Company, or EIC, as well as the role played by missionaries. It also discusses the local conditions of reception and difficulties of payment explained, for example, the Anglo–Chinese clock trade and the choosing of specific cargo as part of tributes to the emperor. Finally, it covers the volume of goods estimated.
WRISTWATCHES FROM THEIR ORIGINS TO THE TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY
Authors: Boettcher David 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter describes the origins of the wristwatch in the late nineteenth century, how it was originally considered to be ‘effeminate’, and how it was slowly emancipated from such a label. The chapter also examines the role of the wristwatch as regards sporting activity and war, and how both contributed to stimulating its adoption by the general public. It covers the development of ‘wristlets’, protective grills, and luminous dials as innovations in the design of the wristwatch. It demolishes various myths about the origins of the wristwatch, and finally it discusses the phenomenon of the survival of the mechanical wristwatch in the face of the success of quartz watches.
ELECTRICITY, HOROLOGY, AND NETWORKED TIME
Authors: Nye James , Rooney David 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter explores the use of electricity in enabling standardized precise time to be measured and distributed in modern industrial societies. First, it examines electrical communication networks used from the nineteenth century onwards to disseminate precision standard time signals as well as the use of electricity in the primary standards that fed them. Next, it looks at city-wide and local clock networks linked by electrical or pneumatic infrastructures. Finally, it examines the everyday use of precision timekeepers based on electrical and related technologies. Four themes recur. The first is motivations for distributed time networks. Who needed standardized time, when, and why? The second is about automation and resulting societal changes. The third recurring theme is the role electricity played in the idea of increased timekeeping synchronization and precision as well as its achievement. The fourth is standardized precision time’s disappearance from view as it became cheaper and easier to acquire.
WOMEN IN HOROLOGY
Authors: Mauerhan Joëlle 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThe chapter describes the sometimes-hidden role of women in horological manufacture, including across various subindustries like gilding, balance-making, and painting watch dials with radium. It discusses the role of the woman within the family, including within the family business as it relates to horology. It also investigates the special position of widows in Early Modern Europe and their place in the horological business world. It provides case studies of some exceptional women entrepreneurs, as well as the various role played by women in strikes, union disputes, and working-related protests about wages, safety, and other aspects of employment as experienced by women.
APPLICATIONS OF CLOCKWORK
Authors: Nepstad Sharon Erickson 
Published: June 2023

AbstractGeared or clockwork mechanisms have many time-related uses beyond straightforward time-telling. In science, orreries offer models of the solar system; short-duration timing (for sports as well) is achieved with chronoscopes, chronographs, and stopwatches; instruments such as telescopes require drives to keep them aligned on target, while heliostats, siderostats, and coelostats maintain a fixed relationship between two objects, one celestial and one local. Time signatures in music can be followed with metronomes, while clocks have provided time for car drivers on the move since the early days of the automobile. Night watchman’s clocks, or noctuaries, provide tamperproof recording devices to monitor the diligence of security staff in making their rounds. Finally, when cooking on open fires, clockwork roasting-jacks allowed the regular and consistent turning of meats to be roasted.
International Criminal Tribunals and Domestic Accountability
Authors: Labuda Patryk I. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThe revival of international criminal tribunals (ICTs) in the mid-1990s has been followed by a renewed emphasis on domestic accountability for international crimes across the globe. In identifying a turn towards domestic accountability in the field of international criminal justice, this book studies how the shadow of ICTs shapes capacity building, norm internalization, and prosecutions of serious crimes at the national level. Drawing on research in Rwanda, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Sierra Leone, it argues that the ‘fight against impunity’ reveals dynamics of accommodation, iteration, and isolation between states and tribunals. While international prosecutors and judges generally attempt to foster cooperation and decrease tension with government actors, an overly deferential posture vis-à-vis states reduces the likelihood of domestic accountability and may enable governments to consolidate authoritarian power. By interrogating how international accountability stakeholders support their domestic counterparts, this book advocates more dynamic interactions between tribunals and states so as to strengthen the enforcement of international criminal law. This book is suitable for academics and practitioners interested in international (criminal) law, human rights, and transitional justice.
Institutional Design
Authors: Labuda Patryk I. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines how the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court regulate(d) their relationship to states. Against the backdrop of the law of primacy, a hybrid/restrictive mandate, and complementarity, it illuminates similarities and differences between their mandates, explains the relationship of each tribunal to national jurisdictions, and assesses the potential of each arrangement to incentivize states’ responses to serious crimes. This chapter argues that, rather than fixed bodies of norms that generate specific procedural interactions or substantive outcomes, these three institutional arrangements also express general values or a dominant institutional preference for international, domestic, or mixed trials. While no mandate was designed to encourage the domestic enforcement of international criminal law, the case law illustrates how ideas about the fight against impunity have changed over time and why some institutional arrangements are more amenable to adjustment than others.
International Intervention and Capacity Building
Authors: Labuda Patryk I. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines to what extent the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court encouraged capacity building for the national justice sectors in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo, in particular by revitalizing criminal justice institutions and local expertise. Although the term positive complementarity has become a shorthand for international financial and technical assistance to national justice systems, the prioritization of support to international criminal law enforcement through national justice systems is poorly understood. Focusing on areas of synergy, antagonism, and indifference, this chapter argues that, while there is increased attention on how international criminal tribunals, foreign partners, and state-based actors can work together to enhance domestic capacity and expertise, the turn to (positive) complementarity may also legitimize authoritarian practices at the national level while romanticizing domestic accountability to the exclusion of international responses.
International Intervention and Norm Internalization
Authors: Labuda Patryk I. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines to what extent the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda, the Special Court for Sierra Leone, and the International Criminal Court encouraged domestic actors in Rwanda, Sierra Leone, and the Democratic Republic of Congo to enact normative reforms and to what extent international norms are respected in national trials of serious crimes. Focusing on areas of synergy, antagonism, and indifference, it assesses not just how international criminal tribunals influence legislative reforms but also to what extent domestic judiciaries internalize international standards in practice. The chapter argues that, while the Rome Statute functions as a global code for international crimes, states under the shadow of the International Criminal Court’s intervention may prioritize the holding of criminal proceedings as such, which is sufficient to repel external scrutiny but does not necessarily address the underlying conditions that enable impunity. As a result, international intervention may even promote ‘unintended diversionary complementarity’ and elide complex questions around the quality and aims of domestic and international trials in fostering emancipatory justice and transitions towards peace.
Introduction
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The Introduction establishes the existing historiography on the British army. It explains terms such as ‘the British way of warfare’, and sets out the army’s often ‘exceptional’ English and/or British nature, including its constitutional position, its close links with the monarchy, and its usual pattern of voluntary enlistment. The Introduction also identifies recurring themes such as issues of professionalism, civil–military relations—including swings in the public’s perception of the army and its personnel—the army’s unrepresentative social composition, contrasting strategic views, and the army’s image and identity. Lastly, there is an overview of the topics covered by individual chapters.
A Standing Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter traces the origins of the standing army, including the fusion of feudal and ‘national’ systems of military organization in the Tudor period; the influence of the ‘military revolution’; Henrician and Elizabethan campaigns; the Wars of the Three Kingdoms; Cromwell and the New Model Army; George Monck; the beginning of power projection overseas; the constitutional struggles over a standing army leading to the settlement in 1689 following the Glorious Revolution and partial resolution by 1702. It acknowledges that while Wales was incorporated into the English military model in 1536, Scotland maintained a separate military establishment until 1707, and Ireland from 1661 to 1801.
An Imperial Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In some respects, the army stood outside the military developments observed in Europe during the ‘long nineteenth century’ (1815–1914), its role as an imperial constabulary militating against the wholesale adoption of European models. The chapter features colonial warfare, together with military developments in India and elsewhere. Nonetheless, through a number of factors, including but not exclusively resulting from the imperial role, the whole nature of the army’s relationship with, and image within, British society was transformed. Even if reflecting largely economic constraints, military reforms such as those of Edward Cardwell were put into effect to a greater degree than before. Increasing regard for the army was seen in popular culture and through military participation in the rifle volunteer movement. The chapter deals with popular military figures such as Garnet Wolseley, Frederick Roberts, and Herbert Kitchener, and covers such conflicts as the Crimean War, the Indian Mutiny, the Anglo-Zulu War, the campaigns in Egypt and the Sudan, and the South African War, which was very much a precursor of the Great War in military and cultural terms.
A People’s Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The two world wars necessitated the introduction of conscription, previously only applied for a limited period to the militia and occasionally for an even more limited period to the regular army in the early eighteenth century. Conscription in the form of national service was then continued until 1963. The creation of a ‘nation in arms’ placed new military, political, and social pressures on the army in both world wars. At the same time the army had to come to terms with the transformational nature of mass modern warfare. Contrasting Continental and imperial/colonial roles also came into play not just in the inter-war period but also in the friction between the conventional challenges of the Cold War and the less conventional (if sometimes traditional but also evolving) demands of decolonization conflicts. The chapter covers the period 1914–63, including both the First and Second World Wars and immediate post-war conflict, as in Korea, Malaya, and Kenya, and discussions of commanders such as Haig, Montgomery, Slim, and Templer.
A Global Army
Authors: Beckett Ian F. W. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Restored to the status of an ever-smaller professional body in 1963, the army faced increasing challenges from changing strategic priorities, changing military environments, continuing financial pressures, and often dysfunctional political and military decision-making. Arguably, institutional change has been greater in the last two decades of the twentieth century and first two decades of the twenty-first than ever before with the army having to respond particularly to new societal developments, and to changes in perception with regard to the uses of military force. Yet, there are continuities as well as changes. The chapter covers conflicts from 1963 to the present including Aden, Northern Ireland, the Falklands, Iraq, and Afghanistan.
Introduction
Authors: Beukers Thomas , Fromage Diane , Monti Giorgio 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the reasons why the edited volume seeks to determine the extent to which and in which domains we are now confronted with a ‘new European Central Bank (ECB)’. It also presents the various perspectives one can take in characterizing the ECB’s transformation, the main elements in the evolution of the ECB, and the main causes, triggers, and factors in the ECB’s evolution. The essence of the evolution of the ECB is discussed by looking at a few elements that stand out. These elements relate to the main features of the ECB enshrined in the Treaties, namely: (1) the ECB’s substantive mandate, to which definition Article 127 TFEU is central; (2) the ECB’s relationship to euro area Member States’ sovereign debt, in which respect Article 123 TFEU is central; and (3) the ECB’s relationship to politics, for which Article 130 TFEU is central. The chapter, moreover, discusses several possible causes, triggers, and factors for the ECB’s evolution. It evidences that the emergence of a ‘new ECB’ is not so much a consequence of Treaty change or a change in the underlying ideas, but is very much a reaction to the events that have occurred since the creation of the ECB, and is determined by autonomous action by an ECB, which has used the gaps inherent in its mandate, and by political decision-making. Finally, the chapter highlights some of the areas where relevant developments can be expected and some of the main challenges the ECB will need to address.