bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
History and the Study of International Relations
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The knowledge that is of decisive importance for the study of international relations derives from history rather than from the social sciences. To understand Australian foreign policy, for example, “the history of power relationships in the Pacific” is more illuminating than analyses of the country’s sociology, economics, or internal politics. Compared to the contributions of the social sciences, “historical explanation is always a large part of our total attempt” to comprehend international events. Differences in “the numbers and the non-comparability in size of the units of studies” show how history-based analyses of international relations stand apart from studies relying on the social sciences. Procrustean historical comparisons, however, raise questions about “devising any sort of generalization from history.” The “process of generalization” may be “circular”—that is, “we reconstruct past events so that they conform to a pattern derived from other past events: then read off a generalization from this very conformity.” The convictions of Marxists and others who claim to know “where history is going” are “inimical to the study of international relations: there is not much point in constructing a map of the country by painstaking effort, if you believe that you have one already.”
British Policy in the Middle East
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
After the Second World War, Britain withdrew from many overseas possessions and spheres of influence. “No Great Power in history has ever given up so much, in so short a time, so gracefully.” However, Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal in 1956 evoked “profound emotion” in Britain. The Suez crisis brought the British back to their foreign policy debate of the 1870s, including the principled protests against Disraeli’s policy. Britain’s greatest material interests in the Middle East were control of the Suez Canal (shares purchased by Disraeli in 1875) and the Anglo Persian Oil Company (shares purchased by Asquith in 1914), both regarded as essential elements of continuing British command of the seas. The settlement in the Middle East after the First World War left London with various responsibilities, including “a general tutelage of the Arab world, and a Jewish National Home.” Both represented a “move out of the field of concrete interests into the more dangerous and uncertain realm of emotions and loyalties.” Britain’s “long balancing act between Arabs and Jews went through three phases”: believing it possible to satisfy both Zionist and Arab aspirations, making concessions to the Arabs, and pursuing incoherent policies regarding Palestine and the establishment of Israel. The pro-Arab biases of the Foreign Office may be attributed to oil interests and anti-Semitic attitudes, among other factors. The Suez crisis is “singularly rich” in irony, including Britain’s undermining its Commonwealth ties and its role as a champion of international law.
Spain and Portugal in The World in March 1939
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The Nationalists led by Franco won the 1936–1939 civil war in Spain. “With the victory of the Nationalist Government, Spain’s will to empire, her imperial and Catholic mission, became the constant theme of propaganda.” However, Wight pointed out, “the foreign ambitions of the Nationalist Government, when its authority was at last established throughout the territory of Spain, were limited by physical exhaustion and political instability.” Franco estimated in 1939 that “at least five years’ peace were necessary” before Spain could be ready to enter a war supporting the Axis. In contrast with Franco’s alignment with the Axis, Portuguese policy had been based on alliance with Britain since the fourteenth century. “Even after Spain had ceased to be a Great Power, Britain considered it necessary for her control of the Atlantic that Portuguese independence should be maintained under British protection.… Salazar’s policy towards the Spanish Civil War and the Non-Intervention Agreement, approximating to that of Germany and Italy, was in some degree a declaration of independence from Britain. Nevertheless Portugal had no common interest with the Axis. If as a Catholic and authoritarian Power she supported Franco, equally as a Catholic and a weak colonial Power she must fear the rise of Nazi Germany.… Therefore, while signing the treaty of friendship with the victorious Franco, Portugal was concerned to emphasize discreetly her former ties” with England.
Arnold Toynbee: An Appreciation
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Arnold Toynbee’s childhood “fascination of the exotic and the Oriental… determined his interests” and led him to become “the historian who was to teach the English-speaking world that there are other civilisations besides Western… His whole system of history was a fugue upon his classical education at Winchester and Balliol, discovering the pattern of Graeco-Roman history in all other cultures.… His postwar role of prophet was based on a popular impression that he was a sage saying something important about the prospects of Western civilisation. It rested more securely on his remarkable power of foresight. As early as 1915, in his first book, he predicted that if Germany were deprived of the Polish Corridor it would occasion another war. In 1931 he prophesied that the solution of the Palestine question would be partition. In 1934 he foresaw America bestriding a prostrate Japan. Perhaps he never adapted himself to the circumstances of the cold war, and allowed his intuitive grasp of the logic of historical situations to be weakened by his natural optimism. For he combined political insight with political unsophistication. There was a moral directness about his approach to politics. Occasionally it produced political judgments of the highest order, like the splendid philippic against British policy in the volume of the Chatham House Survey on the Abyssinian War.”
Review of Arnold J. Toynbee, Civilisation on Trial (New York: Oxford University Press, 1948)
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
In Wight’s view, despite Toynbee’s “unqualified appeal to scientific method,” “history ultimately is less akin to science than to the activity of the trained judgment whereby the critic establishes canons in art or literature; and Toynbee’s achievement illustrates this. He always sees man as a free and tragic being, whose destiny eludes the prosaic techniques of the social scientist.… His philosophy shows unresolved tensions between liberalism and Christianity. His profound Biblical culture is literary, not theological.… He thinks geopolitically in historical terms. In a brilliant chapter … he contrasts the Mogul Emperor Babur’s overland world, controlled by the Turkish peoples, with the new maritime world opened up by Vasco da Gama.” In Toynbee’s words, “The revolutionary Western invention was the substitution of the Ocean for the Steppe as the principal medium of world communication.” Wight pointed out that Toynbee “never adequately defines the unit of his historical system—a civilisation. But civilisations, like nations, are facts of experience. Toynbee’s categories … have already become part of the historian’s permanent equipment.… He has insisted, against the established tradition of academic specialisation, that a historian is implicitly concerned with the entirety of human history; and that the standpoints of other civilisations are as valid, and their influence in the long run as powerful, as those of our own. He has effected a revolution in historical perspective like the revolution the aeroplane has made in the map of the world.”
Review of A. L. Rowse, The Use of History (London: Hodder and Stoughton for the English Universities Press, 1946), and R. G. Collingwood, The Idea of History, edited by T. M. Knox (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946)
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Wight found much to praise in Rowse’s study. “He writes sensibly on the utilitarian value of history, whether it is an art or a science, the Marxist interpretation, and historical relativism. His argument is warmed and quickened by a passionate devotion to the embodiment of England’s history in her landscape, monuments and buildings, and to the great masters of English historical literature.” Wight regretted to report that Rowse was “an ill-mannered writer” who “constantly comes between the reader and the book with the assertion of personal grievances, vulgar prejudices, and opinionated irrelevancies about politics and religion.” In contrast, Collingwood’s book offers “a brilliant and penetrating philosophical survey of historiography, from Sumerian chronicle and myth down to Bergson and Croce, Spengler and Toynbee.… The central theme is the struggle which began with Vico and triumphed with Croce, the liberation of history from the bonds of natural science, the assertion of its autonomy as a form of thought with its own principles and its own methods. But Collingwood carried the argument too far, and developed on the philosophical level those extreme claims for history which are offered more prosaically by Mr. Rowse. Working historians themselves are perhaps least likely to accept the final Croce-Collingwood position, that ‘all reality is history and all knowledge is historical knowledge,’ with the relativism and scepticism to which it leads.”
Review of Homer Carey Hockett, The Critical Method in Historical Research and Writing (New York and London: Macmillan Company, 1955), and Geoffrey Barraclough, History in a Changing World (Oxford: Blackwell, 1955)
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Hockett’s book, Wight observes, is a valuable guide to scholarly methods in historical research, while Barraclough’s book raises “the big questions” concerning the interpretation of history, such as “what is the observable rhythm of civilization—progressive and unilinear, or discontinuous and cyclic?” Barraclough supports “the cyclic view” and, in Wight’s words, “aptly observes that the transient fashionable novelty is not this theory, today wrongly attributed to Spengler and Toynbee, but the belief in progress which it is superseding.” In Wight’s view, “Barraclough is the first British historian to prove himself capable of rising to Mr Toynbee’s own level and discussing Mr Toynbee’s own theme.” Barraclough underscores “the irrelevance of the word ‘pessimism’ to the cyclic view of history.” Wight takes issue with Barraclough’s judgment on the prominence of the balance of power in international history. “His provocative thesis that the European balance of power was never transferred outside Europe, where the contrary principle of preponderance established itself, misconceives the system of the balance, which is no less apparent in Western dealings with Islam, China and Africa than in Europe itself.” Wight warns that to “alter our historical framework in accordance with political events, as continental peoples rename their streets,” could lead us to “chain ourselves more securely to the tyranny of relativism. The deepest impulse of the historical vocation is the desire to escape from the Zeitgeist, to give a picture of the past that will be more true, in colour, perspective and detail, than any that has been offered before.”
Review of Sir Lewis Namier, In the Nazi Era (London: Macmillan, 1952)
Authors: Wight Martin , YOST DAVID S. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This book critically examines German memoirs of defeat in the Second World War. In Wight’s judgment, “The collective mental isolation of German political writers, their egotism, their subjectivity in thought, willfulness in morals and incapacity for self-condemnation, has never been more scathingly exhibited than here.… These writers, building a new legend upon long-discredited but unrepudiated German falsehoods about the treatment of Germany in 1919 and the policy of the entente before 1914, are concerned to make out that while they served Hitler they opposed him in their hearts, and that the democracies are more to blame than the German people for Hitler’s coming to power and remaining there. Sir Lewis analyses their inconsistencies and dishonesties with relentless severity and a rabbinical minuteness, and he shows how neither the civilians nor the army disagreed with the ultimate aims of Hitler’s foreign policy. The second part of the book contains essays on the German and British documents for 1937–8, with a review of Coulondre, one of the few actors in the drama of the Nazi Era who earns respect, and a final annihilating attack on Bonnet “as statesman and historian.” … The doctrine that the historian has no concern with moral judgments, and ought not to feel as intensely as Sir Lewis feels against the Germans and their appeasers, is something of an intellectual counterpart to the abdication of political responsibility which was the democracies’ guilt for the war.”
Introduction
Authors: Ready Jonathan L. 
Published: July 2023

AbstractThis chapter sets up the project, the first book-length study of immersion and identification and the Iliad. It begins by providing definitions of narrative, storyworld, and recipient as well as working definitions of immersion and identification, two components of an intense engagement with a narrative. It then reviews the most relevant prior scholarship, and the most important precedents, in Homeric studies and classical studies more broadly: a growing movement highlights affective responses to the epics; this move contrasts with earlier investigations that tended to downplay, not to say ignore, such reactions. A summary of the book’s two parts, divided into eight chapters, follows.
Desire by Proxy
Authors: Anthony David 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 discusses the stereotype of the Jew as rootless, cosmopolitan internationalist. This character appeared in the US with increasing frequency in the late 1850s and 1860s, in story paper narratives, Walt Whitman’s Life and Adventures of Jack Engle (1852), and elsewhere. But the cosmopolitan Jew is displayed with particular force and complexity in Theodore Winthrop’s 1861 novel Cecil Dreeme. The novel features as its villain a worldly, erudite Jew named Densdeth, who is a threatening, malevolent force in the life of the narrator, Robert Byng. But Byng is also inexplicably and fearfully drawn to this same character. The narrative thus takes the form of the “paranoid gothic,” a literary form in which a male protagonist is pursued by a male for whom he has a repressed desire. For Byng, this desire is rooted in Densdeth’s status as exotic cosmopolitan Jew who comes to represent both capitalist rootlessness and, paradoxically, a freeing, even empowering boundarylessness.
Pensions and ESG
Authors: Hammond P. Brett , O’Brien Amy 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Sustainable investing is growing into its moment. Funded pensions, which were among the first institutions to respond to sustainability concerns, are showing renewed interest in better ways to reflect responsible investing objectives, along with regulators, asset managers, and shareholder groups. Looking back, the principal elements of sustainability—environmental, social, and governance (ESG)—all have different origins and have taken different pathways. Looking across the world, sustainable investing developed differently depending on region and country. Viewing it today, we see the trend toward E, S, and G convergence—of definition, process, and organization—toward a more integrated investment perspective and process. With growing asset size, funded pensions, sovereign wealth funds, and other large institutional investors became ‘universal owners’ and, along with thought leaders and regulators, drove the evolution of sustainable investing toward the more systematic set of tools and policies we see today. Looking forward, questions remain, such as who will be most influential in determining the future of sustainable investing—pensions and other institutional investors, governments, shareholders, or companies—as well as what it will look like. As such, sustainability remains a work in progress and pensions are in a strong position to shape its evolution.
Institutional Controls and Autocratic Survival
Authors: Duvanova Dinissa 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Reflecting on the notion that clear and detailed regulations can discipline the public bureaucracy and positively affect the business climate, this chapter examines constraints and opportunities for building sound regulatory states by the autocratic regimes. It scrutinizes the empirical implications of the logic of the autocrat's dilemma in promoting public or elite interests. I hypothesize that in times when considerations of political survival make politicians prioritize national economic performance over elite enrichment, discretionary policy implementation is likely to be scaled back with the adoption of detailed statutory, executive, or agency-level regulations. The large-N quantitative data analysis reveals that accelerated development of discretion-constraining regulatory detail generally follows periods of declining oil rents, and at the regional level in Russia, periods of heightened protest activities. Moreover, at the regional level in Russia, mass protests that signal rising popular grievances reinvigorate regional discretion-constraining rulemaking.
The ATR/Laryngeal connection and emergent features
Authors: Iosad Pavel 
Published: July 2023

Abstract‘Substance-free’ theories of phonology take two different approaches to eliminating phonetic information from phonological computations, positing either that distinctive features have phonetic content but phonological rules can manipulate them in arbitrary ways (Hale & Reiss 2003, 2008) or that features are based on phonological patterning and need not have any identifiable phonetic content at all (Blaho 2008; Samuels 2009). This chapter argues that the key insights of substance-free phonology can be maintained in a system that allows a limited role for phonetic substance. Methodologically, requiring that features have phonetic content and rules be formally natural limits the generative power of the system, forcing analysts to look more closely at apparently unnatural rules and classes, and precluding analyses based on spurious generalizations. At the same time, the fact that phonetic content does not always determine phonological patterning can be explained through underspecification based on contrast.
The Philosophy Curriculum at Scottish Universities in the Eighteenth Century
Authors: Ahnert Thomas 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the changes in the main parts of the university curriculum in philosophy—logic, rhetoric, metaphysics, pneumatics, natural philosophy, and ethics—in the period from c.1690 to c.1830. Underlying developments in these various philosophical subdisciplines was a rejection of ‘speculative philosophy’ in favour of a ‘culture of the mind’. ‘Speculative philosophy’ had, on the whole, been a value-free term at the beginning of the century, when it was part of a division of philosophy into ‘speculative’ and ‘practical’ branches. But from the first decades of the eighteenth century, ‘speculation’ was increasingly associated with the corruption of philosophy by the abstruse and futile intellectual quarrels of so-called ‘scholastics’. By the end of the century, the former distinction between ‘speculative’ and ‘practical’ branches of philosophy had been replaced by an alternative division of philosophy into the study of mind and the study of matter.
Theories of Perception
Authors: Grandi Giovanni B. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the views on sensory perception of four authors: William Porterfield, Thomas Reid, Dugald Stewart, and Adam Smith. In eighteenth-century Scotland theories of perception were developed by both philosophers and physiologists. Special attention was paid to the role that innate mechanisms and experience play in the workings of our senses. Although various phenomena of sensory perception were discussed, the appearance of Berkeley’s Essay towards a New Theory of Vision (1709) led to a particular emphasis on sight and its relation to touch. Writers on perception were not only interested in questions strictly pertaining to the psychology of vision, but also reacted to Berkeley’s immaterialism and to Hume’s scepticism.
Habit and the Association of Ideas in the Scottish Enlightenment
Authors: Wright John P. , Tabb Kathryn 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines discussions of association of ideas and habit pursued by philosophers of the Scottish Enlightenment. It is argued that they played a fundamental role not only in epistemology, but also in aesthetics and morality. Beginning with Hutcheson’s adoption of Locke’s treatment of association as the basis for pathological beliefs the chapter proceeds to the positive accounts of its role in reasoning and action presented by Hume and Turnbull. As well as expanding the principles of association of ideas beyond those formed by habit, Hume left questions about the relationship of association and habit which were explicitly dealt with by his successors. The chapter explores the further expansion of the principles of association by Kames, Gerard, Reid, and Stewart, as well as the debates about whether association or habit was a more basic principle of human nature. In the conclusion, the authors note the changes in the treatment of these topics in the nineteenth century.
Island environments
Authors: Whittaker Robert J. , Fernández-Palacios José María , Matthews Thomas J. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
‘Island environments’ examines variation in environmental properties of islands, highlighting the range of distinctive classes of island in terms of geology, topography, and climate, and how they contrast with mainland environments. It discusses edaphic properties linked to their distinctive geological origins, noting the importance of marine and atmospheric subsidies to their nutrient cycles. It describes island climate regimes and climate zonation compression on high islands and shows that island position in relation to large-scale features of the climate, marine and atmospheric currents, and hurricane systems, are all key features of island environments. It highlights the importance of continued volcanism and mega-landslides for many islands. It describes how Quaternary climate change has impacted island environments both directly and through fluctuations in sea level, sometimes to slightly higher and for lengthy periods much lower levels than present. Finally, it briefly introduces the theme of anthropogenic environmental change on islands.
Island macroecology
Authors: Whittaker Robert J. , Fernández-Palacios José María , Matthews Thomas J. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
‘Island macroecology’ reviews the emergent statistical properties of island biotas. It depicts MacArthur and Wilson’s 1967 equilibrium theory of island biogeography, describing how area and isolation control rates of immigration, extinction, and cladogenesis. It applies these ideas to understanding of island species–area relationships (ISARs). ISAR form is reviewed, highlighting a range of models of varying complexity, but concluding that the power model remains the best general model of ISAR form. ISAR power model parameters and fits are shown to vary in relation to archipelago configuration, climate, and environmental properties, and to biological properties such as chorotype and taxon. Rarity of island species is described via variation in the species abundance distribution and range size/occupancy relationships. Turnover of species is assessed in relation to sources of error, relationships with island characteristics, and natural extinction drivers. It concludes with a review of evidence for dynamic equilibrium at island and archipelago levels.