bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Language and the Aphasias
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Language is a system of symbols and the rules for structuring those symbols that allows us to communicate with others through speaking, reading/writing, and signing, in both expression and comprehension. Aphasia is loss or deterioration of one or more aspects of the process of comprehending and/or formulating verbal messages due to an acquired brain disorder. Language is lateralized to the left hemisphere in 90% of people; consquently, aphasia is usually due to damage to the left hemisphere cerebral cortex. Within the language-dominant hemisphere, lesions in different parts of the cerebral cortex produce different patterns of language disturbance. This chapter discusses the distinction between speech and language, clinical assessment of language, the classical aphasia syndromes (Broca’s aphasia, Wernicke’s aphasia, global aphasia, conduction aphasia, anomic aphasia, and the transcortical aphasias), and the primary progressive aphasia syndromes (semantic dementia, progressive nonfluent aphasia, and logopenic progressive aphasia).
Logical and Extra-Logical Entailment
Authors: Beall Jc 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter lays out, in an accessible fashion, what Beall takes to be the correct account of logic (-al consequence), as well as how logic relates to (and functions within) true theories. Specifically, Beall discusses the fundamental sematic properties (viz., truth and falsity) and ‘semantic statuses’ for sentences; the basic logical vocabulary and truth and falsity conditions for logical compounds; and logical consequence (entailment) and the space of logical possibilities. Additionally, Beall outlines the ingredients and mechanics of extra-logical (theory-specific) entailment relations under which true and complete theories are closed. The chapter sets the background framework on which Chapter 3’s account of identity relations (in general) and trinitarian identity (in particular) rest.
Scouting the limits of structuralism
Authors: McElvenny James 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
What is structuralism? In this introductory chapter, we explore the contours of this question that animates the present volume and offer an answer in sociological terms. We begin by examining the emergence of linguistic structuralism between the two World Wars in the work of the Prague Linguistic Circle. We then trace the spread of structuralism throughout Europe and America, and across such disciplines as linguistics, anthropology, and literary studies. Here we highlight the role of the Prague Circle member Roman Jakobson as a primary vector through which structuralism was transmitted to new audiences. In the final section, we outline the content of following chapters in this volume, pointing out how each probes the limits of structuralism.
‘Primitive structures’, polysynthesis, and Peter Stephen du Ponceau
Authors: Solleveld Floris 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Peter Stephen Du Ponceau’s 1838 treatise on American languages is not exactly forgotten: it is widely acknowledged as a foundational text and is discussed as such in histories of American linguistics. Du Ponceau’s work stands out as the first comparative and theoretical study of Native American languages based on substantial empirical material and grammatical analysis. Still, his Mémoire was excluded from the series Origins of American Linguistics and has never been translated into English. Du Ponceau’s treatise classifies most if not all Native American languages as ‘polysynthetic’ – a notion that is still subject to debate. In attributing a complex and particular type of grammatical structure to these largely unwritten languages, Du Ponceau revaluated their status as objects of research, paving the way for the synchronic description of language structures and thus indirectly for American structuralism. On top of that, he formulated novel ideas about how phonetic distinctions are made differently across languages and about the relation between language and thought. This introduction explores the proto-structuralist aspects of Du Ponceau’s work by putting them in historical context. It shows how important theoretical aspects of it were a response to and reformulation of mid-eighteenth to early nineteenth-century French debates, and how most of his data are a reformulation of seventeenth and eighteenth-century missionary linguistic work. Finally, it assesses Du Ponceau’s contribution to Americanist linguistics and the synchronic study of language in the light of later developments.
Roman Jakobson, language unions, and structuralism in Russia
Authors: Sériot Patrick 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Roman Jakobson (1896–1982) is universally recognized as a key figure in the history of linguistic structuralism, who personally unites the world of Eastern and Central European structuralism with its American counterpart. A central aspect of Jakobson’s linguistic thought in the inter-war period in Czechoslovakia was the notion of ‘Eurasianist linguistics’, which he developed in collaboration with the fellow Russian émigré Nikolay Trubetzkoy (1890–1938). Eurasianist linguistics sought to prove that the USSR formed an organic, natural territorial unit defined by common linguistic features. Jakobson’s 1931 essay, translated here as ‘The Eurasian language union’, is the locus classicus of his thinking on this topic, in which he develops a series of detailed phonological arguments designed to demonstrate the unity of the Eurasian language area. The Goethean notion of ‘affinity’ is a central topic here, which helps to explain Jakobson’s anti-positivism and his replacement of causality by teleology. This chapter offers a critical examination of Jakobson’s essay in its historical context and shows how it can be seen as the missing link in the history of structuralism, bringing Eurasianism together with the development of structuralist phonological theory. The introduction to the chapter addresses such questions as why Jakobson, working in Prague around 1929 to 1931, decided to write this essay; where his ideas came from; and how the essay fits into the broader history of structuralism.
Episodic future thinking, memory, and decision-making
Authors: Bulley Adam , Schacter Daniel L. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Aside from its role in remembering the past, memory also contributes to the human capacity to think about what might happen in the future. Such prospective cognition is a foundation of adaptive behaviour and serves multiple functions in everyday life. This chapter focuses on one such function: flexible decision-making that takes delayed consequences into account. Intertemporal trade-offs between sooner and later consequences are pervasive in human affairs, arising in decisions about finances, health, relationships, politics, and the environment. Accordingly, intertemporal choice has emerged as a fulcrum in applying the cognitive science of prospection. Much of this applied work has focused on using future thinking to reduce delay discounting and encourage patience in the behavioural health domain, and this chapter reviews the promise of those efforts. However, it cautions that reducing delay discounting is not necessarily desirable given that excessive patience has its own costs, and it points towards cases where farsightedness paradoxically encourages less patience, not more. Attempts to improve decision-making will benefit from a fuller theoretical picture that captures the idiosyncrasies of deliberation.
Working memory and child development with its windfalls and pitfalls
Authors: Cowan Nelson 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on working memory in childhood and its developmental course. It is from the perspective of the embedded-processes theoretical model of working memory and information processing. A conception of typical child development leads to insights into practical issues that emerge in childhood and sometimes continue throughout the lifespan. Practical implications are integrated with cognitive and developmental theory of working memory. In the theoretical framework, several well-integrated items in the focus of attention are augmented by temporarily activated elements of long-term memory, which are susceptible to interference from other items with similar features. Each attended set rapidly lays down a new episodic memory that can be used even within a single trial. This framework leads to hypotheses about what develops that are consistent with a cognitivist framework. Conditions that can be discussed within this framework include autism and cognitive deficits, language and reading disorders, attention deficits, mental illness, drug and alcohol effects, motivational issues, stroke or brain damage, and brain diseases and dementias.
The Experience of Failure and the Architecture of Vision
Authors: Nievergelt Marco 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The renewed departure of Conscience at the end of passus XIV confirms and reiterates Langland’s commitment to Will’s quest in the secular world and the active life, despite the disheartening encounter with Haukyn, whose weeping at the end of passus XIV concludes the deep moment of spiritual and cognitive crisis opened up by Will’s own weeping at the start of passus XI. The encounter with Haukyn is then discussed as being underpinned by an ongoing reflection on the legitimacy of poetic work on Langland’s part—a topic first raised by Ymaginatif’s attack on the poem’s dreamer/protagonist/narrator, Will, in passus XII. The chapter then proposes a new account of Langland’s tentative and provisional answer to the problem of the legitimacy of poetic ‘makynges’, by emphasizing the poetically and spiritually productive role played by multiple, reiterated experiences of intellectual failure and insufficiency—an answer that Langland appears to have arrived at through his own, reiterated engagement with the failures, aporias, indirections, and pitfalls of Deguileville’s allegorical poetry. The chapter ends with a reconsideration of the affinities and differences between the reiterative and ‘re-visionary’ poetics of Deguileville and Langland: the latter redeploys, but considerably modifies the narrative structure as well as the thematic and spiritual remit of Deguileville’s trilogy, seeking to develop a more complex, evolving poetic project out of Deguileville’s internally conflicted poetic vision. The pitfalls of Deguileville’s pilgrim—and of his allegorical poetics—thus become crucial enabling moments of crisis and reorientation in Langland’s more dynamic and capacious poem.
Setting the stage
Authors: Nadathur Prerna 
Published: April 2023

AbstractThis chapter introduces basic semantic machinery for interpreting modal and aspectually-marked declarative claims. It demonstrates that a straightforward (standard) composition of possibility and perfective aspect does not predict actuality entailments, and discusses the shortcomings of a prominent scope-based proposal from Hacquard (2006). The chapter proposes that the ability/actuality alternation should be understood as rooted in the semantics of ability ascriptions, and examines arguments from the philosophical literature which suggest that ability modals are structurally distinct from simple possibility. It concludes by adopting a hypothetical guarantee structure for (pure) ability, and discussing the consequences of this proposal for the three framing questions in Chapter 1.
The Liberal Promise of Contract
Authors: Dagan Hanoch 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Chapter 18 studies Gardner’s reflections on contract and contractualization in order to evaluate the transfer theory of contract on which he implicitly relied. Gardner’s elaboration of the implications of transfer theory is convincing. But unlike Gardner, the chapter refuses to take transfer theory for granted. Transfer theory may nicely fit contracts that follow the model of an extended barter, but this is a particular and not particularly happy view of contract. Transfer theory is particular because it ill-fits a significant subset of contract law and the practice of contracting. Transfer theory is also not a particularly happy view of contract, and not only because its implementation would curtail law’s support of many human endeavors. Gardner’s critical insights are particularly significant here. The contrast to the alternative, autonomy-enhancing view of contract—referred to here as “liberal contract”—could not be sharper. Indeed, understanding contract as a joint plan, rather than transfer, and recognizing its reliance on reciprocal respect for self-determination, rather than for independence, radically transforms the role of “the contract part.” The implications of substituting the security-based view of contract with its autonomy-based counterpart suggest that while liberalism is indeed historically contingent, liberal values are indispensable for a just private law.
Combat Logistics in the Twenty-first Century
Authors: Kinsey Christopher , Ti Ronald 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter reinforces the ongoing importance of combat logistics in NATO, discusses both new and old challenges as the Alliance prepares for Large Scale Combat Operations, and comments on potential effects on combat logistics of emerging, disruptive technologies. The chapter first sets the scene by outlining the character and scope of combat logistics and placing it within the context of conflict between NATO and a peer–near-peer adversary. Critical theatre-wide challenges facing NATO, particularly in sustainment and mobility are then highlighted, before the chapter focuses on the so-called ‘last tactical mile’, which is a metaphor for the operational area in closest proximity to the encountered threat. Finally, the chapter concludes with a summary and brief notes on how deficiencies may be addressed through technology.
The Operational Cultures of American Ground Forces
Authors: Gudmundsson Bruce I. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The chapter explores the common origin and subsequent interplay of the two very different ways of thinking, teaching, and fighting in use in the US Army and Marine Corps of the twentieth century. In particular, it looks at the introduction, from Germany, of the ‘applicatory method’ and the subsequent evolution of its various components, some of which became rigid formats and others of which inspired an approach to the art of war that was rich in creativity, innovation, and self-directed action. The chapter also describes the two very different views of ‘doctrine’ at work in American ground forces, as well as the effect, not merely of the experience of four very different wars, but also of the phenomenon of the ‘futuristic fad’ that played such a big role in American military culture in the second half of the twentieth century.
Towards a Versatile Edge
Authors: Weissmann Mikael , Nilsson Niklas 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The chapter first sums up and discusses the volume’s findings on the dynamics of twenty-first-century land warfare. It then describes a continuum of land operations, an expression of the heterogeneity of potential conflict environments in which land forces must be capable of operating. This operational complexity is visualized in a schematic model that takes account of how different levels of conflict intensity translate into demands and constraints on the utilization of land forces. The chapter then moves on to locating land operations in the broader operational environment before synthesizing the findings in what we label the integrated versatility model, outlining the preconditions for securing land warfare capability and the requirements for achieving a versatile edge in the future operational environment. Finally, we discuss ways forward for land warfare and outline an agenda for future research.
Edwin and Willa Muir
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This is the story of a literary marriage forged in the political and cultural turmoil of the first half of the twentieth century. Edwin Muir met Willa Anderson at a party in Glasgow in 1918 and their adventurous journey together took them to Europe in the 1920s, where they met many of the writers, artists, dancers, dramatists, and thinkers of the day. Committed to a life in letters, they moved between Britain and the Continent as they struggled to make a living in the years between and after two World Wars. Willa was to reflect on ‘how European we were’ and indeed their translations of modern German literature introduced the works of Hermann Broch and Franz Kafka, among many others, for the first time to English-speaking audiences around the world. Dr Margery McCulloch’s study draws on personal travel and a wealth of new sources from private correspondence, publishers’ archives, the recollections of friends, and the diaries, unpublished journals, and autobiographical memoirs of Edwin and Willa themselves. This is the fullest account of the couple’s life and times together in Europe, Britain, and North America during a long and loving marriage. It was not without difficulties, as Willa sought to find proper acknowledgement of her translation skills, and space for her own creativity as a novelist in the shadow of her own ill health and Edwin’s growing status as a major modern poet.
Edinburgh and a New Poetry 1942–1945
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
1942–1945. ‘Scottish Allied Houses’ or ‘International Houses’, are established in Edinburgh for Polish, Czech, and French servicemen. Edwin and Willa favour the Czech house, which his friend Lumir Soukup helped to establish. Their social and intellectual life is hugely improved in Edinburgh, compared to relative isolation in St Andrews. Visiting speakers included Stephen Spender and T. S. Eliot, Louis Aragon, Paul Eluard, and Max-Pol Fouchet, while the Muirs’ home in Blantyre Terrace hosts many new and old Scottish friends, including fellow Orcadians Stanley Cursiter, Robert Kemp, and Eric Linklater, as well as Prof Herbert Grierson (now retired), Neil Gunn, Douglas Young, and Sorley MacLean, who was recovering from injuries suffered at El Alamein. The young writer Morley Jamieson and his wife Flora, rent rooms with the Muirs and help them cope. February 1943 sees the publication of The Narrow Place, poems mostly written in St Andrews. With references to refugees and the destructive cycles of history, this book is marked by the onset and experience of war. Edwin’s next collection The Voyage (1946) invokes myth, dream, and a historical perspective in a rather more positive spirit. With the end of the war in sight, Edwin wonders if there might be a post for him with the British Council in Czechoslovakia. He is appointed director of the British Institute in Prague.
Roman Interlude 1948–1950
Authors: McCulloch Margery Palmer 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
1948–1950. Back in Britain again, Edwin suffers a deep depression after the stress and the lost hopes of their time in Prague. His spirits recover when the British Council place him as director of the Rome Institute. Edwin is moved by what he calls a sense of ‘incarnation’, what he feels to be the physical presence of the human spirit in the old city, its streets, its art, and it people. This theme is discussed, along with the dangers of interpreting poems along exclusively biographical lines, with reference to Edwin’s later collection One Foot in Eden (1956). The Muirs greatly enjoy their time in Italy and do much to increase the popular standing of the institute among ordinary Romans. Budget cuts, however, and the British Council’s historical reservations about the centre in Rome, lead them to close the operation, despite the success of the Muirs’ tenure. With this in mind, Edwin accepts an invitation to be the director of an adult education college at Newbattle Abbey outside Edinburgh.
Test of Comparative Advantage and Measuring GFT
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Alternative measures of gains from trade in terms of compensating variations and equivalent variations to a price change have been discussed in this Chapter 3. The duality approach underlying these measures of gains from trade forms the basis of empirical estimates of the gains from trade in the literature. The empirical testing of the doctrine of comparative advantage drawing from evidences from Japan during 1850s is also presented. These concepts and measurement issues can be treated as advanced topics intended for advanced under-graduate students.
Digressions on Factor Endowment Theory and Trade Empirics
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The empirical issues and extensions of the basic HOS model to reconcile its theoretical predictions and the empirical observations are discussed in this chapter. These issues and extensions are discussed in two particular contexts. First is the empirical test of the HO theorem by Leontief who found the predicted and actual pattern of trade being at odds with each other—known as the Leontief paradox—and subsequent refinements of the test in terms of factor content of trade and a generalized theorem known as the Heckscher-Ohlin-Vanek (HOV) theorem. Plausible theoretical explanations for the Leontief paradox are briefly discussed. Second, the chapter elaborates upon two variations of the HOS model in terms of non-traded good and immobility of factors across sector (or sector specificity of factors) and their implications for the price magnification effect and the FPE theorem. These cases have far-reaching implications for the observed global rise in wage inequality since the mid-1980s, which is in sharp contrast with the prediction of the HOS model. Finally, higher dimension issues in HOS model—such as many goods and many factors of production in an economy—are discussed as an advanced topic.
Theories of Intra-industry Trade
Authors: Acharyya Rajat 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
As observed and documented by Grubel and Lloyd in 1975, trade among similar countries—amongst advanced industrialized nations in particular, or the North-North trade—is much larger in magnitude and in proportion of world trade than trade among dissimilar countries, i.e., between rich and the poor countries or the North-South trade. Comparative advantages of nations that reflect cross-country differences in either technologies or factor endowments, and create the scope of arbitrage, thus do not seem to be a major driver of world trade since its scope is rather limited among similar or Northern countries. Moreover, a large proportion of world trade has been in similar products, i.e., intra-industry rather than inter-industry in character. These observations by Grubel and Lloyd have laid a foundation to the development of new trade theories beginning in the late 1970s with Paul Krugman’s explanation of intra-industry trade (IIT) under monopolistic competition, James Brander’s theorization of IIT under oligopolistic competition, which later came to be known as the strategic trade theory, and Elhanan Helpman’s characteristic approach. These pioneering works and their subsequent generalizations and extensions offered explanations of trade in similar products among similar countries in terms of economies of scale, imperfect competition, and product differentiation. Soon there were other theories explaining IIT in quality-differentiated goods. This chapter introduces to the students these pioneering models of IIT.