bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Reasons We Teach Science
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the primary reasons we have historically taught science in school. These are science education for culture, better thinking, utility, and democratic decision-making. The utility argument has three versions—science education for personal utility (that is, learning science to solve everyday personal problems, like repairing a broken lamp), national security (that is, science for weapons development and defense technology), and economic growth (science for technological and industrial innovation). All of these are typically divided into two categories: science education for technical training (that is, preparing future scientists and technical workers) and science education for general education (that is, science for the citizen.)
Should We Be Training More Scientists? The Numbers Say No
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins by describing the common assumption that schools need to prepare more students for technical careers and that the best way to do this is to teach for technical content knowledge in science courses. It examines this assumption by looking at statistics from places such as the National Center for Education Statistics, the National Science Foundation, and the Bureau of Labor Statistics to see, in fact, how many beginning high school students go on to earn science or science-related postsecondary degrees and then go on to employment in science-related occupations. It finds that only a fraction of students (about 6 percent) end up following this path. Moreover, data from various sources show similarly that only a fraction of occupations in the United States are in science or science-related fields. This illustrates that school science courses should, therefore, not focus primarily on the technical training goal of science education, but rather on teaching science for the citizen or non-science-bound student.
The Failure of Scientific Literacy
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the origin and development of the idea of scientific literacy as a means of representing the various goals of science education for the layperson (that is, those not intending to pursue science-related careers). Early efforts to teach science to the non-specialist came with the introduction of the subject of “general science” in the 1910s. The first references to scientific literacy can be traced back to just after World War II. The concept changed considerably over the years, and researchers have defined and measured levels of scientific literacy in various ways since its introduction into public discourse. It has meant everything from public appreciation of the culture of the scientific community to individual mastery of technical content for economic goals. As a result, the idea of scientific literacy has done more to obscure the goals of science education than it has to help clarify them.
How Well Does “The Science Education We Have” Actually Work?
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines to what extent the traditional, content-focused science education provides students with the assumed general-education benefits of being able to solve everyday problems, participate in democratic decision-making, and appreciate its cultural contributions. Looking at research from the fields of cognitive psychology, science education, and science communication, it reveals that knowing the facts and theories of science do little to help in any of these areas. People, instead, rely on a range of ethical, emotional, political, and social factors in making decisions and getting on in the everyday world. So, not only is traditional, content-focused science education unnecessary for training future scientists and technical workers, it does a poor job preparing students for the duties of life and citizenship.
Science for Better Thinking and the Limits of “Doing” Science
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the evidence for the commonly held assumption that engaging students in scientific practice, or “doing” science, leads to enhanced scientific-reasoning skills and a deeper understanding of what science is and how it works. Research from science education shows, however, that, despite repeated calls to engage students in scientific work (via laboratory, scientific inquiry activities, or immersion in research experiences), science teachers rarely engage students in such work. This is because of their own limited experience with scientific research and the lack of curriculum materials that effectively capture what authentic science is all about. In addition, research from cognitive and developmental psychology shows that even in ideal circumstances, it is extremely difficult for students to learn to reason scientifically and that—even if they did—the assumption that those skills would translate into better everyday thinking is not supported by the evidence.
How To Get There
Authors: Rudolph John L. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The radical changes needed in science education will be difficult to accomplish. There are a number of forces keeping the status quo intact, including science teachers teaching the same, content-focused way they have been taught, the societal emphasis on standards and standardized assessment, enduring assumptions about the connections between technical training and economic prosperity, and the deep-seated function of science education serving as a means of sorting and credentialing students for college admission and future careers. In order to effect the necessary change, we need to revitalize the civic mission of the high school, change the way we prepare science teachers, and build a science education based on evidence.
Legal Strategies
Authors: Gloppen Siri , Gerzso Thalia , van de Walle Nicolas 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a typology of legal strategies that African autocrats exploit to stay in power and legal strategies used by the opposition and civil society to resist autocratization. It distinguishes between strategies aimed at changing the law in formal terms (constitutional and legislative lawfare), strategies that rely on the discretionary space of the law (administrative lawfare), strategies using courts and quasi-judicial bodies to alter the meaning of the law or unleash the force of criminal law against opponents (judicial lawfare), and strategies mobilizing support and public legitimacy invoking rights or law (socio-discursive strategies). Through empirical examples, the chapter explores variation on the use of each of these legal manipulation strategies. The analysis shows that, first, legal mechanisms are key to recent autocratic strategies to retain power. Second, autocratic legalism has been facilitated by a failure of the constitutional reforms of the early 1990s to place effective limits on executive power. Third, law and courts have, in many countries, been the “friendliest” space for opposition actors, who have used legal mechanisms to challenge incumbents, in some cases preventing democratic backsliding or clawing back lost terrain. Both autocratic and pro-democratic lawfare is more extensive in certain countries and periods of time, and the chapter explores the conditions under which they are more dominant and likely to succeed.
Zambia
Authors: Hinfelaar Marja , Rakner Lise , van de Walle Nicolas 
Published: January 2023

AbstractZambia displayed distinct, observable democratic backsliding between 2011 and 2021, linked both to elite contestation and participatory rights. Autocratization resulted from the deliberate use of legal mechanisms to enhance executive power, stifle the opposition, silence the press, and undermine civil society forces. The manipulation of rules was legitimized by the use of legal strategies that have their origin in the country’s 1991 Constitution. Through all constitutional amendments, formal rules that provide extra powers and discretion to the executive remain, even as politics outwardly appears to be governed by democratic principles. Zambia’s democratic backsliding was closely linked to the changing relationship with its international partners as they no longer acted as “agencies of restraint” on the government’s policymaking, and the quality of governance declined as a result. The donor withdrawal weakened the political influence of civil society due to both cutback of funding and the reduction in political space for civic associations, protected by the patronage of the donors. The election of opposition candidate Hakainde Hichilema in August 2021 may have ended this episode of backsliding as, for the third time in the country’s history, power changed peacefully through the ballot box. To what extent the 2021 elections will move Zambia away from authoritarianism is uncertain as the current state of the country’s political institutions leaves it vulnerable to further episodes of backsliding.
Irrelevance
Authors: Day Frank Morgan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractBetween the Civil War and World War I, formal education is often said to have “modernized,” “bureaucratized,” or undergone an “organizational revolution,” and though these terms are usually understood to describe a highly rationalized, implacable process, the consolidation of a proper school system in the United States was, to the contrary, halting and dysfunctional. This dysfunction came about as the modern school struggled to overcome its perceived irrelevance as a social institution. This chapter presents an overview of the book’s main argument: that literature as an object of academic study ensured the reproduction and expansion of the modern educational system after the Civil War. Literature proved indispensable to the project of modern education because it helped the school system in its quest for social relevance—because it enabled the school to identify itself with a more meaningful world beyond the walls of the traditional classroom.
The School and Society
Authors: Day Frank Morgan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractChapter 1 examines the emergence of an anti-scholastic American literary tradition before the Civil War and then follows the scholastic reception of this anti-scholastic tradition in the postbellum period. The key figure in the chapter is Washington Irving, whose affiliation with both the romance tradition and the sentimental tradition—which are often believed to be antithetical to one another—makes the institutionalization of his work Hespecially revealing. As this chapter argues, the decisive factor in the divergent reception histories of these two literary traditions is the orientation each assumed toward the scene of formal pedagogy. If sentimentalists deployed literature in the service of educational reform, writers of romance believed that literature was unassimilable to scholastic projects, and this, perversely, provides the explanation for their (and Irving’s) enduring success in the modern school system, which in the postbellum period learned to transform literature’s hostility toward formal education into an engine of its own expansion.
Interest, Disgust
Authors: Day Frank Morgan 
Published: January 2023

AbstractChapter 4 investigates two seemingly unrelated historical phenomena: the emergence of student interest as an object of fascination for school reformers after the Civil War, and the rise of disgust as the core affective mode of postbellum literary production. If reformers like John Dewey found in student interest a driving force in the educational system’s expansion, writers like Frank Norris and Upton Sinclair wrote disgusting books in order to think through the limits of that school system, to consider the system’s boundaries. And yet, the disgusting literature of the postbellum period has done nothing to encumber the affective life of the modern school over time; upon its reintegration into the classroom it has in fact broadened the educational system’s emotional palate. Battered corpses and rat feces may remain outside the scope of the school curriculum, but the novelistic representation of battered corpses and rat feces has proved a welcome addition to lesson plans across the country.
Castles of Eternity
Authors: Ura Karma 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThe workers toiling at the construction of a castle were guided by master builders. The expertise of a master builder was accumulated by being a wood worker or masonry/rammed earth builder in villages. Ancient builders chose inaccessible and commanding elevations to build dzongs while modern architects and engineers selected the flattest places. Builders’ skills were visible to foreigners who noted that the lofty height of the utse of Tashi Chodzong reached seven stories high, each story from fifteen to eighteen feet high. The layout of oblong classical dzongs is contrasted with the squarish monolithic structures of the newly built dzongs. Oblong dzong layout along north-south axis brought sunshine into the rooms and favoured spacious walk-through courtyards, and less noise-disturbances across the structures. Earth quake resistance was increased by thick and tapered stone walls. It is contended by master builders that the resilience against earth quake is enhanced by the east-west direction of beams. Dzongs and their watch towers housed, paradoxically, both military and monastic personnel and were built for dual purposes.
Wynkyn de Worde and the Bucolics
Authors: Day Matthew 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 provides a comprehensive study of Wynkyn de Worde’s four editions of Virgil’s Eclogues (1512, 1514, 1522, 1529, titled the ‘Bucolics’). Through analysing the contents, production and use of these editions, the chapter demonstrates the enduring influence of medieval pedagogy on the gradual adoption of humanist curricula in England. As the first part of the chapter shows, the commentary in De Worde’s editions was modelled on a genre of medieval pedagogic commentaries, often termed ‘familiar commentaries’. Second, an examination of surviving Sammelbände suggests that late fifteenth- and early sixteenth-century schoolmasters more often taught the Bucolics alongside traditional medieval school texts rather than humanist curricular choices. The third part of the chapter shows how De Worde progressively revised his printing repertoire to accommodate developing humanist attitudes among English readers.
Douglas’s Eneados
Authors: Day Matthew 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 examines Gavin Douglas’s Older Scots translation of the Aeneid (1513), the first full translation of the poem into any language related to English. While Douglas has often been seen as a humanist innovator in translation technique, this study contextualizes his practice within broader fifteenth-century French and English traditions. Although Douglas scathingly repudiates Caxton’s Aeneid translation for its textual infidelity, the first part of the chapter argues that his and Caxton’s works are more alike than meets the eye. Sharing in common fifteenth-century traditions, both translations exhibit similar techniques of amplifying Virgil’s text and reworking its style. The second part of the chapter shows that Douglas’s engagement of humanist commentaries is underpinned by these literary concerns. Rather than a sign of scrupulous textual fidelity, he uses commentaries to facilitate his poetic embellishments of Virgil’s text.
Conclusion
Authors: Day Matthew 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Drawing together the monograph’s key findings, the conclusion discusses the influence of humanism on the reception of Virgil and classical poets more generally. While humanists initiated a dramatic rise in Virgil’s readership and canonical status, their methods of reading and translating Virgil were inherited from well-established traditions, in particular from the disciplines of grammar and rhetoric. Rigorous distinctions between ‘medieval’ and ‘humanist’ readers and translators belie the very gradual pace of humanist development and the continuous influence of medieval learning on the studia humanitatis. As evidenced in annotations of manuscripts and printed editions, variations in practice tend to reflect readers’ individual interests rather than wider collective trends. In sum, Virgilian reception in fifteenth- and sixteenth-century England was marked by continuity and piecemeal evolution.
Privacy and the Role of International Law in the Digital Age
Authors: Yilma Kinfe 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis book examines the role of international law in securing privacy and data protection in the digital age. Driven mainly by the transnational nature of privacy threats involving private actors as well as States, calls are increasingly made for an ‘international’ privacy framework to meet these challenges. Mapped against a flurry of global privacy initiatives, the book explores the extent to which and whether international law attends to the complexities of upholding digital privacy. It does so in three levels. First, the book interrogates boundaries of international privacy law in upholding privacy and data protection in the digital ecosystem where threats to privacy are increasingly transnational, sophisticated, and privatized. It demonstrates that shackled by a host of normative and structural setbacks, international law offers weak protections to privacy and data protection. Second, the book explores the potential of global privacy initiatives, namely Internet bills of rights, universalization of regional systems of data privacy protection, and the multi-level privacy discourse at the United Nations, in reimagining the normative contours of international privacy law. It finds that none of the global privacy initiatives will effectively address structural shortcomings of international law. Third, the book proposes a pragmatic approach to the international law of privacy that could make it better-equipped in the digital age. Drawing on the catalytic potential of global privacy initiatives, the book lays out a set of reform ideas that could help address the major normative and institutional blind spots in international privacy law.
How change has been explained
Authors: Dassonneville Ruth 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The second chapter of the book provides an overview of theories that have been proposed to explain the rise in electoral volatility, with a focus on theories that connect the voting decision process with volatility. The chapter first introduces the theoretical concept of the funnel of causality, before discussing three main ways in which previous work has argued the funnel has changed to produce more volatility. These three arguments are that long-term socio-demographic factors are no longer guiding voters' choices, that party identification has declined, and that short-term factors increasingly shape voters' choices. Having summarised these theoretical perspectives, the chapter then identifies the main ways in which these theories fall short of explaining the surge in electoral volatility. The key point that is highlighted is that a theory of change in voting behaviour should account for the fact that different - long- and short-term - determinants of the vote are inter-connected within the funnel of causality.
The reference system of Gidar
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt 
Published: January 2023

AbstractGidar (Central Chadic, Cameroon) distinguishes two genders and two numbers in nouns, pronouns, determiners, and the inflectional system on the verb. The category of person is coded by markers that differ from those in the category of number. Gidar has a distinct subject pronoun for the third-person subject in focus, but this is used only for masculine nouns. Previously mentioned objects are obligatorily marked by object pronouns. In addition, definiteness of the nominal object is marked through object pronouns on the verb. Gidar has a rich system of demonstratives and determiners that code functions belonging to either the domain of the speech environment or that of discourse. Within each of these domains there is a further distinction between proximate and remote distance from the place or the time of speech.
The reference system of Hdi
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt 
Published: January 2023

AbstractHdi (Central Chadic) does not have gender markers. It marks both nominal and verbal plurality. The system of reference in Hdi distinguishes between referential functions applying to the category subject and referential functions applying to the category object. With respect to noun phrases, Hdi makes a distinction between (a) no instructions to identify the participant, (b) instructions to identify the participant within the speech environment, and (c) instructions to identify the participant in the preceding discourse. These distinctions are coded by (a) the deployment of bare nouns, (b) the deployment of previous discourse markers and demonstratives alone, and (c) modification of the noun by previous discourse markers and demonstratives. Hdi is unique in that the determiners can be reduplicated, and can be combined with other determiners, and such groups of determiners can precede and follow the noun at the same time. Hdi makes a formal distinction between reference to the domain of discourse and reference to the entities in the environment of speech.
Summary
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter summarizes the findings of the present volume with respect to properties of coding means in the systems of reference; instructions as to whether to identify the participants in the proposition or not; and the more frequent and less frequent functions through which the participant is to be identified in the languages of the sample. The summary is explicitly limited to the functions coded in the grammatical systems rather than to what kind of inferences can be drawn from the deployment of some coding means in some utterances. ‘No instructions to identify the participant’ is a function present in most languages in the sample. The summary confirms that when languages do instruct the addressee to identify the participants, different languages deploy different functions for this task. Nevertheless, some functions are deployed more frequently than others.
Implications
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt 
Published: January 2023

AbstractChapter 15 deals with the implications of the findings in this book for the theory and methodology of semantic analysis, for linguistic typology, and a most important implication for the formation of utterances in natural discourse. The main implication for semantics is that the primary object of semantic research should be semantic structures encoded in the grammatical system. Once one has analyzed the semantic structure encoded in the language, the description of meaning of individual utterances, the traditional object of research in semantics, is relatively easy. The description of meaning encoded in the grammatical system consists of contrasts encoded in the functional domains. The main implication for typology is that linguistic typology should provide a picture of what functional domains and what functions are encoded in the grammatical system of individual languages. The main implication for the formation of utterances is that this process is driven by the semantic functions encoded in the grammatical system and their interaction with the lexical items selected for a given predication.