bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ecclesiology
Authors: Guilfoy Kevin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In Christian theology ecclesiology is the study of the church. What is the church? What is the relationship between the various parts of the church? What is the relationship between church and the secular world? There are significant differences in ecclesiology in the different Christian bodies. They each present a different understanding of the political organization of the church. From these different conceptions theologians have developed different theories of the nature of authority, power, freedom, peace, and community.
Elster, Jon (1940–)
Authors: Landemore Hélène 
Published: August 2023

AbstractJon Elster is a Norwegian‐born social scientist and political theorist, currently Robert K. Merton Professor of Social Sciences at the University of Columbia in New York. From 2005 to 2011, he was alsoprofesseur titulaireat the Collège de France in Paris, where he held the chair “Rationality and Social Sciences” (formerly held by Pierre Bourdieu). He previously taught at the University of Oslo and the University of Chicago. Elster's work spans a vast array of topics, with a focus on human rationality. He has made important contributions to many fields, including political theory, political science, social science, and political psychology. His work is generally informed by a broad acquaintance with many more disciplines, such as economics, game theory, psychology, philosophy, and literature. This entry gives a sample of some of his main positions on different topics.
Emancipation
Authors: Susen Simon 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn the most general sense, the concept of emancipation refers to an entity's liberation from control, dependence, restraint, confinement, restriction, repression, slavery, or domination. In modern English, the term “emancipation” commonly describes the transition from heteronomy to autonomy, from dependence to freedom, or from alienation to self‐realization. Rather than establishing a universally applicable definition of the term, however, it is important to bear in mind that the concept of emancipation has been, and continues to be, used in different contexts and given meaning from diverging ideological angles. In order to illustrate the complexity of the term, this entry will consider (1) differentelementsof emancipation, (2) differentconceptionsof emancipation, and (3) differentmovementsof emancipation.
Emergency
Authors: Fatovic Clement 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
An emergency is an extraordinary occurrence or state of affairs that poses a significant danger to public health or safety. There is no precise definition, but political thinkers and legal systems have generally treated an emergency as an extreme event that strains the limits of the established legal and political order and requires the exercise of expansive and perhaps unprecedented governmental powers, especially by the executive. Prior to the twentieth century, the term was usually reserved for violent threats, such as foreign invasions, domestic insurrections, and civil wars. By the beginning of the twentieth century, it had been expanded to include economic crises, such as labor unrest, financial collapses, and depressions. In contemporary law and political thought, emergency has been broadened even further to include natural disasters, epidemic outbreaks, environmental catastrophes, and terrorist attacks. As the category has been enlarged to include new (or newly recognized) dangers, the range of powers that the government uses to address these dangers has also been expanded. Questions about the legitimacy and the legality of responses to emergency have generally dominated political and legal thought on this subject.
Enlightenment, Scottish
Authors: Skowronski Sarah 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The Scottish Enlightenment was a period of intense intellectual activity in Scotland during the eighteenth century. Its major figures include Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746), Henry Home, Lord Kames (1696–1782), Thomas Reid (1710–96), David Hume (1711–76), Adam Smith (1723–90), Adam Ferguson (1723–1816), and John Millar (1735–1802). The Scottish Enlightenment thinkers have proven hugely influential in the history of ideas, both in their own age and in subsequent generations. Hume gained popularity in France, where he associated with French Enlightenment thinkers such as Denis Diderot. The French
philosophes
came to think so highly of the Scots that Voltaire even proclaimed, “it is to Scotland that we look for our idea of civilization.” The Scots also influenced the US founders: Hutcheson's work was admired by Thomas Jefferson and Reid's work by James Wilson. Benjamin Franklin traveled to Scotland and befriended Kames, whose legal writings he recommended to American judges. The Scots continue to exert their influence today. They have been identified as the founders of the social sciences, such as sociology and economics. Many of their intellectual insights in these fields still stand – for instance, much of Smith's writing on economics forms the foundation of economic thinking today.
Environmental Political Theory
Authors: Luke Timothy W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEnvironmental political theory is one of today's most dynamic fields in contemporary political thought, and it has only become more vibrant since the 1992 global environmental conference in Rio de Janeiro. The interests of environmental political theory are quite diverse, ranging from analyses of global governance to rapid climate change to environmental justice to name only a few prominent concerns. Some have aspired to grant a salience and significance to “the field of environmental theory” that it basically does not yet truly have, but this emerging field is nonetheless quite significant.
Epicurus (341–270 BCE)
Authors: Roskam Geert 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEpicurus was born on Samos as the child of Athenian colonists. In 323/2 he came to Athens to serve in the military for two years as an ephebe (together with Menander, the comic poet). During these years, Perdiccas forced the Athenian colonists to leave Samos, and Epicurus rejoined his parents in Colophon, where he received his philosophical instruction. After short stays in Mytilene on Lesbos (the home town of Hermarchus, his successor) and in Lampsacus (where he met his best friend, Metrodorus, and several others including Idomeneus, Leonteus, and Polyaenus), he finally arrived in Athens (in 307/6), where he acquired a large garden and a house and founded a philosophical community. In his garden, he enjoyed life together with like‐minded friends. Epicurus himself claimed to have lived unnoticed in Athens, together with Metrodorus, and he adds that they were not harmed at all by being unknown and almost unheard of. Yet several references to Epicurus in contemporary comic poets show that he had attracted at least a limited attention.
Epistemology
Authors: Hamati‐Ataya Inanna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Epistemology (from the Greek
epistēmē
meaning
knowledge
), also known as the theory of knowledge, is the branch of philosophy that has traditionally concerned itself with the nature, sources, and limits of human knowledge. In this narrow sense, epistemology is a specific disciplinary specialty that does not relate directly to political thought. Political thinkers have, however, been concerned with the theory of knowledge, and epistemic questions have often taken center stage in the history of our discipline. Recent developments in epistemology, sociopolitical theory, and the sociology of knowledge have also highlighted the intimate connections between the nature, production, and meaning of knowledge on the one hand, and the structures and relations of interests and power that constitute the material and ideational context wherein knowledge is produced, on the other. To this extent, epistemology can be viewed as both a central
component
and
object
of political thought itself.
Equality
Authors: Illuzzi Michael J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAmerican and French revolutionaries in 1776 and 1789 used equality as a justification in the struggle to create democratic republics and contemporary social movements have used equality as a rallying cry in struggles against various forms of discrimination. Yet, despite its ubiquitous use and almost unanimous approval, the term “equality” is often ambiguous. To clarify the different uses of the concept, this entry explicates the debates over three central questions. (1) Who is included in membership and who is left outside? (2) Do people have equal human worth? (3) If all individual humans are equal in some fundamental ways, in what ways ought the just political or social community recognize this basic equality?
Equilibrium
Authors: Femia Joseph V. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract“Equilibrium” is a familiar term in the physicochemical sciences, where it designates any unchanging condition or state of a system, resulting from the balancing or canceling out of the influences or processes to which it is subjected. A system is a complex of interdependent elements and relationships that forms a collective entity in some way separated from its environment. The relations between the different elements or variables in a system are capable of being represented and explained by mathematical functions, but these relations cannot be captured by conventional cause/effect analysis. Rather, a method of analysis involving the simultaneous variations of mutually dependent variables is necessary.
Ethnic Cleansing
Authors: Mulaj Klejda 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A form of mass expulsion of targeted human groups, ethnic cleansing is a deliberate policy designed by, and pursued under, the leadership of a nation/ethnic community or with its consent, with the view to removing an “undesirable” indigenous population of a given territory on the basis of its ethnic, national, or religious origin, by using systematic force and/or intimidation. Unlike the practice it represents, the term “ethnic cleansing” is of relatively recent origin, deriving from the Yugoslav military vocabulary of the 1990s. Large‐scale ethnic cleansing may come close to genocide. However, in general, ethnic cleansing is not a euphemism for genocide. The former is primarily concerned with dispossession of targeted people whereas the latter is primarily concerned with their extermination.
Existentialism, Philosophy of
Authors: Reynolds Jack 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
There is little consensus on the question of what existentialism is, and hence on the question of which thinkers should be labeled existentialists. Some see Blaise Pascal as an early existentialist thinker because he emphasizes the centrality of passion to human existence, and what he calls “reasons of the heart.” More commonly, it is thought that the existentialist tradition begins in the nineteenth century with philosophers like Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche, who both gave a lot of attention to the dangers of “herd” morality (and politics), and differently emphasized a philosophy of existence in the face of metaphysical system‐building that was, tacitly or otherwise, oriented around the idea of man as rational. But even G. W. F. Hegel, Kierkegaard's philosophical nemesis of sorts, has also been said to be an existentialist because he was the first to comprehend that “man is a place of unrest,” fundamentally oriented by desire, and hence not having any stable or pregiven identity. Jean‐Paul Sartre famously develops and emphasizes this when he says that existentialism may be best understood through the motto “existence precedes essence.” Sartre takes the human mode of existence to be fundamentally oriented toward that which is “not yet” (i.e., the future), whereas this is not the case for the existence of tables, chairs, pens, for which their essence precedes their existence: for something to be a pen, for example, it needs to be at least potentially able to perform the essential function of writing. And we should not forget that it was the thought of Edmund Husserl, an austere, almost scholastic phenomenologist, that famously turned Sartre “pale with emotion” because it gave him the tools to allow him to describe everyday life and existence in a philosophically rigorous fashion.
Fabianism
Authors: Grigsby Ellen 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Fabianism is a school of democratic socialism originating in England in the nineteenth century. Organized in London in 1884, the Fabian Society consisted of middle‐class reformers, the most famous of whom included George Bernard Shaw (1856–1950), Sidney Webb (1859–1947), Beatrice Webb (1858–1943), and Annie Besant (1847–1933). Fabians advocated universal suffrage, the abolition of inherited parliamentary seats, nationalization of basic industries (e.g., railroads), municipal socialism, and progressive taxation of unearned income. Fabians decried the capitalist process of collecting income from “rent,” a broad category describing virtually any income ensuing from “idleness.” Through stringent taxation of rent, Fabians hoped to redistribute wealth and to reconfigure socioeconomic relations, that is, to tax out of existence an idle, exploitative, unproductive class.
Fall of Communism and End of History
Authors: W. Burns Timothy 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The
end of history
is a concept developed by G. W. F. Hegel, according to whom the unplanned struggles of history have produced a progress of human consciousness that culminates in the final, rational state of humanity. The notion of such a historical progression of consciousness was adopted by Karl Marx, who however attributed progress to the
economic
history of humans. With the fall of the (Marxist) Soviet Union, the Hegelian notion was revived by Francis Fukuyama.
False Consciousness
Authors: Hamati‐Ataya Inanna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

False consciousness is often used to refer to an individual's or a group's distorted perception of themselves, the world, or their social condition, that conceals from them some important realities they are subjected to. In this general sense, it can be understood as a psychological, cognitive, or sociological phenomenon, depending on the theories within which it is conceptualized. False consciousness as distorted perception can be related to Plato's “noble lie,” or to Francis Bacon's “idols,” and the term is explicitly used by Jeremy Bentham in his 1780
Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation
.
Federalist Papers
Authors: Hoffert Robert W. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

If the uncivil and deforming partisanship common in contemporary political discourse discredits the appropriately polemical character of political theory, the
Federalist
gives polemics, arguments in opposition to those of others, an honorable form, a noble purpose, and conceptual vitality and depth. Under the name of “Publius” and in the context of concrete political choices and controversies,
The Federalist
engaged practical political alternatives and framed fundamental political principles in ways that are relevant to understanding political life in general and American political life in particular.
Feminist Political Theory
Authors: Tucker Ericka 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBorn out of the struggles of the feminist movements of the twentieth century, feminist political theory is characterized by its commitment to expanding the boundaries of the political. Feminism, as a political movement, works to fight inequality and the social, cultural, economic, and political subordination of women. The goal of feminist politics is to end the domination of women through critiquing and transforming institutions and theories that support women's subordination. Feminist political theory is a field within both feminist theory and within political theory that takes a feminist approach to traditional questions within political philosophy, contemporary and historical. In this entry, the nature of feminist political theory will be explored by asking two questions: what is feminist about feminist political theory, and what is specifically political about feminist political theory.
Filmer, Robert (1588–1653)
Authors: Jendrysik Mark S. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRobert Filmer was an English political theorist and pamphleteer. During the English Civil War and its immediate aftermath he published a number of anonymous works defending divine right monarchy and the patriarchal authority of kings and attacking social contract ideas. Notably he critiqued the ideas of Hobbes, Grotius, and Milton on popular sovereignty. Filmer's work represents one of the final expressions of a static and genetic understanding of politics. During the reigns of Charles II and James II his ideas became part of the rhetorical and ideological arsenal of English defenders of royal authority. He is most famous for his posthumously published workPatriarcha(1680), which was attacked by John Locke in the first of hisTwo Treatises of Government.
Foucault, Michel (1926–84)
Authors: Patton Paul 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFoucault has had an extraordinarily wide‐ranging impact upon the social and political sciences since his untimely death in 1984. In 2007, according tothe Times Higher Education Supplement, he was the most cited author in the humanities. His concepts of knowledge, power, and the constitution of subjectivity have been taken up in disciplines as diverse as accountancy, geography, feminist, gay, and queer theory. In addition to his published works, he wrote many shorter articles and recorded many interviews on political issues of the day. His most important contributions to political theory lie in his discussions of power, especially after his lectures on liberal and neoliberal governmentality in 1978 and 1979.
Frankfurt School
Authors: Gandesha Samir 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Frankfurt School refers to the Frankfurt‐based Institute for Social Research (Institut für Sozialforschung) founded through a bequest by Marxist political scientist Felix Weil and which included Max Horkheimer, Theodor W. Adorno, Herbert Marcuse, Friedrich Pollock, Erich Fromm, and Leo Lowenthal. The Frankfurt School is synonymous with “critical theory,” representing a thoroughgoing reformulation of Marxism starting in the late 1920s and 1930s as articulated in Horkheimer's programmatic and influential essay “Critical and Traditional Theory” which was directed as much against the rising tide of social scientific positivism as it was against dogmatic, reductionist, and economistic forms of Marxism. Horkheimer also originated the systematic idea of a theoretically informed, empirically oriented, and interdisciplinary research program that drew upon the disciplines of political science, sociology, psychoanalysis, philosophy, and art and aesthetics, seeking to understand the key social, political, and cultural transformations in the first three decades of the twentieth century.
Franklin, Benjamin (1706–90)
Authors: Billauer Barbara Pfeffer 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBenjamin Franklin was the most well‐known American publisher, scientist, author, diplomat, political figure and econo‐political theorist of his day. In 1776, he became the first American ambassador to France and he is considered the first American diplomat. As a political theorist, Franklin championed the role of civic and personal virtues. Best known for his innovative community activities (e.g., creation of the Post Office, fire department, lending library) and technological inventions (e.g., bifocals and the lighting rod), Franklin's brilliant statesmanship led to treaties of comity and commerce with France that funded the Revolution. He also negotiated the Treaty of Paris of 1783 resulting in Britain's recognition of the United States as a sovereign power, and collaborated on the Declaration of Independence and the constitution of the United States. Franklin's contributions, however, transcended the merely pragmatic, the amusing (i.e.,Poor Richard's Almanacand satires written under assumed names), the abstractly theoretical (e.g., positing the mechanism of electrical charges), and the diplomatic.
Fraser, Nancy (1947–)
Authors: Olson Kevin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Nancy Fraser is an American philosopher and political theorist known for her pivotal role in second‐wave feminism, widely followed engagements with well‐known European and American thinkers, and important contributions to theories of justice, critical theory, and the critique of capitalism. She received a bachelor's degree in philosophy from Bryn Mawr College and completed her PhD in philosophy at the City University of New York. She has held academic positions in philosophy at the University of Georgia and Northwestern University, and in political science at the New School for Social Research, as well as a wide range of distinguished visiting appointments in the United States and Europe. Her influence has been felt well beyond the bounds of these fields, however, in the broad interdisciplinary currents that connect many of the humanities and social sciences.
Friendship
Authors: Digeser Paige 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFriendship is ordinarily understood as a close interpersonal relationship based on feelings of mutual affection, care, concern, or respect. It tends to be associated with such values as loyalty, trust, honesty, sincerity, openness, good will, intimacy, and a desire to benefit the other for the other's sake. It is generally thought to be a chosen relationship, requiring a mutual recognition of the appropriate feelings, and consequently it is distinguishable from merely friendly actions in which persons do things together or for one another. Like the notion of love, friendship has inspired soaring, diverse, and sometimes conflicting ideals. As a brief sample of such accounts we can begin with Aristotle, for whom friendship emerges out of our nature as social beings and is most fully expressed between virtuous individuals. The first half of this entry focuses on philosophical issues raised by the concept of friendship and then it turns to various connections drawn between friendship and politics.
Fundamentalism, Religious
Authors: Goodine Bradley 
Published: August 2023

AbstractReligious fundamentalism is a countercultural response to changes in society, especially with respect to the “secular modern world.” Fundamentalists call for a return to what they consider the core ideas of their religious system. They typically focus on the authority of sacred texts, as understood by strict, narrow interpretations, and are often known for their active involvement in the public sphere. While the term first applied to certain Protestant movements at the beginning of the twentieth century in the USA, the term has since been applied to religious movements in most of the world's major religious traditions.
Galbraith, John Kenneth (1908–2006)
Authors: Waligorski Conrad P. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
John Kenneth Galbraith (1908–2006) was a reform liberal activist, economist, and public intellectual who identified with John Maynard Keynes's economics and public policy goals, but criticized neoclassical economics and Keynesian accommodation with neoclassical economics. He claimed conventional economics ignores interconnections between politics and economics, affluence, large corporations, power, poverty, inequality, and government's necessary role in a modern economy. In more than 30 books, scores of articles, and decades of congressional testimony, Galbraith expressed general propositions and principles while trying to influence public opinion and policy. Born in Canada, in 1931 he received a PhD from the University of California, Berkeley, and spent most of his academic career at Harvard University. Public positions included ambassador to India, 1961–63, advising presidents Kennedy and Johnson, and influencing Johnson's “war on poverty.”