bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Comparative Political Thought
Authors: Godrej Farah 
Published: August 2023

AbstractComparative political theory (CPT) is a subfield of political theory. It is sometimes thought to be synonymous with the study of nonwestern political thought, or global political thought. In brief, it turns beyond western theoretical texts, ideas, and traditions, and seeks to make nonwestern resources a necessary component of the study of political theory, calling for the study of all civilizations, particularly those outside the west. Indeed, the term “comparative” may seem misleading, if it implies that this subfield only concerns itself with comparison between specific units or entities. Instead, we should understand the term “comparative” as it is used in describing the various fields of political science in the USA. “Comparative politics” describes that subfield which goes beyond the dominant realm of US politics. Similarly, in the case of political theory, Euro‐American or western thought is the dominant object of study; thus “comparative political theory” turns beyond this dominant tradition. There has been some debate about whether “comparative” is the best designation for a subfield that includes almost any mode of studying nonwestern thought. But the name has now become associated with a general inclusivity, openness toward, and curiosity about otherness.
Conciliarism
Authors: Van Duffel Siegfried 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “conciliarism” can be used broadly to refer to attempts, from the early Catholic church till today, to limit papal control over the church by means of a general council. In a stricter sense the term is often used to refer to the movement which emerged in response to the “western schism” (1378–1417), which briefly re‐emerged after the “schism of Pisa” (1511–13). This movement served as a catalyst of medieval constitutional thought and contributed significantly to the development of the idea of “government by consent.” During the so‐called western schism, the Catholic church found itself with two (and later three) rival popes. The situation was resolved only 40 years later (1414–18) at the council of Constance. Since the pope was normally considered the head of the church, the actions of the council needed special justification. The apologists of the council of Constance (among others: Conrad of Gelnhausen, Henry of Langenstein, and Pierre d'Aily) relied heavily on canonist corporation theory, and were also greatly indebted to John of Paris, William of Ockham, and Marsilius of Padua. The council asserted supremacy for itself in matters of heresy, schism, and reform, and decreed that it should meet on a regular basis. From 1408–18 onward (in the later period apologists were Pierre d'Aily, Jean Gerson, and Franciscus Zabarella), conciliarism becomes more of a theology of the church. Few conciliarists explicitly applied their arguments to secular government. Nevertheless, the general terms in which the arguments were put forward facilitated their transformation into all‐purpose political principles. Several conciliarists proposed theories of mixed government, but at the council of Basel (1431–49) many went further in pronouncing the sovereignty of the whole church, which the church exercised through the council as its representative. Nicholas of Cusa, who delivered the most important contribution to the council of Basel, wrote about the foundation of government in a language resembling that of later social contract theorists: since all are by nature free, and equal in power, the properly ordained power of a ruler can only come from the agreement and consent of the subjects (Nicholas of Cusa 1991: 98). In the early sixteenth century, Jacques Almain and John Mair revived conciliarism, and – in doing so – provided a crucial link in the transmission of medieval constitutional thought. In their thought, the right of the church to depose a pope guilty of a notorious crime is treated as an application of the general rights of political communities – civil and ecclesiastical – to act for their preservation and well‐being. These ideas were often echoed and cited by seventeenth‐ and eighteenth‐century opponents of absolute monarchy.
Darwin, Charles (1809–82)
Authors: Adam Seagrave S. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Charles Darwin was an English naturalist who proposed the theory of biological evolution through the mechanism of natural selection in his classic work,
The Origin of Species
(1859). The publication of the
Origin
came more than two decades after Darwin first formulated its central ideas following his five‐year voyage on
HMS Beagle
. Despite the existence of competing and complementary evolutionary accounts both during and since Darwin's lifetime, Darwin's theory as originally expressed in the
Origin
remains by far the single most influential expression of the idea of biological evolution. While Darwin's theory is first and foremost one of natural history, a variety of factors joined both at its inception and subsequently to lend enormous social and political significance to Darwin's thought. Among the social and political implications that have been alleged to stem from Darwin's writings are laissez‐faire capitalism, socialism, eugenics, and Nazism.
Democratic Education
Authors: Gutmann Amy , Ben‐Porath Sigal 
Published: August 2023

AbstractModern democracies need an educated citizenry to survive and to thrive. “If a nation expects to be ignorant and free, in a state of civilization,” Thomas Jefferson wrote in 1816, “it expects what never was and what never will be.” Democratic societies are both enriched and challenged by a diverse citizenry. Democratic education encompasses the varied institutional structures and curricular contents that are suitable for educating free citizens of democratic societies. This entry considers key aspects of democratic education: the question of governance, challenges of multiculturalism, democratic higher education, and education in transitional democracies.
Democratic Elitism
Authors: Green Jeffrey Edward 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Democratic elitism is less a theory of politics than a general perspective from which certain kinds of theories are proposed. Rather than oppose democracy to elitism as mutually exclusive opposites, the premise of democratic elitism is that democracy should be understood as a process whose meaning relates centrally to the nature, conduct, and selection of political elites. In some sense, there is nothing new about such a premise. There is a long tradition of republican thinkers, including, for example, Aristotle, Machiavelli, Guicciardini, Harrington, and Montesquieu, who recognized the confluence of elitist and popular elements in well‐ordered states, especially the singular capacity of popular assemblies to identify and select talented leaders. But democratic elitism is best conceived as a contemporary phenomenon that, in defining democratization primarily in regard to elite power, inserts itself between two more familiar poles in recent political thought. On the one hand there are the classical elite theorists (Pareto, Michels, and the early Mosca) who argued for various different reasons that democracy was not possible due to the inescapably oligarchic nature of modern societies. And on the other hand there are idealist understandings of democracy, typical of the nineteenth century, like those of Tocqueville, J. S. Mill, and Bryce, which construed it as a regime largely (or at least potentially) free from elitism and grounded on ideals of inclusivity, equality, and the people's capacity to engage in rigorous and meaningful acts of self‐legislation. While sharing the elite theorists’ belief in the permanence of elites, democratic elitism differentiates between democratic and nondemocratic forms of elitism. And while sharing the idealists’ view that the introduction of universal suffrage, periodic elections, and mass parties fundamentally alters modern politics in a popular direction, democratic elitists adopt a more minimal, leader‐based understanding of the democratic process, making few if any claims about popular self‐legislation or the intellectual and moral development ordinary citizens might undergo through participation in democratic institutions.
Diderot, Denis (1713–84)
Authors: Fowler James 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDiderot is one of the three greatestphilosophesof the French Enlightenment. Throughout the 1740s Diderot tended towards deism; subsequently he embraced atheism together with determinism and materialist monism, but without relinquishing his fundamental humanism. Diderot became famous in the course of the 1750s. In 1747, he had assumed, with d'Alembert, the editorship of theEncyclopédie(1751–72) whose utilitarian aims included the dissemination of knowledge concerning not only eighteenth‐century science but also the liberal and mechanical arts. But Diderot and his collaborators also strove to set aside received ideas in order to provide a basis for progress. Diderot's commitment to freedom of thought and expression, his opposition to absolutism, and his editorship of theEncyclopédietogether posed an important challenge toancien régimeideology in the years preceding the French Revolution.
Distributive Justice
Authors: Sheindorf David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPhilosophical discussions of distributive justice (hereafter DJ) usually focus on three – equally important – matters. The first matter treats thescopeof DJ: it aims to identify the groups of people which are responsible for bringing it about. Different kinds of groups – corporations, tribes, churches, ethnic communities, states and, increasingly over the years, international organizations – constitute the space of human activity. In the matter of scope, a just distribution would include all of those whom the group in question is responsible for their well‐being. The second matter seeks to define thecurrencyof DJ; namely, it asks what goods should be distributed in order for justice to be realized among a given group of people. It is believed in most studies of DJ that the goods in question should enable people to gradually increase their well‐being. The third matter tackles theobjectivesof DJ; that is, it concentrates on the end‐state in which a suitable measure of the goods required should be obtained by members of the group in question. In this sense, conducting justice by distribution requires principles specifying an outcome in which everyone in the group receives their due.
Erasmus, Desiderius (1467/9–1536)
Authors: Bom Erik De 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

As a humanist Desiderius Erasmus was first and foremost known for his mastery of an elegant Latin style, his familiarity with classical authors and the ancient world, and his expert knowledge of the Bible and the church fathers. He was a very productive writer who published dozens of books ranging from editions, translations, and commentaries to such highly popular works as the satirical
Praise of Folly
and the didactic
Adages
. Erasmus's writings on politics are closely connected to these other works and are as well deeply rooted in the humanist tradition. Faithful to this duty as a humanist teacher and adviser, Erasmus wrote all his political works in a highly rhetorical manner shaped after classical models in order to penetrate into the hearts and minds of his audience and persuade them as effectively as possible. His sole purpose was to instill the various classical and Christian virtues into the prince's character, especially those which were considered to be of paramount importance for good governance such as liberality, clemency, and fidelity. By doing so, he wanted to form a good prince who is in every respect the opposite of a tyrant. If a society is confronted nevertheless with such a tyrant, Erasmus asked the subjects to bear him patiently, since internal order and peace had to be preserved at all costs.
Globalism
Authors: Steger Manfred B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

“Globalism” is a ubiquitous term often used in an imprecise manner to describe general globalizing trends as well as particular systems of ideas and values connected to various globalization processes. It is useful to distinguish between
globalism –
a political ideology that endows globalization with certain norms, values, and meanings – and
globalization –
a multidimensional set of social processes that extend and intensify social connections across the globe. This distinction helps to foreground the considerable role played by various globalisms in shaping the conditions of our interconnected world.
Greek Political Thought
Authors: Markovits Elizabeth K. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBeginning with Homeric poetry, continuing through the remarkable flourishing of theater, history, and philosophy in the fifth and fourth centuriesbce, and ending with the Hellenistic period, Greek political thought spans several hundred years and a number of genres. For the ancient Greeks, the “political” included a tremendous assortment of concerns, with few if any boundaries marking off the political from the nonpolitical. Indeed, it spans just about everything related to the polis, or city, from which the word “political” is derived. Thus, ancient political thought includes discussions of fate, virtue, family, and education (to name just a few topics), in addition to such customary political questions as the nature of authority, the relationship between the individual and state, the role of leadership, or the universality of law. Because of this, a broad view of the source material allows a much richer understanding of how the ancient Greeks thought about politics than we might achieve if we were to stick only to the canonical political philosophers of the period. Thus, this examination of Greek political thought includes texts from a wide variety of genres, all of which offer critical and abstract commentary on the nature of politics and the capacities of citizens.
Historical Materialism
Authors: Oittinen Vesa 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The expression “historical materialism” was first used by G. V. Plekhanov, the “father” of Russian Marxism, to indicate the social theory of Marxism. Marx and Engels, however, always referred to their doctrine as a “materialist conception of history” and never used the phrase “historical materialism.” The foundation of the materialist theory of history was first formulated extensively in the manuscripts of 1845, later published under the name
The German Ideology
, a work in which the influence of the Scottish Enlightenment was clearly discernible, as Marx and Engels stressed the importance of the division of labor and forms of property as the moving forces behind the development of societies. On the other hand, Marx and Engels criticized Enlightenment social philosophies for their mechanical cause–effect explanations and proposed instead a dialectical view of the development of human society.
Idealism
Authors: Haddock Bruce 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Philosophical idealism has enjoyed a controversial position throughout its history. It has nothing to do with the everyday sense of idealism as an optimistic mindset anticipating endless progress in the moral, political, and material prospects of humankind. Philosophical idealism, by contrast, is a position that originally focused on our knowledge of the world, distinctively highlighting the constructive role of ourselves as creators of meanings, understandings, and bodies of knowledge. The idea that social, political, and epistemological claims are generated by agents sharing practices and conventions significantly changed conceptions of knowledge and principle. We could no longer picture ourselves as pursuers of truths unaffected by our status as truth‐seekers. In the world of philosophical idealism, truth claims should be seen as intellectual constructions that invite other truth‐seekers to clarify their views with alternative hypotheses. None of us could be said to be striving after a body of truth, in either the human or natural worlds, that is somehow “out there,” awaiting discovery. We are social creatures through and through, making judgments as best we can in relation to a web of cultural understandings. Bodies of knowledge are collaborative constructions, just as our understanding of ourselves should be seen as the product of collaborative discursive engagement.
Intergenerational Justice
Authors: Bach Tracy 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of intergenerational justice is used to define the sense of accountability between the generations. Philosophers such as Henry Shue and Stephen Gardiner have developed a framework of moral duties that a past or current generation has toward future generations. Intergenerational justice contrasts with intragenerational justice, which focuses on inequities between poor and rich countries within the current generation – a problematic also framed as developing versus developed countries, the South versus the North, and East versus West. While the concept of intergenerational justice is well developed in philosophy, in the law it has only begun to be developed.
Iron Law of Oligarchy
Authors: Caverly Matthew M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The iron law of oligarchy states that when organizations attain a certain level of complexity they inevitably give way to an oligarchy of elite control. Furthermore, the law functions regardless of the democratic or autocratic character of the organization or for that matter the purpose, political or otherwise, of said organization. In particular, it is applied to understanding of the operational maintenance of political parties in either democratic or authoritarian circumstances. The iron law of oligarchy is one of the profoundest theoretical innovations of the twentieth century regarding the development of an understanding for the internal dynamics of social organizational life. The law claims that organizations have inherent tendencies toward elitism, in particular political parties. It claims that social complexity and organizational needs move even the most democratic of entities into a state of perpetual elite domination. This phenomenon is due to the rise of politically sophisticated social elites within the organization as well as the organization's need to maintain consistent command and control administrative governance in order to attain its goals. For instance, in order for a political party to enact its policy program or be competitive in elections it must develop an internal hierarchy that is led through political elites who are policy or campaign experts. Thus, the mass membership within the political party are out of necessity relegated to a secondary position defined by elite leadership.
Jacobinism
Authors: Sokoloff William W. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The word derives from “Jacobin,” the name of the Dominican convent in Paris – the church of Saint Jacques (Sanctus Iacobus in Latin) – where the Society of the Friends of the Constitution held its meetings; hence the society was mockingly renamed “the Jacobin club.” The club was a voluntary political association in eighteenth‐century France that existed from 1789 to 1794. With its roots in Freemason societies, initially it fueled, then led the French Revolution, as a symbolic image of the unitary will of the people. Despite the derogatory use of “Jacobin,” this name was embraced by the largely middle‐class intellectual members of the debating philosophical society.
Lenin (Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov) (1870–1924) and Leninism
Authors: Engle Eric , Dean, Jodi , Coole Diana 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Lenin was born Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov, in provincial Russia in 1870. He would become the leader of the Bolsheviks, an architect of Russia's socialist revolution in October 1917, and chairman of the first Soviet government until shortly before his death in 1924. His principal legacies are the birth of the Soviet Union and the extension and development of Marxist theory. Not only did Lenin provide an analysis of imperialism that explored the connection between financial capital and imperial colonialism, but he also demonstrated the applicability of Marxist ideas to an economically backward country governed by an absolutist monarchy, constructed a new model of the political party, and worked to construct a socialist state under conditions bereft of a bourgeois liberal‐capitalist transitional period.
Locke, Alain (1885–1954)
Authors: Smith Michelle 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBlack educator, philosopher, social theorist, art critic. A graduate of the Philadelphia Normal School and Harvard University, Locke was the first black Rhodes Scholar (1907). He studied value theory and Georg Simmel's sociological theory at the University of Berlin (1910) and earned a PhD in philosophy at Harvard University (1917) under the tutelage of Ralph Barton Perry.
Locke, John (1632–1704)
Authors: Zuckert Michael 
Published: August 2023

AbstractJohn Locke is known to history as the founder of empiricism in philosophical epistemology, of a form of rational Christianity in theology, and of the liberal tradition in political thought; also as the author of the most compelling case for religious toleration. His achievements thus extend beyond the political sphere; but that will perforce be the main focus of our concern here. His work remains influential today, as is manifest in the revival of political philosophy in Lockean style in the late twentieth century by thinkers like John Rawls and Robert Nozick.
Monarchy
Authors: Grigg Julianna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Monarchy as a system of government can be defined in multiple ways, but in common usage these are generally collapsed into one another. Fundamentally, it means a governmental system in which symbolic and/or executive authority resides in a single individual. But the selection of this individual for the office has long been a contested idea: it could be through dynastic control, through consanguine descent, through common acclamation, through military conquest, or even through less familiar mechanisms. In each case, the ideal behind monarchism remains the centralization of rule in one person, but as people are both fallible and mortal, the mechanisms of inheritance undermine the presumed legitimacy of the monarch.
Political Geography
Authors: Jones Andrew 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
With respect to wider political theory, the subdiscipline of political geography is significant in developing a range of spatial understandings of the sociopolitical world. The subdiscipline's roots are entwined with the emergence of modern geography during the nineteenth century. The establishment of geography through academic departments and national learned societies was closely related to European colonial exploration and imperialism, and political geography emerged as a distinctive field aligned with the strategic concerns of emerging (mainly European) nation‐states.
Recognition
Authors: Varga Somogy 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn everyday language, the term “recognition” refers to an act of cognitive apprehension, as in being able to detect something (detecting mistakes) or to (re)identify entities (recognizing my car in a picture). In a philosophical context, however, “recognition” is not about cognitive apprehension, but it is “practical,” referring to the expressive acknowledgment and affirmation of someone's status, achievements, or rights. While the English word “recognition” conveys both the “cognitive” and “practical” sense, the German “(Wieder)erkennung” designates the “cognitive” sense, while the “practical” sense is expressed in the word “Anerkennung.”