bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Freedom of Thought as a Condition of Theoretical Cognition
Authors: Kohl Markus 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the question: why, in Kant’s view, do our intellectual freedom and our theoretical rationality require that we can think without being determined by natural causes? Kant does not make the blanket claim that causal determinism per se is incompatible with epistemic freedom and rational thinking. Rather, Kant argues that if the human mind were exclusively determined by empirical causes (or indeed by any foreign causes, including also divine imposition), then our cognitive representations would lack a priori rational necessity. This would fatally undermine all our cognitive efforts including those that aim to reach objectively valid empirical judgments, because these judgments depend for their cognitive validity on a priori representations such as causal necessity. The chapter examines how Kant’s views on epistemic freedom relate to Hume, to his transcendental idealism, and to contemporary views on causation and evolutionary theory. It further shows how Kant can defend his view against various objections such as the genetic fallacy charge already considered in Chapter IV. The chapter culminates with the argument that we possess certain knowledge that our theoretical intellect is transcendentally free. However, from this it does not follow that our will or practical reason is also transcendentally free.
Kant’s Moral Grounding of Free Will
Authors: Kohl Markus 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines Kant’s deduction of noumenal freedom of will from the moral law in (chiefly) the Critique of Practical Reason. It argues against the common view that Kant allows only for rational faith (Glauben) that we have noumenal freedom of will: rather, we can know (wissen) with objective certainty that our will is transcendentally free. This is because we have normative-practical knowledge of the moral law as the foundational axiom of all practical cognition, and because we know that transcendental freedom of will is a necessary real condition for the existence of the moral law. Hence, we can knowingly infer that our will is transcendentally free. The chapter considers how Kant can defend the individual steps of this argument against various objections, such as the claim that Kant’s appeal to moral knowledge fails because it ignores the problem of moral skepticism. It further examines whether Kant’s view that we can know the existence of free noumenal causes is compatible with his critical epistemology and his appeal to noumenal ignorance. Although Kant’s position can be defended against some standard epistemological worries, it must face the concern that practical reason oversteps its boundaries when it posits free moral agents as the specific noumenal causes of natural events.
The Varieties of Belief
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 begins to develop an inventory of the different kinds of belief that it is possible for thinkers to have. It is argued that these varieties of belief include: precise and imprecise levels of confidence or degrees of belief; full or outright beliefs; conditional or suppositional beliefs (which may be identified with inferences, on a certain understanding of what inferences are); and the attitude of suspension of judgment. The discussion of full or outright belief is postponed until the following chapter; but, otherwise, it is argued that every belief-system consisting of beliefs of all these different kinds can be modelled by means of a set of partially defined credence functions (including both conditional and unconditional credence functions)—where these credence functions need not necessarily be probabilistically coherent. This approach allows for the thinker to be simply “attitudeless”—that is, to have no attitude whatsoever—towards some of the propositions that she is capable of entertaining; it allows for the thinker’s beliefs to be imprecise or indeterminate, and also to be probabilistically incoherent; and it allows for genuinely conditional or suppositional belief—attitudes of conditionally believing a conclusion, conditionally on the assumption of a set of premises.
Full Belief
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 6 takes up the topic of full or outright belief. What is puzzling about full belief is that its functional role seems to be that of treating the believed proposition as if it were certain, and yet it also seems possible to have a full belief in propositions of which we are not absolutely certain. The solution to the puzzle lies in seeing that in addition to our theoretical credences—beliefs of the kind whose role is, to put it roughly, to gauge how strongly the relevant proposition is supported by one’s “evidence”—there are also practical credences—beliefs of the kind whose role is to guide us in action and practical decision making. It is argued that, for limited finite believers like us, it is unavoidable that we will sometimes act on practical credences that are different from our theoretical credences. To have a full or outright belief in a proposition can be plausibly identified with being disposed to treat the proposition as practically certain, for all normal practical purposes.
The Idea of Rational Probability
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 9 turns to explaining what is here being referred to as the “rational probability function” for each case. According to the account that is being developed here, the degree of irrationality of the belief-system that the thinker has in each case is in effect determined by the belief-system’s distance from the rational probability function for the case. But are the degrees of irrationality of all belief-systems that are available to the thinker at the time determined by how distant they are from the same probability function? A consideration of so-called “Moore-paradoxical” propositions reveals that the answer to this question is: No. The internal mental facts “given” to the thinker at the time determine an appropriate prior probability function; and the degree of irrationality of each of these belief-systems is determined by how distant it is from the result of conditionalizing this prior probability on the supposition that the thinker has that very belief-system. This appropriate prior probability can be conceived by imagining an “evaluating angel”. This angel knows all the internal mental facts about what is given to the thinker at the time, and relies solely on these facts to form a body of opinions about what the world is like; the appropriate prior probability function may be conceived as this angel’s body of opinions about the world.
Uniqueness and Indeterminacy
Authors: Wedgwood Ralph 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 10 turns to a range of issues concerning the determinacy of rational belief. First, we consider cases in which the opinions of the “evaluating angel” do not consist in a unique probability function, but only in a big set of such functions. Here, it is argued that, even in these cases, a perfectly rational thinker would in effect pick one of the probability functions in the set that constitutes the angel’s opinions, and would have a belief-system that matches the result of conditionalizing that probability function on the supposition that she has that belief-system. Secondly, we consider whether rational agents would sometimes have imprecise or indeterminate credences. Tentatively, it is argued that our account implies that perfectly rational thinkers never have imprecise credences of this sort: it is only imperfectly rational thinkers who ever have such imprecise credences. Thirdly, it is argued that degrees of irrationality are sometimes incommensurable: the degrees of irrationality sometimes fail to rank alternative belief-systems in relation to each other. However, these incommensurabilities only affect irrational belief-systems: for every thinker and time, some available belief-systems are perfectly rational; these perfectly rational belief-systems are all equally rational, and determinately more rational than all irrational systems.
Defensive and Remedial Liability
Authors: Steel Sandy 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the relationship between moral and legal liability to bear the cost of a remedial burden, and moral and legal liability to being harmed in self-defense and other defense. Despite the apparent disanalogies between these two domains of when harming another is not a wrong, the chapter argues that, fundamentally, the facts which ground the non-wrongfulness of the harm in each are the same or highly similar. The chapter proceeds by considering and rejecting various differences between self-defense and remedial action which might be thought, at the interpersonal and institutional level, to support a difference in normative grounding, such as time, the distinction between completed and non-completed wrongs, and the role of courts. Overall, it seeks to demonstrate the theoretical importance of reflecting on the normative relationship between defensive liability and remedial liability for philosophical accounts of remedies in private law.
Irreparable Injury and the Limits of the Law of Torts
Authors: Keating Gregory C. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Tort law safeguards security by requiring reparation for harm wrongly done. The fact that reparation is the institution’s default remedy limits tort law’s powers. Some harms are simply irreparable. Death is the most vivid case in point. No compensation can restore the dead to the lives they have lost. No remedy can return them to the position that they would have occupied had they not been killed. Faced with this stark truth early modern tort law did not award any damages for wrongful death and contemporary tort law still stops short of awarding damages for the value to those who are wrongly killed of the lives that they have lost. Wrongful death doctrine exposes tort law’s Achilles’ heel. On the one hand, premature death is the harm that we most wish to be protected against. On the other hand, premature death is the harm against which tort law is least able to protect us. Tort law relies on reparation to enforce its obligations, both prospectively and retrospectively. Tort fails prospectively because it does not price, and therefore does not deter, the harm of wrongful death. It fails retrospectively because money damages cannot undo the harm of death. Direct regulation of risk is required to remedy the incompleteness of tort law. This chapter examines the two most relevant regulatory norms—the “safe-level” and “feasibility” standards—against the background of tort law’s limitations.
Introduction to the Concept of Social Movement
Authors: Rucht Dieter 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Drawing on a remarkable protest event that occurred within the context of the rising student movement in 1967, a rationale is presented for applying three basic perspectives: interaction, social constructivism, and process-orientation (ICP-Approach). These perspectives serve to analyze and interpret protest activities and, more generally, social movements. On the conceptual level, it is demonstrated that the meaning of the term ‘social movement’ has changed over time. Even today, with the existence of a specialized scholarship, the definition of social movements remains a matter of ongoing debate. However, a working definition may help to roughly delineate the subject in accordance with an emergent consensus on how to define a social movement. In this regard, tentative answers to ten conceptual questions provide additional clarification.
The External Dimension
Authors: Rucht Dieter 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The externally-oriented activities of social movements usually take place in the public sphere as a tripartite game of movements, opponents, and audiences. The conflicting parties in this game engage predominantly in strategic action. Related conflicts are power games in which different kinds and sources of power tend to prevail on each side. Discursive power, however, is located on both sides. Conflicts with external actors, most notable authorities and counter movements, not only arise around specific issues but may also include metaconflicts around the general power structure and the rules of the game. In major conflicts, beyond political opportunities and restrictions of social movements, economic, cultural, and discursive opportunities also have to be taken into account.
The Internal Dimension
Authors: Rucht Dieter 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The internal life of social movements is largely oriented toward fulfilling a range of functions and tasks that are more variegated and demanding than one might assume from an outsider perspective. Social movements tend to develop a—mostly informal—division of labor. In the absence of institutionalized structures to steer or command a movement, ongoing investments are needed to recruit and motivate members: to organize, make decisions, mobilize resources, collect information and, probably most importantly, to strengthen collective identity at different levels with regard to different ideological strands. The necessity of decision-making and the existence of leadership aspects of power come into play even in movements that embrace equality and grassroots organizing.
Introduction
Authors: Otsuka Michael 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This book shows how collective pensions can be justified as a realization of reciprocity. Through the transfer of income from the middle to the later years of our lives, pensions provide a solution to the problem we would otherwise face of living so long that we find ourselves lacking sufficient resources to sustain ourselves and prosper throughout retirement. This solution is realized through the continual transfer of the fruits of the labour of those who are relatively young, healthy, and able-bodied to those who are elderly, no longer in work, and often infirm, in a manner that involves cooperation over the life cycles of overlapping generations. Should these transfers be conceived and defended as the redistribution of resources between distinct individuals to eliminate unchosen misfortune? Or should they be conceived and defended as a form of cooperation between persons which is to the expected benefit of each? On this latter understanding, which the book adopts, a failure to provide pensions collectively would be condemned in large part as irrational because inefficient and wasteful, rather than being condemned as a breach of a duty to alleviate the unchosen misfortune of those who are known to be badly off. Here we have a reciprocity-based defence of pensions as constituting fair terms of social cooperation for mutual advantage.
‘La Première Victime’
Authors: Clift Aaron 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines anticommunism in family associations. Demographic concerns relating to population and natality drove the development of a ‘familialist’ movement, which attempted to centre the family in the national conversation. Familialist ideology was linked inevitably to gender, as the ideology of separate spheres prescribed domestic life as the proper concern of women. The largest women’s group in postwar France was the communist-aligned Union des femmes françaises (UFF), but it was opposed by a number of anticommunist organizations including the Catholic Union féminine civique et sociale (UFCS) and the semi-governmental Union nationale des associations familiales (UNAF). The perceived communist threat to the traditional family became important to the rhetoric of these associations, highlighting anxieties concerning both motherhood and fatherhood in the face of changing economic realities and the development of the state as well as connections between anticommunism and postwar issues regarding housing and the cost of living.
BOTRYOID POLLEN 1 regulates ROS-triggered PCD and pollen wall development by controlling UDP-sugar homeostasis in rice
Authors: Chen Huiqiong , Zhang Shuqing , Li Ruiqi , Peng Guoqing , Chen Weipan , Rautengarten Carsten , Liu Minglong , Zhu Liya , Xiao Yueping , Song Fengshun , Ni Jinlong , Huang Jilei , Wu Aimin , Liu Zhenlan , Zhuang Chuxiong , Heazlewood Joshua L , Xie Yongyao , Chu Zhizhan , Zhou Hai 
Published: June 2023

AbstractUridine diphosphate (UDP)-sugars are important metabolites involved in the biosynthesis of polysaccharides and may be important signaling molecules. UDP-glucose 4-epimerase (UGE) catalyzes the interconversion between UDP-Glc and UDP-Gal, whose biological function in rice (Oryza sativa) fertility is poorly understood. Here, we identify and characterize the botryoid pollen 1 (bp1) mutant and show that BP1 encodes a UGE that regulates UDP-sugar homeostasis, thereby controlling the development of rice anthers. The loss of BP1 function led to massive accumulation of UDP-Glc and imbalance of other UDP-sugars. We determined that the higher levels of UDP-Glc and its derivatives in bp1 may induce the expression of NADPH oxidase genes, resulting in a premature accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), thereby advancing programmed cell death (PCD) of anther walls but delaying the end of tapetal degradation. The accumulation of UDP-Glc as metabolites resulted in an abnormal degradation of callose, producing an adhesive microspore. Furthermore, the UDP-sugar metabolism pathway is not only involved in the formation of intine but also in the formation of the initial framework for extine. Our results reveal how UDP-sugars regulate anther development and provide new clues for cellular ROS accumulation and PCD triggered by UDP-Glc as a signaling molecule.
Integrating Motor Variability Evaluation Into Movement System Assessment
Authors: Altenburger Peter , Ambike Satyajit S , Haddad Jeffrey M 
Published: June 2023

Abstract

Common assessment tools for determining therapeutic success in rehabilitation typically focus on task–based outcomes. Task–based outcomes provide some understanding of the individual’s functional ability and motor recovery; however, these clinical outcomes may have limited translation to a patient’s functional ability in the real world. Limitations arise because (1) the focus on task–based outcome assessment often disregards the complexity of motor behavior, including motor variability, and (2) mobility in highly variable real-world environments requires movement adaptability that is made possible by motor variability. This Perspective argues that incorporating motor variability measures that reflect movement adaptability into routine clinical assessment would enable therapists to better evaluate progress toward optimal and safe real-world mobility. The challenges and opportunities associated with incorporating variability–based assessment of pathological movements are also discussed. This Perspective also indicates that the field of rehabilitation needs to leverage technology to advance the understanding of motor variability and its impact on an individual’s ability to optimize movement.

Impact
This Perspective contends that traditional therapeutic assessments do not adequately evaluate the ability of individuals to adapt their movements to the challenges faced when negotiating the dynamic environments encountered during daily life. Assessment of motor variability derived during movement execution can address this issue and provide better insight into a patient’s movement stability and maneuverability in the real world. Creating such a shift in motor system assessment would advance understanding of rehabilitative approaches to motor system recovery and intervention.
Beyond Dietary Acculturation: How Latina Immigrants Navigate Exclusionary Systems to Feed Their Families
Authors: Bowen Sarah , Hardison-Moody Annie , Cordero Oceguera Emilia , Elliott Sinikka 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Previous studies of dietary acculturation explain how immigrants’ diets change over time, but they don't tell us why. In response to calls for additional research on the complex social processes that shape health disparities, this study uses an intersectional approach to examine the role of food in the daily lives of 23 Latina immigrants living in North Carolina. Our findings, based on semi-structured interviews conducted over a five-year period, refute the idea of a unidirectional process in which immigrants abandon dietary customs from their home countries. Instead, we show how food decisions are complex, contradictory, and contextual. Latina immigrant mothers embraced and resisted parts of dominant food cultures. They strategically took risks and made tradeoffs to ensure that their families had enough food and the right kinds of food. However, political and economic structures limited their access to food and impeded their ability to autonomously make food decisions. We argue that an unequal and industrialized food system, restrictive and punitive immigration policies, and narrowly-defined food assistance programs infringe on immigrants’ ability to feed their families. By excluding and othering immigrant families, these structures reduce immigrants’ autonomy and perpetuate inequalities, contributing to what previous studies have described as dietary acculturation.
Direct Differentiation of Bone Marrow Mononucleated Cells Into Insulin-Producing Cells Using 4 Specific Soluble Factors
Authors: Lee Seung-Ah , Kim Subin , Kim Seog-Young , Park Jong Yoen , Nan Jinyan , Park Ho Seon , Lee Hyunsuk , Lee Yong Deok , Lee Hakmo , Kang Shinae , Jung Hye Seung , Chung Sung Soo , Park Kyong Soo 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Bone marrow-derived stem cells are self-renewing and multipotent adult stem cells that differentiate into several types of cells. Here, we investigated a unique combination of 4 differentiation-inducing factors (DIFs), including putrescine (Put), glucosamine (GlcN), nicotinamide, and BP-1-102, to develop a differentiation method for inducing mature insulin-producing cells (IPCs) and apply this method to bone marrow mononucleated cells (BMNCs) isolated from mice. BMNCs, primed with the 4 soluble DIFs, were differentiated into functional IPCs. BMNCs cultured under the defined conditions synergistically expressed multiple genes, including those for PDX1, NKX6.1, MAFA, NEUROG3, GLUT2, and insulin, related to pancreatic beta cell development and function. They produced insulin/C-peptide and PDX1, as assessed using immunofluorescence and flow cytometry. The induced cells secreted insulin in a glucose-responsive manner, similar to normal pancreatic beta cells. Grafting BMNC-derived IPCs under kidney capsules of mice with streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetes alleviated hyperglycemia by lowering blood glucose levels, enhancing glucose tolerance, and improving glucose-stimulated insulin secretion. Insulin- and PDX1-expressing cells were observed in the IPC-bearing graft sections of nephrectomized mice. Therefore, this study provides a simple protocol for BMNC differentiation, which can be a novel approach for cell-based therapy in diabetes mellitus.