bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Charisma
Authors: Farley Jared A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Charisma was one of the three types of leadership authority described in German sociologist Max Weber's (1864–1920) influential work
Economy and Society
(1978). Charismatic authority is based upon the perception that an individual possesses extraordinary qualities, frequently embodying cherished cultural values. Charisma was originally a theological concept, which translated from New Testament Greek means “gifts of grace.” These gifts included the gifts of prophecy, healing, and speaking in tongues. For this reason, charisma should not be considered a normal or regularly occurring phenomenon. Despite this, the term is frequently stretched far beyond its original meaning, to describe any leader who can project a pleasing personality. In contrast to the modern tendency to define charisma exclusively as a personal characteristic, Weber recognized that without devoted followers to validate a leader's authority, charisma cannot exist.
Civic Culture
Authors: Templer Rachel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A political culture characterized by “a substantial consensus on the legitimacy of political institutions and the direction and content of public policy, a widespread tolerance of a plurality of interests and belief in their reconcilability, and a widespread sense of political competence and mutual trust in the citizenry” (Almond 1980: 4). Gabriel A. Almond and Sidney Verba gave the term “civic culture” this sense in their 1963 book of the same name, which sought to explain the stability of Anglo‐American democracy. Almond and Verba argued that democratic stability is correlated to a political culture in which participation is tempered by passivity, trust and deference to authority. They argued that the stability of a democracy with a political culture of this kind lies in the combination of participatory values with those of “subject” or passive, “parochial” or traditional political cultures.
Civil Liberties
Authors: Gallagher Maryann E. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Civil liberties are rights and freedoms that protect individuals from actions by the state. They are most often understood as negative rights, that is, preventing the state from acting (such as freedom of speech or freedom of assembly), although there are some that are considered positive rights, that is, obliging the state to act (such as the right to counsel). While civil liberties are not a defining feature of democratic regimes, they are at the heart of liberal democracies. The most common civil liberties can be classified as one of two types: the first being freedoms of thought and expression (including freedom of speech, freedom of the press, and freedom of religion), and the second being protections for those accused of crimes (including habeas corpus, due process of law, trial by jury, and protection against cruel and unusual punishment).
Civil Rights
Authors: Bugh Gary E. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Many Americans today associate civil rights with the civil rights movement – the mid‐twentieth‐century struggle by victims of historic discrimination for equal and free citizenship. Western philosophy has long regarded rights as a constituent element of citizenship. Aristotle in
Politics
defined citizens as members of a city who have the chance to both rule and be ruled. In
The Social Contract
(1987 [1762]: 141), Jean‐Jacques Rousseau asserted that “the social order is a sacred right which serves as a foundation for all other rights.” For Rousseau, citizens are both sovereigns and subjects: they develop laws through articulation of the general will and obey the laws that they have helped make. Theoretically, rights make citizen participation in collective self‐rule possible, which is why they encompass free speech, press, petition, and voting. In modern liberal societies like the USA, it is also common to classify property, contracts, and due process of law as rights.
Civil Society
Authors: DeLue Steven M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “civil society” has several uses. The first use points to a state that is committed to the rule of law, largely on behalf of protecting the freedom of each citizen. Embedded in this view is the idea of a state of nature, discussed by the writers of the social contract tradition. For Thomas Hobbes, the state of nature is a condition of constant war and his conception of the government is designed to end war and to create a condition of social peace, or what can be called a civil society in which the rule of law protects each person's liberty. Even for writers like John Locke and Jean‐Jacques Rousseau for whom the state of nature is – for different reasons – without war, people have a fundamental interest in moving from the state of nature to a civil society in which the rule of law preserves their freedom. Throughout these accounts – in transitioning from the state of nature to a civil society – citizens shift from a situation in which the rule of law is absent to a state‐protected lawful setting that secures freedom for citizens.
Cixous, Hélène (1937–)
Authors: Fotaki Marianna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Hélène Cixous (1937–) is one of the most celebrated and versatile feminist thinkers of our time. She combines philosophy, psychoanalysis, and literary criticism, and is a prolific playwright, poet, literary critic, essayist, and an inspired radical educator. Throughout this body of work she maintains an unwavering commitment to the political emancipation of women through transformation of their subjectivity and self‐expression. She is best known for her invention and propagation of a new way of writing from the body and her contribution to the feminist struggle for emancipation. However, Cixous’ political commitment extends to opposing all forms of repression of the mind and body and counteracting exclusion on the basis of identity. Her legacy in feminism, philosophy, literary criticism, creative writing, and literature is formidable.
Collingwood, Robin George (1889–1943)
Authors: Boucher David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
R. G. Collingwood was an English philosopher educated at Rugby School and University College, Oxford. Of immense learning, he achieved fame as a philosopher of history, aesthetics, and metaphysics. He was also the world's foremost authority on the Roman inscriptions in Britain. He was a Fellow of the British Academy, and Waynflete Professor of Metaphysical Philosophy at Oxford (1935–41).
Colonialism
Authors: Ciccariello‐Maher George 
Published: August 2023

AbstractApproaching the subject of colonialism from the perspective of political thought results in a peculiar chicken‐and‐egg problem. Western political thought and colonialism suffer a conceptual‐historical entanglement that makes their discussion together difficult and their discussion apart impossible. Much of what we know as political thought is deeply imbricated with, inspired by, or born of a struggle to comprehend the implications of the colonial encounter. Some political thinkers like Enrique Dussel would even argue that the most basic concepts of modern political thought – autonomy, individuality, sovereignty, and rationality – are themselves outgrowths of the unprecedented theoretical break prompted by the beginning of the modern colonial encounter in 1492.
Common Good
Authors: Etzioni Amitai 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The common good (alternatively called “the public interest” or “public goods”) denotes those goods that serve all members of a given community and its institutions, and, as such, includes both goods that serve no identifiable particular group, as well as those that serve members of generations not yet born. It is a normative concept with a long and contested history. Philosophers, theologians, lawyers, politicians, and the public have arrived at distinct understandings about what the common good entails, how it should be balanced against individual goods, and if and by whom it should be enforced. Though there are many critics of the notion of the common good (as will be discussed below), it has survived as a meaningful concept for well over two millennia, and continues to serve as a very significant organizing principle of civic and political life.
Concepts, Political
Authors: Norberg Jakob 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe expression “political concepts” refers to a set of concepts essential to any serious reflection on political life. This set includes authority, democracy, equality, freedom, justice, power, and further concepts that represent fundamental political values and principles. Indeed, dictionaries of political thought in no small part consist of entries on terms that signify such central concepts. However, political concepts are political in a double sense: they refer to some central idea or issue of great political relevance, but the meanings of these concepts are also topics of perpetual debate. Political concepts are thus not simply used to describe political life, but significant sites of political disagreement.
Confucius (551–479 BCE)
Authors: Yu Jiyuan 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThis entry discusses how Confucius himself sees what politics means and the contemporary bearings of his political thought. Confucius (551–479bce) was the founder of Confucianism and the most influential thinker in Chinese intellectual history. His given name is Qiu, cognomen Zhongni, and surname Kong. “Confucius” was the Latinization (by the first Jesuit missionaries to China) of Kongzi (literally, “Master Kong”).
Counterterrorism
Authors: Rigstad Mark 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The concept of counterterrorism typically designates any governmental or nongovernmental effort to detect, prevent, combat, punish, or mitigate any of the various phenomena conceived as falling under the deeply contested concept of terrorism. In the social scientific and theoretical literature there are by now hundreds of competing definitions of “terrorism” as a generalizable phenomenon (Schmid & Jongman 1988). Hence, theoretical discussions of terrorism typically begin by acknowledging the difficulty of trying to define something that commonly appears to be in the eye of the beholder, such that “one man's terrorist is another man's freedom fighter.”
Courage
Authors: Leibowitz Lisa 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWe begin by assuming that courage is a virtue: something we admire in others and hope to find in ourselves; something that our nation celebrates and for which it awards its highest honors. But the slightest reflection on courage leads us to problems. The willingness to risk life and limb that we usually associate with courage can be marshaled for wicked ends that harm individuals or whole communities. And even when it is marshaled for the noblest ends, courageous individuals are sometimes killed or maimed. Is it reasonable to call something a virtue if it may harm or destroy the one who possesses it or the community that fosters it? To be worthy of the name virtue, must courage not be both noble and good?
Covenant
Authors: Morgenstern Mira 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThere are scores of references to covenant (berith) throughout the Hebrew Bible. These instances range from agreements between individuals to treaties between nations to heavenly dicta/promises, where God makes agreements with human beings and with other groups; most often the Israelites. Because of the great range of circumstances leading to agreements designated by the word “covenant” in the Hebrew Bible, modern biblical scholarship has attempted to tease out the essence of this structure, resulting in a great range of approaches to what covenant really means.
Critical Race Theory
Authors: Stefancic Jean 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Like a number of other social movements, critical race theory (CRT) received its name after it was well underway. As with a fast moving river, strong tributaries had contributed to its force. Legal scholars of color at various law schools had begun to examine the deficiencies of law in crafting remedies for racial injustices, or even law's ability to recognize that such problems existed or fell under its provenance.
Death
Authors: Malpas Jeff 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAlthough death may appear as an important element in the Hobbesian account of the origins of political life, death itself is seldom, whether in Hobbes or elsewhere, the direct or explicit focus of political reflection. This is unfortunate, since death or mortality is surely a central concept in the understanding of human life, and it is the nature of human life that undoubtedly provides the underlying frame according to which politics, as a human activity, takes shape. Rather than consider only the idea or image of death as it may function politically (whether in motivating certain forms of politics or as it may be deployed as a tool of political action), the aim here is thus to examine how death should itself be understood – and so to engage in what is first anontologicalrather than overtlypoliticalinvestigation (although one that nevertheless has political relevance). For those who argue that ontology has no role in politics, this may be thought the wrong approach entirely. Yet when it comes to death, it seems that ontological or existential matters are impossible to avoid. If the only certainties in life are death and taxes, then it should also be remembered that while taxes may be evaded or avoided, nothing, not even the most subtle of political theories, will enable the evasion or avoidance of death.
Democratic Socialism
Authors: Bruce Douglass R. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe idea of democratic socialism presupposes a certain conception of democracy. It is a modern conception which differs in important respects from the ancient one. As anyone who has read Plato knows, democracy originally was a class affair, and it meant rule by the plebs. But in recent times it has lost those connotations and acquired a more inclusive character. In the battles over democratization that were fought in the days when socialist parties were being formed (the nineteenth century), there were still many who resisted giving up the older conception of democracy, to be sure. But the trend, in the more advanced countries at least, was for that way of thinking to be replaced by a more inclusive alternative. Democracy came to be understood in the manner that is common today – i.e., equal political rights foreveryone, but on terms that allow for free competition for power among all segments of the population that want to take part in public life.
Deontology
Authors: Rigstad Mark 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Deontology – literally the theory (
logos
) of duty (
deon
) – in political thought is standardly conceived as including any nonconsequentialist or nonteleological approach in political ethics or normative political theory. For deontological political theories, the
right
is said to be prior to the
good
. This priority may be taken in two senses, one conceptual and metaethical, and one practical and normative.
Dictatorship
Authors: Fatovic Clement 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Dictatorship refers to an extraordinary form of rule that operates outside the ordinary bounds of law. The original form of dictatorship was a constitutional office in Rome that conferred exceptional but temporary powers on an individual who was appointed to deal with a perceived threat to the survival of the republic. The ideal of Roman dictatorship has played an important role in the history of political thought by helping to establish the primacy of the executive in times of emergency. Republican political thinkers including Niccolò Machiavelli, Algernon Sidney, and Jean‐Jacques Rousseau have looked to Roman dictatorship as a constitutional expedient that obviates the need to resort to unconstitutional measures during an emergency. In the modern era, dictatorship has come to refer to almost any despotic or authoritarian form of government that exercises power with little or no regard for legal restrictions or civil liberties.
Diversity
Authors: Baumeister Andrea 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The concept of diversity plays a central role in both classical and contemporary liberal political thought. A diverse society is one in which there are different ethical and religious beliefs and different lifestyles. The liberal philosopher J. S. Mill regards such diversity as essential for social progress. Only if we are free to explore a diverse array of opinions and experiment with a variety of ways of life will we be able to advance human knowledge and find modes of living that will allow human beings to flourish to a greater extent. For Mill a diversity of opinions and ways of living is a byproduct of the exercise of individual autonomy, that is to say the capacity of individuals to think critically and independently and to pursue objectives that they themselves have chosen.
Du Bois, William Edward Burghardt (1868–1963)
Authors: Davari Arash 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWilliam Edward Burghardt Du Bois was born in Great Barrington, Massachusetts three years after the abolition of slavery in the USA. He died on August 27, 1963 in Accra, Ghana, one day before the historic March on Washington and less than one year before the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. The chronological trajectory of his life corresponded with the long civil rights era in US history. His political and intellectual work is a testament to the intimate relationship between his personal biography and the social setting within which his life took place. Du Bois self‐consciously wrote as an African American about a society whose fundamental political organization rested on the systematic exclusion of a people identified as racially different.
Durkheim, Émile (1858–1917)
Authors: Jones Susan Stedman 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDurkheim is known as the founder of the French school of sociology. He was born at Épinal in Lorraine, France and died – it is said of a broken heart – at the loss of his son and so many young students during World War I. His first academic position was at the University of Bordeaux where he taught for 15 years. While teaching courses for the agrégation in philosophy (Rousseau, Aristotle, Hobbes, Condorcet, and Montesquieu), he wrote major works on sociology, a course on socialism, and developed his thinking on education. In 1902 he moved to Paris, where he taught at the Sorbonne and École Normale Supérieure till his death in 1917.
Dynastic State
Authors: Osborne Toby 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The dynastic state reached its apogee in
ancien régime
Europe as the dominant state form, though republics persisted, such as Venice, alongside elective monarchies – the Holy Roman Empire (until 1806), the papal monarchy, and Poland‐Lithuania (until 1795). Princely regimes, underscored by hereditary principles, in turn generated distinctive political characteristics revolving around the foundations of dynastic rule, how successions were governed, the scope of a prince's power, and how such states interacted on the international stage.
Economic Theory of the State
Authors: Sened Itai , Watson Ron 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
As a concept, “the economic theory of the state” relates to at least three broad questions. The first concerns the emergence of the state. Historians and economic historians have long tried to unveil the origin of the state. Marxist or neo‐Marxist theories of the state, in contrast, ask how the state functions as a tool for the ruling class to protect and to advance its interests. Taking off from the insight that the structure of society affects economic performance, the third question concerns what role the state plays in this structure. We focus on this third question and survey three broad approaches to answering it: the laissez‐faire approach, the public goods approach, and the property rights approach.
Elite Theory
Authors: Edwards Jason 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In its broadest sense, elite theory is the idea that modern societies are governed by groups of people that can be referred to as “elites.” Such groups form a minority in society and the majority is excluded from political decision‐making. Most elite theorists deny that political power resides either with a unified “ruling class” defined in terms of its economic status, as in orthodox Marxism, or, as in pluralism with a plurality of competing interest groups. However, since the early twentieth century elite theory has appeared in a number of forms, some of which draw on ideas from Marxist and pluralist theories of power and the state. Some elite theorists have not only sought to explain elitism with reference to political, social, economic, and psychological factors, but have argued that some form of elite control of the state is necessary for civil peace, social stability, and economic development. Others, in contrast, have sought to demonstrate the nature of elite rule in order to criticize it and argue for more pluralistic or democratic forms of government.
Elshtain, Jean Bethke (1941–2013)
Authors: Daryl Charles J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractOne of the more ambidextrous and perceptive social commentators of our day, Jean Bethke Elshtain has offered social criticism during the last three decades that is politically astute, theologically informed, and ethically sensitive to the critical issues of our time. An Augustinian scholar who furnishes in ever fresh ways through her writings a bridge between ancient and modern, between politics and ethics, between moral principle and cultural particularity, Elshtain cares deeply about the common good. To read her seriously is to take the study of human society as well as the “permanent things” seriously. And to engage her is to engage a writer who is a genuine cultural polyglot.
Enlightenment, German
Authors: Church Jeffrey 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Enlightenment was an eighteenth‐century European movement that celebrated the sovereignty of human reason and the diffusion of philosophical and scientific knowledge. Its enemies were superstition, fanaticism, and religious strife, and the entrenched interests of theancien régime. Despite these general similarities, the “Enlightenment” developed and was understood quite differently in different European nations. This entry focuses on what is distinctive about Enlightenment in Germany.
Environmental Justice
Authors: Humphrey Mathew 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Environmental justice concerns the application of (some set of) principles of justice to our human surroundings, both natural and human‐made. However, what set of principles, how they are to be applied, and what range of objects is taken to constitute the “environment” are all contentious questions, and they make both the definition of “environmental justice,” and an account of what constitutes environmental
in
justice, complex. In particular there is a divide between two discourses. One, “environmental justice,” focuses on the distribution of environmental benefits and burdens amongst different human communities, and on the recognition and possibilities for political participation that these communities have. The other, on “ecological justice,” regards the human treatment of nonhuman nature, and the rights that (at least some elements of) nonhuman nature may have against human interference. Furthermore there is an environmental justice “movement” associated in particular with activists from working‐class communities and communities of color, as well as a more academic literature examining theories of environmental justice.