bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Reasoning with Uncertainty
Authors: Koralus Philipp 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter further extends the erotetic theory to represented graded uncertainty through what is termed equilibrium answerhood potential. This will allow us to use the mechanisms developed in the previous chapters to make sense of various fallacies of judgment under uncertainty, including base-rate neglect and other evidence fallacies. A refined notion of erotetic equilibrium will be shown to allow the erotetic reasoner to be probabilistically coherent and perform correct Bayesian updates. We finally consider what might enable Tetlock’s “Superforecasting” and how we might understand expert judgment as being often outside erotetic equilibrium.
Astronomy: The Human Quest for Understanding
Authors: Ostlie Dale A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This book is an introduction to how science operates in practice and what makes it so successful in uncovering nature's secrets. Given that the study of astronomy dates back thousands of years, it is the ideal subject for tracing the development of the physical sciences and how our evolving understanding of nature has influenced, and been influenced by, mathematics, philosophy, religion, geography, politics, and more. This historical approach also illustrates how wrong turns have been taken, and how the inherent self-correcting nature of science through constant verification and the falsifiability of truly scientific theories ultimately leads us back to a more productive path in our quest for understanding. This approach also points out why, as a broadly educated citizenry, students of all disciplines must understand how scientists arrive at conclusions, and how science and technology have become central features of modern society. In discussing this fascinating and beautiful universe of which we are a part, it is necessary to illustrate the fundamental role that mathematics plays in decoding nature's mysteries.
The Sun, Our Parent Star
Authors: Ostlie Dale A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The Sun, Our Parent Star explores the complex nature of the star that provides the light and heat necessary for our existence. First, the characteristics of the Sun and its atmosphere are studied. The atmosphere is structured in layers with the photosphere at the base out to the corona from which the solar wind flows. Observations of sunspots reveal the 22-year solar cycle. Studying the rotation of the Sun and the spectral lines associated with magnetic fields shows that the periodicity of solar activity is connected to the behavior of the Sun’s magnetic field, its differential rotation, and convection. Powering the Sun are the nuclear reactions that occur at its core. The energy produced is transported to the surface first through the radiative zone that occupies the inner 70% of the star, then through the convection zone to the surface. The top of the convection zone is visible as granulation.
Measuring the Stars
Authors: Ostlie Dale A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Measuring the Stars begins the reader’s journey toward understand that stars are far more interesting than simply being dots distributed throughout the night sky. Armed with our knowledge of gravitation, light, atoms, and the production of light spectra, patterns in stellar characteristics emerge. Because only select wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum can reach Earth’s surface, and because of the distances light must travel to reach us, tremendous effort has gone into constructing telescopes that can gather as much light as possible from wherever we must go to obtain it. With information about the spectra of stars, paired with their brightnesses and distances, relationships between temperature, luminosity, and radii reveal themselves. The analysis of binary star orbits provides additional information about stellar masses. With the development of the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, the stage was set for profound advances in our understanding of how stars work.
The End of a Stellar Life
Authors: Ostlie Dale A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The End of a Stellar Life considers the consequences of a star that expends all its available fuel. Stars less than about 9 solar masses will grow so large and become so luminous that their very extended atmospheres will gently blow off into space, temporarily forming beautiful planetary nebulas while leaving behind their burned-out nuclear cores. These Earth-sized cinders are known as white dwarfs. If a white dwarf happens to be in a binary star system, material from its companion could fall onto it, pushing its mass above the 1.4 solar mass Chandrasekhar limit, thus triggering a supernova explosion that destroys the star. For more massive stars, the nuclear reactions ultimately lead to collapsing cores and a different sort of supernova. What is left behind is either a bizarre, city-sized neutron star or, if the star’s original mass was large enough, a black hole.
The Once and Future Universe
Authors: Ostlie Dale A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The Once and Future Universe begins with the discovery that the universe is expanding. Not only are galaxy clusters and superclusters moving away from one another, but they are being carried apart by the expansion of spacetime caused by the Big Bang 13.8 billion years ago. The Big Bang theory, combined with cosmic inflation, describe the beginning of the universe, an idea confirmed by the discovery of the predicted 3 K microwave background. However, our models are handicapped by the lack of a complete theory of quantum gravity. Recent observations have demonstrated that not only is the universe expanding, but contrary to intuition it is accelerating, leading to the conclusion that spacetime includes some form of dark energy that science has yet to understand. Fittingly, the chapter and the textbook end with a look at how our universe might end.
Introduction
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The introduction discusses ‘spontaneity’ as both a post-Romantic and a religious concept—historicizing an idea that connects to Protestantism, but has also a range of global coordinates—while also exploring Caroline Levine’s extension of ‘form’ into the social world. The author explains their focus on, beyond effects of metanoia, self-correction, and splintered or splurting syntax, assonances that make sentences justle, a word borrowed from A. E. Housman’s poetry. Tracking hidden sonic durations, where impulses resistant to articulation (that, in Wallace Stevens’s phrase, ‘resist the intelligence | Almost successfully’) intuit their way, the author locates within prose rather than verse a dialectic of spontaneity and form. Sentences may bear the whole burden of a constructive wager that is at one and the same time the glimpse of a melody, the initiation of an idea, and an insistence to both the writer themselves and their reader of the value of what has arisen.
William Hazlitt’s Spontaneous Journalism
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The Romantic essayist William Hazlitt turns demands placed on him as a journalist into an aesthetic, which then migrates across the Atlantic. The connection between Protestantism and money behaviours is one that Hazlitt, living by his writing, could enact—limning it marvellously in his prose, should we read between the lines. An improvident man, beset by financial and other insecurities, he wrote avidly, torrentially. While a newspaper or magazine columnist may be pressed by deadlines to write ‘spontaneously’ in the second sense, they can’t be considered (like a poet, philosopher, or painter) to compose spontaneously in the first, because their writing is always occasional: prompted by a pre-existing event or text. Hazlitt realized he could raise journalism to the status of Romantic poetry by asserting the new, literary sense of spontaneity, suggestive of improvisatory, and therefore inspired, composition.
The Crisis Prose of Emerson and Whitman
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Emerson and Whitman, theorizing through Indian texts a suprapersonal oneness that would heal the United States, transplant a rhetoric from one war context (Krishna advising Arjuna at Kurukshetra, in the Bhagavad-Gita) to another. Analysing Emerson’s rhetoric of a pre-reflective spontaneity that doesn’t isolate the individual, but connects them with others—an idea he, Englishing the Sanskrit concept of paramatman, names the ‘over-soul’—the chapter then turns to Whitman’s late prose work Specimen Days. This assortment of diary-entries, jottings, and retrospective analyses loosely assembled, is really his wildest experiment with the poetics of improvisation, as a means of fusing diversities into unity. In it, the imagery of moonlight Michael Warner identifies in Whitman’s cluster of war verse, Drum-Taps, is extended to provide a cosmic perspective corresponding to that of Krishna in the Gita, and suggesting a purview in which the war itself appears an unavoidable and historically indispensable convulsion.
‘In some spontaneous way, so to speak’
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The Victorian Jesuit-poet Gerard Manley Hopkins esteemed sound and prosody. Yet he was also fascinated by the rhythms of prose, writing to his brother Everard on 5 November 1885 that ‘prose … has, at least possible to it, effects more beautiful than any verse can attain’. The nature-descriptions in his journals experiment relentlessly with the poetics of prose his letters assert piecemeal. There is evidence Hopkins edited these notebooks, nuancing an aesthetic of notation that, arising from the diaries of Romantic poets like Coleridge, was made irreversibly self-conscious within the published prose of his Victorian precursor, John Ruskin. Against a scientific, or scientistic, view of nature as a desacralized space, disintegrating into lifelessly untethered facts, Hopkins’s prose reveals an apparently spontaneous, self-shaping spirit alive in plants, stones, clouds, and water. His self-consciousness about his sentences illuminates the complex relationship prose had to Victorian habits of intellectual enquiry.
Herman Melville’s Heart and Billy Budd’s Overflowing Soup
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Melville’s creative inhabitancy of the space between two understandings of spontaneity combines a Protestant understanding of divine enthusiasm with the more secular inspiration of a Romantic poetics—in a strangely mistrustful, alienated way. This chapter tracks his metaphor of the economically appraisable heart through his letters and passages from Moby-Dick; moving to Billy Budd, which mentions spontaneity several times, I treat Billy’s spilling of soup across his enemy Claggart’s path as a literalization of Wordsworth’s poetics of spontaneous overflow, and indeed the relationship between these characters as a version of Melville’s mixed feelings towards the (that) Romantic poet. Billy Budd, more than any other text, dramatizes the conflict between spontaneity and form: naval rituals survive the protagonist’s spontaneity, but at the cost of his life. There are tensions that Melville’s plots, his characterization, and his sentences themselves either refuse to, or cannot, resolve—impulsivities shirking coordination either by the author or the critic.
The Aesthetics of Outburst
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Saul Bellow admires D. H. Lawrence for prioritizing a primordial vitality at odds with conventions. Both, feeling themselves outsiders—Bellow was Jewish-American, Lawrence the working-class son of a Nottinghamshire miner—brandished spontaneity as a counter-authority to existing, genteel, codes. Making space in their prose for the spontaneous, they write aggressively towards other subject positions—they can be racist, sexist, multifariously spiteful—refusing to suppress or censor or curate such blurting velocities as, they insist, retain an unpredictable truth content. This chapter concentrates on Lawrence’s Women in Love and Bellow’s Henderson the Rain King, novels bringing displaced perspectives to events close at hand. Women in Love is recognized as a novel of the Great War, despite Lawrence’s temporally nebulous peacetime setting; Henderson, the author suggests, takes its hero to an insufficiently imagined (Bellow had never been there) Africa as part of Bellow’s vexed dealings with Black people in the United States and their quest for civil rights.
Virginia Woolf, Marion Milner
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Spontaneity as a word and a concept is important to Virginia Woolf’s theorization both of the modernist novel and of modern female personhood. Her prose wishes often to float down the stream of consciousness as long as possible—treating the outside world as an aggressor. This is part of her discourse-initiating assertion that a woman gain her own time and space in which to think, an allowance requiring protection against the demands of others. The psychoanalyst and life-writer Marion Milner combines Woolf’s nuancing of female consciousness with British School object-relations psychoanalysis—to create a style of journal writing that rediscovers the Wordsworthian idea of a ‘wise passiveness’ by not deconstructing or subverting but by repurposing (transvaluing) gender stereotypes. For Milner, we mustn’t just re-learn—in war-darkened times—to trust our impulses, but more aconscientiously entrust our disquiets to ‘spontaneous ordering forces’ within that, if we let them, may shape experience into gladdened forms.
Reading Gwendolyn Brooks’s Maud Martha, in the Meantime
Authors: Ravinthiran Vidyan 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Gwendolyn Brooks’s Maud Martha is neglected twice over. First, it’s poet’s prose, whose theme, of Black womanhood in the mid-century United States, we assume Brooks treated best in verse. Second, the mode of resistance it suggests appears too internal, intellectual, passive—at a remove from structural change. Combining Fred Moten’s theories on Black improvisation with the racialized phonetics of Brent Hayes Edwards, I explore how in Brooks’s prose, networks of sound establish against myriad forms of circumscription and constriction a replenishing, yet never secure, surplus. This isn’t a simple opposition—of, say, Maud Martha’s spiritedness to the entrapping, grey, kitchenette building in which she lives—because she, and Brooks, also take from Whitman a metaphor of stonecutting and sculpture he uses to describe the poet creating new forms for his nation, and which Brooks racializes to depict the challenges faced by the Black artist who would create for her people new traditions permitting a liberated expressiveness.
The Insanity DefenceConflict and Reform in New Zealand
Authors: Brookbanks Warren 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Relative to other jurisdictions, New Zealand’s experience with the insanity defence is brief. A statutory defence was first enacted in 1893, and its substance has changed little. In its development it has adhered closely to a narrow cognitive test of capacity, exclusive of emotional or volitional elements, and regardless of recent neuropsychological insights. Statutory changes, including the adoption of a standard of knowledge of moral, as opposed to legal wrong, mark a more inclusive insanity formulation, despite the small annual numbers of cases where insanity is pleaded. The introduction of a novel procedure for determining insanity by agreement in the absence of a trial, introduced in 2003, today accounts for the vast majority of successful insanity pleas in New Zealand, eliminating the distress and conflict of experts often associated with insanity trials. Unresolved judicial opinion, however, still remains around whether the insanity test requires proof of total incapacity as opposed to subjective lack of knowledge of wrong, potentially exposing defendants to the requirement of a higher threshold of capacity than the law seems to demand. Any significant change to the formulation of the insanity defence has been rejected by the New Zealand Law Commission. However, the advent of widespread methamphetamine abuse and associated legal issues have challenged the workability of the defence, questioning whether it remains fit for purpose. In addition, questions raised by the Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities further challenge the appropriateness and viability of the defence and its conformity to international human rights norms.
Before and After Hinckley
Authors: Morse Stephen J 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter first considers the scope of the affirmative defence of legal insanity in the United States before John Hinckley was acquitted by reason of insanity in 1982 for attempting to assassinate President Reagan and others and the immediate aftermath of that acquittal. Since the middle of the 20th century, the tale is one of the rise and fall of the American Law Institute’s Model Penal Code test for legal insanity. The chapter then turns to the constitutional decisions of the United States Supreme Court concerning the status of legal insanity. Finally, it addresses the substantive and procedural changes that have occurred in the insanity defence since the wave of legal changes following the Hinckley decision.
And Was Made Man
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The doctrine of the incarnation—that God became human in Christ—is one of the most astonishing propositions ever advanced, and it is at the heart of the Christian faith. It is also a paradoxical one, in that it immediately faces the objection that, since the properties of humanity and divinity are incompatible, nothing can be both divine and human. Can the doctrine be defended against the charge of incoherence? This is the central question of this book. It is a question which has received intense attention in recent philosophy of religion, but the distinctively novel features of this book are twofold. First, it brings a range of debates in contemporary metaphysics—in particular, debates over identity, persistence, composition, embodiment, essence, mind, space, time, and necessity—to bear on the central question. Second, it defends a particularly wide-ranging version of the view of the incarnation known as the kenotic model, on which God the Son gave up, in an act of kenosis or self-emptying, certain divine characteristics in order to become human. There are certain properties traditionally ascribed to God, such as being independent of time, being disembodied, existing of necessity, and being the ground of goodness, which it apparently makes no sense to suppose could be given up: they are, it seems, held by God timelessly or eternally. This book proposes a development of the kenotic model in which kenosis could coherently be thought to apply even to these apparently unchangeable aspects of the divine.
Kenosis
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The fourth incarnational model, which will be the focus for the rest of the book, is the kenotic model. The development of kenoticism is briefly traced through four different variants, but the main concern is with those variants which posit a self-emptying in terms of a giving up of certain characteristic divine properties by the Son in order to become incarnate. Seven key objections to kenoticism which have been advanced by critics are presented and responded to, before a further challenge is posed: that a full kenosis would require a series of impossible transformations concerning presence, immateriality, goodness, and time. Whether the transformations in question are truly impossible is the subject of Part II (Chapters 5–8).
Divine Embodiment
Authors: Le Poidevin Robin 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
What is it for God the Son to become embodied? Does that require the Son to give up the divine property of omnipresence? What would it be to give up such a property? And does becoming embodied require the transformation of an immaterial being into a material one? If not, what explains the Son’s exclusive relation to the body of Christ? If so, how would such a transformation be possible? For isn’t an object’s being material or immaterial essential to that object? These questions are explored in the context of different accounts of omnipresence (in terms of occupation, identity, and power), space (relationist versus substantivalist), and embodiment (causal versus realization). The kenotic model is best placed to explain the Son’s embodiment.
Introduction
Authors: Schobert Harold 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Coal is in a time of great transition. Coal can, and has in the past, provide most of the underpinnings of a modern industrial society: heat, electricity, transportation, chemical products, and metals. However, its traditional uses are waning. Renewable energy forms are steadily dropping in cost. Environmental concerns are driving closures of mines and power plants. Some financial institutions will no longer invest in coal projects. For coal to have a viable future, it is time to rethink its uses and consider coal not as a fuel but as a source of chemicals and carbon materials.
Mining
Authors: Schobert Harold 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Coal needs to be removed from the ground to be used. Two strategies are available: underground mining or surface mining. Underground mining hazards include dust, gases, and water. Chronic dust inhalation leads to various debilitating conditions such as black lung disease. Some of the gases found in mines are suffocating, poisonous, or explosive. Acidic water drained from mines is an environmental problem. Surface mining can lead to environmental degradation unless appropriate reclamation regulations are followed. Despite the long history of environmental impacts, injuries, and deaths, coal mining is a fairly safe application when workplace health and safety rules and mined land reclamation laws are observed. Coal could be used without mining it by converting it to gaseous fuels underground or by extracting methane from coal seams.
Electricity
Authors: Schobert Harold 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Coals are important fuels for electricity generation. Their use is declining because of competition with natural gas and renewable energy, as well as concern for carbon dioxide emissions. Electricity is produced using steam turbines to turn a generator. Many fuels and combustion methods can be used to generate the steam. Coal-fired electricity generation usually relies on burning finely pulverized coal. The boilers contain large numbers of tubes through which steam passes. The amount of coal needed to generate a kilowatt of electric power is about half that needed a century ago. Fluidized-bed combustion provides an alternative to pulverized-coal firing. Combined-cycle plants burn natural gas in a gas turbine. The hot gases leaving the gas turbine are used to generate steam for a steam turbine. Both turbines operate generators, improving plant efficiency. Direct carbon fuel cells offer a simpler, “low-hardware” technology.
Environment
Authors: Schobert Harold 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Any strategy for using coal for electricity generation has potentially significant impacts on the environment if steps are not taken to minimize emissions. Acid rain results from emissions of sulfur and nitrogen oxides produced during combustion. Reducing the sulfur content of the coal before it is burned or capturing sulfur oxides before they can be released are both helpful steps. Tiny ash particles suspended in the flue gases are captured by electrostatic precipitators or in baghouses. The hazardous trace element mercury can be controlled by adsorbing mercury vapors on activated carbon. A coal-fired power plant has greatly reduced emissions compared to plants of even a few decades ago. Because the dominant element in all coals is carbon, coal-fired plants will continue to emit large quantities of carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide problem is the source of much of the pressure to reduce or eliminate the use of coal in electricity generation.