bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Zay
Authors: Meyer Ronny 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the linguistic features of the Zay language, which is endangered and exclusively used for oral communication. Zay uses nonlinear morphology with verbs but usually fully vocalized stems with nominals. Open word classes refer to verbs and nominals, while closed word classes are pronouns, relators and modifiers, and interjections. Zay syntax is characterized by an obligatory system of focus and clausal status marking that, in this form, is not found in other Ethiosemitic languages.
Linguistic diversity in Ethiopian languages
Authors: Meyer Ronny , Yigezu Moges 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter emphasizes that Ethiopia is a linguistically and culturally diverse country whose area and ethnolinguistic composition has varied over time. It describes Ethiopia’s historical ethnolinguistic composition and communication patterns, noting that many Ethiopian languages were first discovered in the period lasting from the end of the 19th to the middle of the 20th centuries. The chapter also highlights the first comprehensive investigation of ethnolinguistic diversity in Ethiopia including aspects of societal language use: the Survey of Language Use and Language Teaching in Eastern Africa in 1968–1971. Ultimately, this chapter examines how a language can function as either a native, second, or foreign language. It also studies the linguistic variation due to differences regarding social prestige or status, gender, age, occupation, etc. as well as the enduring and widespread bilingualism in Ethiopia.
Language endangerment in Ethiopia
Authors: Amha Azeb , Leyew Zelealem 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses language vitality and language loss and speakers’ attitude towards their language. It analyzes how the loss of little-known and under-studied languages creates gaps in our understanding of human language and cognition. The chapter examines social and scholarly efforts to curb language loss or at least keep proper documentation of the languages and cultures of minority groups for future generations. It engages with literature that deal with various types of extinct and endangered languages, and with criteria for assessing the status of endangered languages, and diverse risk-assessment factors. The chapter addresses language diversity and endangerment as reflected in Ethiopian national censuses. It recounts the inconsistencies in census results, with focus on the two most recent censuses (conducted in 1994 and 2007) because of their impact on current educational and language development efforts. The chapter illustrates how official language and educational policies affect language vitality, and it emphasizes on the need for curbing language endangerment.
Kafa
Authors: Theil Rolf 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter expounds on Kafa and its dialects: E-Dialects and A-Dialects. The segmental phonology of Kafa is referenced on Theil (2007), while the tonology is based on Taddese (2001). However, the description of morphology, syntax, and pragmatics is based on A-Dialects. Additionally, the orthography of Kafa is based on Roman writings or Fidel script. However, tones and gemination are not marked. Kafa’s major morphophonological processes range between gemination, tonal bridge effect, and absorption, while verbal derivations are determined through causative and medio-passive means. The chapter also notes invariable copula, inflective verb equative, and inflected locative verb as the three Kafa expressions of the term ‘be’.
Sheko
Authors: Hellenthal Anne-Christie 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the grammar of Sheko. Its phonology stands out through a series of retroflex sibilants and four levels of tone. After discussing word classes, derivation is treated, showing among others how the combination of causative and middle morphemes codes reciprocity. The discussion of the verb system comprises stem formation, aspectual and modal distinctions as well as stance marking. Sheko has a rich array of complex verb constructions, such as medial clause chains and different types of subordinate clauses. In relative clauses, a resumptive pronoun may occur before the antecedent. In interrogatives, elision occurs of grammatical morphemes which are required in declaratives, thus making subtractive morphology one of the ways in which questions are formed. The discussion of nominal morphology shows close relationships between gender, definiteness, and number. Some nominal marking also occur on verbal forms. Furthermore, several types of information structure and focus are distinguished based on the presence and absence of subject clitics and their exact position in main and medial clauses.
Language in the media
Authors: Wakjira Bedilu , Shiferaw Teshager 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes how the social foundation of literacy in Ethiopia is entrenched in religion. It underlines that the requirement for education emanated from the institutional interests of churches and mosques. Being literate was synonymous with being clerical, as books and other written materials were almost exclusively on religious matters. The chapter also outlines the start of the production of books and reading materials in Ethiopian languages in the 19th century. It discusses the introduction of newspapers in the late 19th century by Europeans who started to print brief newsletters with a focus mainly on religion but also on Amharic and Tigrinya grammar. Ultimately, this chapter peeks at how journalism and the readership of print media started to grow as a result of improvements in literacy. The chapter also analyzes the expansion of printing presses in Ethiopia and a major change in language policy.
Scripts and writing in Ethiopia
Authors: Meyer Ronny , Wakjira Bedilu 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a concise overview of scripts and writing practices in Ethiopia. It starts with an account of the evolution and modification of the Fidel script used for writing Geez and Amharic, then introduces major principles used for its adaption to write other Ethiopian languages. The chapter also highlights the earliest extant written testimonies in Ethiopia and Eritrea: Pseudo-Sabaic inscriptions from the 8th or 7th century bc written in a South Arabian script. It also mentions the first indigenous Ethiopic script—an abjad whose earliest remnants date to a period between the 1st and 3rd centuries ad. Ultimately, this chapter gives a very brief summary of other scripts in Ethiopia, and displays the current script choice for writing Ethiopian languages used in education.
Transcranial Stimulation and the Pain Experience
Authors: Fitzgibbon Bernadette , Schabrun Siobhan 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Transcranial stimulation describes non-invasive approaches to modulate activity within the underlying cortex, providing methods to probe and treat pain. These approaches have informed the pathophysiological underpinnings of acute and chronic pain and have been used to modulate the perception of pain in healthy individuals and clinical populations. However, the therapeutic application of transcranial stimulation for pain remains largely investigational. This chapter provides an overview of the current state of the evidence for transcranial stimulation in pain, focusing on transcranial magnetic and transcranial electrical stimulation, as well as newer approaches such as transcutaneous vagus nerve stimulation and transcranial focused ultrasound. Adjunctive treatment approaches, where transcranial stimulation is combined with other forms of therapy, are also discussed. Throughout the chapter, limitations and future directions for the field are presented.
Ethiopia and the Spanish Civil War Before and During World War II
Authors: Garretson Peter , McVeigh Stephen 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the impact of two “small wars,” in Ethiopia and Spain, that preceded World War II during the 1930s. Most importantly, they foreshadowed what was to come in the much more destructive total war of World War II. In both wars, the Italians and Germans used airplanes to bomb and strafe in a manner unseen in World War I. The role of the dictators—Mussolini, Hitler, and Franco—highlighted the weakness of the democratic leadership of the United Kingdom, France, and the United States, whose use of diplomacy, collective security, and the League of Nations was rendered ineffective. Interestingly, the weapons of mass destruction that Mussolini used in Ethiopia were not used in World War II, although the fear of their use was widespread. Both Mussolini and Hitler used these wars to train and prepare for wars to come.
Medicine and Disability
Authors: Kinder John M. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Medicine played a contradictory role in World War II and its aftermath. The development of new drugs and casualty evacuation techniques allowed military physicians to save the lives of millions of combatants. During the war, doctors introduced novel techniques for combating the effects of altitude sickness, malaria, and psychological trauma; at war’s end, they participated in government-sponsored efforts to rehabilitate millions of disabled veterans. However, physicians were by no means innocent bystanders. In the United States, doctors used their professional expertise to reinforce exclusionary doctrines of race and sexuality, while German and Japanese physicians carried out ghastly medical experiments on prisoners in the name of science. Ultimately, military medicine was deeply implicated in both the war’s immense violence and in the efforts to grapple with World War II’s postwar legacies of disability and trauma.
Eastern Europe in World War II
Authors: Cornelius Deborah S. , Grant Jonathan A. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
As Europe headed for war it became almost inevitable that the Eastern European countries of Poland, Romania, and Hungary would be drawn into the conflict. Germany had plans to harness the region economically and make it subservient to the Reich. Given that each of the Eastern European countries viewed the spread of communism from the Soviet Union as the most immediate threat, the central question became whether they would enter the German orbit as occupied countries, client states, or allies. Poland would first bear the brunt of Nazi and Soviet attack and occupation, whereas Romania and Hungary would gradually move into the German sphere of influence. This chapter addresses the respective roles of Poland, Romania, and Hungary in the war and their contributions to the war effort.
Ideological Origins of World War II
Authors: Tismaneanu Vladimir , Iacob Bogdan C. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The chapter explores the role played by the most influential revolutionary movements of the past century, Communism and Fascism, alongside Japanese ultra-nationalism in fueling the tumult of the interwar period that led to World War II. It highlights the conflict among colonialisms, as Britain and France tried to keep the world unchanged under the pressure from post-1933 Germany, Mussolini’s dreams of Mediterranean empire, and Japan’s anti-Western push for imperial and racial hegemony across East Asia. The analysis explains the historical, divine mission intrinsic to images of the upcoming war among revisionist powers—Germany, Italy, Japan, and the Soviet Union. These challengers of the status-quo mobilized contestation throughout the world that subverted domestic orders and international hierarchies. The war brought unprecedented radicalization—achieving the right form of modernity became a matter of life or death. Such realignment of the globe was, until 1989–1991, the legacy of World War II and of its ideological origins.
The Eastern Front, 1943–1945
Authors: Stone David R. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
After the summer 1943 failure of Nazi Germany’s Kursk offensive, the dynamic of the war on the Eastern Front changed fundamentally. Germany was no longer able to mount major offensives, but only minor and reactive attacks in response to Soviet overextension. The Soviet military, by contrast, enjoyed increasing advantages in manpower and material. In addition, the Red Army’s officer corps was increasingly professional, and Soviet ruler Joseph Stalin had come to trust their judgment. Although Soviet casualties always remained higher than German, the Soviet economy and population base sustained losses that Germany could ill-afford, particular as German allies were driven out of the war. In a series of major offensives—the pursuit after Kursk, the destruction of Germany’s Army Group Center in Belorussia, the winter 1944–1945 drive through Poland into Germany, and the final conquest of Berlin—the Red Army systematically annihilated Adolf Hitler’s army and finally his regime.
The Environmental Impact
Authors: Closmann Charles 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the environmental legacy of World War II and how scholars have approached this topic. Emphasizing the tangible consequences of this war, most scholars agree that World War II decisively transformed global ecosystems in complex ways. In particular, historians have identified the enormous devastation of rural landscapes and cities that occurred during the war. They have also generally agreed that the effects of marshalling natural resources for war, such as forests, have had more enduring effects on global environments than combat. Finally, this chapter points out some areas, such as the research on “militarized landscapes,” where less agreement exists. In the case of “militarized landscapes,” scholars have debated, among other things, the discourse surrounding habitat protection and species loss at former military training grounds, firing ranges, and other sites.
North Africa and Italy
Authors: Porch Douglas 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
From a global war perspective, the notion, current into the twentieth-first century, that the Mediterranean was an opportunistic and incremental theater of marginal strategic impact, that competed for resources with more strategically lucrative fronts, can no longer stand close scrutiny. Far from being lured into the Mediterranean to salvage Britain’s sputtering war effort there and reinforce Churchill’s imperial ambitions, the U.S. commitment reinforced Roosevelt’s “Europe first” strategy. It offered a place where the Western Allies could learn to fight at diminished risk and at a strategic advantage against overextended Axis forces. It seriously attrited Axis resources, and even provided the theater that unhinged the Axis. It became the venue for France’s return to the war on the Allied side. It bought time for Roosevelt to build up U.S. military might, and hence increase American influence in the postwar reconfiguration of Europe. For better or worse, the Mediterranean campaign initiated the political transformation of the region. The Mediterranean commitment was central to Roosevelt’s vision of building a stable, liberal, democratic postwar European order, one that avoided the risks and dangers of a premature engagement in Northern Europe. For their part, Axis leaders proved unable to formulate a similar comprehensive strategic vision for the Mediterranean.
The Battle of Britain
Authors: Stewart Andrew 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The summer of 1940 represents one of key moments of World War II. While it specifically centered on military operations in Europe, the ramifications of the German failure to defeat Britain would impact upon the eventual outcome of the global conflict. Having been ignominiously defeated during the May battles and with its military forced to flee from the Continent, the British people waited for an invading force to arrive. With a refusal to accept any political compromise, assembled alongside the remnants of the professional army that had been rescued from the beaches of France, was a vast citizen militia supported by an expeditionary force which had travelled from across the British Empire. The most visible element of the battle was fought in the skies but, on the ground, frantic preparations were made to defend the country. Ultimately, neither these plans nor the often poorly equipped forces that stood ready to fight were tested. Despite the narrative that was quick to emerge and has endured ever since, the outcome of any attempted invasion would actually have been very difficult to determine.
The Middle East during World War II
Authors: Güngör Hakan , Garretson Peter 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the impact of World War II on the four key countries of the Middle East (Egypt, Iraq, Iran, and Turkey), arguing that the roles of political, economic, and social change were just as important as the military. The war helped centralize and strengthen all four states. Politically, Britain intervened in Egypt and Iraq, while both the United States and Britain intervened in Iran. Britain also put great pressure on Turkey to declare war on Germany while the United States played a more subtle role that would eventually help lead to Turkey’s becoming a key ally during the Cold War. Economically, the Middle East Center played a key role in strengthening the economies of most all the countries in the Middle East, while raw materials were a key factor in Turkey and oil in Iran. The role of the military and of the Palestinian question are not extensively dealt with.
Western Religious Leaders, Communities, and Organizations Before and During World War II
Authors: Barnett Victoria J. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
“Religion”—in the form of tradition, religious communities and institutions, religious leadership, and international organizations—became a global force during the twentieth century and was a multifaceted and profound aspect of World War II. Colonialism, the rise of fascism and other ethno-nationalist movements in interwar Europe, church–state issues, and refugee issues were areas in which religious figures played a powerful role. By the 1920s, there was an international network of religious leaders and organizations, and a growing sense among European and North American religious leaders that they had a larger global and political responsibility. This chapter will examine the influences on western religious leaders, communities, and organizations in the early twentieth century and offer an analysis of how these historical factors shaped their responses in the era of “total war.”
The Axis Invasion of the Soviet Union, 1941–1943
Authors: Grant Jonathan A. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
`When Germany invaded the Soviet Union on June 22, 1941, a German victory was not impossible but the German expectation of defeating the USSR within six weeks was highly unrealistic and it grossly overestimated their logistical capabilities while underestimating Soviet capabilities. The scale of Soviet prisoners taken by the Germans in the pockets at Bialystok-Minsk and Smolensk made those battles seem like crushing victories, but the Germans had failed to strike the decisive blow. Although German mistakes played a role when accounting for the final victory of the Red Army, other factors cannot be ignored in understanding the resiliency of the USSR. From the very start, the Soviets mobilized for a long war. After recovering from surprise and suffering horrendous losses early in the war, the Soviets eventually held their own and earned their victory. Motivations of Stalinism and nationalism, combined with the German Army’s participation in war crimes, stiffened Soviet resistance.
The Air War
Authors: Johnson M. Houston 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the air war in Germany and Italy, including background conditions, the 1939 and 1940 battles on the Continent and the Battle of Britain, the Eastern Front, the Mediterranean theater, and strategic bombing and moral considerations thereof. It summarizes the technological, operational, and strategic considerations influencing all the major combatant air forces and describes how those factors shaped the air war in Europe. The chapter then examines major phases of the air war, from early German Blitzkrieg attacks to the combined bombing offensive’s role in establishing Allied air superiority over the continent. The chapter pays particular attention to strategic doctrine, focusing on the origins and effects of Allied strategic bombing efforts and ethical questions emerging from those actions. It also comments on how the air war shaped the larger conflict.
The “No Reasons” View
Authors: Smuts Aaron 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Although we can try to explain why we love, we can never justify our love. Love is neither based on reasons, nor is it responsive to reasons, nor can it be assessed for normative reasons. Love can be odd, unfortunate, fortuitous, or even sadly lacking, but it can never be appropriate or inappropriate. We may have a variety of reasons to act on our love, but we cannot justify our loving feelings. Shakespeare’s Bottom was right: “Reason and love keep little company together now-a-days.” Indeed, they keep none and they never kept any: there are no justifying reasons for love.
RETICULON-LIKE PROTEIN B2 is a proviral factor co-opted for the biogenesis of viral replication organelles in plants
Authors: Zhang Qianshen , Wen Zhiyan , Zhang Xin , She Jiajie , Wang Xiaoling , Gao Zongyu , Wang Ruiqi , Zhao Xiaofei , Su Zhen , Li Zhen , Li Dawei , Wang Xiaofeng , Zhang Yongliang 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Endomembrane remodeling to form a viral replication complex (VRC) is crucial for a virus to establish infection in a host. Although the composition and function of VRCs have been intensively studied, host factors involved in the assembly of VRCs for plant RNA viruses have not been fully explored. TurboID-based proximity labeling (PL) has emerged as a robust tool for probing molecular interactions in planta. However, few studies have employed the TurboID-based PL technique for investigating plant virus replication. Here, we used Beet black scorch virus (BBSV), an endoplasmic reticulum (ER)–replicating virus, as a model and systematically investigated the composition of BBSV VRCs in Nicotiana benthamiana by fusing the TurboID enzyme to viral replication protein p23. Among the 185 identified p23-proximal proteins, the reticulon family of proteins showed high reproducibility in the mass spectrometry data sets. We focused on RETICULON-LIKE PROTEIN B2 (RTNLB2) and demonstrated its proviral functions in BBSV replication. We showed that RTNLB2 binds to p23, induces ER membrane curvature, and constricts ER tubules to facilitate the assembly of BBSV VRCs. Our comprehensive proximal interactome analysis of BBSV VRCs provides a resource for understanding plant viral replication and offers additional insights into the formation of membrane scaffolds for viral RNA synthesis.