bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Ecofeminism
Authors: Hall Cheryl 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Ecofeminism refers to a political theory and practice inspired by both feminism and environmentalism. Ecofeminism starts with the fundamental insight that there are connections between the domination or devaluation of people categorized as “women” and the domination or devaluation of beings or objects categorized as “nature.” Its primary theoretical goal is to work out the precise nature of those connections, and its primary political goal is to make use of this analysis to help create more just, equitable, and ecologically balanced societies.
Egalitarianism
Authors: Ramsay Maureen 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEgalitarianism is a body of thought in political philosophy. At the most basic level egalitarians believe that people should be treated in the same way or as equals in some respect. However, equality is an essentially contested concept. There is no uncontroversial account of the meaning of equality or of how it should be implemented. On a narrow understanding of equality, the state should simply guarantee equal political and legal rights and secure equal opportunities. On broader understandings, the state should implement more substantive equality, though there are different views about exactly what should be equalized: resources, welfare, capabilities, or opportunities for welfare or advantage. Despite these differences, almost all modern western political theory, contemporary politics, and culture is underpinned by a belief in equality of some sort. The core idea underpinning these beliefs is that of the fundamental moral worth and dignity of all individuals, that each individual is worthy of equal concern and respect. With the exception of those who believe in hierarchies of class, caste, race, ethnicity, or gender and in preferential treatment for those groups, moral equality between people constitutes an “egalitarian plateau” for all contemporary political theory.
Emerson, Ralph Waldo (1803–82)
Authors: Mariotti Shannon L. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRalph Waldo Emerson was an essayist, journal‐keeper, lyceum lecturer, and founder of the American transcendentalist school of thought, an idiosyncratic combination of romanticism and transcendental idealism. Emerson is classified alongside American Renaissance writers of the nineteenth century such as Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Emily Dickinson, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman, as well as other literary figures localized in his adopted town of Concord, Massachusetts, such as Henry David Thoreau. Given how his 1837 speech “The American Scholar” issued what Oliver Wendell Holmes, Sr., called “America's Intellectual Declaration of Independence,” Emerson's influence has historically cast a long shadow. For better or worse, Emersonian transcendentalism became a defining category that other writers were seen as sympathizing with or reacting against and his work became the standard against which figures such as Thoreau, Melville, and Hawthorne were measured.
Enlightenment, French
Authors: Hamati‐Ataya Inanna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The French Enlightenment is best understood as a body of literature, ideas, and mores that became representative in eighteenth‐century France of a broader European age of self‐acclaimed intellectual and political emancipation. There is a general consensus among historians to date the beginning of this movement toward the end of King Louis XIV's reign, but some of its origins can be traced back to the beginning of the Renaissance period. The French Enlightenment did not produce a unified or dogmatic set of philosophical or political principles, despite its crucial role in transforming the French and European political culture. It is rather characterized by an “ethos” that is best illustrated by the social persona and ideas of the
philosophes
.
Epictetus (mid‐1st–2nd century ce)
Authors: Norris Andrew 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Epictetus is, with Seneca, one of the two most significant Stoical ethical philosophers whose work has survived in quantity. When Domitian banished the philosophers from Rome, Epictetus settled in western Greece and founded a school, the students of which apparently briefly included the Emperor Hadrian. Epictetus followed Socrates’ example and did not write, preferring to teach by example, his
Discourses
and
Enchiridion
(or “life manual”) being written by his pupil, Arrian. In his lectures, Epictetus maintains a commitment to the Stoic doctrine that the three divisions of philosophy (physics, logic, and ethics) are mutually reinforcing parts of a single philosophical system, but he emphasizes ethics in a way that earlier Stoics apparently did not, and provides one of the best‐preserved and most rigorous accounts of Stoical practical philosophy.
Eros
Authors: Laehn Thomas R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Erōs
, conventionally translated as “desire” or “sexual love,” is a Greek term, which acquired the status of a philosophical concept in Plato's middle dialogues. Plato's explication of
eros
as a distinctively human longing for that which is beautiful, especially in his
Symposium
and
Phaedrus
, allowed for the subsequent conceptualization of two additional, theoretically distinct, types of love:
philia
, or friendship love, in Aristotle's
Nicomachean Ethics
, and
agape
, or God's love, in the Pauline epistles. In the
Phaedrus
, Socrates defines
eros
as a species of divinely inspired madness that occurs whenever someone descries something beautiful in the world and has a remembrance of the “true,” heavenly beauty glimpsed by every human soul prior to its embodiment.
Eurocommunism
Authors: Zirakzadeh Cyrus Ernesto 
Published: August 2023

AbstractInEurocommunism and the State, communist‐party leader Santiago Carrillo articulated a novel revolutionary strategy that interested many Marxists in France, Italy, and Spain during the late 1970s and early 1980s. Other proponents of Eurocommunism included Enrico Berlinguer, Georges Marchais, and Fernando Claudín. According to the Eurocommunists, industrial capitalism in western Europe had arrived at a monopoly stage of evolution. In addition, liberal‐democratic constitutions – with established rights of contestation and with electoral systems of governmental accountability – enjoyed widespread legitimacy. These conditions meant that the Bolshevik strategy of armed revolution and a single‐party dictatorship would inevitably fail. Communists instead should form broad electoral coalitions.
Existentialism, Cultural Politics of
Authors: McBride William L. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSince the origin of the word “existentialism” was no single individual or book, any attempt to define it rigorously would be doomed to failure. But we can begin to delineate its contours by conceiving of it as a revolt against very formal, abstract philosophical thinking (“essentialism”) and toward a prioritizing of lived experience. The title of an early study of existentialism by a French scholar, Jean Wahl, well expresses this spirit:Vers le Concret(Toward the Concrete). For most if not all of those to whom the “existentialist” label has been given, ethical issues, the question of how to live, have been of enormous importance. And for most of them, though in very diverse ways, this practical focus has had important implications, not so much for politics in the narrow sense, but for what may be called cultural politics.
Falangism
Authors: Colás Alejandro 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Falangism is the political ideology associated to the Falange Española de las Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional‐Sindicalista (Spanish Phalanx of the Assemblies of the National‐Syndicalist Offensive, or FE de las JONS in the Spanish acronym), a political party founded in Madrid on February 11, 1934. It was a phenomenon fundamentally linked to Spanish politics from the interwar period to the Franco dictatorship (1939–75). In essence, Falangism represents an Iberian variant of classical European fascism, albeit one with pronounced national characteristics, including an emphasis on Catholicism as a source of sociopolitical order, a valorization of the country's imperial past in its celebration of a primordial Spanish nationalism, and a strong rural social base.
Feudalism
Authors: Miller Stephen 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term feudalism appeared in the seventeenth century. It derives from the Latinfeudumand its cognatefeodalitas, words meaning fiefs and the services tied to them, whose precise meaning varied during the Middle Ages. The writingsConstitutiones FeudorumandConsuetudines Feudorum, on property and service obligations, appeared before 1200 and subsequently were taught for legal training in universities. Scholars currently use the term feudalism to isolate and interpret aspects of the Middle Ages. Medieval people would not have understood the term or have had a conscious idea of their society and economy.
Firestone, Shulamith (1945–2012)
Authors: Randall Vicky 
Published: August 2023

AbstractShulamith Firestone wrote what must be seen in retrospect as the founding text of radical feminism, whose direct and indirect influence on the women's liberation movement can hardly be overstated. The daughter of orthodox Jewish parents, she became involved in new left politics while an art student in New York. Reacting to the crassly sexist treatment of women at a national conference in 1967 she helped to set up a succession of radical feminist groups including New York Radical Women and Redstockings, and editedNotes from the First Year,Notes from the Second Year, andNotes from the Third Yearof the movement.The Dialectic of Sex, published when she was only 25, was her attempt to provide a more systematic analysis of women's oppression and the way forward.
Flathman, Richard E. (1934–)
Authors: Mihic Sophia 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRichard Flathman, a theorist of the philosophy and politics of liberalism, was born in St. Paul Minnesota and is a graduate of Macalester College. He received his PhD in political science from the University of California, Berkeley, in 1962 under the supervision of Norman Jacobson. His teaching career began at Reed College, and he taught at the University of Chicago, the University of Washington, and Johns Hopkins University. Among his 11 books and three edited volumes,The Philosophy and Politics of Freedom(1987) won the David and Elaine Spitz Prize for best book in liberal and/or democratic theory,The Practice of Rightshas been reissued (2010 [1976]), and his influential study of the work of Thomas Hobbes (1993) was followed by a critical edition ofLeviathanedited with David Johnston (1997).
Foundationalism
Authors: K. Zuckerwise Lena 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Foundationalism is an epistemological approach to philosophy and political theory that relies upon incontestable principles, basic beliefs, and/or claims to truth. Often by way of appeals to nature or absolute fact, it is based on the idea that certain truths are not themselves derived from any prior value, but rather that contingent matters are derived from them. In the domain of philosophy, foundationalism is commonly associated with rationalism and empiricism. They use different methods to explain the finality of their conclusions, including deductive reasoning and observation (respectively). In the context of political theory, foundationalism or foundational arguments purport to provide a fixed and stable ground for politics, oftentimes for the sake of justifying the authority of particular kinds of political institutions. Ripstein calls such principles “unjustified justifiers” in his definition of foundationalism as adherence to a set of beliefs that are not themselves subject to the need for proof or explanation. That is, political arguments are based upon incontestable truths or principles that are not bound to any particular set of conditions or values. Equally importantly, there are many foundationalist political thinkers who claim that such basic beliefs are not necessarily formed outside of the world of human affairs, but are in fact constructed by humans themselves. It is thus quite misguided to assume that foundationalism necessarily involves recourse to the natural, transcendental, or any otherworldly domain.
Freud, Sigmund (1856–1939)
Authors: Ferguson Kennan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Sigmund Freud remains the most influential and controversial psychologist. While Freud's contributions to psychology are legion, his contributions to political theory are somewhat fewer. The most important of these arises from applications of his conceptualization and formalization of psychology to politics and results in the subdisciplinary approach known as political psychology.
Functionalism
Authors: Husa Jaakko 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Functionalism denotes the fulfilling of a function, a special kind of action that serves a certain purpose (e.g., blood circulation). In the social sciences, functionalism refers to both a theory and an approach which is closely related to its rival structuralism. Functionalism underlines the interdependence of the patterns and institutions of a society and their interaction in maintaining unity. Functionalism is quintessentially based on an idea of a system which divides functions of different components. Functionalism studies the interrelations of particular phenomena within a systemic framework (e.g., a political system). Generally, the functionalist approach concentrates on functional interactions and adaptations. Crucially, society is conceived as a systemic totality.
Game Theory
Authors: Johnson James 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe emergence of game theory can be dated to the publication in 1944 of John von Neumann and Oskar Morgenstern'sTheory of Games and Economic Behavior. This work set off a remarkable period of intellectual ferment. Most of the foundational technical advances in the field were made by the end of the 1960s. This has led some practitioners to worry that, at least in terms of internal development, “the well of game theory is relatively dry.” Yet such worries do little to deflate the enthusiasm of others who, surveying its usefulness for analyzing substantive matters, characterize game theory as perhaps “the greatest single advance of the social sciences in the twentieth century.”
Gender and Identity Politics
Authors: Naranch Laurie E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIdentity politics is a form of politics grounded in and organized by a shared identity that has been the target of unjust practices. Identity politics emerged in the second half of the twentieth century as a way of organizing political claims on behalf of oppressed social groups typically, but not exclusively, within liberal democracies. Such shared identity may be ethnic, racial, religious, sexual, organized around disabilities, or gender‐based. However, the claim that group identity is relevant to politics has spurred much anxiety and many criticisms about the political dangers of identity politics within nation‐states. Such dangers include charges of separatism or “balkanization,” intragroup policing of the “proper” or “authentic” identity at the cost of individual freedom, and reductions of identity politics to narrowly defined interests that hinder broader political movements. In philosophical terms identity politics has been criticized for restricting the flourishing of the self by focusing on a specific difference as “authentic,” and for reinforcing injurious identities rather than transforming their structural situation in a more fundamental way.
Guicciardini, Francesco (1483–1540)
Authors: Warner John M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFrancesco Guicciardini (1483–1540) was an Italian historian and statesman, a friend and sparring partner of Machiavelli's, a lifelong friend of the Medici, and one of the Renaissance era's most sophisticated republican theorists. Though praised by his contemporaries primarily for his histories – most especially hisHistory of Italy(Storia d'Italia) – he is best known today for his contribution to republican theory as expressed in hisObservations on Machiavelli's Discourses(Considerazioni intorno ai “Discorsi” del Machiavelli), hisCivil and Political Maxims and Reflections(Ricordi civili e politici), and hisDialog on Florentine Government(Dialogo del reggimento di Firenze).
Gutiérrez, Gustavo (1928–)
Authors: Romero Catalina 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Peruvian Catholic priest Gustavo Gutiérrez is known as the father of theology of liberation for his book
Teología de la Liberación: Perspectivas
(1971) (translated as
Theology of Liberation: Perspectives
, 1973) a reflection on God that arose at the end of the 1960s and now has a universal dimension recognized by the Catholic church. The preferential option for the poor is a central theme throughout Gutiérrez's work, where poverty and the poor get particular attention.
Heidegger, Martin (1889–1976)
Authors: Thiele Leslie Paul 
Published: August 2023

AbstractMartin Heidegger is one of the most original and important philosophers of the twentieth century. His work had major impacts on diverse fields, including psychology, theology, literary theory, aesthetics, and environmental studies while paving the way for the development of phenomenology, hermeneutics, poststructuralism, and deconstruction. Heidegger's students include many luminaries of political theory, such as Hannah Arendt, Hans‐Geog Gadamer, Karl Löwith, and Herbert Marcuse. In turn, his writings have exerted a formative influence on important thinkers from a wide range of academic fields, including Rudolf Bultmann, Ludwig Binswanger, Jacques Derrida, Michel Foucault, Emmanuel Levinas, Maurice Merleau‐Ponty, Paul Ricoeur, Richard Rorty, Jean‐Paul Sartre, and Paul Tillich. Heidegger remains a particularly controversial figure for political theorists on account of the ambiguous relation of his philosophy to politics and his membership in, and endorsement of, the National Socialist party and movement.
Heller, Agnes (1929–)
Authors: Tormey Simon 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAgnes Heller is a Hungarian philosopher and social critic who came to prominence as a member of György Lukács's Budapest School of humanist Marxism in the 1960s and 1970s. After her expulsion from Hungary in 1976, she lived in Australia and the United States producing a stream of works that traverse moral philosophy, politics, ethics, aesthetics, social criticism, and social theory. Since retirement from the New School for Social Research, she has re‐engaged with the politics of her native Hungary, where she mostly resides, continuing to defend humanist liberal values against the neonationalist mainstream.
Hubris
Authors: Marquez Xavier 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

In ancient Greek thought, the term
hubris
refers primarily to actions that dishonor or humiliate other people, rooted in dispositions toward excessive or domineering self‐assertion. Aristotle, for example, defined
hubris
as behavior that gratuitously and intentionally slights the honor of another person, shaming them publicly in order to get pleasure out of that humiliation. Similarly, writers from Homer to Plato understood
hubris
to be manifested in actions lacking in moderation and rooted in an inflated estimate of the honor due to oneself and an inadequate estimate of the honor and status of others, including the gods. The usage of the term in the speeches of the Athenian orators also reflects a concern with what we would today call “abusive” or “bullying” behavior, though neither of these terms fully captures the entire range of meaning of the Greek term.
Human Nature
Authors: McNamara Peter 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWhat is human nature? And what place does it have in political thought? These questions are still hotly contested. This entry's inquiry into human nature proceeds as follows. The discussion must be limited to a few influential attempts to come to terms with human nature and its role in political thought. First, this entry considers the classical liberal idea of human nature. Second, it reviews three major challenges (Aristotle, Hobbes, and Rousseau) to the classical liberal view. It highlights each thinker's understanding of human nature, his method for revealing human nature, and the way the understanding of human nature is utilized in his political thought. The final section deals with recent attempts to unify natural and social science on the assumption that biology can replace philosophy as the means for understanding human nature.
Hume, David (1711–76)
Authors: Danford John W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDavid Hume was an eighteenth‐century philosopher and the leading figure of the Scottish Enlightenment, that remarkable efflorescence of genius in a backward corner of Europe which had a profound influence on all European thought. Scottish Enlightenment thinkers, including Hume, Adam Smith, Adam Ferguson, Francis Hutcheson, and others, made important contributions to the disciplines of philosophy and history. They virtually invented political economy, ancestor of the modern discipline called economics. Although Hume is today studied mostly in philosophy departments, he was known to his contemporaries primarily as a historian and essayist, author of the six‐volumeHistory of England. Hume's writings were influential on the American founders, although Thomas Jefferson found what he called Hume's “toryism” so offensive that he sought to have Hume'sHistorybanned from the library at his University of Virginia.
Ideology
Authors: Eidlin Fred 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Ideologies in the most general sense are systems of ideas and beliefs that shape people's thoughts and behavior. The term ideology is used in many different ways. Some differing usages are entirely consistent, while others are controversial and contested. One species of usages refers to belief and belief systems in general. Another species refers to the concrete traditions of political philosophy for mass consumption that emerged and have evolved since the mid‐eighteenth century, such as liberalism, conservatism, nationalism, and socialism. The word
idéologie
(ideology) appeared at the time of the French Revolution. The Enlightenment
philosophe
Antoine Destutt de Tracy (1754–1836) coined the term as the name for his new “science of ideas.” Yet it was Karl Marx who gave “ideology” the sense that has evolved into modern usages of the word. For Destutt de Tracy, ideology was a science, a search for truth through the study of ideas. Marx transformed the meaning of the term into one quite opposite, ideology meaning false belief and distortion of reality. Since Marx, the meaning of ideology has evolved in different directions and the term has been used in many different senses.
Individualism
Authors: Zakaras Alex 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “individualism” is notoriously difficult to define, partly because it has been so widely applied. This entry treats individualism as a normative idea; it focuses, specifically, on the claim that the individual personoughtto be given priority, in some way, over the collective entity or agent. It delineates six different versions of this claim, each of which helped shape the development of political thought in the west, and briefly explores their conceptual and historical relationship to one another.
Interests
Authors: Mathiowetz Dean 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Interests are a central feature of modern political life. Their centrality is attested by the way in which people's motivations, their rights, and their other institutional prerogatives are so commonly articulated in terms of interest. Very broadly speaking, an interest is whatever is good for someone or something. Most often, in political discourse, interest is considered a practical good, in the sense of being related to concrete objectives and achievable through action.