bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prominence in Circassian
Authors: Gordon Matthew K. , Applebaum Ayla B. 
Published: April 2023

AbstractCircassian languages belong to the family of Northwest Caucasian languages, which are characterized by highly agglutinative verbal morphology and extensive use of clause-chaining constructions. Despite the morphological complexity and resulting long words found in Circassian, no evidence of rhythmic stress has been discovered thus far. Rather, morphological words typically map in one-to-one fashion to prosodic words, which are associated with a single demarcative stress at or near their right edge subject to certain exceptions attributed to stress-resistant morphemes. An exception to the isomorphism between grammatical and prosodic words is provided by a process involving fusion of multiple short morphological words into a single prosodic word. Stress and intonation support the existence of phrase-level prosodic units characterized by stress-linked pitch accents and boundary pitch movements.
The Emperor Caligula in the Ancient Sources
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley John C. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
There can be few historical figures who have made such a powerful impact on the popular imagination as the Roman emperor Caligula (died ad 41). Yet an accurate reconstruction of his life and reign largely eludes us. The problem lies not so much in the quantity of evidence available, but in its quality. For our information we are obliged to draw on ancient accounts that can be colourful and wonderfully entertaining but have a flexible notion of historical truth and often seem to border on fiction. The consequence is that there is hardly a detail that the modern historian can present without deep reservations about its reliability. This book approaches Caligula by presenting the reader with the raw material of the ancient sources. It provides over three hundred translated passages of texts, taken mainly from ancient writers, but also from coins and inscriptions. The translations are accompanied by extensive introductions and notes. These are tailored to the non-specialist, and intended to help such readers navigate material that is often contradictory, often downright incredible, and also place events and institutions in their historical contexts. The colourful and exotic incidents are still there, but presented in a context that will help the reader gain a more sophisticated understanding of how we try to reconstruct events of the past. This approach allows the reader to tackle head on the stark reality that what we read in our sources is not necessarily the truth.
Family and Childhood
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Caligula was born in Antium in ad 12. At some point he joined his father Germanicus, military commander of the legions in the Rhine military zones. His mother was Agrippina the Elder, granddaughter of Augustus. When Augustus died in ad 14 mutinies broke out among the Rhine legions and Caligula and his mother were briefly seized. After suppressing the mutinies Germanicus carried out campaigns in Germany then was recalled and celebrated a Triumph in Rome, in which Caligula participated. Germanicus was then despatched to Syria. Caligula was the only one of his five children to accompany his parents to Syria. In ad 18 Germanicus died in Antioch and Caligula returned to Rome with his mother and recently born sister.
Young Caligula
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
On returning to Rome, Caligula’s mother Agrippina and his two elder brothers, Nero and Drusus, were the targets of an intense campaign by the notorious prefect of the Praetorian guard Sejanus. His mother and brothers were implicated in some sort of plot and eventually all died in custody. Caligula first went to live with his great-grandmother, Livia, the widow of Augustus, in ad 27. On her death in ad 29 he joined another great-grandmother, the much admired Antonia the Younger, and then in ad 31 was summoned to join Tiberius, who had earlier left Rome permanently to live mainly on the island of Capri. There Caligula was readied for a public career and married his first wife, Junia Claudia, who died soon after. He also became acquainted with two significant figures, Herod Agrippa, the colourful grandson of Herod the Great, and Macro, commander of the Praetorian guard, who had played a key role in the downfall of Sejanus in ad 31. Tiberius died in ad 37. The sources claim that he was very frail and was finished off by Caligula and/or Macro.
The Public Caligula
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Caligula had a cruel streak which manifested itself in the way that he enjoyed humiliating others, and in his apparent bouts of sadism and random cruelty, although much of the latter may be attributed to his portrayal as a stereotypical tyrant. He is depicted in the sources as wildly extravagant, although it seems that his successor Claudius found the treasury in a healthy state. He abolished the sales tax in Italy, but instituted some new taxes, such as one on prostitution, and reputedly raised revenues by running a brothel in the imperial residence on the Palatine. Of all the signs of erratic, even mad, behaviour, his supposed claims of divinity must stand supreme. Although he behaved moderately in the religious sphere at the outset, by the end he supposedly demanded to be recognized as a god. He seems to have incorporated the famous uncompleted Temple of Apollo at Didyma in Miletus into his own worship. Most remarkably he seems to have demanded worship in the city of Rome itself, which was totally contrary to precedent, and which may be a confusion with a demand that his inner spirit, his genius, be worshipped.
Assassination
Authors: Barrett Anthony A. , Yardley J. C. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
By late ad 40 tensions between emperor and senate became severe. A number of prominent Romans were put to death, presumably for conspiracy. The background to the plot that brought an end to the reign is very murky. Several prominent names figure in the narrative, men of the stature of Annius Vinicianus and Valerius Asiaticus, politicians, Marcus Clemens, a commander of the Praetorian guard, and Callistus, probably the most powerful of Caligula’s freedmen, but their actual roles are unclear. The fatal blows were struck in an underground passage of the Palatine during a festival there in late January 41, as Caligula was retiring for lunch, by two tribunes of the Praetorian guard, Cassius Chaerea and Cornelius Sabinus. In the chaos that followed the assassination Claudius was discovered in part of the imperial residence by members of the Praetorian guard, taken to the Praetorian camp, and acclaimed as emperor.
Scheduled Castes in the Indian Labour Market
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S , Vani B P 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This study develops an insight into the discriminatory workings of the labour market and their unequal outcomes with respect to employment, wages, and occupations and their impact on the poverty of untouchable (Scheduled Caste) wage workers in India. It develops an understanding on the persistence of caste inequality in employment, wages, and occupations between the untouchables and the higher castes in the private and public sectors in India. It identifies the causes of high unemployment and low wages of the untouchable workers and their segregation in low-paid occupations. It then goes on to estimate the extent to which caste discrimination results in low employment and wages and engagement of untouchable workers into low-paid occupations. In the end, it provides convincing empirical evidence on the employment discrimination and wage discrimination and its impact on reduced wage incomes and increased poverty of the untouchable wage workers. Estimation of discrimination in employment, unemployment, and occupation and its impact on income and poverty of the untouchables is a net addition to the existing knowledge on the subject.
Caste and Unequal Labour Market Outcomes
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter lays the foundation towards the issues related to caste inequality which have largely remained unexplored. An economic dimension of the caste system in some detail is dealt as a preliminary ground to explain how discrimination in employment, wages, and occupation are an integral part of caste economic relations. The chapter also presents the justification for the study on the theme of employment discrimination and its impact on income and poverty of untouchables (Scheduled Caste), after closely reviewing the literature on the subject. This chapter identifies the issues for further analysis, and lays down the specific objectives of the study.
Employment and Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses the employment pattern of regular salaried workers of the scheduled castes and higher castes in India and the states, based on the employment unemployment survey pertaining to years 2004–05 and 2017–18. This chapter also studies the differences between the scheduled castes and higher castes, the Labour Force Participation Rate, work participation rate, employment by industry and occupation and by age and education. It also examines the job and social security and extent of informal and formal workers among the scheduled castes and higher castes. It brings out the all-employment indicators between the scheduled castes and higher castes.
Employment Discrimination and Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the empirical evidence on the extent of employment discrimination faced by the scheduled caste workers during 2004–05 and 2017–18 in public and private sectors. More specifically this chapter addresses the question ‘to what extent the low participation of the SC in regular salaried jobs, particularly in the private sector, is due to differences between them and the higher castes in endowment factors like education? And to what extent the differences are due to caste discrimination in hiring?’ Empirical evidence showed that the low probability of employment for the scheduled castes as compared to the higher castes is significantly due to caste discrimination in hiring.
Wage and Occupational Discrimination against Untouchables
Authors: Thorat Sukhadeo , Madheswaran S. , Vani B.P. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
9.1This chapter addresses the discrimination faced by the scheduled castes in wage earning in the public and private sector. It estimated the earning functions by social groups across the entire wage distribution using quantile regression and also analyses the changes in the contribution of individual characteristics over time. Empirical results indicate that the wage gap between scheduled castes and higher castes is high at a lower level of distribution than at the upper level in public sector and the opposite for private sector. The chapter also estimates the impact of occupation segregation on wage earning between the scheduled castes and higher castes by decomposing the discrimination component further into wage discrimination and job discrimination component, using expanded decomposition method.
The Decline and Fall of an Olivarista
Authors: Weber Samuel 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter chronicles the downfall of Giovanni Borromeo. After serving as commissioner-general of the army for almost a decade, Borromeo requested promotion and admission to the Order of the Golden Fleece. In this, he followed the logic that had promised social advancement in return for loyal service to the valido. But ordinary people had long pointed out the contradiction between the Borromeos’ quest for upward social mobility and their claim to defend the public good. The oligarchy who took over from the last minister-favorite in the 1650s adopted these arguments to eject Borromeo. The chapter uses Giovanni’s fall to discuss how shifting priorities among the ruling elite could make experience accumulated under different premises worthless almost overnight. It is shown that the constant revalorization of capital forced the nobility to constantly adapt to new circumstances. The chapter closes by foreshadowing the alternative strategy the Borromeos hatched in response to Giovanni’s rout.
Analysing Accountability
Authors: Torrance Andrew B. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter offers a closer analysis of the concept of accountability, as defined in Chapter 1, and examines four key conditions or features of accountability: (1) accountability requires a relationship in which one party has the authority to judge an aspect(s) of who the other is according to a shared project; (2) accountability requires an account of the accountable person to be communicated and accurately interpreted by the person to whom they are accountable; (3) accountability is teleological; and (4) there is an order to relationships of accountability. Like Chapter 1, this chapter seeks to think more broadly about how our concept of accountability can be applied in a wider societal context, outside an explicitly theological domain.
The Way Forward for India
Authors: Seshadri V. S. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This concluding chapter looks at the way ahead for India. The chapter examines whether India needs to pursue further FTAs at all considering the general impression that the past FTAs have benefitted partner countries far more. It seeks to better understand the impact assessments from earlier FTAs alongside the compelling factors that require India to enhance its market access opportunities by negotiating more FTAs but with well-chosen FTA partners. How India’s past FTAs could have been negotiated better has been dwelt upon. In this regard the fresh impetus being accorded by the government in forging FTAs with select partners has been analysed along with key elements in the recently concluded FTA with the UAE and the interim FTA deal reached with Australia that are also indicative of certain newer approaches. The chapter further identifies key aspects that may need to be kept in view in taking forward ongoing or future negotiations with other partners. Also focused on in this chapter is a fivefold plan on monitoring and implementation of FTAs once they are concluded.
Inquiring Minds
Authors: Toon Adam 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter develops a fictionalist approach to the nature of knowledge and inquiry (or epistemology). Many of our greatest thinkers about knowledge—such as Descartes, Locke, Berkeley, and Hume—have accepted the basic vision of the mind as an inner world of representations (representationalism). Their disagreements concern the inhabitants of this inner world and its relationship to the world outside—if, indeed, there is a world outside the mind. This chapter sketches an alternative, fictionalist approach to the nature of concepts, knowledge, and understanding. An important implication of this approach is that the mind has a history. From mathematical diagrams in ancient Greece to the invention of computer simulations, new tools and practices have dramatically transformed the nature of the human mind and its limits.
Why Were There Almost No Matriculation Registers in Late Medieval European Universities—Except in Those of the German Empire?
Authors: Schwinges Rainer Christoph 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter looks into the lack of general matriculation registers in late medieval European universities, with the exception of the German Empire. It discusses how the register represented the entire catchment area of the university. The external reasons for the lack of a general register revolve around migration and the diversity of European university systems, as can be seen in the universities in Paris, Bologna, and Germany. The internal reasons include the fiscal and legal interests of the university, which translates to the special significance of the enrolment oath in German universities. The chapter highlights the importance of considering the different social and cultural traditions across the universities in Europe.
Peregrine Horden (ed.), The reredos of All Souls College Oxford (London, 2021)
Authors: Curthoys Judith 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews The Reredos of All Souls College Oxford written by Peregrine Horden. It notes the fluctuating physical, social, and religious importance of All Souls College Oxford’s medieval constructions. The history of the reredos of the chapel of All Souls College reflects the history of worship from the fifteenth to the nineteenth century. The chapter provides an outline of the book, which considers the probing, making, breaking, covering, and restoring of the medieval construction, with different aspects of the reredos influenced by religious and political factors. It also questions the examples of the religious intolerance at the east end of the chapel.
Introduction
Authors: North John 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter gives an overview of the development of ideas and central themes of Roman Religion. It briefly explains the context of gods and goddesses, war-rituals, priests, and communication and innovations to the understanding of religion. Rituals play significant roles in the picture of religion and religious life as it is strongly correlated with the activity of various groups. The chapter clarifies that Romans had rituals but no beliefs, so having beliefs similar to modern Christians are absurd exaggerations of their real positions. Moreover, any attempt to model ancient pagan religious behaviour on modern Christian religious behaviour mostly leads to confusion as both concepts are vastly different from one another. The chapter also considers the tension and debates between religion, belief, and media of communication.
Religion and War
Authors: Rüpke Jörg 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the correlation between religion, war, and political systems. It starts with the significance of war at a political level as it could be presented as a means to resolve or escalate the conflict. The concept of ‘Holy War’ denotes the identification of political and religious systems in particular ways limited to war and religion. The boundaries between religions are frequently overlaid with social economic and ethnic fault lines as they are the results of subjugations or stratification, while War on Religion suggested a predominance of religious motives over interests of power politics or economics. The chapter references the Islamic concept of jihad as an example of religiously motivated wars. It also explains how a city filled with arches and temples of triumphant generals would have shaped the definition of being Roman and differences in linguistic, regional, or any type of ethnic identity.
Festus and the Role of Women in Roman Religion
Authors: Flemming Rebecca 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The chapter highlights the role of women in Roman religion. It explains how Roman women are characterized by a series of religious incapacities and disabilities that forced them to be at the edges of Roman religious practices. Women’s subordination and sacrificial incapacity constructed an image of what threatened male citizens at the boundaries of the Roman order. Moreover, the ritual help manage the aforementioned threat and maintain order. The chapter also looks into the works of Festus, including his definition of peregrina sacra, which are cults that settled in Rome through evocatio or religious considerations. It clarifies that the Roman constitution can place women in positions of religious power.
Social Comparison and Competition: General Frameworks, Focused Models, and Emerging Phenomena
Authors: Garcia Stephen M. , Tor Avishalom 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Scholarship in psychology and related fields has been paying increasing attention in recent decades to the ways in which social comparison processes facilitate competitive attitudes, feelings, and behavior. As part of this development, we first advanced the Social Comparison Model of Competition (Garcia et al., 2013)—a general framework that accounted for the role of both individual and situational factors in this area—and later followed it with the more comprehensive Social Comparison Cycle of Competition (Garcia, Reese, et al., 2020). At the same time, researchers have also proposed a number of focused models to account for specific competitive relationships (e.g., rivalry), contexts (e.g., coaction), and more. In light of these important developments, this chapter briefly reviews the key takeaways from our general frameworks of social comparison and competition, demonstrates the insights offered by recognizing how more specific models fit into general frameworks, and illustrates the continued utility of these general frameworks for the study of emerging phenomena, such as social networks or sustainability, from the perspective of social comparison and competition.
Folk Art Reassessed
Authors: Urdea Alexandra , Buchczyk Magdalena 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter critically reassesses Romanian collections of “folk art” or “folklore” through the the lens of material culture studies. While it is conventional to think about rural artifacts as indicators of regional ethnographic zones, scholars of rural objects in Romania rarely reflect on the social role of these collections. Against this background, the chapter recognizes that such objects are constantly produced, acquired, displayed, and deployed to mark a range of complex practices of representation and identity formation in heritage and vernacular contexts. Based on anthropological research in the settings identified as sources for folk art objects, it demonstrates that a material culture approach offers a unique perspective on the variety of normative categories and meanings of the artifacts depending on their historical context and changing social and political uses. It is proposed that ethnographic studies of rural objects can open novel research possibilities and reveal the situated, social, historical, and political relations in which the things are entangled.
Dating Rock Art
Authors: Green Helen , Finch Damien , Gleadow Andrew , Fülöp Réka-H. , Jacobs Zenobia 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
To understand the spatial history of rock art and the cognitive evolution of our species, we must obtain accurate and reliable dates from rock art across the globe. However, in most environments, the oldest styles of art are particularly difficult to date, requiring new approaches and the adaptation of existing methodologies. The Kimberley region of northwest Australia hosts one of the richest collections of Indigenous rock art in the world. In this setting, researchers face several challenges when applying dating techniques, with pigments often lacking organic material, and art commonly found in exposed, sandstone shelters. Despite these difficulties, recent advances in Australian rock art research have dated a kangaroo motif to around 17,300 years old, indicating that representational motifs were being made in the Kimberley region by the end of the Last Glacial Maximum. Here, several dating techniques are examined in the context of adaptations and advances in the methodologies applied to rock art dating in the Kimberley region. The common limitations, criticisms, and future directions for each technique are also identified and are relevant to researchers working in similar environments across the globe.