bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Water Security and Green Growth
Authors: Brears Robert C. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The concept of water security has transitioned over time from being used to express a general vision to it being used to explicitly state the goals we wish to achieve with better management, such as protecting water quality, ensuring equitable access, and protecting environmental flows for instance. Furthermore, multilateral agencies and national governments are calling for the development of the green economy. Water security and green growth are inextricably linked as water touches every aspect of society and the environment. As such, innovative thinking and effective solutions are required to enhance synergies between water security and green growth. This chapter will first provide an overview of the concept of water security before discussing it in the context of green growth. Finally, the chapter will review the various climatic and non-climatic challenges to achieving water security and green growth.
Green Bonds, Environmental Impact Bonds, and Green Loans Financing Water Security and Green Growth
Authors: Brears Robert C. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Corporate and governmental organizations use bonds to borrow money from the market. Various debt instruments are available to implement and mainstream water security and green growth projects at various scales and in different contexts, including green bonds, environmental impact bonds (EIB), and green loans. This chapter will first review the differences between green bonds and regular bonds. The chapter will then discuss how EIBs are a form of debt characterized by a pay for success component that determines the amount that investors are repaid based on environmental performance. Finally, the chapter will discuss how green loans support various green projects, including those focusing on achieving water security and green growth.
Debt-for-Nature Swaps Financing Water Security and Green Growth
Authors: Brears Robert C. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Many developing countries have large international debts, and debt servicing absorbs a significant proportion of total budget expenditure. The large scale of the debt contributes significantly to environmental degradation and the deterioration of the natural resource base. Furthermore, post-COVID-19 economic recovery costs could deplete the financial resources needed to address environmental degradation. As such, there are growing calls for the scaling-up of debt-for-nature (DFN) swaps to ensure the economic recovery benefits the environment and its ecosystems, including implementing water security and green growth initiatives. This chapter will first discuss the concept of DFN swaps before discussing how they can be operationalized and administered. The chapter will then provide an overview of best practices for DFN swaps. Finally, the chapter will provide case studies of DFN swaps implemented to achieve water security and green growth.
Protection by military force in UN peace operations
Authors: Kjeksrud Stian 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the evolving role of military forces as protectors of civilian populations under threat of physical violence in armed conflict, highlights knowledge gaps, demonstrates how this book bridges some of these gaps, defines and unpacks United Nations (UN) military protection operations, explains the importance of understanding perpetrators of violence to tailor effective military protection operations, and argues for why we should care about what UN troops do to protect civilians. While protection of civilians is a key task during military operations, most militaries still link protection to International Humanitarian Law (IHL), imploring them to avoid unlawful and unnecessary harm to civilians during operations. While IHL still provides the most important rules for the conduct of military operations to avoid harm to civilians, the UN has expanded its understanding of protection significantly over the past two decades. Today, the UN asks Blue Helmets to deter, coerce, and even destroy armed groups that deliberately kill, maim, rape, and displace civilians as part of their warfare. This is a new task for all militaries, demanding new insights on when to do what, including on when the use of force to protect can lead to increased harm to civilians. This introductory chapter indicates how the book provides new insights and to what effect on the study and practice of UN peace operations and beyond.
Analyzing empirical patterns of UN military protection operations
Authors: Kjeksrud Stian 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyzes potential causal steppingstones to explain successful protection outcomes across time and UN missions with the help of basic statistical analysis of categorical data derived from UNPOCO, before employing cross-tabulations, Chi-square tests, and multivariate linear probability analysis. The aim is to search for statistically significant relationships between causal condition candidates and variations in outcome, that may point in the direction of more consistent explanations of “what works” when force is employed to protect civilians from violence. While statistical analysis may seem far removed from the complexities of protection crises in real life, systematic investigations of the best available data is the only viable way forward to start building generalizable explanations to inform what to do in different situations, from a military perspective.
Overwhelmed by the White Army
Authors: Kjeksrud Stian 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores an apparent failure to protect civilians from violence, the 2011–2012 UNMISS operations in Jonglei to reduce the threat to the Murle communities from the Lou Nuer White Army. This case is the most violent captured in the UNPOCO dataset, with up to 900 civilians killed within a few weeks. Although few civilians were protected from physical violence once the White Army’s attacks commenced, the UN mission probably saved thousands of lived through civilian early warning mechanisms before violence materialized. However, the case also underlines the need to better understand the perpetrators of violence, as the tit-for-tat dynamics led to violent counterattacks against Nuer communities by small Murle militias, significantly increasing the overall death-toll.
Domesticating the Land
Authors: Cunliffe Barry 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
A sharp sudden change of climate around 6200 BC triggered a series of changes. For many, in North Africa and the Levant life became harder, forcing them to develop new food-producing strategies. It was soon after this that domesticated animals and cultivated crops, developed in the Near East, spread to the North African coastal zone and to the Nile Valley, eventually reaching Ethiopia. Cultivated wheat and barley could only grow in selected environments but cattle sheep and goats were more tolerant and spread much further into Africa. Near Eastern farming spread by two routes, one by land to the Nile Delta and thence along the coast and down the Nile, the other by sea, via the Mediterranean, to Morocco. A little later, in the wide band of the Sahel, communities began to cultivate native crops such as pearl millet, African rice and sorgum. The re-establishment of humid conditions – the Holocene Humid Period – allowed communities to settle again in the Sahara, relying now on a pastoral way of life but by 3000 BC desertification was underway once more driving the population out. At about this time a rise in population in the constricted, but extremely fertile, Nile Valley led to the development of more complex societies of which the most advanced was Pharaonic Egypt.
The Impact of Empire
Authors: Cunliffe Barry 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The destruction of Carthage by Rome in 146 BC marked the beginning of the Roman domination of North Africa. By 30 BC, when Rome acquire Egypt, the whole of North Africa was under direct Roman control apart from Mauritania which was ruled by a client king. The desert fringes of the newly acquired territories were explored and an expedition was sent to trace the source of the Nile but soon, having reached an accommodation with the Garamantes, Rome settled down to develop its African provinces heralding a long period of comparative peace. For the Berbers and Egyptians prepared to accept Rome there were many opportunities. It was during this time that Red Sea trade, already underway, began to flourish with merchants venturing into the Indian Ocean and exploring the commercial potential of the East African coast. The African kingdoms of Meroe, on the Nile, and Aksum in Ethiopia, gained in strength and prosperity from the intensification of trade. So too did the states in the Sahel where the urban centres began to expand. The Mediterranean demand for raw material, food and slaves drove the development of trade and sophisticated desert networks evolved to meet the increased demand.
An End and a Beginning
Authors: Cunliffe Barry 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
For North Africa, this was a period of regime change. Roman rule came to an end when a Germanic tribe, the Vandals invaded in 426. They lasted for little more than a century, ousted when North Africa was reclaimed by the Byzantines, successors of Rome. Their period of dominance was even shorter. In 641 the Arab armies conquered Egypt and by 730 had extended their rule across the whole of North Africa, introducing the new religion of Islam. This turbulent 300 years saw the Berber peoples of the region become increasingly more powerful, their tribal groups forming confederacies to fight for or against successive invaders. It was a time of identity building. In the Middle Nile the kingdom of Meroe collapsed, largely as the result of the Red Sea taking over from the Nile, the kingdoms that emerged distinguishing themselves from Muslim Egypt by adopting Christianity. In the western Sahel towns, like Jenne-jeno, grew still further in complexity with satellite settlements specializing in different modes of production, suggesting a heterarchial form social structure. This was the time when distinct polities were beginning to emerge from which were to develop the historic kingdoms of Takrur, Ghana and Kaw Kaw. While these political and social changes were underway to north, east and south of the Sahara, the Berbers who had spread into the desert, continued to maintain the networks that bound the disparate communities.
Kratos before Democracy
Authors: Stocking Charles H. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses specifically on the relationship between force and politics in the Iliad. It begins with the infamous “one king” speech of Odysseus (Iliad 2.203–6), delivered on the verge of the dissolution of the Achaean army after Achilles has abandoned the war. In Rogues, one of Jacques Derrida’s last major publications, Derrida uses the one king speech in order to argue for kratos as an ipsocentric force that contrasts specifically with the institution of democracy, which, for Derrida, is a political manifestation of his philosophy of différance. Building on and at the same time differing from Derrida, it is shown in this chapter how the principle of différance may be seen to be at work already in the role that kratos plays both in the Iliad and in the larger mythological tradition pertaining to Zeus. More specifically, the chapter shows how the speeches of Odysseus (Iliad 2.190–206), Agamemnon (Iliad 2.110–41; Iliad 9.17–28), Diomedes (9.32–49), and Zeus (Iliad 8.5–27; Iliad 15.158–67), as well as Hesiod’s Theogony, all point to the unique ways in which the signification of kratos itself remains in a constant state of play through language.
Carnivoran Ecology
Authors: Buskirk Steven W. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The Carnivora comprises the most morphologically, trophically, and ecologically diverse mammalian branch of the tree of life. This book describes how and where carnivorans arose and radiated. Their morphological adaptations to diverse niches and the physiological mechanisms permit them to specialize on many foods, in many habitats. The sensory modalities and brain function of carnivorans are distinctive and important for living by predation. Carnivorans perform important community functions, including transporting nutrients, scavenging carrion, and making carrion available to other scavengers. They affect plants directly by dispersing seeds and improving germination. Some carnivorans have important facilitative interactions with other community members. Competition among carnivorans is a key mechanism that structures communities, mediated by body size, body shape, and other factors. The effects of carnivorans on prey numbers have long been studied; today the effects of risk of predation on prey behaviors, physiology, and reproduction are recognized as having comparable or greater effects on prey numbers than predation itself. Cascades are triggered by carnivoran presence and predation, and include effects resulting from predation, risk of predation, nutrient transport, and other mechanisms. Population processes in carnivorans differ modestly from those in non-carnivoran mammals, except that carnivorans occur at lower densities, have larger home ranges, disperse farther, and die of different causes. Carnivorans affect humans via a host of mechanisms; humans tend to exaggerate both positive and negative effects. Humans have had largely negative effects on carnivoran distributions and abundances, but local recoveries and restorations are occurring as well.
Introduction to Carnivoran Ecology
Authors: Buskirk Steven W. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The Carnivora is a uniquely diverse branch of the tree of life, occupying niches and displaying adaptations that are broader than for any other mammalian order. Humans and our ancestors have always shown a keen interest in this group—they preyed on us, facilitated our access to carrion, competed with us for food, and were domesticated by us. This book distinguishes between “Carnivora” and “carnivory;” the latter term describes eating animals, a trophic niche occupied by many vertebrate and invertebrate lineages, and even some plants. An explosion of scientific knowledge over thirty years has made this book possible and necessary. It is intended as a text or reference for academic or non-academic readers and assumes some familiarity with biological concepts and vocabulary. Its strongest focus is on macroevolution, physiology, community ecology, and conservation, but does not delve deeply into intraspecific behavioral ecology. I draw almost entirely from the peer-reviewed scientific literature, but acknowledge biases toward wealthy, developed regions, which generate most of that literature. Some themes and explanatory concepts recur through the book; these include body size, trophic level, and body temperature; the reader can make many connections via these concepts.
Physiological ecology
Authors: Buskirk Steven W. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Physiological ecology deals with how processes at cellular and molecular levels relate to ecological challenges. Carnivorans occupy the widest range of habitat and trophic niches of any mammalian order, variously specializing on vertebrate flesh, insects, fruits, and plant leaves. Carnivorous carnivorans eat less frequently than herbivores, retain food in their guts for briefer periods, and lack the genes that code for proteins that regulate appetite in response to gut contents. Carnivorans, even those with high-cellulose diets, lack special gut structures to hold microbial fermenters. As a result, they only absorb cell contents and pass cell walls undigested, making them inefficient users of plant foods. Chitin, an important structural carbohydrate in arthropods, is digestible only to some carnivorans, especially those that eat some invertebrates. Felids and some mustelids require amino acids beyond the standard essential ones needed by most eutherians. Carnivorans show evidence of balancing nutrient intake, even if given access to vertebrate carcasses. They generally metabolize at higher rates than other eutherians, although their resting body temperatures are the same or lower. Some species show strong adaptation to energetic challenges, including storing body fat and undergoing shallow seasonal torpor. Carnivorans show reproductive patterns uncommon across the Eutheria, including delayed implantation and induced ovulation.
How carnivorans affect humans
Authors: Buskirk Steven W. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Carnivorans affect humans in diverse ways, positively and negatively. They attack and kill small numbers of humans worldwide, not including attacks by domestic dogs, that lead to strong societal responses. They kill various domestic animals, mostly notably livestock under loose husbandry. In addition to environmental factors, these attacks occur in response to economic and social conditions. Carnivorans also kill wild animals valued by humans: ungulates valued as game, marine fisheries, and species of conservation concern. Wild carnivorans are the basis of various regional tourism industries, but also can limit recreational activities, for reasons of public safety or to protect a carnivoran at issue. Humans have used carnivorans for food, fur, and medicine throughout our history, but these uses have declined in recent decades; the global wild fur industry is small and declining. We value the ecological services provided by carnivorans; these include removing human waste and reducing ungulate–vehicle collisions. Carnivorans play complex roles in the ecology of diseases that affect humans, completing the life cycles of some disease organisms, while interrupting others. The increased proximity of carnivorans to humans in urban and peri-urban setting increases the likelihood of transmission of some zoonotic diseases. They also play important roles as reservoirs or transmitters of diseases important to species of conservation concern. In some cases, the positive effects of carnivorans on ecosystem health have been exaggerated beyond what evidence supports. Carnivorans affect the spiritual and emotional well-being of humans in diverse and powerful ways.
How humans affect carnivorans
Authors: Buskirk Steven W. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Globally, humans are the most potent community interactors with carnivorans, contributing to large expansions and contractions of geographic ranges, but few extinctions of nominal species to date. Carnivorans are exceedingly rare on Earth, much more so than before humans colonized. Direct and intentional carnivoran mortality by humans—hunting, trapping, and poisoning—has caused near-extinction of some taxa but nearly undetectable effects on others. Physical exclusion (fencing) has seen limited use over large areas and has been costly/controversial where employed. Humans affect a wide range of carnivoran behaviors, the most studied of which include nocturnality, road tolerance, proximity to development, and interactions with other carnivoran species. Humans affect the prevalence and virulence of various carnivoran diseases—domestic dogs and cats play important roles as reservoirs and transmission agents. Human transport of carnivorans across any distance facilitates disease spread. Humans have introduced, reintroduced, or restored carnivorans to areas up to the size of continents, with highly mixed results. Wealthy, populous countries are surprisingly prone to restore some carnivoran taxa, partly because of urban populations sympathetic to environmental goals. Reintroduced carnivoran populations can exert disappointingly small ecological effects. Humans subsidize the diets and habitats of many carnivorans, even some not regarded as commensal. Carnivorans have been subjects of genetic and genomic inquiry because of past population bottlenecks; approaches for addressing population genetic problems range from population augmentation to genetic engineering. Global climate change poses daunting challenges for many carnivoran taxa, particularly those that associate closely with sea ice or snow cover.
Identity
Authors: Corbett Jack 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThis chapter focuses on how leaders create in-groups and out-groups. Identity is typically employed by political scientists to explain apparently ‘non-rational’ preferences. In some Pacific cases, such as Tuvalu, leaders place recognizable cultural differences—language, ethnicity, and religion—at the forefront of their claims to self-determination. But in small states in the Caribbean these claims are more problematic because while narratives about difference and diversity are important for both domestic and international audiences, these cleavages do not manifest in the way mainstream theory predicts. On the other extreme, the diversity of Chuuk means that a new state would not have a greater sense of shared identity than the one being left behind. The lesson is that theories which posit that secessionist movements arise from a misalignment between a primordial nation and the postcolonial state have limited explanatory power in these cases.
Economic Development
Authors: Corbett Jack 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThis chapter focuses on the relationship between independence and economic development in small communities. The inability of independent small states to achieve self-sufficiency is the main reason the international community was hostile to their creation and explains why decolonization was often delayed. Perceptions of viability shifted during the second half of the twentieth century but with the partial exception of tourism, virtually all strategies to address economic disadvantage in small states in the Caribbean and the Pacific involve sovereignty sales or migration. Small states are thus perpetually engaged in a cycle of claiming sovereignty so they can trade it or pool it for economic returns that increase functional viability.
“Some Nice Music”
Authors: Solovieva Olga V. 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThis chapter takes Kurosawa’s choice of the Russian composer Modest Musorgsky’s piece “The Great Gate of Kiev” from his piano suite Pictures at an Exhibition (1874) as a key to understanding the director’s first postwar film No Regrets for Our Youth (1946). Musorgksy was known for his Populist sympathies and interest in creating a new Russian art on the basis of the people’s history. Through discussion of the historical and political meanings of the Musorgsky episode, the chapter shows how Kurosawa’s film announces a programmatic commitment to recovering the Japanese tradition of grassroots democracy as it formed in the wake of Meiji Japan’s opening to nineteenth-century revolutionary Russia.
Attention and Attending
Authors: Wu Wayne 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Three phenomena of attention are identified: (1) attending as action, (2) attention as what guides action, and (3) vigilance as a readiness to attend, hence to act. These phenomena are shown to exemplify the form of attention described in William James’ definition of attention which emphasizes that attention is the mind’s selection of a target in order to deal with, that is to act on, it. This idea of attention as selection for action is revealed to be foundational to the methodology of experiments on attention, so it is endorsed, as a practical requirement, in scientific practice. Relevant biological models are discussed and a unified theory of attention is outlined. The Jamesian idea merges the science and the philosophy to provide a systematic theory of attention as the agent’s guiding her action. The central role of intention in setting attention is revealed, and the pervasive automaticity of attention is noted and examined.