bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Artisanal Coffee
Authors: Sanchez Kelly , Mroz Austin M. , Hendon Christopher H. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Arabica coffee beans produce more desirable flavor than the less expensive Robusta beans, and this is the variety used by artisans. The beans are sorted and separated from the fruit by wet depulping, sun-drying, or a combination of the two. Roasting of the beans leads to the characteristic bitterness and brown color and generates changes in fatty acids, proteins, chlorogenic acids, furans, and other compounds. Grinding releases volatile organic compounds and increases the surface area, and the brewing method (boiling water mixed with grounds or flowing water through a bed of grounds) affects the properties of the final product. The artisan controls all these steps on a small scale, adjusting them to lead to an optimum cup of coffee.
Functional Neuroanatomy and Clinical Neuroscience
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This book is a comprehensive introduction to functional neuroanatomy and clinical neuroscience that is focused on disorders of human cognition and behavior, designed as both a reference and a textbook, and suitable for clinical neuropsychology students, early career neuropsychologists, and other non-physician healthcare professionals who work with people who have brain diseases or injuries. It is unique in that it interleaves discussion of functional neuroanatomy, clinical neuroscience, and disorders of the human central nervous system with rich descriptions of neurocognitive and neurobehavioral syndromes. It provides a comprehensive overview of key neuroanatomic concepts, clearly linking them to cognitive and behavioral disorders. The chapters are organized hierarchically, helping the reader to build up a strong clinical knowledge base from more basic neuroscience concepts. The material progresses from functional neuroanatomy of brain structures and associated clinical syndromes, common neuropathologies, and domain-specific syndromes. The book ends with several chapters giving concise descriptions of clinical assessment and neuroimaging methods.
Electrical Signaling in Neurons
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Neurons, the basic functional unit of the nervous system, are electrically excitable; they receive, integrate, and transmit information via electric currents generated by the flow of ions. To understand how electrical signals are generated and conducted within neurons, it is necessary to understand some basic principles of chemistry that govern the diffusion (movement) of molecules and ions, some basic principles of membrane structure and permeability, and the ionic basis of membrane potentials. This chapter provides an overview of the process by which electrical signals are generated and propagated within neurons. A basic understanding of these processes is fundamental to understanding mechanisms underlying seizures, electroencephalography, and brain stimulation, as well as some aspects of neuropharmacology and demyelinating disorders.
Cranium, Spine, Meninges, Ventricles, and Cerebrospinal Fluid
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The central nervous system is covered with several layers of protective tissues: the bony coverings, which consist of the cranium and the spine, and the meninges. The cerebrospinal fluid, which surrounds the brain and spinal cord, also serves a protection function, and fills a series of interconnected ventricles that run within the core of the brain. This chapter introduces the reader to these external and internal structures, as well as related clinical considerations such as intracranial pressure and mass effect, meningitis, meningiomas, arachnoid cysts, subarachnoid hemorrhage, epidural and subdural hematomas, brain herniation, and hydrocephalus, as well as the neurodiagnostic procedure of lumbar puncture.
The Brainstem
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The brainstem is the lowermost, stalk-like part of the brain. Phylogenetically it is the oldest part of the human brain, similar in structure and function to the brains of reptiles and fish. The brainstem controls basic functions necessary for physiologic survival, such as heart rate, breathing, and digestion, as well as sleep-wakefulness and level of arousal in higher animals with cerebral cortex. Extensive damage to the brainstem usually results in death; lesser degrees of damage result in coma and persistent vegetative state. Focal brainstem lesions produce various combinations of impaired function of the cranial nerve nuclei, and the long ascending and descending tracts, forming the basis of brainstem syndromes, with cranial nerve-related signs providing rostral-caudal localization and long tract-related signs providing medial-lateral localization. This chapter describes basic brainstem anatomy, function, and clinical considerations related to brainstem pathology.
Traumatic Brain Injury
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Traumatic brain injury (TBI) is defined as physical trauma to the brain due to impact, penetration, or rapid movement of the brain within the skull, caused by an external mechanical force. Traumatic brain injuries encompass a broad spectrum of severities, from very mild transient changes in brain function resulting in a brief alteration of consciousness with rapid recovery, to catastrophic injuries resulting in severe disability or death. The pathophysiology of TBI is complex, and in many cases involves a combination of pathologies. Primary injuries occur at the time of trauma and are caused by mechanical forces; these include skull fracture, contusion, laceration, and traumatic axonal injury. Secondary injuries are due to delayed processes that evolve after the primary injury and clinically present hours to days after the injury; these include hematoma, edema, raised intracranial pressure, brain herniation, impaired cerebral perfusion and cerebral ischemia, infection, scar tissue formation, and cerebral atrophy. The aim of TBI management and treatment is to prevent secondary injury. This chapter describes the epidemiology of TBI, pathophysiology of primary and secondary injury, classification of injuries, measures of severity and clinical classifications, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy.
Brain Neoplasms
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
A brain neoplasm is a growth of abnormal cells within the brain or in the tissues immediately surrounding the brain. There are more than 150 types of brain tumors, and they are characterized along multiple dimensions: intrinsic or extrinsic, invasive or noninvasive, benign or malignant, primary or metastatic, growth rate, cell type from which they originate, and other histological features. The principal categories based on cell type of origin are gliomas, meningiomas, pituitary tumors, Schwannomas, and metastases. The most common presentations of brain tumor are focal neurological signs and symptoms, seizures, headache and other signs and symptoms of elevated intracranial pressure, and endocrine abnormalities. Brain tumors are treated by surgical tumor resection, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, and various combinations of these approaches. This chapter describes the classification, grading, presenting clinical signs and symptoms, treatment, and neurobehavioral effects of intracranial tumors.
The Neurological Examination
Authors: Uysal Suzan 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The neurological examination is an evaluation of nervous system function. Its purposes are: (1) to determine if there is evidence of a neurologic problem; (2) to determine the possible neuroanatomical site of pathology (i.e., localize the lesion); (3) to determine the underlying etiology; and (4) to guide decisions for treatment plans. It evaluates several domains of function: mental status, cranial nerve function, motor function, sensory function, reflexes, coordination, station, and gait. While the neurological exam is tailored to the clinical question(s), each domain of function is touched upon to cover the entire neuraxis (i.e., the cerebral cortex, subcortical white matter, deep gray matter structures, cerebellum, brainstem, spinal cord, peripheral nerves, neuromuscular junction, and muscles). Other investigative studies, such as neuroimaging studies, neurophysiological studies, laboratory studies, and neuropsychological examination, may also contribute to localization and differential diagnosis.
Age-related changes in everyday prospective memory
Authors: Craik Fergus I. M. , Henry Julie D. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews and discusses theories and practical issues relating to prospective memory (PM) and how it changes during normal adult ageing. PM is the ability to perform a planned action at a future time and consists of four phases: the formation of an intention, its retention over time, the initiation, and then the completion of the intended action. Successful retrieval is boosted by the provision of cues, but if such cues are not present the person must ‘remember to remember’ by engaging self-initiated activities mediated by the frontal lobes. Laboratory studies reveal that PM declines with age, but often less in tasks that are cued by an event (event-based PM) than in tasks in which the person performs the action at a specific time or after a specified interval (time-based PM). PM tasks that are particularly reliant on self-initiated activities may be less effective in older people owing to a decline in frontally based control processes. Older adults are also more likely to make commission errors—to perform the planned action a second time. This chapter discusses the paradoxical finding that, although older adults perform less well than younger adults on laboratory PM tasks, the same older adults may outperform their younger counterparts on real-life PM tasks, possibly due to their stronger motivation. Evidence is also reviewed that shows how PM plays an important role in many real-life activities of daily living that are crucial for the older person’s well-being and independence. The chapter concludes with a discussion of possible interventions that may benefit PM function in late adulthood, and how current theories may be applied to improve the efficacy of such interventions.
Mental imagery
Authors: Andrade Jackie 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter plots a path from theoretical research on the role of working memory in mental imagery to the development of a new imagery-based intervention for motivating behaviour change. The starting point is research testing the idea that vivid imagery requires temporarily storing and manipulating information in working memory. Subsequent research demonstrated that working memory loads affect the vividness and emotional charge of images in similar ways. This association between vividness and emotionality underpinned research on cognitive processes in desire. The chapter explains elaborated intrusion theory, which hypothesizes a central role of imagery in food and drug cravings, and describes empirical tests of the theory that were guided by working memory principles. It then considers how this craving research was applied to the problem of desire more generally and the question of how to strengthen desires for functional goals. A new behaviour change intervention called functional imagery training emerged from this application. Functional imagery training develops individuals’ skills in using imagery to build and sustain motivation to achieve their goals. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the value of theory for guiding applied research and some speculations about how, in turn, applied research in mental health has generated questions that will shape working memory theory in the future.
Precedent, Contest, and Law
Authors: Brewer Scott 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Legal arguments from precedent, like all legal arguments, and indeed all arguments, take place in contests. Understanding the nature of these contests is the key to understanding legal precedential arguments. I shall refer to an explanation of some concept or phenomenon that sees a central role for contest as ‘agonophilic’ (‘contest-loving’). This chapter offers an agonophilic explanation of the nature of legal precedential argument, one that relies on a theory of the nature of argument, the Logocratic Method, which is itself energetically suffused with an agonophilic approach. Such a theory well explains the argumental phenomena animating the dichotomy of ‘power’ and ‘reason’ that Justice Marshall advanced in Payne v Tennessee (‘Power, not reason, is the new currency of this Court’s decisionmaking’) and that the dissent in Dobbs v Jackson also invoked in quoting it. What is wanting in this dichotomy is a recognition that, in legal argument, ‘reason’, in the form of arguments (including but not limited to precedential arguments), is the instrument by which authorized legal officials exercise the ‘power’ to make and remake law. The life of the law is power exercised by the instrument of argumental reason.
Precedent and Similarity
Authors: Schauer Frederick , Spellman Barbara A 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Given that no two acts, events, situations, and legal cases are identical, precedential constraint necessarily involves determining which two different cases and situations are relevantly similar. One traditional view posits that these determinations are made on the basis of the rationale in the earlier case, another traditional view sees similarity in the facts of the earlier case plus the outcome, and the legal realist view insists that determinations of similarity are ex post attributions based on a judge’s outcome or policy preferences. In contrast to all of these positions, however, is a view informed by research in cognitive psychology. This research supports the conclusion that outcome-independent perceptions of similarity, perceptions based on the experiences and background of the perceiver, not only play a role in the determination of similarity, but often lead precedential reasoners to reason from particular to particular without the conscious mediation of any rule or principle.
The Gravitational Force of Future Decisions
Authors: Varsava Nina 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that in the process of adjudication judges may have a duty to ‘follow’ not only past judicial decisions but also future ones. The chapter develops the idea within a Dworkinian framework, showing how under law as integrity future decisions exert gravitational force (or precedent-like effect) on present cases for some of the same reasons that past decisions do. This force gives rise to a type of judicial obligation that has not been addressed in the literature, and calls for the new model of case-based adjudication that the chapter begins to develop. For Dworkin, the primary value underlying the practice of precedent is equality or formal justice. Judges have a duty to help to ensure that their legal system treats like cases alike, which means that they ought to follow past decisions. The chapter argues that, because equality is not an exclusively past-oriented ideal but rather an atemporal one, whenever future decisions are reasonably foreseeable they exert precedent-like pressure on judges. Accordingly, future decisions have underappreciated normative implications for how judges should exercise their authority today. On this model of case-based adjudication, compared to the conventional, purely retrospective one that Dworkin hung on to, a judge takes a bidirectional, and in that sense more expansive, view of the proper input to the enterprise of constructive interpretation. The chapter tries to show how, under the best interpretation of law as integrity itself, the law is constituted, in part, by future cases as well as past ones.
A Precedent-Based Critique of Legal Positivism
Authors: Goldberg John CP , Zipursky Benjamin C 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Under the doctrine of vertical precedent, lower courts in a given jurisdiction must follow an on-point precedent issued by a higher court, or distinguish it. Lawyers are typically taught that distinguishing requires the lower court to articulate why the case before it is justifiably treated in a different manner than the precedent. Exclusive legal positivists are troubled by the phenomenon of distinguishing because the notion of justification built into the idea of distinguishing precedent appears to call for substantive normative reasoning by lower courts. One response to this apparent problem, that of Joseph Raz, treats ‘distinguishing precedent’ as a kind of legal change or amendment rather than as law application. This chapter contends that the “legal amendment” strategy cannot work because it simply gets the law wrong: lower courts are not generally empowered to amend the law. An undistorted description of the practice must recognize that courts engage in small-scale moral reasoning when they distinguish vertical precedents. The last half of the chapter utilizes common law cases on the affirmative duties of landowners to illustrate the power and authenticity of this anti-positivistic account.
Precedent and the Source–Norm Distinction
Authors: Shecaira Fábio Perin 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter proposes a conceptual framework for comparing the uses of precedent in civil law and common law systems. Central to the proposed framework is the distinction between legal sources (e.g. precedents) and the legal norms that may be derived from such sources by means of legal interpretation. The threefold ‘source–interpretation–norm’ distinction (abbreviated in the title as the ‘source–norm’ distinction) helps to clarify the various ways in which past cases may be invoked, read, and enforced by the courts of different legal systems. Particular attention is given to the legal systems of England, the US, and Brazil. The proposed framework is meant not only to clarify the role of precedent in legal systems on which international commentary is scarce—for example, the Brazilian legal system—but also to revisit the practice of legal systems whose doctrine of precedent is supposedly well established and well understood.
Shaping Our Relationship
Authors: Köpcke Maris 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
It is common to say that when judges set a precedent they exercise law-making power. But it is unclear in what sense this is true. Unlike legislating, setting a precedent is not a purposive way of making law. Precedent does not fit the received idea of legal power. To solve this riddle, the chapter identifies some main features of precedent outside law, and argues that these features hang together to make up a morally distinct form of action with discernible uses. The very idea of precedent presupposes that there is a relationship to which precedent-setting answers, primarily by way of specification of its normative requirements. By thus considering not merely what precedent is not, but positively developing an understanding of its moral purpose, the chapter articulates the important sense in which setting a legal precedent amounts to the exercise of a power, and the place of this power in a community’s pursuit of justice.
Partnering with the Dead to Govern the Unborn
Authors: Hurd Heidi M 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter canvasses a lengthy menu of arguments for why judges ought to adhere to precedents with which they disagree. Because the author does not share the conservative instincts of those who find precedent of obvious value, the chapter reaches to Edmund Burke’s impassioned defence of legal traditions as an honest means of exploring just what can be said for binding ourselves to rules laid down by the dead, and for binding those who will live long after us by legal innovations designed to serve the needs of the living, not the needs of the still unborn. As the chapter argues, each of the justificatory arguments that we might harvest from Burke’s writings comes at some philosophical cost. The burden of this chapter is to cash out the value of the four categories of defences—conceptual, psychological, moral, and aesthetic—that Burke’s conservatism provides for according precedent a weighty role in judicial decision-making.
Wrongs, Remedies, and the Persistence of Reasons
Authors: Oberdiek John 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The “continuity thesis” is one of Gardner’s signal contributions to tort theory. It holds that the reasons justifying one’s primary duties persist even after one breaches the duties they justify, reasserting themselves by grounding secondary duties of redress. The continuity thesis has been enormously influential but it also has attracted criticism. Perhaps the most widespread criticism—leveled in different ways by John Goldberg and Benjamin Zipursky, Stephen Smith, Victor Tadros, and Charlie Webb—alleges that the continuity thesis fails to take seriously the role that wrongdoing plays in the justification of secondary duties. Chapter 10 assesses those criticisms and attempts to turn them back, defending the continuity thesis.
A Strategy of Limited Actions
Authors: Göransson Markus Balázs 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the role of Russia’s ground-based contingent in the Russian military operation in Syria. The chapter, which covers the period 2015-2021, identifies six key strategic functions of the contingent, which is small in size but diverse in its composition. The functions reach beyond base security and support to the aerial forces that have spearheaded Russia’s operation, and include also the ability to carry out high-value tasks, provide capacity building to allied forces, facilitate ally coordination, and support escalation management. Importantly, Russia’s ability to operate forces with different degrees of deniability/officiality has lent it greater flexibility in managing allies, adversaries, and third-party actors.
Issues in morphome identification
Authors: Herce Borja 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The morphome is a controversial and polarizing object of analysis, which is the reason why particular attention must be paid to the phenomenon’s definition and diagnosis. This chapter addresses all aspects that could be relevant for this: distinguishing systematic from accidental morphological identities (and polysemy from homophony), drawing the line between natural and unnatural morphosyntactic distributions in paradigms, assessing the morphological (vs phonological) character of an alternation pattern … It also explores the relevance of other notions (like blocking and stem spaces) in the phenomenon’s definition, and the possible interactions between morphomicity and other linguistic phenomena (like syncretism, syntagmatic order, heteroclisis, overabundance, defectiveness, and gender).
Morphomes in synchrony
Authors: Herce Borja 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a synchronic database with 120 morphomic structures from 79 languages from all around the world. It starts by presenting the criteria that will motivate inclusion/exclusion from the database: being unmistakably unnatural and unmistakably systematic in a tabular paradigm. All morphomes that met these criteria are presented in detail, with diachronic and comparative insights when available, and are then deconstructed into the logically independent variables that determine morphome-to-morphome variation. The chapter concludes with a statistic overview of the quantitative data and with several findings: (i) there are cross-linguistically recurrent unnatural structures; (ii) Romance morphomes (the most frequently studied ones) are not particularly representative of the phenomenon; (iii) there is a bias/preference towards naturalness even among morphomes; and (iv) there is a tradeoff between the grammatical and lexical informativity of morphs that may drive and justify stem–affix segmentations.