bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
From “Season” to “Hour”
Authors: Miller Kassandra J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 examines how Galen incorporates references to hourly timekeeping into his justifications for and refinement of Hippocratic “critical-day” schemes, which were designed to help physicians anticipate turning points in febrile diseases. This chapter proposes that Galen, in both his fever case histories and his astrological explanations for critical days, used hourly timekeeping to support a set of interrelated claims: first, that the Hippocratic writings are internally consistent and prefigure later technological developments, like hourly timekeeping; second, that Galen alone should be seen as the true successor of Hippocrates; and third, that, in keeping with Hippocratic injunctions, Galen’s own approach to medicine integrated knowledge and methods appropriate to the highly esteemed mathematical sciences—in this case, to astronomy.
Is Free Movement (Law) Fully Emancipated from Migration (Law)?
Authors: Barbou des Places Ségolène 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The objective of the chapter is to understand how free movement was ‘constructed’ as an exceptional form of mobility, which has very little in common with ordinary regimes of migration, and then to address the exception hypothesis. It asks simple, yet provocative, questions: Is free movement (still) as exceptional as it is claimed to be? Is not free movement an ordinary type of migration after all? The chapter first analyses how the divide between free movement and migration in EU law was constructed, on both conceptual and practical levels. Then it questions the ‘exceptionalism’ of EU free movement law: free movement and migration are intertwined realities that are connected at structural and conceptual levels. Absent the logic of evolution and progression, which underpinned the EU institutional approach to free movement law, what in fact separates free movement and migration in EU law could well be a difference in intensity rather than in substance.
England and the Papacy in the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Savill Benjamin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This monograph provides the first dedicated, book-length study of interactions between England and the papacy throughout the early middle ages. It takes as its lens the extant English record of papal privileges: legal diplomas drawn-up on metres-long scrolls of Egyptian papyrus, acquired by pilgrim-petitioners within the city of Rome, and then brought back to Britain to negotiate local claims and conflicts. How, why, and when did English petitioners choose to invoke the distant authority of Rome in this way, and how did this compare to what was taking place elsewhere in Europe? How successful were these efforts, and how were they remembered in later centuries? By using these still-understudied papal documents to reassess what we know of the worlds of Bede, the Mercian Supremacy, the West Saxon ‘Kingdom of the English’, and the Norman Conquest—locating them in the process within a comparative, Europe-wide setting—this book offers important new contributions to Anglo-Saxon studies, legal and documentary history, papal history, and the study of early medieval Europe more widely. It also includes an annotated handlist of the corpus of English papal privileges up to 1073—a critical reference work for future research in the field.
Introduction
Authors: Savill Benjamin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the corpus of papal privileges in early medieval England, together with the much larger European body of evidence. It argues for the special value to historians of these unique, still-understudied early medieval documentary sources, especially through their potential as comparative tools. It surveys in brief the current state of research on Anglo-papal relations and papal ‘diplomatic’ (charter and documentary studies); provides some basic definitions of genre; and outlines the scope and structure of the book as a whole.
Getting to Grips with Papal Privileges in the Early Middle Ages
Authors: Savill Benjamin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 provides the key contextual background for the book, exploring in detail what it meant to acquire a papal privilege in the early middle ages. These were unique material artefacts, usually granted in person by the pope in Rome: their acquisition signalled an event, not a routine bureaucratic process. Using evidence from across Europe, this chapter outlines the stages by which these documents were petitioned, composed, and conveyed, and then brought back into their beneficiaries’ own societies. It stresses in particular the spectacular material form of these documents, as well as the importance of the role of the petitioner/beneficiary at every stage in the acquisition process.
Papal Privileges and the English Benedictine Movement (c. 960–c. 1000)
Authors: Savill Benjamin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 6 focuses on the role—or lack thereof—of papal privileges in the tenth-century West Saxon (Cerdicing) ‘Kingdom of the English’. Why is our evidence for the use of papal documentary culture in England so comparatively poor for this period, when we know that strong Anglo-papal relations otherwise existed, and that a great many privileges were acquired across contemporary Europe? By surveying the dearth of English evidence against the corpus of acquisitions from Ottonian Germany and Italy, late Carolingian and Capetian France, and the emerging Catalan polity, this chapter argues that ideas about papal authority developed in the new English kingdom along lines quite different from those of the ‘post-Carolingian’ polities. The discussion includes reassessments of evidence of papal documents from within the milieu of the English ‘Benedictine movement’, at Dunstan’s Canterbury, Æthelwold’s Winchester, Oswald’s Ramsey, and Glastonbury abbey.
The Indian Intoxicant
Authors: Sohal Amar 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Abul Kalam Azad claimed that while Indians had transcended their religious identities to create the secular nation, this process had not destroyed but had carefully maintained these separate individualities. This chapter explores how advocates of the Azadian idea placed limitations on the fluidity of culture to avoid the perils of religious majoritarianism. They furnished notions of accommodation and adjustment to grant Hinduism and Islam an equal right to autonomous development. These concepts, like the profane national culture shared by Hindus and Muslims, were similarly historicized. By locating them not only in medieval and early modern Muslim kingship but also in pre-Islamic Indian philosophy, Muslim thinkers were able to cast the shared nation as more than just a minoritarian necessity. But though they deemed the refusal of religious homogeneity essential to coexistence, they also recognized that pluralism marked Indian nationality with a certain fragility; an imperfection which required Indians to be doubly vigilant of religious nationalists who wished to exploit this weakness. History was consequently alive in the competitive form of positive and negative inheritance, and had to thus be made an active principle to which Indians would forever be responsible. This chapter also demonstrates that while Azad and his associates were concerned with upholding the integrity of India’s religions, they drew on the universality of Islam to encourage a theological dialogue with Hinduism in the hope of establishing a monotheistic meeting point.
Conclusion
Authors: Sohal Amar 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This Conclusion demonstrates the capacity of the Muslim secular to produce different but equally legitimate answers to the question of political representation for minorities in post-Partition India. Abul Kalam Azad’s total endorsement of secular, interest-based organization immediately after independence was revised by Sheikh Abdullah two decades later. Abdullah’s call for a restricted form of communitarian politics responded to the steady institutionalization of religious discrimination. Apart from summarizing the most important arguments of this book, this Conclusion briefly traces their implications for the contemporary politics of India and Pakistan. It discusses the (limited) usefulness of Azadian ideas in the age of Hindu nationalism. It also reappraises the Kashmir problem through Abdullah’s conditional federalism, and casts Abdul Ghaffar Khan’s universal ethics onto Pashtun demands in today’s Pakistan.
Brain Computations and Connectivity
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe subject of this book is how the brain works. In order to understand this, it is essential to know what is computed by different brain systems; and how the computations are performed. The aim of this book is to elucidate what is computed in different brain systems; and to describe current computational approaches and models of how each of these brain systems computes. Understanding the brain in this way has enormous potential for understanding ourselves better in health and in disease. Potential applications of this understanding are to the treatment of the brain in disease; and to artificial intelligence which will benefit from knowledge of how the brain performs many of its extraordinarily impressive functions. This book is pioneering in taking this approach to brain function: to consider what is computed by many of our brain systems; and how it is computed. The book is also pioneering in taking biologically plausible approaches to brain computation. The book is also pioneering in incorporating evidence on the connectivity of 360 cortical regions in the human brain, making the book highly relevant to understanding the human brain. The book will be of interest to all scientists interested in brain function and how the brain works, whethr they are from neuroscience, or from medical sciences including neurology and psychiatry, or from the area of computational science including machine learning and artificial intelligence, or from areas such as theoretical physics.
The temporal cortex
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe inferior and middle temporal gyri are involved visual object recognition, with the more dorsal areas involved in face expression, gesture, and motion representation that is useful in social behaviour. The superior temporal cortex is involved in auditory processing. The anterior temporal lobe is involved in semantic representations, for example information about objects, people, and places. Network mechanisms involved in semantic representations are described. The output of this system reaches the inferior frontal gyrus, which on the left is Broca’s area, involved in language production. The concept that the semantics for language are computed in the anterior temporal lobe, and communicates with Broca’s area for speech production, is introduced. These temporal lobe semantic regions have strong connectivity with the inferior parietal cortex visual regions especially PGi.
The hippocampus, memory, and spatial function
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe hippocampal system provides a beautiful example of how different classes of neuronal network in the brain work together as a system to implement episodic memory, the memory for particular recent events. The hippocampus contains spatial view neurons in primates including humans, which provide a representation of locations in viewed space, built in a ventromedial visual stream that reaches the parahippocampal scene or place area. These representations can be combined with object and temporal representations to provide an episodic memory about what happened where and when. A key part of the system is the CA3 system with its recurrent collateral connections that provide a single attractor network for these associations to be learned. The computational generation of time, encoded by time cells in the hippocampus, is described, and this leads to a theory of hippocampal replay and reverse replay. The computational operation of a key part of the architecture, the recall of memories to the neocortex, which takes part in memory consolidation, is described. Reward signals from the orbitofrontal are incorporated into hippocampal episodic memory, and in addition influence cholinergic neurons, so are involved in memory consolidation.
The basal ganglia
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe basal ganglia include the striatum (caudate, putamen, and ventral striatum) which receive from all cortical areas, and which project via the globus pallidus and substantia nigra back to the neocortex. The basal ganglia are implicated in stimulus-response habit learning, which may be provided by a reinforcement learning signal received by dopamine neurons responding to reward prediction error. The dopamine neurons may receive reward-related information from the orbitofrontal cortex, via the ventral striatum and habenula. The network mechanisms in the basal ganglia implement selection of a single output for behaviour, which is highly adaptive, by mutual direct inhibition between neurons.
Computations by different types of brain, and by artificial neural systems
Authors: Rolls Edmund T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractA comparison is made between computations in the brain and computations performed in computers. This is intended to be helpful to those engineers, computer scientists, AI specialists et al interested in designing new computers that emulate aspects of brain function. In fact, the whole of this book is intended to be useful for this aim, by setting out what is computed by different brain systems, and what we know about how it is computed. It is essential to know this if an emulation of brain function is to be performed, and this is important to enable this group of scientists to bring their expertise to help understand brain function more. Key differences between artificial deep learning using error backpropagation, and biologically plausible networks with local synaptic learning rule that are emphasized in this book, are described. The important issue of the relation between the mind and the brain, and how we should view causality in complex systems with different levels of explanation is considered, and leads to an overview of how brain systems implement consciousness. Section 19.10 makes it clear why the focus of this book is on computations in primate (and that very much includes human) brains, rather than on rodent (rat and mice) brains. It is because the systems-level organization of primate including human brains is quite different from that in rodents, in many fundamental ways that are described.
Islamic Jihadism and the Laws of War
Authors: Mekky Omar 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The rapid rise of global Islamic Jihadism in the past few decades and the limited success of the anti-terror campaign in halting their expansion have raised hard-hitting questions about how different political actors might preserve and restore the world’s peace and security. International law, since the end of the Second World War, has often been the chief instrument to address global conundrums of this kind. Nevertheless, in relation to this particular phenomenon, this book argues that international law, at worst, has very little to do to solve the problem and, at best, cannot solve it alone. On the one hand, Jihadist groups often cite Islamic law interpretations and argumentations to justify their combat-related actions against states while rejecting traditional international law rules. On the other hand, some of these states never hesitate to drift from traditional international law rules to justify their so-called counterterrorism measures to halt these groups from expanding on their territories. In these wars, the internationally recognized laws of war that were originally created to protect those who don’t or no longer participate in hostilities are equally and constantly being challenged by the two sides to justify their combat actions. Thus, the ambition of this book is that, by examining the notion of Islamic Jihadism through a comparative and interdisciplinary approach between international law and Islamic law, international lawyers and policymakers will become more willing to engage with legal cultures other than the ones that they are used to, in order to ultimately reach their pursued objectives.
The Islamic Jus ad Bellum from International Law Perspective
Authors: Mekky Omar 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter tackles the jus ad bellum from international law and Islamic law perspectives. Its main purpose is to shed the light on the commonalities and differences between these two existing legal paradigms as they are, mainly, the norms regulating the initiation of wars by and against the Jihadist movements in our contemporary world. It starts with defining the different meanings of the concept of Jihad under Islamic law as well as the particularities of the prohibition on the use of force as articulated in the UN Charter. Moreover, it explores the definition of the right of self-defence in Islamic law and its compatibility with Article 51 of the UN Charter. It further discusses the principle of humanitarian intervention under both bodies of law. Finally, this chapter evaluates thoroughly the positions and debates of Muslim jurists vis-à-vis the notion of offensive Jihad.
Concluding Remarks
Authors: Mekky Omar 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Summarizing the previous chapters’ findings, the conclusion urges its readers to seek partnership with other more equipped disciplines such as Islamic law, in order to solve the flagrant incapacity of traditional international law rules in responding to ‘Islamic Jihadism’. It suggests that international lawyers should not be intimidated by the horror vacui arguments that raise the alleged risk of abandoning familiar intellectual frames, which thrive on an endemic fear of disorder and uncertainty and a desire to maintain the status quo. In order to resolve the quest of responding to Islamic Jihadism, international lawyers, policy-makers, and humanitarians ought to engage in a constructive dialogue between international law and Islamic law, including all its diverse interpretations.
Autumn Flies
Authors: Blower Brooke L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Russia’s entrance into the Great War upends life for Tamara Drasin, the eldest child of Jewish tailors in Ukraine. After her father is drafted into the tsar’s army, Tamara, her mother, and her brother struggle to survive a series of catastrophes—first wartime disruptions, then fallout from the Bolshevik Revolution. Full civil and legal equality may have been officially granted to women by the new radical regime, but the turmoil it unleashes leaves them and their children particularly vulnerable. By age thirteen—after living through Ukrainian civil war and a wave of antisemitic violence perpetrated against the region’s shtetls—Tamara understands the devastating stakes of armed conflict for communities caught in the path of rival forces.
The Silk-Stocking Revolt
Authors: Blower Brooke L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
George stood in his brother’s shadow during the Great War, but after earning a Harvard law degree he walks in the footsteps of his father, the prominent municipal court judge Frederick Spiegelberg, Sr. Devoting himself to a life of hard work, public service, and political engagement, George distrusts Tammany Democrats and wants to live in a society governed by the laws of the open courtroom, not the whims of bureaucrats and their backroom deals. Like many elite lawyers, his aspirations extend beyond courtroom advocacy into the world of governance. Running for Congress in 1934 as an opponent of the New Deal, he enters the political fray at the start of a transformative era of partisan realignments when the nation’s two major political parties are becoming standard-bearers for opposing ideological orthodoxies—until world events, particularly the growing power of the Nazis, test the limits of his partisan loyalties.
Red Mississippi
Authors: Blower Brooke L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Ben agrees to go to Russia for PM to report on the state of the Eastern Front and advocate for the immediate opening of a second front against the Nazis to take pressure off the Soviet forces fighting for their state’s very survival. Still obsessed with his own Confederate heritage, Ben believes that as a Southerner he understands better than other Americans what it is like to face an invasion. Soviet policies severely curtail the newsgathering efforts of foreign journalists. But because Ben’s quest is to invest American audiences in the Soviet Union’s plight, he has no need to dig below the Kremlin’s propaganda.
Patent Denials
Authors: Blower Brooke L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Harry emerges as one of Standard Oil’s top diplomats as the firm’s new Foreign Producing Department scrambles to break into the oil fields of Venezuela, Iraq, and the Netherlands East Indies. To keep prices stable (and high), the industry’s leaders embark on an unprecedented effort to strike cooperative agreements among themselves. Doing business with the Germans proves far easier than with the British, the French, the Dutch, or the Soviets. As Jersey Standard becomes the US corporation with the greatest stake in the Third Reich, the leftist press zeroes in on the company’s ties to the powerful chemical conglomerate IG Farben, which in turn sparks government investigations into Standard’s protection of German synthetic rubber patents from the American market.
Profiteering
Authors: Grogan Colleen M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter details the second main consequence of Grow and Hide: profiteering due to government policies that encourage private capital investments in the U.S. health care system. Two main implications arise from the health care system’s reliance on capital markets. First, while public hospitals had long taken care of the poor, the “health care safety net” emerged as a new term and concept in the post-1980 period. Government’s support of the competitive approach demanded that safety-net institutions compete for patients in the medical marketplace. Under this logic, private actors define the composition of the health care safety net. Second, because health planning failed, the central concept of public health in America—What is it? Who controls it?—was questioned. Despite several important public health crises, which made visible the dramatic importance of public health work, the federal government continued to support the competitive approach and further encouraged private capital investments in the health care market.
Inequality
Authors: Grogan Colleen M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter details the third main consequence of Grow and Hide: growing inequality. The Grow-and-Hide Regime has put the Medicaid program at the center of health policy debates since its early years. Medicaid’s political evolution from 1965 to 2008 illustrates the power of the Grow-and-Hide Regime to entrench an expanded Medicaid as fragmented, unequal, and strategically hidden through federalism with a heavy reliance on the private sector. While each critical juncture of expanded coverage has invited a struggle over the program’s generosity and scope, it has at every turn created more fragmentation and unequal treatment between groups. This chapter explicates for each major Medicaid reform over time how coverage expands in important ways into the middle class, yet its middle-class reach is hidden by policy designs and discourse that foster fragmentation, inequality, and division within Medicaid and the larger health care system.