bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Legion of the Lost
Authors: Stone Dan 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the ways in which the ITS set about tracing missing people in the immediate aftermath of World War II. It did so by ‘mass tracing’, that is, radio broadcasts, publishing lists, and appeals in the press and in assembly points, but this was a measure of last resort. The bulk of the chapter analyses the process of ‘graves recheck’, later renamed ‘identification of the unknown dead’, whereby the ITS’s fieldworkers, working alongside the military authorities, tried to identify the bodies—victims of death marches—that had been buried on roadsides or in local cemeteries, as well as massacre sites and mass graves in concentration camps. The process was complex and slow and relied on information, such as cemetery maps, provided by local mayors. This information, held in ITS, provides a compelling insight into what was an emotionally and politically charged process and one that yielded relatively few cases of positive identification, but which has left behind a remarkable body of sources.
Europe’s Missing Children
Authors: Stone Dan 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
When the Allies set up the body that became the International Tracing Service, they did not expect to have to deal with children in anything other than small numbers. When the scale of the problem of ‘unaccompanied children’ became clear, they established a separate Child Search Branch. In the first years of its existence, the CSB searched for children ‘in the field’, e.g. in orphanages and foster homes, and, after 1950, conducted tracing on the basis of the documentary evidence it held. At the same time, ITS was involved in helping unaccompanied children to be reunited with their families or, where this was not possible, to be repatriated to their country of origin or resettled in a third country. The chapter discloses the emotionally fraught nature of this work, analyses the enormously controversial question of who had the right to decide on children’s futures, and reveals the great lengths to which the dedicated staff at the CSB went in order to help children, often in the face of political and bureaucratic obstacles.
Rijnsburg Years (1661–1663)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts Spinoza’s departure from Amsterdam and two-year stay in Rijnsburg where he drafted a large part of his Ethics. It describes Rijnsburg, its history and its Collegiant connections, and the start of Spinoza’s long correspondence with the secretary of the Royal Society in London, Henry Oldenburg. It gives details of Oldenburg’s 1661 trip to Holland and connections in Amsterdam, Leiden, and The Hague as well as his relationship to Robert Boyle and role in European science at this time. It also analyses Spinoza’s connection with Leiden University and his interest in anatomical dissections at this time and his ties with the Danish scientist Nicolas Steno as well as with Johannes Bouwmeester, Lodewijk Meyer, Ole Borch, Jan Swammerdam, and Christiaan Huygens.
Spinoza and the Scientific Revolution
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Grappling with the principles and implications of Descartes’ system meant also thinking a good deal about the scientific and medical issues of the day. During the early 1660s, this “research into the nature of things,” Spinoza’s philosophical endeavour, also meant vesting much time in, and discussing, experimental work to which he then devoted much of his effort especially in the fields of optics, microscopy, physics demonstrations, and studying chemical reactions. As part of this broad effort to reform the Cartesian philosophy in all respects, he was interested too in mathematics and astronomy and, through his friendships with Steno and Kerckring, kept abreast of the latest work in anatomy and human and animal dissection. His correspondence with Oldenburg, moreover, led on to his developing a critique of Robert Boyle’s experiments with niter (which Boyle plainly rejected), and of Bacon and the Baconian “pure empiricism” of the Royal Society more generally.
Spinoza and the Second Anglo-Dutch War (1664–1667)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how Spinoza life and work were affected by the Second Anglo-Dutch War, how Charles II’s policy towards the United Provinces led to the outbreak of war, with its severe economic impact, disruption of correspondence abroad, and other immediate effects. Meanwhile, the scientists, scholars, and philosophers constituting the Anglo-Dutch segment of the international “republic of letters” shared—at least in theory—lofty ideals across borders, and sank into a mood of dismay. In the fraught ambience of 1664–5, the philosophical and scientific fraternity loudly condemned the disruptive, ruinous, undesirable consequences of war, and of simplistic, unrestrained national zeal, stressing the desirability of peace and stability for human well-being, society, and all the arts and sciences, and consequent need to contemplate the world’s disputes with a calm, compassionate gaze. This chapter considers how far they kept to this ideal also in practice as well as the impact of the plague epidemic that swept the Dutch Republic in the early part of the war, forcing Spinoza to take refuge for a time on a farm near Schiedam.
Spinoza, Meyer, and the 1666 Philosophia Controversy
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts the furious controversy that gripped the Dutch Republic in 1666 over the Philosophia S.Scripturae Interpres (1666), probably by Lodewijk Meyer, the importance of this work in discussion of Bible criticism, and the extent to which Spinoza became involved in the controversy. It also considers the relationship of Adriaan and Johannes Koerbagh to Spinoza’s Bible criticism and general philosophy, the impact of the anonymous subversive work De Jure Ecclesiasticorum, also linked to Spinoza and his circle, and the rise of the philosophical underground as a cultural force and its relationship to the Utrecht “College of Sçavanten.”
From the Jaws of Defeat (1666–1667)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts the final stages of the Second Anglo-Dutch War, the reasons for England’s surprising defeat, Spinoza’s tenuous continuing correspondence with Oldenburg during the war, and why Spinoza took the view that although modern science was a key aid to the improvement of human society, and continued avidly following experimental science, he became convinced that the Baconian experimental creed of Boyle, Sprat, and Oldenburg represented a timid motor of change compared to the philosophical engine he was preparing. It considers also how the war, and the growing menace of Louis XIV’s France, from 1667, affected Spinoza’s political and social thought as he wrote his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus.
Nil Volentibus Arduum
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The point of diffusing subversive philosophical ideas in a Spinozistic context was to assist men and women to live richer, more fulfilling lives by freeing them from their misconceptions, by enlightening sufficiently to free men from tyrants, exploiters, and theologians. But acquiring adequate ideas philosophically is arduous work and Spinoza recognizes that few are capable of it. Fortunately, there are other, more broadly appealing, ways to strengthen humanity’s disposition, enabling men and women to learn to see through “superstition” and adopt a useful and good plan of life. This chapter considers Spinoza’s friends’ involvement in the Amsterdam theatre and poetry society Nil Volentibus Arduum and its effort to reform the Amsterdam theatre and set new standards for the arts, and art and literary criticism more generally and also analyses Meyer’s philosophical approach to “the passions” and relates this to Spinoza’s treatment of the passions in his Ethics.
Revolution in Bible Criticism
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the significance of the subversive Bible criticism that Spinoza develops in his Tractatus Theologico-Politicus, how it relates to general trends in seventeenth-century Bible criticism and the special role of Hebrew studies in Spinoza’s particular approach to the subject. Showing how denial of the possibility of miracles serves as a defining feature of the entire text, the chapter also demonstrates how the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus seeks systematically to undermine religious authority, that of the Christian churches no less than that of the rabbis. It considers also Spinoza’s debt to Ibn Ezra and seeks to demonstrate that Spinoza’s “Ezra thesis,” that the Old Testament as we have it, including most of the Pentateuch, was redacted after the Babylonian captivity in the time of Ezra the Scribe, is more radical and far-reaching than the tentative Ezra thesis presented earlier by Hobbes and La Peyrère.
Publishing the Theological-Political Treatise
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the clandestine techniques used to publish the TTP, its early impact, the efforts made by the Dutch Reformed Church councils and synods and several of the city governments to suppress the book and the early efforts, not least those of the Utrecht Collegie der Sçavanten to publish powerful rebuttals of the TTP promptly and why this campaign was not very successful. It also considers the early reactions of Leibniz and Steno and the difficulty of ascertaining for certain who the anonymous author of the TTP was, even after rumours attributing it to Spinoza began to circulate.
Intensifying Reaction (Early 1670s)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
As Leibniz pointed out after he read it, in 1671, the TTP is a formidable book by a highly intelligent dissident comprehensively denying everything the churches teach and what nearly everyone believed, and it was intensely frustrating, not least to him, that while the uproar over the TTP showed no sign of abating there was still no effective, powerful rebuttal in the Netherlands, Germany, or anywhere else. This chapter considers the continuing furore and the eventual emergence of the opening series of refutations with those of Van Mansvelt, Jacob Thomasius, Johannes Musaeus (1613–91), Frans Kuyper, and Lambert van Velthuysen prominent among them.
Spinoza’s Libertine “French Circle”
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Most of Spinoza’s allies, editors, translators, and publishers were of Dutch background. But, in addition, several were French or French-speaking. The Hague of the late 1660s and 1670s harboured a milieu of cosmopolitan wits but in key respects the predominantly French libertinage Spinoza encountered at The Hague in later 1660s and 1670s, especially in the milieu of the famed bon vivant, moralist, and fine essayist, Saint-Évremond, constituted a very different cultural and intellectual phenomenon, from both Dutch subversive freethinking of the time and that arising in Britain and Ireland, with the beginnings of the “deist” tendency of the 1680s and 1690s. At The Hague in the 1660s, “Epicureans” in the circle of Saint-Évremond frequented high society gatherings and showed little sign of seeking to attack the existing social and political order, or even outwardly express their usually carefully masked inner rejection of the surrounding world’s “entire Christian culture.” However, a number of Huguenot refugees in Holland were drawn into Spinoza’s circle and particular attention is given here to Saint-Glain the translator of the TTP into French, Jean Maximilien Lucas, Spinoza’s supposed first biographer, and Henry Morelli.
Disaster Year (1672)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers how Spinoza and his circle were affected by the outbreak of the Third Anglo-Dutch War (1672–4), the military pact of Louis XIV and Charles II of England to overwhelm the Republic and the French and Munsterite invasion that conquered around half of the Republic during the summer of 1672. As a result of the disasters at the front and accompanying political crisis, the De Witt regime was overthrown and a general Orangist-Calvinist reaction began. No less than 610 Dutch pamphlets appeared between June and August 1672 with a high proportion calling for a thorough purge of the traitors, the filth of “Loevesteiners, Barneveldists and Arminians” from city governments, those who had opened the town halls, as one tract put it, to “freethinkers, papists, etc.,” several of which cite the threat posed by Spinoza.
Amsterdam Revisited (1673–1675)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter relates how Spinoza was affected by the French withdrawal from the Netherlands, the end of the Third Anglo-Dutch War, the growing Orangist-Calvinist reaction in the Netherlands in the mid-1670s, and the crack-down on the Dutch Cartesians as well as the political purges in Utrecht and the eastern provinces. In 1675, Spinoza returned to and spent a period in Amsterdam where the new Portuguese synagogue was just being inaugurated and where he had meetings with his publisher, Rieuwertsz, his group of followers there, and also with Philipp van Limborch and no doubt others. The chapter explains that the Ethics was now finished and Spinoza hoped to publish it at this point but then decided, as he explained to Oldenburg, that this would be too risky.
Fighting Back
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter continues relating the early English reaction to Spinoza on the part of Boyle, More, Cudworth, and Stillingfleet, who continued their concerted campaign to block Spinoza’s progress by detaching his arguments from his name and person while attacking the former and preventing both attracting increased attention. Besides well-known opponents of Spinoza in the late 1670s such as Boyle, More, Cudworth, Stillingfleet, Lady Anne Conway (1631–79) and Baxter, it also discusses several lesser known figures writing to repel Spinoza at the end of his life such as John Wilson and another moderate Puritan minister, John Howe (1630–1705), describing a cumulative concerted campaign to block Spinoza’s progress. This chapter also considers the parallel process in France in the late 1670s.
A Tumultuous Aftermath
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts how Spinoza’s manuscripts escaped destruction and were transferred into the keeping of his editors in Amsterdam, and discusses the clandestine editing of his manuscripts and sifting of his correspondence that followed. It explains why Dutch translations of the Opera Posthuma were prepared for simultaneous publication with the main Latin version, as well as the efforts orchestrated by Steno, Neercassel, and the papal Inquisition to stifle Spinoza’s works at birth, before publication, and why these efforts failed. It considers too the early impact of publication of his Opera Posthuma especially the Ethics in the Netherlands, France, England, and Germany.
Default Assumptions and Pure Thought
Authors: Sosa Ernest 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The basic framework of telic virtue epistemology is here sketched in the first few paragraphs, and then supplemented through a concept of “default assumptions” introduced and defended in my?Epistemic Explanations, although the defense in this chapter goes far beyond what is found in the book. Here the basic idea is explained and is shown to fit within the telic approach in the book. The bulk of the present paper then goes into issues beyond those in the book, such as those of “pure thought.” No prior acquaintance with the framework or with the book is presupposed.
Externalism Explained
Authors: Littlejohn Clayton 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues that an important virtue of externalism about justification is that it helps to explain the value of knowledge. It also develops and expands upon the line of argument that is taken to be the most promising argument for externalism, one that appeals to morally loaded cases. Externalism is needed to understand how it could both be true that we’re subject to certain widely accepted normative requirements and that we should be guided by our beliefs. Since internalist views imply that these normative requirements don’t apply to all rational agents or that rational agents shouldn’t be guided by their beliefs even when they believe precisely those things that they ought to believe, we have very good reason for rejecting their picture of what we ought to believe.
Introduction
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The introduction explores the symbolic and practical connections between people and their environments in the premodern period. It outlines Renaissance humoural theory and the implications of this for concepts of cleanliness and health, focusing particularly on the perceived relationship between morality, behaviour and dirt. Using methodologies from social and cultural history, this section also introduces the specific, premodern understanding of space and its agency. Finally, this section outlines the comparison at the heart of this monograph. The traditionally diverging histories of Genoa and Venice are analysed and the justification and methodology underpinning their comparison—as important Northern Italian ports and Republics—is described.
Conclusion
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The conclusion traces continuity and change across the chronological, as well as geographical, boundaries of this study. It underscores the intersection of ideals and practice which has been developed over the previous chapters and reinforces the results of the comparison between the structures and practices of environmental management in Genoa and Venice. It illustrates that, in both cities, environmental management included both public and private initiatives and compares the language used to justify interventions, considering what that reveals about the nature of civic identity in the two ports. Finally it draws together the characterization of environmental management and the varied connections drawn with public health.
A State of Two Nations?
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Since its inception, Madheshi sub-nationalism has been expressed in political mobilization initiated by ethno-regional parties. Against the internal colonization that the Madhesh has long suffered, the Madheshis revolted time and again. Irrespective of internal or horizontal differences among themselves in terms of caste, ethnicity, language, and religion, the Madheshi people have a shared perception that Nepal is a country of two nations, Pahadi and Madheshi. To translate this perception into political constituency and legal documents at a critical time of constitution-making (2008–2015), the Madheshi parties struggled hard both inside and outside the Constituent Assembly. Of three contesting proposals—‘one Madhesh, one Pradesh’, ‘one Madhesh, two Pradesh’ and ‘one Madesh, many Pradeshs’—put forth at the negotiating table, the new constitution adopts the last one. So, the Madheshis, like Janajatis, have strong reservations about the constitutional arrangement of federal design of the country.
Resistance and Reversion
Authors: Hachhethu Krishna 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
At a critical time of constitution-making, Nepal also observed the Khas Arya movements. At the outset, in the first half of a decade-long transition period (2006–2015), the state restructuring project was overwhelmed by Janajati and Madheshi radical agendas, including the Constituent Assembly-I’s recommendation for identity-based federalism. This in turn sought an end to the age-long domination of the Khas Aryas. Such fears worked for an effective mobilization of the hill caste people in launching a powerful counter-movement. Since they are equipped with both ‘ascriptive power’ (e.g. a superior position in the hierarchical caste order) and ‘achieved power’ through education and networking with state machineries (i.e. court, bureaucracy, and security sector), this community eventually prevailed to de-ethnicize the content of the state restructuring project, including on federal design. Indeed, they have controlled the leadership position of almost all the major political parties of the country.
Madness in popular medicine
Authors: Davies Owen 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The early psychiatrists wrestled with popular notions of madness that may seem nonsense today, but which had deep roots in the orthodox medicine of the early modern era and beyond. Everyone could easily accept from personal experience and lore that cranial injuries could bring on madness, for instance, but most of this chapter is taken up with more problematic notions that lie behind terms such as ‘touched in the head’, ‘moon-struck’, ‘sun struck’, ‘possessed’, and ‘mad as a dog’. These suggested that madness was a result of uncontrollable external forces that affected both the minds and bodies of animals and humans equally. They were rooted in ancient medical theories and venerable notions of astrology, providence, sympathetic magic, and supernatural assault.
Making sense of science and technology
Authors: Davies Owen 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Everyone was confronted with the same cognitive challenge when faced with new invisible power sources, mechanical innovations, electrical communications, and the replication of humanity through captured image and voice. But some people were initially confused, suspicious, and disorientated and tried to make sense of technology within the language and framework of magic and the supernatural. Patients’ fears and concerns about mesmerism, electricity, batteries, telephones, X-rays, and the cinematograph were not primeval responses, as some psychiatrists suggested, but essentially human and modern. Familiarity soon allayed fears, although those with severe mental health issues would move on to fixate on some new subject of unseen agency or object of scientific terror.
Introduction
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Dürer’s altarpiece for Jakob Heller was one of most significant and spiritually inspiring commissions he received, and one of only ten altarpieces he ever painted. The introduction argues that it is Dürer’s lost masterpiece. Throughout the sixteenth century, the Heller altarpiece was among Dürer’s best-known paintings, yet soon after completing it in 1509 Dürer stopped taking on such commissions. Heller had made him furious. This prologue sets out the book’s aim to show why the Heller altarpiece was a turning point in Dürer’s career and how looking at the importance of merchants as tastemakers allows us to tell the story of Europe’s emerging art market in new ways.
Herr Jakob Heller
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The merchant Jakob Heller and his wife Katharina Melem were important patrons of art in sixteenth-century Frankfurt. They were rich and influential, and able to control everything in their lives with one exception. Katharina was infertile. In this age, infertility equated to failure in maintaining the family line. This chapter tells the story of the couple, and reveals why devotion for the Virgin Mary, the subject of an altarpiece they commissioned from Dürer, may have been spiritually so important to them. This chapter outlines the couple’s life and their art commissions, and pays particular attention to the question of what the experience of infertility might have entailed.