bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sex Workers and Trafficking
Authors: Berg Heather 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Sexual labor occupies a major role in the global history of how gender, class, race, sexuality, family, citizenship, embodiment, health, and space are theorized and legislated. It is central to discussions of labor, agency, and intimacy, and has taken on an even greater role within the context of advanced global capitalism. In recent years, sexual labor, particularly as it connects to migration, has emerged as a key concern in discussions of global policy. The United Nations, International Labour Organization, and various international, regional, and national legal bodies have, with varying results, made sex work and trafficking policy foci.
Sidgwick, Henry (1838–1900)
Authors: Schultz Bart 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Henry Sidgwick is the least well‐known of the great classical utilitarians. And his professed allegiance to that tradition – the tradition of Jeremy Bentham and James and John Stuart Mill, holding that the greatest happiness is the ultimate normative standard – is quite complex and qualified, since he rejected the empiricism, psychological egoism, and associationism of the earlier utilitarians and was more concerned with individual ethics, the possible conflict between one's own good and the general good, and parapsychology. Indeed, his philosophical reputation primarily rests on his book
The Methods of Ethics
, which first appeared in 1874, and which unlike the earlier utilitarian tradition was primarily concerned with “private ethics,” rather than legal and political reform.
Simon, Herbert Alexander (1916–2001)
Authors: Jordan Sara 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Which discipline can claim the work of Herbert Simon as its own? Computer scientists, cognitive scientists, political scientists, public administration scholars, statisticians, and artificial intelligence specialists all claim a portion of the vast intellectual corpus of Herbert Simon as their own. Of all of the disciplines that claim Simon as an intellectual progenitor, it is unusual for political theorists to claim Simon as their own. This is an unfortunate error in the bibliography of the field. Herbert Simon is one of the twentieth century's foremost theorists of reason, organization, and decision‐making. From Herbert Simon, the fields of politics and political theory gained the concepts bounded rationality, satisficing, and a theory of adaptive organization.
Social Darwinism
Authors: Byrne William F. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Social Darwinism” is a term which refers to the application of evolutionary theory, such as that of Charles Darwin, to human society. Beyond this vague description the term is a problematic one, partly because it has usually been invoked by those opposed to (rather than sympathetic to) whatever particular idea or thinker is in question. Consequently there is no significant body of self‐identified Social Darwinian thought on which to draw in order to impart a precise and detailed meaning to the term. It has, however, been politically significant.
Social Democracy
Authors: Berman Sheri 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSocial democracy, as originally conceived, represented a full‐fledged leftist alternative to Marxism that had at its core a distinctive belief in the primacy of politics and communitarianism. The key to understanding its true nature lies in the circumstances of its birth. Social democracy's foundations were laid in the late nineteenth century when Eduard Bernstein and other democratic revisionists began attacking the main pillars of orthodox Marxism's historical materialism and class struggle, and arguing for an alternative based on new principles, the primacy of politics, and cross‐class cooperation.
Sociobiology and Politics
Authors: Hannagan Rebecca J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Edward O. Wilson published the infamous
Sociobiology
in 1975. Sociobiology – the synthesis of ethology and population biology – was a new discipline that argued for the eventual subsummation of the social sciences into the biological sciences. Despite intense criticism, Wilson's sociobiology has come to fruition, not in a political movement within the social sciences against “leftist” critique, but in a fundamental shift in the belief that science can answer fundamental questions about human values and behavior.
Socrates (469–399 BCE)
Authors: Cherry Kevin M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
We know little about Socrates, who so changed the course of philosophy that those who preceded him are called Presocratics. Tradition tells us one way Socrates differed from those predecessors is that he wrote nothing. Our knowledge of him, therefore, is unavoidably mediated: we know Socrates only through others, three of whom – Aristophanes, Plato, and Xenophon – knew him personally and confront us with differing and potentially unreliable evidence. Aristophanes is an obvious, if friendly critic, and Plato and Xenophon present themselves as defenders of Socrates. We might also look to scattered remarks of Aristotle and other Greek authors and to the reports handed down by later generations – Cicero, for instance, and Diogenes Laertius – but discovering the “historical Socrates” has long posed a challenge for scholars.
Sophists
Authors: Corey David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Sophists were professional teacher‐intellectuals who first appeared in Greece in the fifth centurybce. Though they hailed from different cities around the Greek‐speaking world and traveled widely in search of students, they were most famous for their trips to Athens, where they captivated audiences with their public speeches (epideixeis), offered private instruction to politically aspiring youths and conversed with some of the most prominent figures of the age from Pericles to Socrates. Neither a school nor a movement in any strict sense, the Sophists varied markedly in what they taught and how they viewed the world. A common error has been to present them too uniformly under one or another basic heading: rhetoricians, relativists, skeptics, atheists, immoralists, humanists, or democratic theorists. None of these labels applies adequately to the Sophists across the board. Because of their diversity, the best way to consider the Sophists and their historical significance is to proceed figure by figure.
Sovereignty
Authors: Miller Ted H. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

“Sovereignty,” in its most common usage, suggests supremacy. Inherently aspirational, perhaps impossible, the concept compels persons to ask who will have the last word. Within a community, will sovereignty be exercised by the people, be rooted in fundamental laws, a deliberative body, a particular office, some combination of the above, or perhaps the decision of a particular individual? Political philosophers within the liberal tradition, such as John Stuart Mill, have spoken of a sovereign self, and this has raised questions about the limits and scope human autonomy. Political theorists and political participants past and present have argued over wshat is actually, or could be, possessed when states, peoples, institutions, or persons claim sovereignty. There are debates over the origins and future of such claims, and whether these claims
ought
to be made.
Spanish Civil War
Authors: Ackelsberg Martha A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The Spanish Civil War (1936–9) was as much an ideological, as a military, battle. On one level, it may be understood as the first stage of the battle between democracy and fascism that was World War II. At the same time, it was the scene of deep and bitter conflicts with longstanding roots in Spanish history and culture. On the one side (the rebels) was a loose agglomeration of traditionalists, conservatives, the official Catholic church, and modern fascists; on the other, a republic supported (or at least defended) by groups that had profound conflicts among themselves, including revolutionary, or libertarian, socialists, and anarchists and authoritarian communists. It provided a context in which multiple, and profoundly different, worldviews struggled to be enacted, if not to dominate.
Stanton, Elizabeth Cady (1815–1902)
Authors: Perry Elisabeth Israels 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Elizabeth Cady Stanton was the leading political thinker of the American nineteenth‐century women's rights movement. The author of the 1848 “Declaration of Sentiments,” she attacked “coverture,” the common law principle that subordinated married women to their husbands, and opposed women's exclusion from juries, the professions, and the ballot box. She then organized women's rights conventions, wrote articles, and lectured widely on women's rights. After the Civil War, she opposed the constitutional amendments that enfranchised freedmen and not women. She advocated equal access to divorce and the right of married women to refuse childbearing, and attacked the Bible as a key source of women's subjugation.
State, The
Authors: Coole Diana 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe state is the pre‐eminent political institution of the modern world. As such, it occupies a pivotal role within political theory and political science as well as within the everyday lives of citizens. The discipline of international relations is built on the premise that the state is the principal political actor within an international system of states, while domestically it is the seat of government. Today every continent with the exception of Antarctica is divided into states, of which almost 200 are recognized by the United Nations.
State Church
Authors: Liebell Susan P. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Although both concepts – state and church – evolve over western political history, all state churches have two central elements:
one
religious group is granted official status by the state, and the state religion or church is controlled by the head of state of the government. The
degree
of control of the church by the state, or the state by the church, varies significantly from case to case.
Statelessness
Authors: Arnold Kathleen R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In modern and contemporary western thought, theorists have been particularly interested in notions of displacement, homelessness, and statelessness, often connecting them to feelings of alienation (which, in turn has often been linked to critiques of capitalism); nationalist and colonial movements of inclusion (Self) and radical exclusion (Other); and critical reactions to mass production, an increasingly technological society, and the homogenization of culture (thus, introducing ideas like “anomie” and “mass culture”). The term statelessness has also been linked to more literal notions of homelessness, as both an inevitably individual and yet increasingly, mass phenomenon in the early twentieth century. Earlier notions of alienation thus took on a new form at the turn of the century, during the world wars and in the interwar period as notions of homelessness and statelessness were no longer merely “spiritual” or visceral but a very real and permanent form of displacement.
Sublimation
Authors: Fred Alford C. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAs the term was originally defined by Freud (1905), sublimation referred to the deflection of erotic drives from their original sexual aim toward more socially constructive activities, thus alleviating the need for constant repression. Artistic creation, work that requires mastery (that is, not mere labor), and the activities of raising and caring for a family are all examples of sublimated erotic drives.
Syndicalism
Authors: Boggs Carl 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Derived from the French word
syndicalisme
, meaning “trade unionism,” syndicalism emerged as a theoretical and political force in several European countries – mainly Russia, France, Spain, and Italy – in the period spanning the 1890s to the 1930s. While somewhat politically moderate in origins, associated with economic bargaining between workers and capitalists, syndicalism became quickly radicalized, evolving into anarcho‐syndicalism that attempted to bring together three broad tendencies: Marxism, anarchism, and trade unionism.
Tacitus, Publius Cornelius (ca. 56–115/18?)
Authors: Waszink Jan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The Roman historian Publius Cornelius Tacitus was likely born in southern Gaul (modern France), embarked on an administrative career in Rome and the provinces, and subsequently turned to writing history. His most important works for political thought are the
Annales
and
Historiae
, which describe the period of the Julio‐Claudian imperial dynasty and the events following the death of the emperor Nero in 69
ce
respectively.
Tagore, Rabindranath (1861–1941)
Authors: Godrej Farah 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Rabindranath Tagore, known informally as “Rabindranath” or “Gurudev,” was a prolific Indian poet, philosopher, playwright, composer, novelist, and educator. The first non‐European to be awarded the Nobel Prize for literature in 1913, Tagore is a towering figure in Indian artistic and intellectual history. Best known for his massive corpus of plays, poetry and novels in Bengali, Tagore was also a public intellectual and political philosopher. His political work was written within the context of the Indian nationalist movement for independence, which was at its height during the latter half of his life.
Theocracy
Authors: Ritter Ted 
Published: August 2023

AbstractTheocracy describes a system of government in which God or a similar deity rules either directly or through earthly representation in the form of priests or other divine rulers. It includes the belief that the ruling government receives the power to govern directly from God. The individual or individuals who govern receive their instructions and laws from God. In a theocratic government God himself is recognized as the head of the state.
Thucydides (ca. 460/455?–ca. 400 BCE)
Authors: Saxonhouse Arlene W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThucydides, an Athenian, authored a work describing the conflict between the Athenians and the Spartans, generally referred to as the Peloponnesian War, that occurred during the last three decades of the fifth centurybce(1998). Thus, Thucydides is often described as the “historian” of the Peloponnesian War, though the practice of history in ancient Greece did not have the baggage it currently possesses and though it is through his narrative that he constructs a series of conflicts with an intervening peace into a unified war. Thucydides says simply in his first sentence: “Thucydides the Athenian wrote [zunegrapse] about the war of the Peloponnesians and the Athenians and how they fought with one another.” He adds that he began writing immediately when the war began expecting that it would be a significant event and “most worthy of report.”
Time and Political Theory
Authors: Hutchings Kimberly 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Time, like space, is crucial as an organizing principle in different aspects of our everyday experience, from our working day to our religious beliefs. In the context of thinking about time in relation to political theory, “time” refers to any kind of temporal ordering. A temporal ordering is one that distinguishes between past, present, and future. When we order things temporally then we use terms such as beginning, ending, origin, return, speed, acceleration, interruption, continuity, novelty, repetition, sameness, teleology, eternity, and so on. Political theories that use these kinds of terms are either implicitly or explicitly imputing a temporal order to political phenomena. This temporal order in turn plays a role in the kinds of claims that can be made about what politics is, can, and ought to be.
Tocqueville, Alexis de (1805–59)
Authors: Janara Laura 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAlexis de Tocqueville was born in Paris in 1805, taking his place as the third and youngest son of an aristocratic Norman family. These circumstances of birth situated him between the fading world of theancien régime(what he calls “aristocracy”), and the emergent world that he calls “democracy.” Indeed, he came expressly to understand himself as a man located between these two distinct “social states.”
Tragedy of the Commons
Authors: Thiele Leslie Paul 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The tragedy of the commons refers to a collective action problem wherein commonly owned or shared resources are exploited to the point of severe degradation or destruction. The notion that public goods are susceptible to overexploitation goes back at least to Aristotle, who reflected in his
Politics
that “That which is common to the greatest number has the least care bestowed upon it.” The problem received its formal articulation in an article published by Garrett Hardin (1915–2003) in
Science
entitled “The Tragedy of the Commons.” Hardin's presentation of the issue, its practical significance, and the most prominent scholarship that developed in its wake are addressed here.
Unger, Roberto Mangabeira (1947–)
Authors: Hutchinson Allan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Roberto Mangabeira Unger is a Brazilian social and legal theorist who has spent his career at Harvard Law School. A polymathic and prolific scholar, he has cultivated an almost messianic persona in his writings and presentations. While primarily engaged in theoretical work, he has also remained active in Brazilian oppositional movements and politics.
Utilitarianism
Authors: Weinstein David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Utilitarianism is a form of consequentialism. Consequentialism stipulates that the moral rightness of an act depends exclusively on the value of that act's consequences or on the consequences of following rules requiring similar acts. Utilitarian consequentialism is hedonistic in turn, holding that the value of an act or rule's consequences depends only on the pleasure or pain in those consequences. Utilitarian consequentialism is, in addition, typically maximizing insofar as moral rightness depends on the consequences with the most pleasure and least pain. Finally, utilitarian consequentialism presupposes equal consideration and agent‐neutrality, namely that everyone's pleasures and pains matter equally and that the perspective of the agent doing the action is normatively irrelevant. Needless to say, utilitarian versions of consequentialism have come in a variety of permutations, each reformulated in response to old and new criticisms.
Utopia
Authors: Stillman Peter G. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractUtopias are proposals for a better way of life. Most commonly, when people think of utopias, they think of written utopian texts, relatively detailed descriptions of alternative societies, brought about by human action, that criticize existing societies and propose a good society with principles and practices better than those of the authors’ and readers’ own societies. Closely related are the mirror image of utopian texts, dystopias, which are relatively detailed descriptions of societies worse than those in which the author and readers currently live and that criticize specific tendencies or trends in those societies. Some consider as a separate group anti‐utopias, or descriptions of societies that criticize or oppose a specific utopia or utopias in general. Activists have been moving beyond textual construction and have been building utopian communities (sometimes called intentional communities), whose members agree to live together according to their shared values and which promise a substantially different and better way of life than that of mainstream society. Because the desire for a better way of life is felt by many cultures and individuals, one can also talk of utopianism, utopian dreaming, or utopian longing, where the desire, wish, or idea for a better world or a better way of life exists and can be manifest in dreams and myth, in art and music, or in written texts that are books or pamphlets, poems and songs, or brief prose passages.
Veblen, Thorstein (1857–1929)
Authors: Schroeder Susan K. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Thorstein Veblen is one of the founders of what is now known as original institutional economics (OIE), and the political dimension of his work has been traditionally cast in that context. Veblen's method is multidisciplinary in the sense that elements of psychology, anthropology, history, and sociology are integral to his expositions of agents’ behavior within a capitalist market economy. The political aspects of Veblen's writings are primarily directed at the role of the modern capitalist state as a mode of governance. He observed that the modern capitalist state does not provide enough support to fulfill the needs of the underlying population because the decisions, interpretations, and precedents embodied within its policies, legislation, and legal structures have been influenced by vested (business) interests.
Vico, Giambattista (1668–1744)
Authors: Verene Donald Phillip 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Throughout his career Vico was professor of Latin eloquence (rhetoric) at the University of Naples (1699–1741). In 1735 he was appointed Royal Historiographer by Charles of Bourbon. Vico is widely known as the modern founder of the philosophy of history, which he pioneered in his major work, published in two versions, the first in 1725, the second in 1730 and revised in 1744, the full title of which is
Principles of New Science of Giambattista Vico concerning the Common Nature of the Nations
, commonly known as the
Scienza nuova
or
New Science
. The title was inspired by Bacon's
Novum Organum
and even more directly by Galileo's
Dialoghi delle Nuove Scienze
.
Virgil (70–19 BCE)
Authors: Dominik William J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractVirgil composed theEclogues(42–38bce),Georgics(37–29) andAeneid(29–19) during the period covering such events as Caesar's deification in 42, the civil wars, Octavian and Antony's defeat of Brutus and Cassius at the battle of Philippi in 42, the land confiscations in Italy in 41, Octavian's defeat under Agrippa of Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31, and his award of the title Augustus in 27. The concept of geopolitics – the association between geography, nature, and contemporary politics – is articulated throughout the Virgilian corpus. The persistent intrusion of political issues, themes, and events in the geographical setting of Italy constitutes a political and ideological statement.
Virtue
Authors: Button Mark E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractMoral and political philosophers have been interested in the concept of virtue since the beginning of recorded thought. While some of these discussions frequently take on a highly abstract form and deal with complex matters of epistemology and psychology, one of the initial guiding inspirations for the inquiry into virtue was not to know what virtue is, but to become good. In accordance with this practical consideration and its focus on the formation of good character, ethics and the concern for virtue were understood as a branch of political science whose proper end was to make good citizens, capable of noble actions. Despite the more recent tendency to characterize these kinds of commitments as entailing a form of “moral perfectionism” that might otherwise strain credulity, Aristotle freely owned that “it is no easy task to be good.” From Confucius, Plato, and Aristotle, to Aquinas, Hume, and Kant, moral and political philosophers have not only inquired into the nature, purpose, and end of virtue, but have also provided complex and diverse accounts of a range of more specific virtues (and vices). For their part, political theorists have also shown an acute interest in asking whether specific ethical virtues (or what are perceived to be good ethical qualities) remain so within the unique context of political deliberation, public judgment, and collective action and whether certain qualities that might be labeled vices in personal moral life are capable of serving as necessary virtues in public‐political life.