bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Patriarchy
Authors: Richards David A. J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPatriarchy marks the hierarchical authority of priest‐fathers over other men and boys and all women and girls. It is a mistake to think of patriarchy as an exclusively contemporary term of criticism arising from and within feminism. John Locke, the father of liberal constitutionalism, begins the great argument of theSecond Treatiseonly after he has refuted in theFirst TreatiseRobert Filmer's patriarchal defense of absolute monarchy, based on a divine right theory that Filmer traces lineally to Adam, the first patriarch. It is Locke's criticism of the unreasonableness of Filmer's version of theologically rooted patriarchal absolutism that is foundational to modern liberal political theory. This theory arises from an ideal of political ethics, treating persons as equal bearers of basic human rights, that condemns political absolutism and calls for some form of constitutional democracy that both better respects basic human rights (like the right to conscience and speech) and renders politics democratically accountable through regular elections. It is a tribute to the power and influence of Locke's argument for liberal democracy in theSecond Treatisethat almost no one, except a few feminists, even reads let alone remembers theFirst Treatise. But the few feminists, like Carole Pateman, who have taken theFirst Treatiseseriously may be on to something, namely that Locke's version of egalitarian contractualism does not take seriously the degree to which, for example, patriarchal marriage, based on the alleged naturalness of gender hierarchy, violates his moral egalitarianism (women are not treated as equals).
Plutarch (ca. 45–120)
Authors: Van Hoof Lieve 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Plutarch of Chaeronea was a Greek philosopher living under the early Roman Empire. He held various offices in local politics, traveled to Rome as an ambassador, and befriended many powerful Romans. According to Byzantine sources, the emperors Trajan and Hadrian conferred honorary political insignia and offices on him. In his large oeuvre, two groups of texts deal with politics.
Political Obligation
Authors: Hirschmann Nancy J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPolitical obligation refers to the requirement of citizens to obey the authority of their state, a requirement sometimes referred to as “the duty to obey the law.” However, while both legal and political obligation pertain to such a duty, legal obligation is based in the law itself; we must do X because the law tells us to. But that begs the prior question: Why should we obey the law? The answer to that pertains to political obligation, which grounds the legitimacy of a state's law‐creating capacity.
Political Psychology
Authors: Rosenberg Shawn 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Political psychology is a hybrid enterprise that integrates two disciplines, political science and psychology. It is an uneasy coupling. Both disciplines have a common interest in explaining human thought and behavior, but diverge significantly in their characterization of these phenomena. Political science tends to adopt a collectivist approach. The focus is on structures of power and how they are realized in political institutions and culture. In contrast, psychology takes a more individualist approach. It focuses on qualities of cognition, emotion, and motivation.
Political Satire
Authors: McHugh Mary A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Throughout history there have been many forms of political satire (metaphor, allusion, hyperbole, pun, analogy, and deadpan). Political satire is a device that allows political opinions to be expressed through intentional and humorous distortions of reality. Plays, novels, cartoons, movies, and television programs are all forms of political satire that have been used to critique and analyze politics, politicians, government, and human life in ways that provide entertainment to the observer.
Politics of Identity
Authors: Shabani Omid Payrow 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn order to understand the “politics of identity,” it is useful, first, to get a good grasp of what the concept of “identity” means. Identity is a complex and multivalent concept. We have an abstract or universal identity as human beings. Our humanity is our human identity, not just biologically, but also morally. This abstract identity gets filled in and becomes concrete in a particular identity. There are two major approaches to the study of identity: essentialism, which takes identity as constituted by some inherent and immutable features; and constructivism, which takes identity as constituted through life experiences and interaction with others in various spheres.
Popper, Karl Raimund (1902–94)
Authors: Stokes Geoffrey 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Popper articulated a distinctive political theory of freedom and reason that combined insights from normative epistemology, studies of scientific method, and the history of political thought. Popper was an influential critic of fascism and communism. He opposed intellectual dogmatism, which he saw as likely to sanction political authoritarianism and physical violence. In place of dogmatism he proposed fallibilism, an epistemological doctrine based on the assumption that human beings always have imperfect knowledge.
Populism
Authors: Grattan Laura 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Populism is a style of political discourse and practice that calls for the return of power to the people. The term populism derives from the Latin
populus
, referring both to a people, as in a political community, and to the common people, as in the masses. The populist tradition thus recalls the popular assemblies of ancient Athens and the plebeian councils of the Roman Republic. In modern politics, populism draws its force from the ideal of popular sovereignty, which holds that citizens are the fundamental source of power and authority in a legitimate political order. Populist actors and leaders claim to embody or represent the voice of the sovereign people, often dramatizing a conflict that pits the common people against elite concentrations of economic, cultural, or governmental power. Because it promises to return power to the people, and exposes fault lines in established orders, populism raises ongoing questions about the meanings, limits, and prospects of democracy.
Positivism
Authors: Eidlin Fred 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Positivism” refers to a family of views about knowledge that take the natural sciences in the tradition of Galileo and Newton as the exemplar for all knowledge. There is no single, unambiguous definition of positivism since the term is used in many different ways – usually vaguely and imprecisely. Some usages, notably “Comtian positivism,” the “logical positivism” of the Vienna Circle, “positive economics,” and its political science relative “positive political theory,” are clearly definable. Yet it would be misleading to assume that these definable senses of positivism capture its meaning. In its broadest sense, positivism can be identified with the scientific worldview that has come to pervade almost all of modern thought, including common sense. In this sense, almost everyone is a positivist.
Protestant Political Thought
Authors: Brink Paul A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe various traditions of Protestant political thought – Lutheran, Calvinist, Anabaptist – can be distinguished according to their characteristic strategies of cultural engagement, as well as their distinctive theological emphases, particularly concerning the relationship between nature and grace. A general openness to democratic or republican political systems, an emphasis on freedom of conscience, a limited state, and the development of a right to resistance against tyranny are all reviewed. In the contemporary era, “family resemblances” of each tradition can still be determined in representative thinkers (Bonhoeffer, Niebuhr, Barth, Kuyper, Yoder). Other Protestant movements receive special mention: the African American prophetic tradition, Pentecostalism, and American evangelicalism.
Public Reason
Authors: Jörke Dirk 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of public reason is a contemporary invention, reacting to what John Rawls called the “fact of reasonable pluralism” of religious and other comprehensive doctrines. The main idea is that in public debates only those arguments should prevail that can be justified in a political way, without relying on a particular comprehensive doctrine. Nevertheless, the aim of freeing the political world from religious dominance in order to prevent civil war or a religiously motivated suppression of minorities goes back to Thomas Hobbes. For Hobbes, public reason is the reason of the king, “God's supreme lieutenant.” His function is to end public conflicts about the true nature of God or, as Hobbes writes inLeviathan, whether stories about miracles are true or not. The king authoritatively decides what is fact and what are lies, particularly with regard to religious disputes, and thereby pacifies religious conflicts. His word counts as public reason. It must be strictly separated from the private beliefs of his subjects. In their private life, subjects are free to believe whatever they want, but not in the public sphere. Here the king has to care for peace and stability and therefore must end religious disputes through his public and binding decision. Thus, “when it comes to confession of that faith, the private reason must submit to the public; that is to say, to God's lieutenant.” In other words, for Hobbes, public reason is first and foremost an authoritative and political reason.
Realism and Neorealism in International Relations Theory
Authors: Joseph Jonathan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Realism is the dominant school in the study of international relations and covers a broad range of positions which share certain family resemblances but also contain significant differences. The most significant difference is between classical realism, which places emphasis on human and domestic factors, and neorealism, which emphasizes how the structure of the international system determines state behavior. Neoclassical realism attempts something of a synthesis of the two positions.
Reconciliation
Authors: Verdeja Ernesto 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of reconciliation has received renewed attention from political theorists following the democratic transitions of the past thirty years and engagements with historical injustices in established democracies. Nevertheless, “reconciliation” is still a highly contested term, with disagreements over its substance, scope and proper relationship to politics. In its most general sense reconciliation refers to a condition of nonviolent, mutually acceptable coexistence where former enemies come to re‐envision one another as fellow citizens. Reconciliation debates often center on the appropriateness of trials and accountability, truth commissions, lustration (purges), official apologies, memorials, reparations, amnesties, and other institutions and policies to address the past. Where violence was between nations, reconciliation normally refers to re‐establishing social, political and economic relations among erstwhile adversaries. In some instances, it is incorrect to speak ofreconciliation, since there is no prior morally acceptable state to which to return.
Reformation
Authors: Eisenach Eldon J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Protestant Reformation set in motion a series of largely unintended revolutions, running from the sudden transformation of European geopolitics and political thought, through the formation of the modern nation‐state, and down to the reshaping of families and the ideals of individuality. Martin Luther (1483–1546), a German, and Jean Calvin (1509–64), a Frenchman, were the leading figures around which Reformation political thought, Reformation churches, and Protestant states and societies took their bearings.
Regicide
Authors: Idris Murad 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRegicide is the killing of a monarch. Michael Walzer distinguishes between two kinds of regicide, which map onto private assassination and public execution. The first kind is when a monarch is killed but monarchy remains; indeed, the killer may even be a would‐be king. The second kind is the destruction of monarchy itself, symbolically “cutting off the king's head.” Coded as among the worst crimes in Europe, regicide's punishment “had to constitute thesummumof all possible tortures,” much like Robert‐François Damiens's public torture for his attempted regicide of King Louis XV.
Religion and Politics
Authors: Blackford Russell 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Religious traditions, organizations, and communities make claims to authority that can easily bring them into conflict with each other, with individuals who reject their claims, and with worldly political institutions. In many cases, religious leaders and expositors argue that political authority is ultimately grounded in religious truths, and that the latter ought to prevail in cases of apparent disagreement. Over the past three or four centuries, however, claims of this sort have encountered searching, and sometimes passionate, critiques. In the upshot, the relationship between political and religious authority is complex and controversial.
Risk
Authors: Wolff Jonathan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Life is full of risks, understood as the possibility of actual harm. (Risk can also be positive: the possibility of gain, but it is the negative that will be the focus here.) Risk gives rise to many puzzles. One is metaphysical: is risk an objective fact about the world, or is it “socially constructed”? Another is moral: many risks could be reduced, if not completely eliminated, while at the same time we often find ourselves facing new risks. When is it morally permissible for individuals to be subjected to risks that could be reduced or eliminated?
Rowbotham, Sheila (1943–)
Authors: Randall Vicky 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Sheila Rowbotham has been a central figure within British socialist feminism from the 1960s. Her 1969 pamphlet, “Women's Liberation and the New Politics,” played an influential role in setting the emerging Women's Liberation agenda. Her output since then has included no less than 19 books, all in different ways contributing to the development and application of socialist feminist thought.
Samizdat
Authors: Lindsey Jason Royce 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Samizdat is a Russian term that means self‐published. Within the context of the Soviet Union in the twentieth century, this seemingly innocuous designation carried great political significance. It indicated that a work was not officially approved and likely to be censored by the regime. Thus, samizdat is historically associated with the resistance activity of political dissidents during the Cold War. Since the collapse of Communism in Eastern Europe, samizdat has become a broader label. Today it is frequently applied to independent literature, journalism, or art that challenges: the politics of a repressive government, the restrictive customs of a society, or the constraining dogma of other cultural authorities.
Sandinismo
Authors: Beede Benjamin R. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSandinismo can be best characterized as a millennial movement that combined political, economic, social, philosophical, and spiritual elements in an effort to achieve a new world order. This ideology, developed by Nicaraguan Augusto Sandino, is so complex that only a summary can be given in a short space. Long after Sandino's murder by Somoza forces in 1934, Carlos Fonseca Amador further elaborated Sandino's views, making them an important part of the Sandinista movement that overthrew Nicaragua's Somoza government and battled covert United States intervention for years.
Sartre, Jean‐Paul (1905–80)
Authors: Gordon Lewis R. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSartre's political thought could be characterized by three elements: (1) his life as a political project and performance, (2) freedom as a challenge of the relationship of ethics to political life, and (3) the historical weight of history and an imposing social world on the task of creating institutions that do not inhibit the development of human potential and relationships. In all, these boil down to the question of political life as an effort to bring the human being to the fore in the human world.
Saxonhouse, Arlene W. (1944–)
Authors: Gabrielson Teena 
Published: August 2023

AbstractArlene W. Saxonhouse is the Caroline Robbins Collegiate Professor of Political Science and Women's Studies at the University of Michigan where she has been a faculty member since 1972. During 1990–3 Saxonhouse served as chair of the department of political science and during 1993–6 she held the James Orin Murfin Professorship of Political Science.
Shapiro, Ian (1956–)
Authors: Switzer David , Ellis Elisabeth 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIan Shapiro is Sterling Professor of political science and Henry R. Luce Director of the Whitney and Betty MacMillan Center for International and Area Studies at Yale University. Born in South Africa, he received his BSc with honors from Bristol University in the UK. Shapiro holds PhD and JD degrees from Yale University, and served as the chair of the Department of Political Science at Yale from 1999–2004. He is a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and the American Philosophical Society, and a member of the Council on Foreign Relations.
Sieyès, Emmanuel Joseph (1748–1836)
Authors: Fauré Christine 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEmmanuel Joseph Sieyès (1748–1836) was a key figure in the promotion of representative government during the French Revolution and one of the most original thinkers of his time, especially regarding constitutional theory. He was vicar‐general under the protection of the bishop of Chartres, and he participated, in 1787, in the Assembly of theOrléanais, which reformed tax administration. He publishedlibelles, including the famousEssay on Privileges(1788) andWhat Is the Third‐Estate?(1789), the latter being the most widely read text of the French Revolution.
Spengler, Oswald (1880–1936)
Authors: Farrenkopf John 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Oswald Spengler is one of the twentieth century's leading philosophers of world history. His
Decline of the West
, published in two volumes in 1918 and 1922, presents a sweeping vision of world history in which autonomous high cultures cyclicly rise and decline. It is noteworthy for its criticism of the Eurocentricity of pre‐World War I historical thought and the optimism of Enlightenment thinkers and their heirs.
The One and the Many
Authors: Goodfield Eric 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDespite common contemporary usage, the phrase “the one and the many” does not actually originate from consideration of political matters. In fact, Plato's famed borrowing from the historical Parmenides and Heraclitus originates in metaphysical debates rather than those explicitly political. While the term may nowadays have become shorthand for referencing issues of power and its concentration or distribution in a given political community, say in a democratic or authoritarian system, the intellectual origins of the problem of the one and the many have a conceptual basis that preceded and anticipated the political metaphor in ancient political thought. Plato converted the conceptual dilemma to a political one in asking whether abstract political collectives (nations, states, institutions, etc.) on the one hand or their numerous concrete members on the other should be given political priority. Plato's political balancing of the one and the many in the polis provides a foundation for considering its impact on modern political thinkers who worked through the problem in formulating their own conceptions of political belonging and freedom in response.
Tyranny of the Majority
Authors: Josephson Peter B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The tyranny of the majority is a concept developed most famously in Alexis de Tocqueville's
Democracy in America
. The term was coined by Tocqueville, and later adopted by John Stuart Mill in
On Liberty
. As more and more political communities turn to democratic forms, the problem of the potential for democracy to behave tyrannically becomes increasingly important.
Urbanism
Authors: Craggs David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Urbanism, broadly defined, is the study of cities, their economic and social structures and their development over time. It is a multidisciplinary intellectual tradition that incorporates theoretical and practical approaches. Cities have been recognized as a historical feature of human civilization from Mesopotamia onwards, but prior to the mid‐nineteenth century no society could be defined as predominantly urbanized. The Industrial Revolution transformed the function of cities to become motors of industrial capitalism and home to rapid urbanization of the working population. Such transformations led to great changes in the structuring of society and class relations, thus forming the intellectual focus of the first urban scholars such as Friedrich Engels, Karl Marx, and Charles Booth
Voting
Authors: Stone Peter 
Published: August 2023

AbstractVoting is a social practice whereby a group of people express opinions regarding a set of alternatives. These opinions function as input into avoting rule, the output of which determines some kind of social outcome. The presence of such a rule is critical; it is what distinguishes voting from, say, a public opinion poll. The input a voting rule receives from each voter could be a single option from the set of alternatives, or a subset of the alternatives, or a rank ordering of some or all of the alternatives. The output determined by the voting rule could be enactment of a law or policy; a resolution of some controversy (e.g., is Mr. X guilty of murder?); or the assignment of one or more persons to public office.
War
Authors: Der Derian James 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWar might not be the father of all things, as famously claimed by Greek philosopher Heraclitus, but in the name of war there probably have been as many books written as battles fought, as much ink spent as blood spilt. Many of the west's originating myths (Iliadand Bible), foundational texts (Declaration of IndependenceandCommunist Manifesto), and modern treatises on war (Clausewitz'sOn War) as well as peace (Kant'sPerpetual Peace) were created in response to religious, communal, civil, class, or interstate conflicts. As goes war, so too paintings, photographs, cinema, television, and other means of representation that produce grand narratives of “us” (the good, pure, and saved) as opposed to “them” (the evil, corrupt, and damned). This constitutive power to produce identity from difference and meaning out of violence gives war a political, theoretical, and aesthetic advantage over more serene aspects of life, including, sad to say, the story of “peace” (marked by the conspicuous absence between “Patriotism” and “Peirce, Charles” in this encyclopedia).
Weil, Simone (1909–43)
Authors: Bańkowski Zenon 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Simone Weil was born in Paris in 1909 into a comfortable bourgeois family. She studied philosophy and taught it in schools but was also politically active in left‐wing circles. She worked in a car factory for nine months, experiencing the pain of life on the assembly line. She was in the Spanish Civil War in an anarchist unit but had to leave after an accident during training. After Spain she had mystical experiences and developed a theology that placed her very close to Roman Catholicism, though she never joined that church. During World War II she was in the south of France – then escaped to the USA to be with her parents. However, she returned to Europe, to London, working with the Free French. She died of tuberculosis and malnutrition (she had refused to eat more than the rations in France) in Ashford, Kent in 1943.