bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Introduction
Authors: Boffey Julia , Edwards A. S. G. 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThis chapter provides an overview of the topics surveyed in the volume as a whole. After acknowledging the pervasive influence and significance of Chaucer for fifteenth-century poetry, it goes on to situate the writing of verse in a range of contexts—historical, social, and cultural. It examines the various milieux in which poetry was produced and considers the range of patrons who were instrumental in its creation. The chapter then identifies some of the forms of regional difference that had a bearing on poetic composition. It also considers the significant continuities and innovations that can be seen in the verse of this century. The chapter describes the critical rehabilitation over the past fifty years of the literary achievements of the fifteenth century, before concluding with a summary account of the organizing principles and contents of the volume.
Literary Language
Authors: Nuttall Jenni 
Published: May 2023

AbstractChaucer’s innovations paved the way for the literary language of English poetry of the fifteenth century. Chaucer’s style was praised by poets such as Hoccleve and Lydgate who continued and developed it to serve their own stylistic purposes. Lydgate, for example, elaborates the aureate style. There is also a broader tradition of aureate language, in Marian lyric and in other genres such as the chronicles of John Hardyng and in translations from Latin and French. In addition, this chapter examines aspects of fifteenth-century English and Scottish poetry which develop types of experimental ‘strange’ or ‘rough’ English, mixing aureate terms with colloquial language.
Poetry in Print
Authors: Echard Siân 
Published: May 2023

AbstractCaxton was a central figure in the transmission of medieval English poetry, particularly the works of Chaucer, John Gower, and John Lydgate. This chapter considers the print presentation of these poets, both by Caxton and by his immediate successors. It also outlines the transmission of other medieval poetic forms, including popular verse romance and alliterative verse. Caxton’s successor, Wynkyn de Worde, expanded Caxton’s poetic list, adding many romance texts. Richard Pynson continued to expand the list of English poetic offerings, and was important for transmitting contemporary as well as older verse texts. The chapter explores how paratextual features and illustration framed texts for their audiences, contributing to developing ideas about authorship and the medieval poetic canon. It also considers the interaction between manuscript and print in this early period. It closes with a consideration of what did not see print in the early period.
Robert Henryson
Authors: Martin Joanna 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThis chapter offers a detailed exploration of the style and form of Henryson’s poems. It suggests that Henryson harnesses form to subject matter to encourage spiritual and moral growth and the development of reason and good judgement. His mastery of a number of forms, including rhyme royal, tail-rhyme, and alliterative verse enables him to encourage interpretive alertness in his readers. The chapter also examines Henryson’s manipulation of registers, from the idiomatic and proverbial to the specialist and technical, and the richness of his descriptive language. It argues that these are testimony to Henryson’s belief in the transformative power of poetry.
The State
Authors: Fraser Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The chapter surveys views on the origin and justification of political authority and on methods of governing, including moral education, rigorously enforced standards or laws, non-interference, and responsiveness to the people. The discussion considers several accounts of the origin of authority from a state of nature before turning to the controversy concerning whether governance should rely primarily on moral education or on strictly enforced laws, backed up by rewards and punishments. The discussion explores the perfectionist theories of rule in Guǎnzǐ and Xúnzǐ, the standards-based approach of the Legalists, and contemporaneous critics’ practical and conceptual analyses of Legalism’s flaws. Last, the chapter looks at conceptions of governance in the Zhuāngzǐ, which reject the idea that the state should govern by educating the populace or by controlling their behaviour through rewards and punishments and instead advocate a type of self-organizing community, in which authority exists to facilitate people’s self-so activity.
Ethics
Authors: Fraser Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the content of the dào (way), the right or apt way of life. It explores the role-based approach to ethics found in texts such as Xúnzǐ and Guǎnzǐ and then examines views that tie the well-lived life to health and to the ideal of fulfilling one’s inherent nature. The chapter next considers and critiques later Mohist consequentialism, which interprets what is morally right as what promotes the benefit of all, while incorporating social roles into the norms by which we promote benefit. The discussion then explores views from the Zhuāngzǐ that reject mainstream moral concepts such as benevolence and duty altogether in favour of a non-moralized conception of applying our powers of agency directly to follow dào, understood as a fitting path through shifting and transforming circumstances.
Epistemology
Authors: Fraser Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
In late classical thought, knowing is understood as a competence in distinguishing, sorting, and assessing things. Epistemological discussion focuses on how to interact with the world competently, understanding and avoiding potential faults in epistemic performance. The chapter sketches the analytical treatment of epistemological concepts in the later Mohist dialectical writings. It then examines Xúnzǐ’s and the Annals’ discussions of epistemic excellence and conscientiousness, both which are concerned with pursuing competent epistemic performance by identifying and applying appropriate criteria so as to avoid bias. The discussion next moves on to explore how, perhaps in response to views such as those in Xúnzǐ and the Annals, passages in the Zhuāngzǐ imply that there can be no genuinely neutral or ultimately correct criteria, nor a fully open-minded or neutral epistemic stance. The discussion suggests that the Zhuāngzǐ material presents a distinctive brand of epistemic virtue or practical wisdom.
Language and Logic
Authors: Fraser Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Early Chinese sources treat the use of ‘names’ and ‘speech’ as a norm-governed social practice that constitutes a crucial means of guiding society to follow dào. The central purpose of speech is to guide action, through teachings, commands, and laws, for example. The first section of the chapter explains the significance of the widespread doctrine of ‘correcting names’. The discussion then looks at the semantic theories developed to explain the grounds for the proper use of names by appeal to inherent similarities in things, human perception, and conventional social practices. The final section of the chapter considers early Chinese theories of logic and argumentation, explaining how the sources treat these as intertwined with semantic theory. Since both the correct use of names and correctness of assertion are grounded in relations of sameness and difference, logical inquiry focuses mainly on analogical reasoning, and argumentation is seen as primarily analogical.
Egypt
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Egypt was the strongest and most complex economy in the medieval Mediterranean, probably up to the Black Death. It had areas of specialist flax-growing, and many towns specialized in linen production. Movements of goods to and along the Nile were large-scale and overlapping. Egypt’s capital, Fusṭāṭ-Cairo, was the largest city in the Mediterranean. The state was oppressive, but also strong and well-organized. We can say a great deal about the Egyptian economy because of the survival of thousands of private letters in Arabic, in both Hebrew and Arabic script (the former surviving in the geniza of the Ben Ezra synagogue in the capital). Egyptian archaeology is less developed, but what we can say from it about the ceramic and wine trade along the Nile fits with what the geniza letters tell us about flax, and what Arabic-script letters tell us about almost everything. All of this tells us about the internal complexity of the economy, and that Egypt, although it engaged extensively in Mediterranean trade, only really needed timber and iron from abroad.
North Africa and Sicily
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses two regions, Ifrīqiya (centred on what is now Tunisia) and Sicily, because the evidence for the former is not very extensive, and because the two regions were very closely tied together economically. They were the main trading partners for Egypt in the eleventh century, and are well documented in the geniza; they were both major linen-producing regions, thanks to Egyptian flax. Both had strong internal economies, as is particularly clear in Sicilian archaeological work. In the later eleventh century, Ifrīqiya broke up politically and Sicily was conquered by the Normans, which partly reoriented it towards mainland Italy; the flax trade ended as a result of both. Ifrīqiya may have remained less coherent in the next century. But Sicily continued in its role as the focus of the central Mediterranean, with a cotton trade with Genoa continuing the exports northwards which begin to be documented after 950; and its internal economy, focussed on Palermo and a rising Messina, remained strong as well. Neither its Islamicization in the tenth century nor its de-Islamicization in the thirteenth had any effect on that.
Islamic Spain and Portugal
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Al-Andalus came together as a functioning political system above all in the tenth century, under two strong caliphs and a military strongman in turn. It broke up into up to thirty independent kingdoms after a punishing civil war in the 1010s, and was then reunited after 1090 by two dynasties from Berber North Africa, the Almorávids and Almohads, before a Christian conquest in the 1230s–1240s. This history of unification and division was the backdrop for the fastest economic growth in the whole of the medieval Mediterranean before 1200, which can be seen particularly clearly in the recently extensive archaeology. There was urban expansion, with cities increasing three times in size; ceramic productions became complex and overlapping; we can track an internal trade in cloth and iron, even though the interior of Spain and Portugal is often mountainous and difficult to get around. Peasant communities everywhere had access to ceramics and money, often coming from substantial distances. The reasons for this economic growth lie in the strength of the state, whether centralized or localized, and the remarkable development of irrigation systems from (especially) the tenth century onwards, which greatly extended agricultural wealth. It, however, traded relatively little with the rest of the Mediterranean.
A Brief History of the Mediterranean Economy in the Tenth to Twelfth Centuries
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, the different regional economies of Chapters 2–6 are brought together and compared, and these are set against a discussion of how Mediterranean maritime trade routes developed and changed. Before 1100, there were two east–west trade routes, one, older, linking the Byzantine lands with northern Syria to the east and Venice to the west; one, rather larger-scale after 1000, a triangular trade linking Egypt, Tunisia, and Sicily, with weaker extensions to al-Andalus and Palestine. A north–south trade route also linked Sicily with the Italian coast. After 1100, all three continued, although the second became less dense; but Italian sea trading by 1150 linked all of them together. That linkage marked the real change in trading in the twelfth century. The fastest growth in trading was in the eleventh century; in the twelfth it was less fast, but more linked together. These developments were independent of political changes in the Mediterranean, although the strength of local states certainly helped economic development.
The Internal Logic of Feudal Economies
Authors: Wickham Chris 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the complementary role of elite and peasant demand in the central middle ages as the basis for economic growth throughout the Mediterranean, and indeed elsewhere. It compares Mediterranean trade in the central middle ages with that of the Roman Empire and of contemporary Flanders. The chapter then discusses how this contributes to a rethinking of the logic of the feudal economy as a whole, which, it is argued, was different from that of capitalism. The driving force of the feudal economy was the struggle over how much rent and tax peasantries had to pay to lords and the state, with a general tendency for peasant payments to lessen, unless dominant powers made specific efforts to reverse the process. This created a space for peasant demand to grow, and for the economy to grow with it.
Kantian Determinism and Contemporary Determinism
Authors: Allais Lucy 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents a way of understanding Kant’s resolution of the free will problem that focusses on the difference between Kantian determinism and contemporary determinism. Many of the extant ways of understanding Kant’s solution attempt to find a way of showing that there being only one way the world in space and time could unfold (determinism) does not make the causality of freedom impossible. In contrast, the chapter argues that we can take Kant’s determinism seriously without thinking it follows from this that there is only one metaphysically possible way the world could unfold in space and time. It argues that while contemporary determinism is understood as the view that at any one moment there is only one possible future, this is not an implication Kantian determinism; the truth of Kantian determinism would not show more than one possible future to be impossible.
INTRODUCTION
Authors: Della Rocca de Candal Geri , Grafton Anthony , Sachet Paolo 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Conventional wisdom treats printing as a technological triumph that spread freedom and knowledge — accurate knowledge, free from scribal slips. In fact, the history of the book is largely a story of errors and adjustments. Mistakes of many kinds regularly crept in while texts were transferred from manuscript to printed formes. Publishers, editors, and authors reacted to these failures in highly creative ways, and various emendation strategies were adopted when printers and their workers spotted them. The Introduction introduces readers to this alternative interpretation of printing, discusses earlier literature on misprints and in-house corrections, and outlines the contents of the volume.
FALLEN TYPE
Authors: Bolton Claire 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
Type can fall out of the forme while the page is being printed and leave an impression of its shape on the page. Examples of fallen type in printed books are rare. Some fifty examples from the incunable period can be found in the Material Evidence Incunabula database, and a few more are known after 1501. This chapter shows that fallen type examples are more than curiosities and, especially as more are discovered, can add to our knowledge of what fifteenth-century type letters looked like, which in turn can give clues to printing practices through that period and insight into a period of significant experimentation.
MISPRINTING ILLUSTRATED BOOKS
Authors: Andreoli Ilaria , Duroselle-Melish Caroline , Gaskell Roger 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines errors in images in scientific, secular, and religious texts printed before c. 1650. We analyse the intellectual and technical sources of error — including errors in the original, errors introduced in copying and transfer, errors in making the matrix, errors of imposition (combining text and image), and errors of printing — and give examples of mistakes in images which are mentioned in the text or in printed errata, or noted in manuscript annotations. Error is also introduced during the printing process, for example the matrix printed in the wrong orientation or the wrong matrix printed; the image significantly degraded during printing or missing altogether. We discuss how such problems can occur in the printing house.
PRINTING AND POLITICS IN ITALIAN HUMANISM
Authors: Celati Marta 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The aim of this chapter is to analyse the printing process of the editio princeps of Angelo Poliziano’s Coniurationis commentarium (Florence, 1478), the famous literary account of the Pazzi conspiracy. Following a thorough and systematic investigation of all four extant copies, this case study reveals a complex stratification of typos, manuscript corrections, and stop-press emendations, allowing us to gain a better insight into the printing practices and editorial strategies of Niccolò della Magna, one of the leading printers in Florence in the late 1470s and mid 1480s, his role in the Medici environment, and the political implications of this edition.
ALDUS AS PROOFREADER
Authors: Sachet Paolo 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The publication process in the Aldine print shop is remarkable not only for stop-press corrections, but also for the accurate post-printing revision and what we may call the final proofreading applied to its output. This chapter focuses on the numerous emendations which were inserted by Aldus in nearly all copies of a bulky Greek grammar he published in 1496. The case study shows how in-house corrections, a neglected and often unspotted group of sources, can shed new light on the way in which early modern scholarly printers handled texts on and off the press, implementing different strategies to cope with errors, and tailored them according to their publishing purposes.
THE COLLECTIVE EDITORIAL STRATEGY OF THE UNITY OF THE BRETHREN
Authors: Sladká Veronika 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the working methodology of the sixteenth-century Unity of Brethren, an early modern reformed religious community in the Czech lands in the Wycliffe and Hus traditions. The Brethren were pioneers in adopting the most advanced editorial practices from western Europe and engaging in high-quality publishing and humanistic editing. This chapter discusses some recently discovered documentation showing how the Brethren’s egalitarian structure and scholarly attitude directly impacted their printing habits. Examining a corrected copy and proof sheets of two Brethren hymnbooks, as well as their bishops’ correspondence, reveals a collective and highly organised system of editing and proofreading. The cases of two Brethren’s bishops, Jan Blahoslav and Izaiáš Cibulka, demonstrate the methods of the Brethren’s correctors and clarify from where they drew their proofreading skills.
BIBLICAL MISPRINTS
Authors: Wamsley Rachel 
Published: May 2023

AbstractThe Yiddish epic Shmuel Bukh (c. 1500) freely rewrites I and II Samuel as chivalric romance. However secular poetically, the epic’s materiality nonetheless reflects its foothold in Scripture, the accurate representation of biblical Hebrew always in tension with textual aesthetics suited to the mechanical exigencies of print. Shmuel Bukh thus exemplifies the transformation of Hebrew text by movable type. Analysing this material strand of Shmuel Bukh’s textual history, specifically its typographical aesthetics and the correction of misprints across two manuscripts and three closely linked printed editions, reveals how the transition to print brought long-established codes of linguistic representation under new pressure. The correction of its biblical misprints charts how, as more and more Hebrew-alphabet texts came into print, editors gradually prioritised textual aesthetics over biblical exactitude.
CONTROLLING ERRORS IN THE FIRST PRINTED BOOK OF ASTRONOMICAL TABLES
Authors: Kremer Richard L. 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
The first substantial printed book of numbers was Regiomontanus’s Ephemerides. Regiomontanus was a pioneer of scientific printing, but little is known about how proofreading took place in his print shop. Regiomontanus was among the first printers to issue contemporary works, and was the first astronomer to publish his own works and to organise the printing of large tables of numbers. The surviving copies of his Ephemerides offer, therefore, a unique case study of the challenge of controlling errors in an early European print shop. By examining the forty known copies of the Ephemerides, this chapter questions Regiomontanus’s correcting procedures and sheds light on the difficulties of producing early modern astronomical books.
CONRAD GESSNER AS CORRECTOR
Authors: Grafton Anthony 
Published: May 2023

AbstractConrad Gessner’s fame as a naturalist rests on the marvelous images in his histories of animals. His efforts to collect, reproduce, and check these images became an unending struggle. Gessner’s correspondents bombarded him with criticisms of his first efforts and possible replacements. Annotated copies of his shorter works on animals, fish, and birds reveal that he processed and did his best to use these materials. Correction continued as they went through the press and yielded supplements, which had to be corrected in their turn. Examining these works and his annotations reveals the ways in which Gessner tried to control and improve images and the text that explained them. These notes — and the printed texts they refer to — preserve Gessner’s struggle to bring his images to a standard of visual precision that approximated the quality of the new images, made from the life, that piled up in his study, and to supplement his texts with the new information he had received.
FERNANDO DE HERRERA CONTRA ERRATA
Authors: Alvarez Pablo 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
In 1580, the Sevillian poet Fernando de Herrera published his extensively annotated edition of the works of Garcilaso de la Vega. After printing was completed, two successive errata lists were inserted in the preliminaries. Yet Herrera spotted further mistakes and was forced to resort to manual corrections and paste slips in the copies still available to him. This chapter investigates Herrera’s frustration as editor and corrector and shows that his edition was not an isolated case in the context of early modern printing in Europe. It contributes to the discussion about the role of errata lists and corrections as tools to convey to early modern readers the ideal of textual accuracy, raising broader questions about the transmission and reception of vernacular literary texts edited in the humanistic tradition.
MARKETING A MISPRINT
Authors: Heminger Anne 
Published: May 2023

Abstract
In 1553, the Chapel Royal composer Christopher Tye published a volume containing polyphonic settings of the first fourteen chapters of the biblical book of Acts in metrical verse. This chapter analyses extant copies — the earliest of which includes a significant typographical lacuna — in order to shed light on the early practices and difficulties of printing polyphonic music in England. A comparison with contemporary English music prints reveals that English music printers were often hampered by their lack of musical literacy. Examining the extant copies of Tye’s Actes offers an opportunity to examine a range of possible errors in the process of printing musical notation in the sixteenth century, revealing the categories of musical mistakes printers and the public were willing to overlook in mid-Tudor England, and demonstrates that the level of functionality required by contemporary amateur audiences was considerably lower than that which professionalstypically expected from music manuscripts.