bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Essentialism
Authors: Einspahr Jennifer 
Published: August 2023

AbstractGenerally defined, essentialism is “a belief in true essence – that which is most irreducible, unchanging, and therefore constitutive of a given person or thing.” In philosophy, essentialism is classified as a type of ontology, a branch of metaphysics concerned with the nature of being, existence, or reality. Contemporary essentialist ontology is rooted in Aristotelian metaphysics. Aristotle contrasted essential attributes to accidental ones; essential attributes were those things without which a being would no longer be that particular thing, while the loss of an accidental attribute would not alter that thing's essential nature. For example, if the ability to communicate with others is essential to being human, then to lose this ability would be to lose one's humanity. In contrast, hair might be defined as accidental rather than essential to being human in the sense that one could cut one's hair and still go on being human.
European Identity Politics
Authors: Szaló Csaba 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEuropean identity politics implies that the formation of European identity, like the construction of collective identities in general, involves cultural power struggles. Conceptually, it builds on theory developed in the 1970s that sought to explain political practices, affiliations, and commitments based on social actors’ ethnic, national, religious, gender, or sexual identities. The practice of identity politics was originally connected to social movements fighting oppression and seeking to give a voice to those subjects who had long been silenced. Contemporary explanations of identity politics have made the “cultural turn.” Theoretical assumptions have shifted away from the idea that political action is necessarily grounded in the social interests and values of political actors. In other words, the struggle for power also involves the performative actions of culturally constructed collectivities. Contemporary theories of identity politics point to the significance of crisis and cultural trauma in providing a narrative foundation for collective memory. Thus, the core concept of power struggle is enlarged to include the idea of reflexive subjectivity.
Fascism
Authors: Thornhill Christopher 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEuropean fascism contained a series of often contradictory political attitudes. Unusually for a political doctrine that exercised wide practical influence and had a profound impact on objective political institutions, it cannot be defined as a consistent set of principles. In general, fascism was a theoretical outlook with the following features: (1) it reflected a deep (although partial) hostility to liberalism and atomistic principles of liberal political order; (2) it insisted on the nation (often defined through military adversity) as a source of political motivation, affiliation, and identity; (3) it was sympathetic to dictatorship as a source of strong statehood; (4) it advocated strongly emotive processes of subjective political integration; (5) it declared an (albeit equivocal) skepticism about capitalism as the dominant mode of production. Moreover, fascist movements selectively borrowed elements of Marxist social theory and Marxist antiparliamentarism. They linked these principles to an ultranationalist and pseudorevolutionary commitment to violently authoritarian governance, usually designed for the specific preservation of existing economic conditions.
Family
Authors: Engster Daniel 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe family holds an important albeit often underappreciated place in western political thought. It has been variously characterized as an obstacle to a just society, a pre‐political foundation of justice, and the linchpin of a new just order. While some theorists have viewed the family as a natural institution with distinctive aims and roles that set it apart from politics, others have claimed it is rightly subject to public values. Whether viewed as an obstacle to justice or a precondition for it, a private or public institution, many philosophers have accorded the family a central place in their theories of politics and justice.
Fatalism
Authors: Terchek Ronald J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Political fatalism comes from the displacement of politics with something else: history, markets, dialectical materialism, divine will, science, technology, or progress to name a few superhuman forces said to be at work. Such forces have a dynamic of their own, needing no help from mere mortals, although, we are told, we can disturb matters by interfering with the processes.
Feminist Theory and Liberal Political Theory
Authors: Shanley Mary Lyndon , Hanagan Nora 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Feminist theory, which insists that gender is an indispensible category of analysis for any adequate thinking about political and social life, challenges all schools of political theory. Much of feminist theorizing has been a reaction to liberalism; at the same time, liberal principles have inspired many feminists. This entry examines the relationship between feminism and liberal political theory, showing that feminism does not simply “add women” to existing theory, but profoundly challenges core traditional liberal understandings of equality, liberty, individualism, and universalism.
Feminism and Islam
Authors: Deylami Shirin S. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Historically, feminism and Islam have had a complex and sometimes antagonistic relationship. Feminism is a social, political, and philosophical movement that examines the production of gender and refutes inequalities predicated on gendered difference and power relations. Islam is the religious tradition of the followers of the Prophet Muhammad; and in the case of politics, Islamism is the belief that Islam offers both a religious orientation and a political program. When looking at the relationship between feminism and Islam we must look at how feminism, as a philosophical tradition, and feminists, as a political group, have grappled with the Islamic religion. In turn, we must also examine how Islam and the followers of Islam, Muslims, have accepted, rejected, or modified feminist ideas. Consequently, there are two broad and complicated ways of understanding the relationship between feminism and Islam.
Follett, Mary Parker (1868–1933)
Authors: Elías María Verónica 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A prominent American political thinker and practitioner of the Progressive Era, Mary Parker Follett was a pioneer in the study of self‐governance and grassroots democracy. Critical of representative democracy and in line with other main exponents of the 1920s American philosophical pragmatism movement – such as Jane Addams, John Dewey, and William James – Follett advanced democratic theory by deeply rooting its meaning and validity in people's daily collaborative experiences.
Founding
Authors: Bernal Angélica M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Foundings are said to refer to the creation and establishment of a new political community. Yet, this core conception does not fully capture the range of meanings attached to the notion. This range is reflected by the term's usage in western political thought: to describe a celebrated historical event of political origin and beginning, as a category of extraordinary inaugurating political practice, as a privileged site of core political principles and values, and as a source of higher law authority, collective identity, and historical continuity. Founding's multiplicity of meanings highlights its structure as a descriptive and normative idea and can be best understood in relation to the type of problems it addresses: problems of innovation, legitimacy, and authority. Changing representations of founding reflect changes in how these problems have been understood.
Franchise
Authors: López‐Guerra Claudio 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The allocation of the elective franchise, or right to vote, was one of the most prominent political problems of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. When the vote was finally extended to all sane adult citizens residing in the state, it seemed that the problem of enfranchisement had been solved. However, the political inclusion of several classes of persons, such as noncitizen residents, nonresident citizens, children, the mentally ill, and criminals continues to be a matter of controversy around the world.
Gellner, Ernest (1925–95)
Authors: Skovajsa Marek 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAlthough trained in philosophy and social anthropology, Ernest Gellner made important contributions also to political theory. His theory of nationalism remains hugely influential, and his ideas on the emergence of modernity, civil society and the state, religion and politics in Muslim societies, and the epistemology of social sciences, as well as his sharp criticism of Marxism, psychoanalysis, postmodernism, and relativism still resonate today. Gellner grew up in the multicultural environment of interwar Prague, but his family fled from Nazism to England in 1939. Gellner studied at Oxford and in 1949 he began teaching philosophy at the London School of Economics. Between 1984 and 1993 he was professor of social anthropology at the University of Cambridge and from 1990 to 1995 he taught at the Central European University in Prague.
Gentile, Giovanni (1875–1944)
Authors: Martin James 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Gentile was an Italian social and political philosopher, politician, and supporter of Italy's Fascist regime, to which he offered a degree of philosophical legitimacy. Viewing philosophy as a discipline with an inescapably civic function, he also wrote on the theme of pedagogy and served for a short period as minister of education in Mussolini's first government. A conservative liberal with strong nationalist leanings, Gentile promoted a political theory along broadly Hegelian lines according to which the individual was only fully realized through the overarching embrace of the state. He subsequently helped define fascism as a distinctive political doctrine and was appointed by the regime to direct the
Italian Encyclopedia
. For his unwavering defense of the dictatorship, antifascist partisans assassinated him.
Gobineau, Joseph‐Arthur, Comte de (1816–82)
Authors: Muhs Rudolf 
Published: August 2023

AbstractComte Joseph‐Arthur de Gobineau (1816–82), has been called the “father of racist ideology,” and while this is a somewhat reductionist description for a man of many facets and talents, it neatly encapsulates his main contribution to the history of political thought. An early and easy familiarity with German was later complemented by a passion for the languages and cultures of the Orient. A devoted Catholic and demonstrative Legitimist (a supporter of the Bourbon dynasty's claim to the French throne) who forever remained embarrassed that he had been born on the anniversary of the storming of the Bastille, Gobineau quickly established his credentials as a reactionary after settling in Paris in 1835. Supplementing his income as a lowly clerk with political journalism and a stream of eclectic literary output, his mind was preoccupied with a sense of what he perceived as the decadence of the present and especially the decline of true aristocracy.
Green, Thomas Hill (1836–82)
Authors: Simhony Avital 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe most prominent of the British Idealists, T. H. Green challenged the old laissez‐faire liberalism transforming it into the “new liberalism,” social liberalism. Grounded in negative freedom as the absence of coercion, laissez‐faire liberalism restricted the role of the state to enforcing contracts and mutual noninterference in a free market, thereby hindering the free development of the worse‐off members of society. Green's social liberalism, by contrast, curbed laissez‐faire capitalism by an enabling state that provided the resources necessary forallmembers of society to realize their human potential (positive freedom). As an Idealist concerned with working out the appropriate normative relationship between subject and object, Green anchored his social liberalism in the mutual interdependence of the human subject and social‐political institutions.
Grotius, Hugo (1583–1645)
Authors: Zuckert Michael 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Hugo Grotius, also known as Huig de Groot in his native Holland, is most remembered as one of the “fathers of international law,” largely on account of his masterwork,
De iure belli ac pacis
(
The Law of War and Peace
). However, while his impact and continuing significance for international law are undeniable, he was also important as a political philosopher who developed a novel theory of the natural law, in the context of which he set his doctrine of international law.
Hamilton, Alexander (1755–1804)
Authors: Federici Michael P. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Alexander Hamilton was born in the West Indies on the island of Nevis and survived a tumultuous childhood that began with his illegitimate birth and included abandonment by his father at the age of 10 and his mother's death when he was 12 years of age. Once orphaned and disinherited, he worked as a clerk for two New York merchants until he moved to America. Although Hamilton was an avid reader as a child and received some tutoring, his lack of formal education meant that he was insufficiently prepared to pass rigorous college entrance exams. Consequently, he spent about a year studying Greek and Latin, the classics, the Bible, history, and geography, among other subjects at Elizabethtown Academy in New Jersey before enrolling in King's College (today's Columbia University). While at King's, he emerged as an articulate advocate of the Patriot cause. He wrote essays (
A Full Vindication
1774 and
The Farmer Refuted
1775) that gained the notice of prominent Patriot leaders. He left college before finishing his degree to serve as an artillery captain in the Continental militia. He subsequently served as George Washington's aide‐de‐camp and was present at several important Revolutionary War battles. He resigned his position on Washington's staff but was later awarded a military post as a field commander during which he distinguished himself at the Battle of Yorktown.
Heraclitus (ca. 500 BCE)
Authors: Zuckert Catherine 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Heraclitus was a Presocratic philosopher in Ephesus, a Greek city in Ionia, ruled at the time by Persia. Little is known about his life. He reputedly wrote a treatise entitled “On Nature” and deposited it in the temple of Artemis, but no part of that text has survived. All we have are “fragments,” quotations from Heraclitus found in other ancient texts. It is difficult, therefore, to determine exactly what he thought. Like modern natural scientists Heraclitus appears to have thought that everything is constantly in motion, but that there is an underlying intelligible order. Like modern social scientists Heraclitus also raised questions about the grounds and validity of human judgments of right and wrong: “To God, all things are beautiful, good and just; but men have assumed some things to be unjust, others just.”
Holbach, Paul Henri Thiry, Baron d' (1723–89)
Authors: LeBuffe Michael 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Holbach was a philosopher and prominent social figure of the French Enlightenment, who contributed to the Enlightenment through his translations of German scientific works and English works on religion and politics, his entries in Denis Diderot's encyclopedia, and his philosophical writings, which show the influence of Hobbes and Locke.
Holocaust
Authors: Fred Alford C. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The term “Holocaust” came into use in the mid‐1950s; some attribute it to Elie Wiesel. It is the term most frequently employed to refer to the mass murder of about 6 million European Jews by the German Reich between 1933 and 1945. Some regret the name “Holocaust.” From the ancient Greek, the term refers to a burnt sacrificial offering. To some this suggests that the Jews themselves were the sacrifice, though this is rarely the intent of anyone employing the term today. Some scholars and others prefer the Hebrew term “Shoah,” meaning disaster or calamity.
Honor
Authors: Dow Douglas C. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of honor describes a system of belief about the inner value and worth that persons may hold of themselves, as well as the cultural system in which the demands for recognition and their responses are made. Unlike many other terms for evaluating personal worth, such as virtue or dignity, honor is dependent on the recognition by others. Honor may represent simultaneously an attribute of the individual and the expressions and rituals of esteem performed by others. To publically assert one's honor and have this assertion rebuffed or ignored invites the possibility of shame and disgrace, the social opposites of honor. The irreducibly dual character of honor, depicting both inner worth and outward respect, has generated unresolved tensions that run throughout the philosophical reflections upon honor, as well as the performance of honor's rituals in different historical cultures. One crucial set of problems surrounds the ethical dimensions of honor. Is honor best understood as a close cousin of virtue, a conception of personal integrity and nobility of character? Or is honor best understood as an amoral or immoral category of behaviors based in relationships of power?
Immigration
Authors: Yong Caleb 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Approaches to justice in immigration mainly differ according to the background conception of global justice accepted. The main division can be described in terms of the contrast between cosmopolitan liberals and social liberals. Cosmopolitan liberals typically hold that immigration restrictions must be compatible with principles of global freedom of movement, global equality of opportunity, and global egalitarian distribution if they are to be just. These latter principles are justified, so cosmopolitan liberals argue, by noting their acceptance by liberals for the domestic case and the arbitrariness of failing to extend their reach to the global domain.
Indigenous Political Thought
Authors: Grande Sandy , Nichols Robert 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFor the purposes of this entry, “Indigenous peoples” refers to those societies which exercised powers of self‐governance prior to colonization by and incorporation into the modern nation‐state and who continue to experience and resist this as unjust. Such peoples are, thus, distinct from ethnic or other minority groups in that the primary issue framing Indigenous–settler state relations is “not racist exclusion … but forced incorporation into the state.” The continued structure of imposed rule expresses itself as settler colonialism; distinguished from other forms of colonialism by the intended permanent settlement of foreign peoples and, thus, access to Indigenous land in perpetuity. Consequently, it has been argued, settler colonialism is “first and foremost a territorial project” where land (as opposed to natural or human resources) is the precondition.
International Boundaries
Authors: Amir Merav 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
International boundaries are a basic building block of the modern international state system. The international system dictates a clear spatial distinction between states. International boundaries are the agreed‐upon delineation of the spatial allocation of one sovereign territory in relation to that of all others. From a formal perspective, the boundaries of a state delimit the area of applicability of a particular state's sovereignty and pose the only general limitation on the autonomy of sovereignties. Clear and defined boundaries are considered a precondition to the establishment of a state, and control over its boundaries is a sovereign prerogative, whereas an unauthorized breaching of state boundaries by other sovereign powers is considered a declaration of war.
International Justice
Authors: Pavel Carmen E. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Those who think about international justice use one of two strategies. The first strategy is to identify some practice among states that requires normative guidance. The second strategy is to start with a general theory about how states should treat each other and what they owe to citizens and noncitizens. The first strategy corresponds roughly to what philosophers have identified variously as practice‐dependent, nonideal, or comparative theory, while the second one corresponds to practice‐independent, ideal, or transcendental theory. These different strategies are not mutually exclusive, such that employing one does not preclude borrowing from the other's assumptions, mode of theorizing, and aspirations. Indeed the ideal and nonideal approaches often amalgamate insidiously. Yet they represent distinct views about the purpose of theorizing about justice and about the tools and methods for making judgments about justice or injustice at the international level.
Jefferson, Thomas (1743–1826)
Authors: Onuf Peter S. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThomas Jefferson is most famous for his authorship of the American Declaration of Independence, adopted by the Continental Congress in Philadelphia on July 4, 1776. Forever associated with the Declaration's memorable language – “that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights, that among these are Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness,” and that governments derive “their just powers from the consent of the governed” – Jefferson has been celebrated as an iconic figure in the history of the first great modern democracy. Yet his success as a patriot penman has compromised his reputation as a serious and original thinker. Scholars have identified various sources for key ideas and turns of phrase in the Declaration – from John Locke'sSecond Treatise of Governmentto George Mason's Virginia Declaration of Rights, demonstrating Jefferson's indebtedness to the natural rights tradition, social contract theory, Scottish moral philosophy, common law constitutionalism, and Whig Party–Republican Party opposition thought. Jefferson's identity as an author is lost in the authority of his sources and of the “people” whose sentiments he so eloquently articulated. He is famous fornotbeing an original thinker.
John of Paris (1240/1–1306)
Authors: Moreno‐Riano Gerson 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

John of Paris (1240/1–1306) was a master of theology at the University of Paris, a member of the Order of Preachers, and a Dominican at the convent of Saint‐Jacques in Paris. Sometimes called John Quidort or John Quidort de Paris, he wrote
Tractatus de potestate regia et papali
(1302–3) in which he articulated a highly influential and comprehensive Dominican position on the nature of
dominium
, a stance which was in favor of royal power and was thus beneficial to King Philip IV the Fair (1285–1314) in his struggle against Pope Boniface VIII (1294–1303).
King, Jr., Martin Luther (1929–68)
Authors: Threadcraft Shatema A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., was an American minister and theologian, and arguably the brightest light among the stars of modern oratory. He served as president of the Montgomery Improvement Association, the organization that sustained – after Jo Ann Robinson and the Women's Political Council called – the 13‐month‐long Montgomery Bus Boycott in response to Rosa Parks's arrest for refusing to comply with the city's segregation laws on the National City Lines’ Montgomery Bus Line. The boycott is recognized as a seminal event in what Bayard Rustin named the “classical phase” of the modern civil rights movement.
Kingship
Authors: Caro Jason 
Published: August 2023

AbstractKingship is the ideal of political rule by one man. It is the type of monarchy that “one would pray for.” Its ideal character is clarified by contrasting it, as Aristotle does, against tyranny. For Aristotle, the difference between tyranny and kingship is that between a monarch ruling for himself and ruling in the interest of others. Plato had a similar definition but with the intrepid caveat that kings be philosophers.