bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Physiological mechanism of the so-called voluntary movements
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
First, a few words of introduction about the complex history of our research in the physiology and pathology of the higher nervous activity; the adjectives “higher nervous” will be used synonymously with the adjective “psychic”. Thirty-five years ago I was dealing with digestion, my previous special research topic, and along the way I studied the so-called psychic salivation. Wanting to analyze it further, I soon realized that approaching it from the psychological point of view—trying to guess what the dog feels, thinks, etc.—was a non-starter, no exact knowledge ever came out of it. And it was then that I decided for the first time to treat these psychic phenomena, this “psychic saliva”, as if I were observing it only from outside, as objectively as everything is studied in physiology. Soon I found a collaborator, Tolochinov, and the two of us set to work. Ever since that time, joined by many other co-workers, this work has been going on tirelessly for the last 35 years.
The conditional reflex
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Krasnogorski? of the physiological laboratory at the Military-Medical Academy (1911) definitively established the unequivocally afferent nature of the motor cortex by succeeding in forming a conditional food stimulus from the kinesthetic stimulation of the skeletal musculature, in the same way it is formed from all other stimulations reaching the hemispheric cortex via the external receptors, such as the eye, the ear, etc. In other words, he showed that any passive skeletal motion could be made into a signal of a positive unconditional food reflex, into a conditional food stimulus. Iu. M. Konorski? and S. M. Miller, who obtained their basic findings while still in Warsaw and continued working on them in the Physiology Section of the Institute of Experimental Medicine, deserve credit for further findings: they developed kinesthetic stimuli (passive motions) into signals of unconditional negative reflexes (a painful stimulation of the ear and the pouring in of acid), as well as into a conditional inhibitor for both groups of the unconditional reflexes. In this way, a lot of data were collected on one of the most vital topics in physiology, that of the mechanism of voluntary movements, i.e., of movements originating in the hemispheric cortex.
Types of higher nervous activity in relation to neuroses and psychoses, and the physiological mechanism of neurotic and psychotic symptoms
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Conditional reflex—this is now a stand-alone physiological term that denotes a certain nervous phenomenon, a detailed study of which has led to the establishment of a new subfield in animal physiology, that of the physiology of the higher nervous activity, a first chapter in the physiology of the highest part of the central nervous system. Experiential and scientific observations have long been accumulating which suggest that a mechanical trauma or an illness of the brain, and specifically of the cerebral hemispheres, causes impairment of the highest, most complex behavior of animals and man that is normally called psychic activity. At the present time hardly any person with medical training would challenge the proposition that our neuroses and psychoses are related to the weakening or disappearance of the normal physiological properties of the brain or to its greater or lesser destruction. If so, the pressing fundamental question arises: What is the connection between animals’ and our own higher activity and the brain, and where and how do we begin to study this activity?
The problem of sleep
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In my presentation here, among physicians, I must mainly focus on those aspects of our research that directly relate to medicine. However, before I can go to the questions that directly interest you, I must spend a big chunk of time on questions of pure physiology, since the facts I will need to mention have not yet reached the textbooks. You know that I and my collaborators study the behavior of the higher animals. But what do we mean by the behavior of a person or an animal? What is meant by the behavior of a man or an animal is the finest correlation of the organism with the surrounding environment, understood, needless to say, in the broadest sense of the word. Until the end of the last century, these finest correlations of the organism and the surrounding environment were called the psychic activity of the animal organism, and there was no way to approach them physiologically.
New research on conditional reflexes
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Although yesterday something very unusual and rather grave happened to me, and I don’t feel quite in my element, so to speak, I thought it imperative that I come here today. Why? Because I thought that in considering the extremely important scientific problem that sleep is—both everyday sleep and clinical sleep—my word would be of some value. And the reason it would be of some value is because I have been thinking about the problem of sleep—and not just me, but my whole team of co-workers—for the last 35 years as we do our research on dogs’ higher nervous activity.
Psychology as a science
Authors: Yokoyama Olga T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
It is my pleasure and honor to present to the attention of the representatives of American science the results of my research. In the course of the last 20 years I have been studying the higher nervous activity, the functions of the cerebral hemispheres of the dog. I study these functions only from a physiological viewpoint, based on strictly physiological premises. I never use any psychological concepts or terminology. At the basis of the nervous activity lie the so-called reflexes or instincts. Instincts are also reflexes, they are just more complex. Instincts, i.e., the innate associations with certain stimuli, correspond to the basic activities of the organism.
Ideology and the Persuasive Use of Presupposition
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This paper shows that presupposition can be used to convey new information and to achieve persuasion, particularly in fields pertaining to ideology. Informative presupposition and its persuasive use are illustrated by examples drawn from political news in Italian daily newspapers. The received account of pragmatic presupposition is challenged as unable to yield a plausible explanation of these phenomena. It is argued that pragmatic presupposition and presupposition accommodation should not be given two separate accounts, the one correcting and integrating the other, but presupposition should be recognized as being one and the same phenomenon, whether the presupposed content is already shared or new. It is then proposed to consider presuppositions not as shared assumptions, but as assumptions which ought to be shared. This helps account for the persuasive function that they may serve. Presupposition explicitation is indicated as a viable strategy for contrasting uncritical persuasion.
Intentions from the Other Side
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This paper examines three ideas in the philosophy of Paul Grice: non-natural meaning, the Cooperative Principle (CP), and the notion of a person he puts forward in Grice’s theory of value. According to a received interpretation, a speaker’s intentions determine whether his or her utterance has non-natural meaning, what meaning it is, whether the speaker observes the CP, and what his or her utterance implicates. A different reading is proposed here, taking the point of view of the audience as central, as opposed to that of the speaker. In this light, some traditional criticisms of Grice’s definition of non-natural meaning show their limitations and the use of the CP in the analysis of discourse appears to be fully justified. The reading of the CP proposed reveals analogies between being a cooperative participant and being a person, and therefore between Grice’s philosophy of language and his theory of value.
Cognition and Narrativity in Speech Act Sequences
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The cognitive and interactional dynamics of speech acts is examined, with particular attention to speech act sequences in conversation. Speech act theory is supplemented with a conception, inspired by narrative semiotics, of an action as a move in a sequence. It is argued that action (as opposed to cognitive representation) plays a major role in determining or validating the illocutionary effects of utterances. But a cognitive factor concerning the way in which we understand actions, that is, the “narrative schema” proposed by A. J. Greimas in the framework of narrative semiotics, is claimed to play an important role in structuring speech act sequences. Two examples are taken from naturally occurring conversations to show how responses manifesting the interlocutor’s uptake contribute to determining the illocutionary effect of previous conversational moves and how the narrative schema can shed light on the sequential relations between speech acts. A case of insisting is especially focused upon.
Two Conceptions of Rationality in Grice’s Theory of Implicature
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Conversational implicature is considered by Grice, as well as by post-Gricean and neo-Gricean approaches to linguistic communication as something “rational.” This paper explores why. The exploration shows that two distinct conceptions of rationality, “instrumental” and “argumentative,” co-exist in Grice’s thought, generating two different senses in which conversational implicature may be deemed to be rational. “Instrumental” rationality is based on the efficacy of the Cooperative Principle, on which the retrieval of conversational implicatures depends, in maximizing understanding. “Argumentative” rationality, on the other hand, is based on the calculability of conversational implicature. While post- and neo-Gricean theories focus on instrumental rationality, Grice’s posthumous writings on value and reason pay more attention to argumentative rationality. It is argued that the conception of argumentative rationality to be found there can usefully be applied to conversational implicature and improves our understanding of it.
How to Read Austin
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This paper reassesses the contributions to pragmatics made by John L. Austin’s How to Do Things with Words. It discusses some of the assumptions of received reading of the volume, as regards its aim and structure, the role of the performative/constative dichotomy, the conceptions of illocution and perlocution, and the alleged exclusion of non-seriousness. It is argued that the volume is structured as a proof by contradiction of the claim that all speech should be considered as action, that in illocution a major role is played by the conventionality of effects, that perlocution presupposes a conception of action as responsibility, and that Austin had reasons not to deal with non-seriousness in detail, albeit recognizing the issue as relevant to the study of the uses of language. Finally, an attempt is made to expound some of the implications of Austin’s views for research into language use and for philosophy.
Ways to Be Concerned with Gender in Philosophy
Authors: Sbisà Marina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Some (non-exhaustive) ways in which philosophy can tackle gender are presented and examined: the critique of gender stereotypes through discourse analysis, the critique of gender essentialism, research on how gender concepts work, and reflection upon how gender issues relate to issues of intersubjective recognition. The first three ways, despite making important contributions to how gender is conceived of, do not seem to provide solid grounds for the rejection of gender discrimination, the refutation of essentialist beliefs about the genders, and the neutralization of the normative import of gender concepts. A fourth way is proposed, which considers gendered subjectivity in the context of the dynamics of intersubjective relations, framing it in a view of intersubjective recognition as a basic process in human life. In this perspective, gender issues constitute a context in which people’s capability and willingness to recognize others as subjects, and specifically as human persons, is tested.
Linguistic Luck and the Publicness of Language
Authors: Verheggen Claudine 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Donald Davidson wrote, famously: “That meanings are decipherable is not a matter of luck; public availability is a constitutive aspect of language” (1990, 314). Yet Davidson is also famous (or infamous) for maintaining that language possession does not require a speaker to mean by her words what others mean by them. The primary goal of this chapter is to show that these prima facie incompatible claims are in fact complementary; what explains the primacy of idiolects also explains the dispensability of luck. It is argued that the reason meanings are decipherable is not a matter of luck is that meanings can be present only if at least some of them have been deciphered; and meanings do not have to be shared by interlocutors in order to be deciphered. The key to seeing this is to understand properly the conditions Davidson lays down, especially in his writings on triangulation, for the possibility of language possession. Davidson’s account of meaning, it is argued, explains why we do not have to rely on luck in order to understand novel uses of language, such as malapropisms and neologisms. Furthermore, the claim that communication does not rely on luck, given what makes language possession possible, can be used to address the sceptical problem about meaning and rule-following Saul Kripke found in Ludwig Wittgenstein’s later writings.
Fleeing conflict to modern slavery
Authors: Heys Alicia 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the findings from the research where people had fled conflict and experienced modern slavery. It includes examples of modern slavery occurring in the country of conflict, after arriving in the UK, or in an interim country. While all those who suffered modern slavery had vastly different experiences, there were two underlying themes that linked them all, regardless of the form of exploitation suffered or the country in which it occurred. These were a limiting of choices and a lack of support. The limiting of choices meant that all the respondents were in situations where they had to make decisions which were all imbued with risk, leaving them to choose the option that appeared to be the lesser evil. These choices were being made in a context which also saw a breakdown in their support networks, meaning that individuals no longer had a robust system of people they trusted and could turn to when they needed support, assistance, or advice.
Fleeing conflict to safety
Authors: Heys Alicia 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers those who have fled conflict and come to the UK but who have not experienced modern slavery, reflecting on whether they remained safe because of UK government policies, or despite them. Two methods are highlighted through which the respondents who did not experience modern slavery were kept safe from it: the support of the government and statutory agencies, and the support of strangers and non-governmental organisations (NGOs). While discussions of the former exemplify ways in which government structures can be successful in identifying and protecting potentially vulnerable people, discussions of the latter relate to situations in which those systems can fail and whereby the respondents remained safe only through interventions by strangers or NGOs.
Rise of evaluation in international organizations
Authors: Jankauskas Vytautas , Eckhard Steffen 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 provides a historical overview of the progressive emergence of evaluation in international organizations (IOs), defines and outlines its processes, and discusses the extent to which evaluation purposes in the United Nations (UN) have been achieved. The chapter outlines and empirically illustrates the spectacular proliferation of evaluation activities, which has come as a result of at least five interconnected trends from the 1990s onwards: the growing critique of IO performance, the wave of new public management reforms at the national level, norm diffusion and community building at the international level, the increase in extrabudgetary member states’ contributions, and the technological development in information technology and data analysis. The chapter also provides a detailed definition of evaluation, describing a typical evaluation process and discussing existing types of evaluation in IOs. Finally, a discussion on the extent to which evaluation has enhanced organizational learning and fostered IO accountability is provided.
Orientation of international organization evaluation units to stakeholders
Authors: Jankauskas Vytautas , Eckhard Steffen 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 asks whether structural control over the resources of international organizations’ (IOs) evaluation units—as observed in Chapter 4—yields observable consequences regarding their behavior. Drawing on principal–agent theory, the chapter theorizes how stakeholder control may affect evaluation units’ orientation to either member states or IO administrations. The empirical analysis, which is based on interviews with the heads of IO evaluation units, shows that these entities do have strong perceptions as to which stakeholders they prioritize as key evaluation users and sponsors. This varies systematically with stakeholder control, implying that evaluation units—despite their formal independence—informally lean toward that stakeholder which controls more evaluation system resources. These findings imply anticipatory obedience in the orientation of IO evaluation units and constitute an important part of the puzzle of evaluation politics.
The Morality of the Laws of War
Authors: Rudolphy Marcela Prieto 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Combatants are legally equal during war. They are lawful targets and they can kill each other during battle. Traditionally, philosophers thought this legal symmetry was also true of morality. The opposite is true now: most philosophers think that unjust combatants who kill just combatants are engaged in the murder of the innocent. This position—known as ‘revisionism’—presents an obvious, albeit mostly ignored, challenge to international law. For how can we justify the laws of armed conflict if they allow people to murder the innocent? This book aims to answer this question. It argues that the adoption of the symmetry thesis—but not necessarily its content—can be contingently justified, even if it allows for what sometimes amounts to the murder of the innocent. But it cannot be so justified if all it does is allow for the murder of the innocent—that would make its moral standing too fragile. As a result, the book also sets out to deconstruct the revisionist analogy between murder and unjust combatants’ killings, by proposing an alternative morality of war. But even if the fragility of this justification can be attenuated by proposing an alternative morality of war, an open question remains as to how significant this attenuation is. Ultimately, the book argues, there is no escape from the fact that regulating war constitutes a significant moral compromise.
Combatants and the Privilege to Kill
Authors: Rudolphy Marcela Prieto 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues against the view that International Humanitarian Law only grants combatants an immunity from prosecution and that the existence of an immunity, as opposed to a permission, makes the symmetry thesis easy to justify. First, the chapter argues that combatants are privileged to kill other combatants in three senses: (1) they have a Hohfeldian privilege to kill; (2) they enjoy an exceptional permission to do something which is usually forbidden, which the chapter describes as a Kelsenian positive permission; and (3) they belong to a favoured class of people. Second, the chapter argues that understanding combatants as merely possessing an immunity from prosecution and a weak permission is incorrect. Finally, it concludes by pointing out that an immunity from prosecution, although slightly easier to justify than a privilege, is not easy to justify at all.
Unjust Combatants
Authors: Rudolphy Marcela Prieto 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the reasons that some unjust combatants may have for participating and killing in an unjust war. It argues that unjust combatants’ reasons for participating in war arise out of certain features of war and out of certain features of our institutional arrangements. First, the chapter discusses duress and uncertainty. Second, it focuses on war’s collective nature and argues that (1) when wars with a just cause are fought unjustly, unjust combatants will have a reason to participate in the war and inflict harm; and (2) that if unjust combatants have reason to believe that they will only make small contributions to their side of the war, this belief will provide no reason not to join when refusing to fight is exceedingly costly for agents. Third, it focuses on the fact that war is risky for those who fight it and argues that (1) non-liable unjust combatants might have agent-relative prerogatives to defend themselves and other, non-liable individuals when they are under attack; and (2) that under certain circumstances, unjust combatants can join an unjust war because refusing to do so would deflect unjustified harm onto other, non-liable, unjust combatants. The chapter concludes by stressing the need for international law and institutions to reduce the costs of surrendering and refusing to fight by providing a privilege to refuse to participate in unjust wars.
Conclusion
Authors: Rudolphy Marcela Prieto 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The conclusion brings together the different parts of the moral justification proposed throughout the book. While the adoption of the symmetrical legal privilege of combatants can be contingently justified by the instrumentalist justification provided in Chapter III, the morality of war defended in Chapters VII and VIII can attenuate the fragility of the instrumentalist explanation by denying, at least partially, that what unjust combatants do is just like murdering the innocent. Nonetheless, the book ends with a necessary note of pessimism. Even if the arguments presented have successfully attenuated the fragility of the instrumentalist justification, in the end it is still an open question how significant this attenuation is. First, because pacifism might be true, and second because the success of the instrumentalist justification proposed by the book depends on the law’s ability to lead us to peace, and it is unclear whether it has done so. Ultimately, the book stresses that regulating war, rather than eliminating it, is a significant moral compromise. As such, war’s regulation can have important costs—in particular, we may wonder whether regulating war has helped to entrench war itself.
Introduction
Authors: Krieger Heike , Liese Andrea 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Can a metamorphosis of international law be identified while it is still underway? In Chapter 1, the Introduction, Krieger and Liese set the stage for the interdisciplinary assessment of the effects of the current crisis of the international legal order. They offer fundamental common values as a reference point and yardstick to systematically evaluate and analyse normative changes in international law. After explaining the benefits of interdisciplinary exchange and clarifying the basic concepts from the respective disciplinary perspectives, they develop the book’s conceptual framework for assessing and explaining value change in the international legal order. The Introduction also elaborates on the book’s research design and case selection and summarizes the aims and key contributions of each conceptual and empirical chapter.