bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Changing Place of Religious Orders, and Its Role in Theological Development
Authors: Becker Rainald 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Like few other epochs of German church history, the period between 1750 and 1850 marked a radical challenge for religious orders. While monasteries experience a late bloom in the Catholic German territories, the secularization and dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire led to an almost total eclipse of religious life around 1800. During the early nineteenth century, this decline was followed by a remarkable resurgence, which forged new monastic landscapes completely different from those of the late ancien régime, but equally flourishing. This chapter treats these phenomena under the multiple institutional and intellectual aspects, considering the Enlightenment, ultramontanism and other forces behind the dialectics of blossom, fall, and revival. Programmatically, the panorama adopts a regionalized perspective, in order to elaborate the various patterns of development in different German-speaking lands, with Austria, Bavaria, and Prussia receiving particular emphasis.
Debates about the Academic Status of Theology and the Foundation of the University of Berlin
Authors: Dahlke Benjamin 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In late eighteenth and early nineteenth-century Germany, in particular in Prussia, important terms related to university studies were redefined and reconceptualized. This was largely due to the emergence of German idealism with its focus on the knowing subject. As many of the leading thinkers of the time were engaged in the founding of the University of Berlin, the development and structure of this new university played a crucial role in framing debates about the academic status of theology. This chapter examines these considerations of the place of theology in the university in the writings of Kant, Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel, as well in works by Schleiermacher, whose treatment outlined an influential account of the tasks and functions of theology. However, while research has tended to pass over Catholic contributions to the debates about the academic status of theology, this chapter also attends to the writings of the Tübingen theologian Drey.
Approaches to Myth and Mythology
Authors: Steinby Liisa 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter discusses new approaches to the study of myth and mythology in late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century Germany, focusing on four important thinkers or intellectual currents, namely Herder; the Early Romanticism of Friedrich Schlegel, Novalis, and Schelling; Friedrich Creuzer; and the late Schelling. In Herder’s anthropological approach, myth is regarded as a natural form of human cognition. Herder discusses myth as the material of poetry and interprets myths in the Bible. The Early Romantics’ view of myth is based on the idealist philosophy; myth, like art, is an important form of representing the Absolute. Creuzer, in his Symbolik und Mythologie der alten Völker, presents a temporally and geographically comprehensive overview of the religious imagery of ancient peoples, suggesting that mythologies share a common origin of a basically monotheistic character. Schelling, on the other hand, in his Philosophie der Mythologie, claims that the mythologies, or theogonies, in different cultures rather develop in parallel; this is because the theogonic process actually involves the true effectuality of God.
Confession, Secularism, and Dissent in the German Vormärz
Authors: Weir Todd H. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
At the end of the nineteenth century, many German church leaders viewed popular natural science and secularist worldviews as forces that were outside of, and indeed hostile to Christianity. Yet, earlier in the century, the churches had accommodated divergent positions on science and worldview. This chapter argues that rising confessionalism and the dynamics of dissent in the German Vormärz led to an externalization of these positions from the Christian Churches, in the form of the Free Religious Congregations of the Deutschkatholiken and Lichtfreunde. The chapter focusses on the Kingdom of Prussia and the Protestant Church, but it incorporates parallel developments within Catholicism and Judaism, because these were essential to the cross-confessional dynamics of politics and religious dissent that came to a head in the years 1845 to 1847 and resulted in the permanent transformation of Germany’s confessional system.
The Catholic Tübingen School in Its First Generation
Authors: Kaplan Grant 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The faculty of Catholic theology in Tübingen has long been recognized as one of the leading engines of theological creativity in Christian theology over the past 200 years. Yet there is some question about whether it is appropriate to call it a ‘school’. This chapter examines that debate before outlining the key figures and arguments who shaped the essence of the Catholic theology done in Tübingen. It also charts a decisive turn in the School’s direction, precipitated by an internal debate about mandatory celibacy in the Catholic Church. This turn was important not only to the development of the School, but to debate about how to understand or qualify the relationship between the empirical reality of a faculty of Catholic theology in Tübingen, and the more abstract question over the existence of School.
Rationalism and Biblical Interpretation
Authors: Kurtz Paul Michael 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Between 1815 and 1830, Paulus, Bretschneider, and de Wette produced interpretative guides for studying the Synoptics, the history of the Christian religion, and the Old Testament and Apocrypha. With these works, they advocated for current but by no means uncontroversial reading methods, applying the latest interventions in philosophy, philology, and history to understand biblical texts: as artefacts of a distant place but assets to modern Europe, as fallible yet credible testimony to a God behind the human past, present, and future. This chapter examines the sorts of evidence, the types of explication, and the kinds of interlocutors they not only permitted but also precluded for building arguments about the Bible. Ultimately, it argues that the courtroom of demonstration they aspired to construct identified one mode of biblical interpretation (their own) with the rational, scientific, and modern: versus Catholics, Jews, and some Protestants (i.e., the free and orthodox), whom they dismissed as irrational, unscientific, and medieval. The chapter further demonstrates how their accounts represented this exegetical edifice as conforming to the blueprints of the Protestant confession—erected on intellectual freedom, reasoned thought, biblical criticism, and philosophical reflection. In this way, the cases of Paulus, Bretschneider, and de Wette look not only back to the Enlightenment, with its vision of progress and an enlightened republic, but also forward to the claims of impartial science, the protestantization of the secular domain, and challenges to liberal Christianity as well as Judaism in Imperial Germany.
Schleiermacher’s Glaubenslehre and Its Immediate Reception
Authors: Dole Andrew 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Friedrich Schleiermacher’s Glaubenslehre is uncontroversially the most influential Protestant dogmatics of the first half of the nineteenth century; it also inaugurated the genre of modern systematic theology. Dedicated to the project of ‘mediating’ between the historical Christian faith and fast-developing historical and scientific knowledge, the work interrogates received doctrines in relation to a conception of Christianity grounded in a central principle, ‘that redemption is universally accomplished in Jesus of Nazareth’. The work was widely reviewed, and was subject to a wide range of vociferous criticisms while simultaneously being described as ‘epoch-making’. The work presents a model of a tightly integrated theological project, and is probably more influential for doing this than for advancing its novel interpretations of Christian doctrines; even theologians who counted themselves as his followers commonly sought to stand closer to orthodoxy.
Anti-Rationalist Developments
Authors: Schel Kevin M. Vander 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The emergence of post-Kantian theological rationalism in early-nineteenth-century German Protestantism ushered in a variety of novel theological approaches that sought to move beyond traditional presentations of doctrine to examine anew the rational and historical basis of religious faith. It also met with strong opposition from preachers and theologians, who rejected the accommodation with Enlightenment rationalism, defended the inescapably supernatural character of Christian revelation, and sought to reimagine the relation of Christian communities to the state and its civil and educational institutions. This chapter presents an inquiry into this opposition to theological rationalism, which proceeds in three parts. It explores: (1) the early-nineteenth-century opposition of rationalism and supernaturalism; (2) the beginnings of the German religious Awakening; and (3) the increasingly social and political expression of these anti-rationalist theological tendencies.
Catholic RationalismGeorg Hermes and Anton Günther
Authors: Shaun Coyle Justin 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter returns to the so-called ‘semi-rationalist’ Catholics, Georg Hermes (d.1831) and Anton Günther (d.1863), whose work the Catholic Church censured for adopting too much (or adapting too little) from German Idealism. However different their contexts and thought, the Church of their day judged their error the same: each in turn reduces revelation to reason. This chapter suggests that close reading of their texts and attention to their historical contexts shows how both Hermes and Günther were, regardless of their success, in fact motivated by resisting the regnant rationalism of their day. In doing so it shows how Catholic theologians took up similar questions to their Protestant contemporaries regarding the relationship of theology to the newly discovered powers of Kant’s ‘pure’ reason. despite the suspicions of such an undertaking from within their own church.
Historical Introduction
Authors: Zalar Jeffrey T. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the formative Restoration and Vormärz eras of history in German-speaking lands from roughly 1815 to the Revolutions of 1848–49. It begins with politics, considering the realignment of most of the states of central Europe into the German Confederation and the tensions this realignment provoked between establishment conservatives and emancipation-minded liberals. Then it examines social changes in both agrarian and urban environments as industrialization took hold, rural surplus labourers moved to upstart cities, and restive populations everywhere demanded amelioration of their living and working conditions. Finally, it highlights such cultural transformations as the spread of compulsory schooling and the coalescence of the public sphere that so powerfully influenced the expansion and character of intellectual life. These three interrelated discussions of politics, society, and culture establish helpful contexts for comprehending the development of German theology in the modern period.
Hegel’s Philosophy of Religion, Schelling’s Philosophy of Revelation, and Their Immediate Theological Reception
Authors: Danz Christian 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Hegel’s philosophy of religion and Schelling’s philosophy of revelation are among the most important and influential conceptions of philosophy of religion in the first half of the nineteenth century. This chapter discusses the foundations of these philosophical systems over against the historical background of post-Kantian philosophy, while also describing the systematic conceptions of religion outlined in the writings of each figure. Furthermore, beyond the presentation of Hegel’s and Schelling’s speculative philosophies of religion, this chapter treats their widespread influence on the decades that followed and their complex history of reception up to the middle of the nineteenth century.
Church History and History of Doctrine 1830–1848
Authors: Unterburger Klaus 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In the Age of Enlightenment, the pragmatic method prevailed in church historiography. Church history and history of dogma were explained by human factors, and thus came into conflict with the dogmatic claims to timeless truth. To preserve such claims in the face of the increasing historicization of knowledge in the nineteenth century, theologians pursued various strategies. In the Vormärz period from 1815 to 1848, one can distinguish three currents: 1) one could try to assert the supra-temporal identity of the inner Christian experience of faith despite all external change; 2) one could try to recognize a necessary process of development a priori behind the seemingly coincidental process of change (theological Hegelianism); or 3) one could finally be of the opinion that historical change does not go so far as to make it impossible to recognize in it the true faith and the true church, which have remained identical in their essence. All three response strategies were advocated by both Protestants and Catholics. Furthermore within Protestantism, mediating theologians attempted to reconcile the core principles of Protestantism with the results of modern scientific and historical study.
German Jewry and the Development of the Jewish Question in the Nineteenth Century
Authors: Wertheim David J. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter outlines the changes in the social and political location of German Jews from early modern Germany through the Empire established by Bismarck. It traces how gradually over time the place of Jews became a fixation in German culture, specifically in regard to how they were first denigrated as adherents of an obsolete religion, and subsequently maligned as members of a race that bore a foreign culture and therefore posed a threat to the German nation. In the course of outlining the key episodes in these developments, the chapter also discusses such themes as Jewish emancipation, Jewish religious reform, and the rise of anti-Semitism as the product of a distinctly modern framework for understanding religious difference.
Issues in Religious Freedom
Authors: Lee II James Ambrose 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
On 21 November 1837, the turmoil over mixed marriages between the Prussian state administration and the Rhenish Catholic Church erupted in the arrest of the Archbishop of Cologne. Less than a year later, on 14 August 1838, the Bavarian Ministry of War published an order mandating that all soldiers—regardless of religious confession—had to kneel during any eucharistic ceremony. Throughout the ‘Cologne Affair’ (Kölner Ereignis) and the Bavarian ‘Kneeling Controversy’ (Kniebeugungsstreit), Roman Catholics and Protestants protested against the violation of the right of the freedom of religion and the freedom of conscience through the legislation of state administrations. This chapter examines the ambiguous nature of religious freedom in Vormärz Germany as it was contested during the Cologne Affair and the Kneeling Controversy.
Introduction
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 1 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 2 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
Ω: The Archetype
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 4 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Γ Family
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 6 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
Hybrid Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 8 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Vitruvius is reviewed. All known manuscripts of Vitruvius are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided. In an end-note some manuscripts of Faventinus are discussed.
The Extant Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 14 scholarship on the transmission of the texts of Cato, De agri cultura and Varro, De re rustica is reviewed. All known manuscripts of these works are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. It is argued that the transmission needs to be studied in three separate parts: Cato; Varro before 3.17.4; and Varro after 3.17.4. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Classification of the Extant Witnesses
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 17 scholarship on the transmission of the texts of Cato, De agri cultura and Varro, De re rustica is reviewed. All known manuscripts of these works are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. The small incunabular tradition is also examined. It is argued that the transmission needs to be studied in three separate parts: Cato; Varro before 3.17.4; and Varro after 3.17.4. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Enoch of Ascoli and Porphyrio
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 24 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
V, M, and the Recentiores
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 25 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
The Localization of V and M and the Transmission of Porphyrio in the Middle Ages
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 26 scholarship on the transmission of the text of Porphyrio is reviewed. A brief discussion of the relationship of extant scholia to the commentary that goes under the name of Porphyrio is provided. All known manuscripts of Porphyrio are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined. Stemmata are provided to illustrate these affiliations. It is argued that V (Vat. lat. 3314) is the source of all other extant MSS and was the manuscript brought back to Italy by Enoch of Ascoli, and the difficulties entailed by the standard view that it was written in Italy are stated. The extensive incunabular tradition is also examined, and an outline of the transmission of the text in the Renaissance is provided.
The Manuscripts
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 30 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Progress of Scholarship
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 31 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
Manuscripts That Are Contaminated or Are Otherwise Difficult to Place
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 35 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.
The Early History of the Text
Authors: Oakley S. P. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
In chapter 36 scholarship on the textual tradition of the Periegesis is reviewed. Most known manuscripts of the poem are (where possible) localized and their genealogical affiliations are determined (for those not discussed readers are referred to an earlier work of the author). Several manuscripts written in England are discussed. A stemma is provided to illustrate these affiliations. An outline of the transmission of the text from antiquity to the sixteenth century is provided.