bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Proportioning of Materials in Process Engineering
Authors: Witt J. C. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In all process industries in which two or more raw materials are used, proportioning is an essential step. A search of the literature indicates that proportioning calculations have received less study than other types of calculations, or other details of process industries. As the number of raw materials and the number of the required constituents of a product increase, the calculations become more difficult. Generally, equations are set up and solved for each problem, individually. This requires considerable time and encourages the substitution of approximations for accurate calculations.
The author has developed formulas which are applicable to proportioning problems involving as many as four raw materials and four required constituents of the product to be manufactured. The number of raw materials and constituents could be extended. A graph has been prepared by the use of which preliminary information on the suitability of a set of raw materials for a given product may be obtained. In some cases, this eliminates many preliminary calculations. The author’s formulas were developed for use in one process industry, but are applicable to all industries in which corresponding calculations are required. They decrease the time for making calculations to a small fraction of the time that would be required otherwise, without affecting the accuracy.
An Oil-Bath-Lubricated Railway Bearing
Authors: Vigne Albert , Cox I. Eugene 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The history of the development of an oil-bath-lubricated bearing is introduced by a brief summary of conditions showing its need. Problems encountered in the application of this developed journal unit to standard car axles are described with recommendations for modification of practices and tolerances. Material tests and temperature and frictional characteristics of the new journal unit and their derivations are presented, and oriented by similar characteristic determinations on A.A.R. journal units.
The Fundamentals of the Design of Cracking Furnaces
Authors: Baker A. L. , Rickerman J. H. , Lobo W. E. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The great number of variables necessarily considered in the composite design of cracking furnaces in petroleum refining requires unusual engineering attention, resulting in a marked prevalence of custom designs, as contrasted with the usual steam-boiler designs. In this paper the procedure of design of cracking furnaces is discussed from the standpoints of processing, surface requirements, arrangement of heating surface, efficiencies, and heat distribution. The importance of obtaining good heat distribution by the proper combination of heating surface, well-designed burners, and handling of furnace draft is emphasized.
Due to the relatively short life of the average refinery furnace, the question of capital cost is of prime importance. In addition, the nature of the fluids handled, under relatively severe conditions of pressure and temperature, requires the closest possible check on the materials of construction in order to insure safety of operation, combined with low capital cost. The various materials, such as tubes, headers, brickwork, which enter into the mechanical construction of the furnace itself, are considered, and typical detailed designs presented. The increased use of high temperatures and pressures and the trend toward higher heating rates make this part of the subject of increasing interest to the oil refiners.
The Distribution of Energy in the Pulverized-Coal Furnace
Authors: Wohlenberg W. J. , Wise D. E. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In this analysis the coal particle while burning is distinguished from the resulting ash particle and the concept of radiant-mean positions of burning and of ash particles is introduced. This makes it possible to differentiate between the radiant-mean temperatures of burning particles, ash particles, gases, refractory walls, and cold walls. The direct transfer of energy between each class of particles and the gases also is introduced into the equations of condition. It is found that this process is of primary importance in the energy distribution. In fact, it may be thought of as a powerful binding property which holds the energy distribution in the configuration which it assumes. It provides among other things for a small difference between the values of radiant-mean temperature of ash particles and gases. Hence for any reasonable length of gas travel in the cavity the ash-particle temperature is substantially that of the gases except for regions close to cold surface. In view of the importance of ash fusion in actual operation of furnaces this disclosure is of considerable practical significance.
With respect to the radiation absorption at walls of the cavity, it is found that burning particles are the least important of the three radiators—burning particles, ash particles, and gases. The burning particles are primarily a source for releasing energy and most of this is transferred directly to the gases by thermal conduction. Thus it is seen that the gases serve momentarily as a great sump or reservoir into which most of the released energy is dumped. A part of this large fraction of the total released energy is subsequently redistributed by radiation and thermal conduction.
The foregoing information results from a solution of the equilibrium conditions for a steady state in a given cavity. On the basis of information furnished in this way it becomes possible to approximate the distribution of energy absorption as heat over the cold walls of the cavity. The results for a given case are included in the paper. In a qualitative sense these results contain implications of rather general significance.
Finally it may be noted that on the basis of information furnished in the equilibrium solution it is possible to approximate the gradient along the flame axis of a single radiant-mean temperature as representing the temperature condition of the contents of the cavity. Such a gradient has, however, little practical significance except in its lower reaches. Nevertheless a method of arriving at it together with a more detailed discussion is included in Appendix 6.
Industrial Applications of Spiral Bevel Gears and Hypoid Gears
Authors: Candee Allan H. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper includes a definition of terms and a general comparison of spiral bevel gears and hypoid gears with other types. The features and advantages peculiar to each type are discussed as are also tooth-contact conditions, elements of good and bad design, the importance of accurate mounting and assembling, size range and ratios, materials, and lubrication.
Numerous illustrations of equipment used in gear manufacture are shown and also photographs of applications of both small and large sizes in various fields.
Pressure-Responsive Elements
Authors: Exline Paul G. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Pressure-responsive elements commonly used in indicating and recording instruments are manometers, free-piston gages, Bourdon tubes, diaphragms, and bellows. The mathematics of the primary elements, manometers, and free-piston gages is simple and direct. Analyses of Bourdon tubes and diaphragms show that predictions of their performance curves are not amenable to precise calculation even under the simplest conditions, which conditions do not generally obtain in instruments. Generally, the instrument maker must rely upon empirical knowledge, coupled with approximate calculations, for design data. Linkage adjustments must be provided to correct for variations in dimensions and materials normally encountered in manufacture.
Emphasis is placed on the usefulness of bellows as pressure elements, and approximate formulas for calculating their behavior are given. The results of considerable experimental work on the characteristics of bellows of various sizes and materials show that in many cases they are ideal elements for pressure-responsive instruments. An example of such use in a special-duty pressure gage is given.
Pressure-Type Thermometer Systems
Authors: Bean L. G. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This paper, which deals exclusively with the common forms of industrial temperature-measuring systems working on a pressure principle, analyzes the essential elements of a basic pressure-type system with reference to the design problems involved and describes various typical instruments in the conventional classifications in order to illustrate the development of these thermometer systems into reliable instruments for commercial measurements. Included in these classifications are liquid-filled, vapor-tension, and gas-filled thermometers, all of which are described and illustrated.
Theory of Elastic Engine Supports
Authors: Rosenzweig S. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
It is obvious that the application of spring suspension to a foundation represents a great departure from the methods previously used. Instead of rigidly bolting down a machine, it is now installed so as to operate on a yielding structure. Instead of comparatively simple static laws, complicated dynamic conditions have to be considered. This paper presents the theory of the dynamic principles underlying machine operations. It is shown that not only capacity, speed, and weight of a machine must be considered, but also acceleration and free forces of reciprocating and rotating engines, irregularity of motion, inertia forces of individual parts, forced frequencies of operation, and natural frequencies of the subsoil.
The Mechanical Characteristics of Rubber
Authors: Haushalter F. L. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The author presents some of the characteristics of rubber in which engineers may be interested from a design standpoint, without going into detail on every phase of the subject which might affect design. He points out that there is a vast amount of data still to be collected, especially to establish accuracy on some points that seem to be in doubt. He suggests that to obtain data accurately, it will be necessary to conduct tests in rooms where humidity and temperature are closely controlled. The author presents data showing that moduli of elasticity and the creep of shear and torsion springs are decidedly affected by temperature. Presented graphically are curves showing load-deflection, shear, and torsion characteristics of various rubber specimens including compression pads, rubber shear sandwiches, and torsion springs.
The Use of the Piezoelectric Gage in the Measurement of Powder Pressures
Authors: Kent R. H. , Hodge A. H. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The development of a piezoelectric gage for the measurement of powder pressures in guns is reviewed. A gage is obtained having a high natural frequency, insensitivity to shock, and accuracy. Details concerning the construction of the gage, the recording apparatus, and the method of calibration are given. Records are reproduced showing pressure waves in a gun and a closed chamber. Such records have been of value in the improvement of the design of powder charges and the determination of interior ballistic data.
The High-Pressure High-Temperature Turbine-Electric Steamship “J. W. Van Dyke”
Authors: Goldsmith Lester M. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The author discusses the features of various steamship designs which were considered in the development and final adoption of the construction of the tanker S.S. J. W. Van Dyke. After data on steamship designs had been collected and analyzed an intensive study was made of hull form, propeller design, and power-plant requirements. The author describes the results of model tests conducted at model basins in Hamburg, Germany, and Washington, D. C.; the results of these tests were the deciding factor in selecting the propeller and hull designs. The paper includes a complete description of the steam-generating equipment, electrical equipment, high-pressure piping, controls, and miscellaneous electrical equipment which were finally selected for the ship. The author presents graphically the results of trial runs made with this turbine-electric steamship.
Creep in Tubular Pressure Vessels
Authors: Norton F. H. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper is a report of tests on the circumferential and longitudinal creep, under internal pressure and high temperature, in steel tubes such as are used in boilers and oil stills. A description of the testing apparatus is given and the results are shown in the form of tables and curves comparing the tubular creep with the creep of tensile specimens at the same stress.
The tentative conclusion is reached that the circumferential creep is about half that of tensile specimens. The longitudinal creep is negligible.
Effect of High Temperatures and Pressures on Cast-Steel Venturi Tubes
Authors: Pardoe W. S. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The author presents results of tests showing the expansion in the main and throat diameters of cast-steel venturi tubes under dry heat and pressure, respectively. From these data values are obtained for the coefficient of expansion and the modulus of elasticity, and the comparative effects of high temperatures and pressures are shown.
The Effect of Pulsations on Orifice Meters
Authors: Beitler S. R. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper describes three test setups made for investigating the effects of pulsation on orifice flowmeters for the measurement of gases. Arrangements are described for subjecting meters to pulsation from either the inlet or outlet side and determining the error in measurement.
The work so far is admittedly just a start toward a possible solution of the problem of metering pulsating flow, but the results show the extent and seriousness of the problem and point the way for further research which is of vital interest to the measurement industry.
Atomization of Oil by Small Pressure-Atomizing Nozzles
Authors: Glendenning E. B. , Black A. R. , Ventres L. H. , Sullivan W. A. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This paper develops the importance of atomization, carburetion, and oil characteristics for efficient combustion, and demonstrates the effect of pump pressure, oil viscosity, variation in oil temperature, and nozzle design on the rate of efflux and spray characteristics. It includes a study of hollow- and center-spray nozzles with relation to oil viscosity, aerodynamic design of the oil burner, and combustion efficiency.
Problems and Trends in Centrifugal-Machine Applications
Authors: Pecker Joseph S. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper deals with the factors that govern the design and choice of a centrifugal machine for some specific application so that a prospective user or purchaser may appreciate the scope of the problems involved in the construction of a machine that would meet his requirements.
The article describes the various types of machines that are available and specifically calls attention to the newer types of development not generally known. The author surveys the trends in centrifugal-machine development and endeavors to indicate to manufacturers, prospective inventors, developers, and users of these machines the direction in which the art may be extended and expanded by the judicious choice and application of new materials, drives, and methods of construction, as a means of securing maximum production with required safety.
Investigation of Errors of Pitot Tubes
Authors: Hubbard C. W. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In late years some hydraulic engineers have come to distrust the pitot tube as an accurate instrument for measuring the flow of water in pipes. It has been found that some pitot tubes do not have the same coefficient for all conditions of flow. There is, therefore, general disagreement as to the coefficient which must be applied for a particular set of conditions to obtain the velocity within 1 per cent or less of the true value. The following experiments were made in an effort to find the reasons for this variation of the coefficient.
Tests made on an 84-ft rotating boom in still water showed the coefficient of the impact tip to be unity. The pitot deflection was balanced against a centrifugal head.
A method of measuring the angularity of turbulent flow in pipes by use of the law of probability was devised. The measurements made in pipes 12, 40, and 78 in. in diameter check the Prandtl and von Kármán theories of turbulent flow closely and show the mean angularity to be about 2 deg. The effect of the pitot support rod on the reading of the pressure-head piezometers and impact tip was determined. Tests were also made to determine the effect of pulsations.
Tests made to determine the effect of the pitot support rod showed that the support rod did not cause an error in the impact-tip reading, but did affect the pressure measured by the wall piezometer. The rod was also found to affect the reading of the pressure orifice of the pitot-static tube. It follows that any form of combined type of pitot tube in which the error could be determined by calibration of the instrument alone would give accurate results.
The average magnitude of pulsations was found to be too small to cause an error in reading of the pitot tube.
The conclusions drawn from these tests were that the impact tip correctly registered the true dynamic head whether the flow was smooth or turbulent, but that the pressure piezometers were likely to be in error. Since the pressure piezometer of the pitot-static tube was a part of the instrument and calibrated with it, this instrument was considered more reliable than the simple pitot tube using wall piezometers.
To the Question of Balancing Reciprocating Weights in Steam Locomotives
Authors: Lipetz A. I. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The Association of American Railroads has been recommending since 1933 cross-counterbalancing of revolving weights for main wheels of steam locomotives. For coupled wheels the old method of static balancing is still being considered as sufficiently accurate. For reciprocating weights the static method is also retained by the new Manual of the A.A.R. The author takes exception to this scheme. He is of the opinion that for high-speed locomotives, and for these locomotives especially, greater clearness should be introduced in this subject. The dynamic augment, which plays such an important part in all high-speed calculations, should not exceed the limit allowed for the strength of the rails and the stiffness of the roadbed. An accurate evaluation of the dynamic augment for each wheel is possible only when the revolving weights are correctly balanced for each wheel, coupled as well as main. If this is not done, some of the wheels are dynamically deficient and a uniform distribution of dynamic augments is impossible. This destroys the effectiveness of proper balancing of reciprocating weights.
The author discusses the percentage of balancing the reciprocating weights in steam locomotives and how this depends on the method of calculating counterbalancing, whether static or dynamic. He shows, on the basis of existing locomotives, that a smaller total percentage of counterbalancing reciprocating weights of a locomotive is quite adequate for modern locomotives.
The author further calls attention to the existence of the steam component on the main axle and suggests that no reciprocating balance should be placed on main wheels, even if this should somewhat reduce the total percentage of balancing. He would rather increase the dynamic augment on coupled wheels in order to spare the main wheels from excessive blows. In his opinion the disregarding of the action of the steam component is responsible for the objection of some railroads to cross-counterbalancing of locomotives. This attitude should disappear when the problem is clarified.
In conclusion the author gives an example of a correct calculation of cross-counterbalancing of all weights, revolving and reciprocating, and for all axles, main and coupled, and proves that this method involves no more work, even less, than the static method, when angling of counterbalances on wheels is attempted.
The Characteristics of Atmospheric-Type Burners When Used With Natural Gas
Authors: Howe E. D. , Johnson H. G. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In this paper it is determined that the design of atmospheric-type gas burners depends upon the stability of the flame produced, which is related to the speed of flame propagation in the combustible mixture. Experiments made upon single-port gas burners have served to show that the effective velocity of flame propagation is greater than the velocity of flame propagation in still mixtures. It has been found that natural gas can be burned at a rate of approximately 30 cu ft per hr per sq in. of port area. The authors summarize the matter of hydraulic design of inspirators in the form of an equation, the validity of which is demonstrated by experiment. This equation suffices to determine the mixture ratio when the gas rate and density are known.
Burning Pulp-Mill Waste From Sulphite Mill
Authors: Keeth Grover 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
After first outlining the problem of stream pollution, as applied to sulphite pulp mills, this paper describes the recovery of lignin from digester waste and the elimination of stream pollution by the Howard process. This process produces a lignin fuel which can be and is burned in power-plant furnaces for the production of steam. Mechanical problems, such as the development of a filter press and various methods of burning the fuel so produced, are explained.
Bagasse Furnaces
Authors: Kerr E. W. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This paper deals with the design of furnaces for burning bagasse, a woody product resulting from the removal of sugar juice from cane. Its calorific value when dry is about 8300 Btu, which is reduced considerably because of the moisture content averaging about 50 per cent. Because of the high moisture content large combustion-chamber volume is essential and the net boiler efficiency is limited. However, in a properly designed and balanced sugar factory, the heat from the bagasse will generate the necessary steam for operating it although some additional fuel (usually oil) is required during mill stops. Practically all makes and types of boilers are used for burning bagasse, water-tube boilers predominating. The author classifies the types of bagasse furnaces as grate, hearth, and combination grate and hearth. Examples of each are described and tests covering a wide range of furnace types over a long period of time are cited. The best installations range from 55 to 60 per cent boiler and furnace efficiencies; average practice about 50 per cent. A furnace developed recently by the late G. P. Ward has given an efficiency of 66 per cent.
Burning Various Types of Oil-Refinery Fuels
Authors: Wilson A. L. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper describes the various types of waste by-product fuels which are produced in an oil refinery and the burning of them in boiler furnaces. Composition and characteristics of these by-products are given together with the methods of handling and utilization. Burner design and the use of steam for atomization are considered and attention is called to the fact that combination burners have been developed to burn simultaneously five different fuels in liquid, gaseous, and solid form.
Mechanical Purification of Steam Within the Boiler Drum
Authors: Baker M. D. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The paper is a report of tests run on new high-pressure high-temperature boiler installations to determine a baffle arrangement for the steam drums that would prevent objectionable carry-over during normal operation.
The arrangements of three types of baffle are illustrated and the results are given in tables and graphs as conductivity measurements on condensed steam samples taken from eight different points in the drum.
The cyclone-separator baffle finally developed will deliver steam containing solids approximating 0.5 ppm with boiler-water concentrations up to 1600 ppm, and will permit a large range of load change and water-level variation.