bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Modern Taxonomy and Copepod Phylogeny
Authors: Miller Charles B. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Diego Figueroa’s work on copepods swimming in seas around the Galapagos Archipelago and in anchialine caves on those islands is recounted. Morphological and DNA studies of new Ridgewayia and Pseudocyclops species from those caves show the effective interaction of those data types for defining species. Work by others with such data suggested moving the genera in Ridgewayiidae into the Pseudocyclopidae. With phylogenetic details coming into better focus, Diego agreed. A postdoctoral opportunity took Diego to Florida and a detour into octocoral phylogenetics. That showed the efficacy of complete sequences of mitochondrial DNA (mtGenomes) for indicating species and higher-level relationships and, thus, more accurate phylogenetics. Current notions of mitochondrial evolution are reviewed. An odd instability of mitochondrial gene sequences among copepods is discussed, with examples recounted from mtGenome work on Tigriopus, Calanus, Eucalanus and Neocalanus. The power of “Next Generation” DNA sequencing (NGS) for assembling mtGenomes is addressed, and NGS procedures are outlined in a text box.
How to Think About Thinking
Authors: Houchens Nathan , Harrod Molly , Saint Sanjay 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Outstanding attending physicians have a teaching style that is very different from the usual teaching method that presents information and expects learners to memorize and reproduce it. The attending physicians followed in this study used a strategy that was active rather than passive, collaborative rather than authoritarian. Attendings viewed the use of “why” questions as teaching opportunities. Questions served multiple purposes, including guiding the learner through their thinking process, building on knowledge through the use of hypothetical questions, and using the Socratic method to foster critical thinking. Instilling the ability to think critically about one’s own decision-making process was the attendings’ ultimate goal for their learners.
Introduction
Authors: Mitchell James 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides an outline of the book as well as setting out how it is organised. A large portion of the chapter is dedicated to general starting advice about the organ outside of music composition itself, such as how to access an instrument and how to get your music performed. The organ’s relationship with religion and religious institutions is given its own section, exploring the practical ramifications of liturgy for organ composition. Virtual organ software is an expanding field, with sampled organs improving rapidly in quality, and so this chapter briefly covers these virtual instruments. Finally, further links and resources are given to allow further exploration of the pipe organ beyond the music written for it.
The Gardens of Mesopotamia
Authors: Higgins Michael Denis 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThe hanging, meaning terraced gardens are the most enigmatic and short-lived of the Ancient Wonders. They are usually thought to have been at Babylon, in central Mesopotamia, whose city walls also made the early lists of Wonders. However, it may be that the gardens were at Nineveh, built by an earlier king of Assyria. Both cities were in Mesopotamia, the alluvial plain of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, whose behaviour was central to the cultural development of the region. Babylon was far from stone resources and built with mud bricks, except for areas of ceremonial importance. Nineveh was near the mountains and stone was available in much larger quantities. Although Nineveh had a more equitable climate than Babylon, a vast system of canals was built to help feed people displaced by wars of conquest and to cope with climate changes. The natural hydrocarbon bitumen was used to cement bricks and waterproof structures in both cities, and its presence later pointed to the vast reserves of oil and gas for which the region is now famous. The palaces at Nineveh were decorated with carved gypsum panels that show how stone was extracted and transported. One panel was even carved with an image of a garden that seems to correspond with ancient descriptions of the Wonder.
The Statue of Zeus at Olympia
Authors: Higgins Michael Denis 
Published: June 2023

AbstractIn 430 bce the Athenian sculptor Pheidias completed a monumental statue of Zeus so large that the seated figure almost filled a relatively modest temple. The statue was the focus of the sanctuary at Olympia, where Heracles (Hercules) was said to have initiated four yearly games in honour of the god. Zeus’s skin was represented by ivory, traded down from Central Africa, and the gold used for his hair and clothes was obtained from deposits around the Aegean. In his hand, he held a victory figure made of glass. The sanctuary lay beside the Alpheios River, on a stream terrace formed by the deposition of sediments produced by Neolithic cultivation of the hills to the north. The games were held for almost 1,200 years, but with the coming of Christianity, the statue was removed and its temple destroyed, either by natural or human activities. The ruins were buried by stream sediments, but the mechanism is much disputed: catastrophic theories, like tsunamis, have always been popular, but it is more likely to have been prosaic processes such as erosion triggered by hill farming, ironically the same process that made the original Olympia Terrace.
Rebuilding the Wonders
Authors: Higgins Michael Denis 
Published: June 2023

AbstractAncient peoples envisaged that their monuments would last forever, in contrast to the brief life of fifty years that is planned for most modern buildings. However, we understand the destructive forces that can affect buildings better than our ancestors and could construct even more resilient structures, given sufficient thought and adequate resources. We could build New Wonders that would physically resemble their predecessors, using both traditional and modern materials. They could be designed to withstand predicted environmental changes and natural disasters for thousands of years. However, we cannot preserve them from deliberate destruction to satisfy political, business or religious objectives.
Why John Locke Thought that the Fundamental Articles Must Be Minimal
Authors: Marko Jonathan S. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 4 situates Locke’s theological writings in the context of the fundamental articles debates of his era. It argues that, for Locke, the fundamental articles are reasonably minimal and explicitly from the Messiah. This position supports religious toleration and is not wholly novel. Locke thought that as people must be able to cull for themselves (although not wholly in isolation) any articles from Scripture to claim that they believe them—lest they be guilty of a brand of illegitimate, implicit faith—it is perfectly reasonable that the fundamental articles in Scripture are few in number and clear—otherwise the vulgar or commoners are practically ruled out from being saved—and expressly from the Messiah Himself—lest, among other things, the continuity of the church be disrupted and the definition of a Christian be subject to change.
John Locke on the Necessity of Scripture Amidst the Innate Idea Controversy and the Rise of Deism
Authors: Marko Jonathan S. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 focuses on Locke’s understanding of the necessity of Scripture, set within the historical context of the controversy over innate ideas and the closely related rise of natural religion or deism. John Locke’s belief that Christianity is epistemologically vital to the spread and maintenance of right morals in society is demonstrated by the mutual reinforcement between his argument against innate ideas and principles, which is most prominent in the Essay, and his conclusion in ROC that a great shift in moral thinking started with Christ’s advent. Right moral principles, although demonstrable, are neither easily wrought nor innate but can seem to be so to the many who have taken for granted their Christian (or Christianized) milieu in which they have been raised, such as the deists.
Language at the Interface
Authors: Nefdt Ryan M. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter ambitiously puts forward a radical approach to the interfaces between different linguistic systems. It adopts a method of abstraction from computer science and informational structural realism. It also sketches the possibility of extending structural realism in linguistics to semantics by means of semantic metastructuralism or the view that semantically real patterns picked out by formal semantic theories are structural in similar ways to other linguistic systems.
Language and Cognitive Science
Authors: Nefdt Ryan M. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter aims to show how linguistics, structurally and biologically understood, can be connected with the other cognitive sciences. It argues that the study of language still has a seminal role to play in the study of cognitive structures. It draws on insights from the history of linguistics, cognitive science, and the development of the fields of systems biology and cognitive neuroscience.
Discredit
Authors: Cross Elizabeth 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines the controversy over the Nouvelle Compagnie des Indes amid the financial crisis preceding the French Revolution. In 1787 Controller-General Calonne convoked an Assembly of Notables to reform the indebted Old Regime. Concurrently, the New Company became embroiled in a stock market scandal that wasted government funds, enraged the public, and led to Calonne’s dismissal. The scandal created an opportunity for merchants in France’s Chambers of Commerce to lobby the monarchy directly for the abolition of the Company’s monopoly. As these merchant-deputies from France’s port cities claimed to represent the true economic interests of the nation, they came up against short-term fiscal realities that privileged the interests of the Company’s shareholders—as putative lenders to a regime in crisis—over their own. As the Old Regime revealed its chronic dependency on the privileges that lay at the root of its fiscal crisis, both sides questioned whether the monarchy was a sound guarantor of their long-term interests.
Notes on a Scandal
Authors: Cross Elizabeth 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The New Company’s ultimate revolutionary downfall occurred as the French Revolution created opportunities for new actors to profit from older forms of corruption and venality. The success of the New Company’s revolutionary reinvention played out against an emergent monetary crisis, as the new paper currency, the assignat, depreciated in value. As Jacobin politicians identified speculation in private instruments like the New Company’s shares as a prime cause of that depreciation, the National Convention targeted the Company for suppression and liquidation in the summer of 1793. Many of these same politicians, however, were simultaneously engaged in a scheme to utilize their newfound legislative power in order to extort the Company’s shareholders in exchange for legislative favors. As this scandal became public in the midst of the Terror, the Jacobin government sought to marshal these events, as illustrations of illegitimate private interest and treason, in order to consolidate its rule.
Introduction
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This introductory chapter defines the field of metaphysics—the philosophical study of what the world is like—and argues that metaphysicians need to have a clear understanding of how their field relates to scientific inquiry. The chapter then previews methodological naturalism as a potential way of understanding that relationship. According to methodological naturalism, when coming up with theories about what the world is like, philosophers should, whenever possible, make use of the methodology of science. Methodological naturalism is prima facie plausible because of the role of extra-empirical reasoning in science—reasoning that goes beyond the data. The chapter ends with a preview of the rest of the book.
From Content Naturalism to Methodological Naturalism
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter defines methodological naturalism—the view that metaphysicians should, whenever possible, make use of the methodology of science—and argues that most philosophers have commitments that lead straightforwardly to methodological naturalism. The argument begins by defining content naturalism—the idea that metaphysicians ought to avoid conflicts with the content of our best science—and demonstrating that the vast majority of contemporary philosophers are committed to content naturalism. The chapter then presents an argument for the content-methodology link—the claim that anyone who is committed to content naturalism should accept methodological naturalism as well. The chapter closes with a discussion of several potential objections to the argument for the content-methodology link.
Why Methodological Naturalism Impacts Metaphysical Theorizing
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses in general terms how methodological naturalism will impact metaphysical theorizing. It is of course true that few, if any, philosophical debates can be settled by collecting data in a laboratory. But the same is true of scientific debates. Instead, scientists rely on extra-empirical principles, and we should expect these kinds of principles to impact all sorts of metaphysical debates, including debates that are usually considered to be insulated from issues to do with science, like the debate over the existence of possible worlds or the debate over the nature of composite objects. It follows that if one adopts methodological naturalism one should be deeply suspicious of the idea that there are any metaphysical debates that are wholly insulated from scientific considerations.
Case Study
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter is the third of three case studies demonstrating the potential impacts of methodological naturalism. It focuses on an extra-empirical principle that says that we should avoid a certain kind of excess structure in our theories, and shows how that principle plays a key role in justifying the acceptance of special relativity over alternative theories that are also compatible with the data. It has often been observed that this kind of extra-empirical principle can be used to rule out theories of time that posit a fundamental distinction between the present, on the one hand, and the past and the future, on the other. This chapter argues that the very same extra-empirical principle would also apply in a surprising way to debates about the nature of possibility. It would lead to the rejection of views that posit a fundamental distinction between what is actual and what is merely possible.
Context Dependence in Scientific Methodology
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The foregoing chapters have assumed that there is such a thing as universal scientific methodology—a methodology for arriving at scientific theories that holds across scientific contexts. This chapter revisits that assumption and asks whether and to what extent a context-dependent scientific methodology might make trouble for the methodological naturalist. The focus of the discussion will be on the idea that simplicity is context-dependent. Although existing accounts of the ways in which simplicity is context-dependent do not give rise to serious concerns for the methodological naturalist, there are hypothetical accounts that may give rise to such worries. The chapter discusses three ways for the methodological naturalist to respond.
Metaphysics Unmoored?
Authors: Emery Nina 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter considers the consequences of rejecting methodological naturalism and suggests that they would be just as widespread and dramatic as (though also quite different from) the consequences of accepting the view. As argued in Chapter 1, if we aren’t methodological naturalists, then we also should not be content naturalists. That is, we should not be concerned about potential conflicts between our favored philosophical theories and our best scientific theories. Although rejecting both content and methodological naturalism might seem initially attractive, since it would free metaphysicians to be more creative and innovative in their theorizing, it would also raise a host of difficult questions about the legitimacy and purpose of metaphysics. It is unclear what it means to say that metaphysicians are in the business of figuring out what the world is like, if conflicts with our best scientific theories are irrelevant.
The Great Nation of Futurity
Authors: Dunmire Patricia L. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This book’s central premise is that conceptions of American national identity and geopolitical purpose embed a crucial temporal element that situates the nation in a privileged position vis-à-vis the future. It argues that Cold War foreign policy discourse embeds the claim that America is the exemplar of the future and, as such, has a special right to shape the geopolitical future. It further argues that this claim is inherently hegemonic, as it legitimates a foreign policy focused on shaping the global future in the American image. The book’s overall goal is to elucidate the discursive means by which the future—as a discursive construct, rhetorical resource, and conceptual space—has figured in America’s conception of its place and purpose in the world. This project is situated within the discourse and ideology of American exceptionalism, which has undergirded the nation’s identity throughout its history. It draws out the temporal dimension of the exceptionalist ideology, namely, the construal of America as the “great nation of futurity,” and examines how this identity manifests linguistically and functions rhetorically in Cold War foreign policy discourse. Working within a critical discourse analytic framework, this project examines the space-times construed within foreign policy discourse and demonstrates that these space-times consistently position the United States in a privileged position vis-à-vis the future. This positioning, in turn, sanctioned a foreign policy approach focused on global future design.
“Vistas to the Future”
Authors: Dunmire Patricia L. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This discourse-analytic chapter examines the different space-times embedded in Henry Luce’s essay “The American Century,” President Truman’s speech “A Special Message to Congress on Greece and Turkey,” and National Security Resolution 68. The chapter also analyzes how these documents positioned different global actors and constituencies vis-à-vis the future. It explores how the United States was discursively positioned vis-à-vis the postwar future and how the nation’s claim of exceptionalism figured in that positioning. The analysis demonstrates how a temporal interpretation of the Cold War manifested in foreign policy discourse, and, moreover, how this discourse granted the United States a privileged role in shaping the postwar geopolitical future. Its central argument is that various space-time and Self/Other contrasts aligned different geopolitical actors with different space-times in such a way that rendered the postwar global future the special province of the United States.
Hegel's Phenomenology of Spirit
Authors: Pinkard Terry 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The Phenomenology is organized into six theses: (1) All consciousness is self-consciousness. (2) Self-consciousness is social self-consciousness. (3) Spirit (Geist) is self-conscious life, and this is to be conceived generically in terms of social self-consciousness. (4) Self-conscious life has a history of that to which it collectively takes itself to be absolutely committed, a history which is as much ideal as it is material. (5) This history is progressive (and in that sense, somewhat teleological), and it culminates in modern life after the finalization of the French Revolution, with two different but related accounts of that progress (namely, the history of spirit and the history of religion). (6) The thesis about the centrality of self-consciousness is what the Phenomenology as a whole is about and at the end turns out to have both a theoretical and practical significance. The Phenomenology itself and the system to which it gives rise afterward is, we are supposed to realize, the very point of departure for modern life. It culminates with the experience of the Phenomenology being the book you needed in particular and the book that we needed in general, and not just another book of philosophy.
Self-Consciousness and Self-Sufficiency
Authors: Pinkard Terry 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
We imagine two self-conscious agents disagreeing over who has the authority to set the terms of their own development. Where there is a fundamental disagreement on this, and a struggle for recognition occurs—a struggle over who sets the terms of authority—and if both of them claim that in fact this unconditional authority they seek is more valuable to them than life itself, it is a struggle to the death. We then imagine that although both have staked out an unconditional claim to be recognized as the authority, one of them out of the fear of death (the absolute lord and master of all) renounces that claim, recognizes the unconditional authority of the other, and becomes his slave or vassal. However, the slave soon comes to understand that the master’s putative unconditional authority is really conditional on the slave’s continued recognition of that unconditionality and thus isn’t really unconditional at all.
Absolute Freedom and Terror
Authors: Pinkard Terry 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Enlightenment puts all its weight on ahistorical, unencumbered reason carried out by ahistorical, unencumbered individuals illuminated by the light of nature. These individuals, each an “I,” claim to speak with the authority of the whole, as a “We,” and the “I” and the “We” fuse into one. At first, these rational individuals are led into the concept of utility, but utility proves to be too much of a constraint on this “absolute freedom” as constrained by nothing but itself. The oneness of the “I” and the “We” itself shifts its shape into the of the “Nation” as the sovereign will that makes all other law. The French Revolution culminates in a Reign of Terror because the unifying abstraction of “absolute freedom” simply could not take the differences among individuals seriously.
The Late Fifth Century
Authors: Moore Christopher 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter develops the late fifth-century debates about sôphrosunê first seen in Chapter 1, focusing now on Critias, Antiphon, Thucydides, and Democritus. Critias, according to the Charmides, defined sôphrosunê as “doing one’s own things.” This solves some problems with defining a virtue and emphasizes the theme of self-constitution, in both individuals and cities. Antiphon gives an alternative account of sôphrosunê, where the suppression of felt bad desires is key. He disclaims the necessity that reason or insight does the suppression. For Thucydides, sôphrôn cities are those that, on first analysis, abstain from foreign affairs. Several major paired speeches debate the nature, value, and presence of sôphrosunê in cities; the speech by Archidamus king of Sparta gives the most extensive argument about sôphrosunê yet seen in this book. The half-dozen precepts about sôphrosunê ascribed to Democritus resonate with his moral-psychological theory, in which he presents a rational agent’s duty as to act only on the noblest of his desires.