bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Neoliberalism
Authors: Engelmann Stephen G. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In political theory, “neoliberalism” (also “neo‐liberalism”) names a movement of theory and practice that emerged in the early to mid‐twentieth century in response to socialism and the welfare state. This movement emphasized a renewal of individual liberty that embraced an apparent contradiction: antiplanning planning, through the mobilization of competitive individual initiative in the service of aggregate ends. This mobilization has proceeded above all by means of a cathexis in and through individual choice. Unlike eighteenth‐century laissez‐faire, neoliberalism at its most rigorous is avowedly constructivist: it does not make providential assumptions about a natural order that will emerge from the withdrawal of state action. But it sees the state as hostile to individual initiative, and as a potentially unjust and unproductive picker of winners and losers in the game of life. Neoliberal theory and practice have become dominant across political parties in developed countries and beyond, showing few signs of flagging even in the wake of economic crises of increasing severity. Neoliberal ascendancy appears to continue despite the fact that the post‐2007 predicament has been broadly recognized as a crisis of the Anglo‐American model of deregulated, finance‐led capitalism most closely associated with neoliberalism, and despite the fact that crisis management has been marked by massive state action in support of collapsing markets.
Nonviolence
Authors: Hutchings Kimberly 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Nonviolence” refers to a commitment to the use of nonviolent tactics to achieve political ends. The commitment to nonviolent tactics is most commonly rooted in moral or religious values, as in the thought of Henry David Thoreau, Leo Tolstoy, Mahatma Gandhi, or Martin Luther King. Nonviolence is closely associated with pacifism, but the two are not synonymous. Nonviolence is what happens when pacifism inspires an alternative way of doing politics.
Okin, Susan Moller (1946–2004)
Authors: Follesdal Andreas 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSusan Moller Okin, an egalitarian feminist liberal, reconstructed the history of political thought to correct for the absence, exclusion, or distortion of women, gendered culture, and reproduction. She developed the social contract tradition to secure family and gender central place, highlighted the plight of minority women in multicultural societies, and contributed to women‐centered development policies.
Pateman, Carole (1940–)
Authors: Bennich‐Björkman Li 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Carole Pateman is a British‐born political theorist who now resides in the USA. She graduated from Oxford, as one of the first in her family to receive a degree in higher education, and is presently teaching at the University of California, Los Angeles. In 2011 she held the prestigious position of president of the American Political Science Association (APSA), and in 2012 was awarded the Johan Skytte Prize in political science for outstanding contributions to the discipline. In 1970,
Participation and Democratic Theory
was published, a book that questioned the then prevailing theory on elite democracy, while reconnecting to traditions of participation as both individually and collectively beneficial.
Participation and Democratic Theory
gained rapid renown and is a classic in democratic theory. Pateman has since become one of the most influential representatives for participatory democracy, and in her presidential address at the APSA in 2011, she returned to this topic by reflecting upon recent experiments of participatory budgeting in Latin America.
Pitkin, Hanna F. (1931–)
Authors: Ring Jennifer , Mathiowetz Dean 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBorn in Berlin, the daughter of psychoanalyst Otto Fenichel and Clare (née Nathansohn) Fenichel, Hanna Fenichel Pitkin immigrated in 1938 to the United States with her parents, to escape Nazi anti‐Semitism. Pitkin's most significant innovation in political theory lies in her work on language and concepts. Throughout her writings, Pitkin returns to the question of how the political and moral problems that arise in political theorizing, judgment, and action must be understood in relation to the concepts that bear the cleavages of political life as we meet them every day.
Political Leadership
Authors: Keohane Nannerl O. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
When most of us think about political life, one of the words that first spring to mind is “leadership.” Yet this term rarely appears in the canonical works of political theory. This is partly a matter of language. As Joseph Rost notes, the word “leadership” did not appear in dictionaries until the nineteenth century. Both Greek and Latin (and consequently modern Romance languages as well) lack a single word that can easily be translated as “leadership.” Yet political theory across the centuries is rich in discussions of ruling and governing, kings and princes, power and authority. It is difficult to think of political theory without such concepts, which are closely connected with leadership. In this sense, political theory is like a play in which a key character is rarely on stage, but is nonetheless intensely present from the first act to the final curtain.
Political Novel
Authors: Ciliotta‐Rubery Andrea 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

In Ivan Turgenev's
Fathers and Sons
, the impressionable Arcady Kirsanov attempts to defend his uncle Pavel before his radical friend Bazarov. Amid Bazarov's unyielding ridicule of the Anglophile's dress, manners, and overall presence, Arcady insists that his friend has erred in his judgment. In a few words, Arcady reveals the distinct power of the political novel to somehow give voice and meaning to the experiences of man, in the shape of “his story,” while confronting the powerful force of another's political ideology. In this instance, it is Bazarov's commitment to nihilism that comes into direct confrontation with Pavel's aesthetic adoption of western ideas and mores. This type of confrontation between ideology and human experience is the hallmark of the political novel.
Political Theology
Authors: Thiem Annika 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn twentieth‐century political theory, political theology is most closely associated with the name of the German jurist Carl Schmitt (1888–1985). Schmitt argues that modern politics continues to have structural theological underpinnings and examines the transfer of theological concepts into modern political theory. Yet the debates conducted under the auspices of “political theology” or “the theological‐political problem” have also at various times included discussions concerning more generally the role of religion in politics, the relationship between religious and political power, the political implications of the dispersion of religious commitments and theological qualities into spheres that are not primarily religious (such as economics), and the religious and political presuppositions for religious pluralism, as well as assumptions about secularity and the neutrality of the public sphere, its norms, and institutions. All these strands interlace and draw on each other in ways that are hardly neatly separable, and what may appear as “political theology” proper morphs into a discussion of “public religion” and vice versa, so that while not reducible to each other, the two discursive frameworks also cannot be entirely severed from each other. In this light, this entry will trace out the discussions that have historically been negotiated under the umbrella of the term “political theology” and make some suggestions for mapping the current conjunctures. While most religious traditions have produced reflections on the relationship among that tradition, its practices, and politics, the discussion of “political theology” presented here will focus on engagements with the Christian theological tradition broadly construed.
Politics and Literature
Authors: McWilliams Susan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Much of what we recognize as political thought has been written down with attention to order and form, which is to say that it could be classified within the most general category of “literature.” And all political scientists communicate via the printed word, imbuing the study of politics with an unavoidably literary dimension. Yet invoking the phrase “politics and literature” in the context of political theory implies a more specific, although not small‐scale, series of questions, issues, and debates. These questions, issues, and debates have persisted throughout the history of political thought, drawing attention not only to the political dimensions of fiction, poetry, and storytelling, but also to the complex and contestable nature of political theory itself.
Postcolonial Feminism
Authors: Zuckerwise Lena K. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Born out of resistance to the exclusions and generalizations of second‐wave feminism, postcolonial feminism is a critical approach to theory that takes aim at the legacies of colonialism and their ongoing effects on women and gender. Though there is a rich diversity of social and political convictions among postcolonial feminists, they all share a commitment to attend to the literal and symbolic forms of violence that emerge from universalist assumptions about women, including the idea that they are all united as a sisterhood.
Postsecularism
Authors: Cassatella Andrea 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIt is not entirely clear what is meant by postsecularism. As a relatively new concept in political thought, it is still in the process of being formulated. Neverthless, postsecularism can be described as a broad concept referring to a constellation of positions that rethink secularism by responding to a version of the “secularization thesis.” Usually attributed to Max Weber, this thesis suggests the progressive privatization and decline of religion under the forces of modernization. The commitment to re‐examine this conception of secularism comes from a recognition that contemporary society is in some sense “postsecular,” in other words it is a society in which religion is neither in retreat nor in decline but persists in political discourse and practice.
Privacy
Authors: Richardson Janice 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

There have been extended efforts to define “privacy” within political thought and the social sciences as well as within the context of legal disputes in the courts. In political theory, the public/private divide is associated mostly with the liberal tradition, in which privacy is linked to a private sphere that designates an area of life in which an individual can tell both the state and others that access to
his
body or information about him, including his correspondence, is “none of their business.” This has historically been gendered and associated with private property ownership, which gives the right to exclude others from a particular place, in particular the family home. In common law countries wives did not have the right to refuse their husbands access to their bodies until late into the twentieth century. For example, in the UK this marital exception to the rape laws persisted until a famous case in 1992. This last remnant of the doctrine of coverture persisted beyond other relationships that were defined by status.
Proudhon, Pierre‐Joseph (1809–65)
Authors: Prichard Alex 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Pierre‐Joseph Proudhon was the first to clearly articulate a political philosophy of anarchism. Born in the Franche‐Comté region of France, Pierre‐Joseph's father was a cooper and his mother a cook. Proudhon's schooling was cut short due to the family's poverty, but when he later took work with a notable local printing press he taught himself Latin, Greek, and Hebrew while typesetting staple religious works. He was also exposed to more radical ideas while printing Charles Fourier's idiosyncratic works. At the age of 20, he won a scholarship to study in Paris, where he became intimately acquainted with radical European philosophy, from Kantian idealism to Michelet's universal history. However, it was the iniquities of bourgeois property relations that would inspire his first major work.
What Is Property? Or an Investigation into the Principle of Right and of Government
(1994 [1840]) made an instant mark and was quickly suppressed. Proudhon declared war on the established order with his now infamous view that “All property is theft!”
Przeworski, Adam (1940–)
Authors: Lawrence Andrew G. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Adam Przeworski is a Polish American professor of political science, best known for his analyses of democracy and political economy, in particular the political determinants of economic development and vice versa, combining analytical philosophy with quantitative methods. He has been a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences since 1991, and the Carroll and Milton Petrie Professor of European Studies, Politics, and Economics at the Wilf Family Department of Politics of New York University since 1995.
Public Goods
Authors: Baird Ryan G. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Pure public goods are defined by two characteristics; they are both nonrival and nonexcludable. They are nonrival goods in that their value is not lessened by the use of others. They are nonexcludable goods in that a person cannot be prevented from using it, whether they have paid for it or not. There are also “impure” public goods; they arise due to “congestion costs.” These costs arise when so many people are using the public good that the benefit of it is reduced for additional users. Public roads during rush hour are impure public goods.
Public Philosophy
Authors: Pasquali Francesca 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPublic philosophyhas no univocal meaning. On the one hand, it indicates a set of publicly shared principles and values, which, within a given context, regulate political practices, provide guidance and justification for policy decisions, and orient public debates and individual conduct. On the other hand, public philosophy may be intended as a specific approach to political philosophy, characterized by its primary concern with addressing and clarifying public questions. It is worth noticing that the two meanings tend to overlap and that public philosophy may be employed as a neutral and descriptive expression – indicating principles and values actually embedded in the practices at stake – or it may be attached with a normative and prescriptive significance – designating principles and values that ought to shape the relevant practices.
Public–Private Distinction
Authors: Howard Dana 
Published: August 2023

AbstractA distinction between “the public” and “the private” realm of human life has featured centrally throughout the development of western conceptions of politics. However, from the nineteenth century on, the distinction itself, along with its practical role in legitimating certain social inequalities and exclusionary political practices, has increasingly been the subject of a number of important political, social, economic, and philosophical critiques. While there are many debates over how specifically to carve up these two spheres, “the private” generally connotes the elements of one's social life in which intrusion or interference from others “requires special justification,” whereas “the public” connotes elements of social life that are more readily and aptly accessible to all. Most who have written on the distinction agree that there issomeprivate realm of one's social life that should be immune to policing by the state or by public opinion. However, where to draw the boundary that distinguishes the private from the public and what makes that boundary of any normative significance to political theory remain disputed.
Queenship
Authors: Shadis Miriam 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This entry focuses on queenship in the west. Historically, women have become queens either through marriage (more common) or through inheritance. A woman who becomes queen through marriage is sometimes referred to as a “queen‐consort,” whereas one who becomes queen through inheritance is a “queen‐regnant.” This contrasts with male kingship, which is more usually achieved through inheritance, sometimes through election, sometimes by conquest, and rarely through marriage. Kings, furthermore, are not identified in a qualified manner (as regnant, or consort). Thus the sources of the status of “queen,” and the scope of authority attached to that status are relational, and clearly gendered.
Racism
Authors: Alexander‐Floyd Nikol G. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Racism involves a society's creation and maintenance of a socioeconomic and political hierarchy based on racial categories. These racial categories are ostensibly based on phenotypic differences, most notably skin color, but also hair texture and other aspects of one's physicality. These differences, moreover, are thought to correspond to variations in innate intellectual ability, moral propriety, and emotional stability. Racism, then, serves to both constitute and legitimate unequal distribution of societal resources and political power, a reality that, in large part, explains the persistence of race, even though its scientific basis has long been discredited. Importantly, just as our definitions of racial groupings vary by time and context, so does the operation of racism. And since our understandings of these racial groupings are also generally gendered and classed, we cannot understand racism's operation outside of its connection to sexism and class strife.
Rationalism
Authors: Czobor‐Lupp Mihaela 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn its most general sense, rationalism originates in Socratic self‐examination, namely, in the critical investigation of commonly held opinions and beliefs. In a more specific sense, classical (pre‐seventeenth‐century) rationalism originates in the philosophy of Plato (theory of Forms). Modern rationalism originates in the work of René Descartes, Benedict Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. However, with specific relevance to political philosophy, modern rationalism takes its impetus from Immanuel Kant's notion of critique and from the complex and, sometimes, irreconcilable cluster of ideas that is called the Enlightenment. Kant denies that reason can provide us with knowledge about metaphysical issues. Instead, reason can improve experience and the actual world of politics.
Realpolitik
Authors: Humphreys Adam R. C. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Realpolitik is an approach to foreign policy in which preservation of the state and promotion of the national interest are the ultimate goals and power is the primary tool for achieving those ends. Associated historically with leaders such as Richelieu, Bismarck, Stresemann, and Kissinger, it may be understood as the practical counterpart to the realist school of international relations theory.
Reason
Authors: Martel James 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of reason is liberalism's answer to the question of how human beings can make decisions without the explicit guidance of divine law. It serves, in effect, as a replacement for (or embellishment to) divine sources of judgment. Reason is generally seen as a guide or lodestone for each of us as we struggle to make sense of the world around us and our place within it. More specifically, reason is that concept which emerges as the basis for much of liberal political thought today. Liberal thinkers from Locke to Kant to Rawls have argued that by consulting reason, human beings are capable of moral and ethical decisions even in the absence of the certainty of divine guidance and/or punishment. It is therefore a crucial concept and much of the political order of the last five centuries has been based on assumptions about its existence and how it operates.
Rebellion, Right of
Authors: Rigstad Mark 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn the primary, full‐blooded sense of the term, political “rebellion” is forceful internal resistance to a ruling order. Its etymology is rooted in the Latinrebellio, which refers to a renewal of warfare that disrupts an established peace. The methods of force employed in rebellions are various. They may include, for example, a military coup d’état, clandestine or open political assassination, guerilla warfare, terrorist violence, sabotage of infrastructure, destruction of public and private property, and violent mob riots, whether armed or unarmed. The presence of such methods of force distinguishes full‐blooded rebellion from civil disobedience and peaceful dissent. Protest gatherings, labor strikes, acts of self‐immolation, and other such pacific methods of political dissent may spark full‐blooded rebellion, but they do not in themselves constitute it.
Relativism
Authors: Caputi Mary 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWithin the history of political theory, the term “relativism” has a long and varied past. It does not refer to a consistent set of meanings, but denotes an amalgam of ideas that share various points of overlap thanks to common intellectual and moral concerns. Despite this inevitable disarray, “relativism” still resonates with a degree of clarity for all involved: it designates the absence of a uniform, shared standard with which to interpret the world, highlighting the fact that people live, think, reason, and believe differently. In all its guises, relativism has consistently refuted the claim that abiding epistemological and moral assertions are available to everyone in a similar manner. Frequently, the term is associated with the field of anthropology, for in the early twentieth century the work of the German American anthropologist Franz Boas (1858–1942) made the concept of relativism axiomatic to that discipline. His ideas, in turn, were further popularized through the writings of Margaret Mead (1901–78), whose study of sexual mores in the South Pacific and in Southeast Asian cultures had a profound impact on western culture in the 1960s.
Representation
Authors: Montanaro Laura 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe action of speaking, acting, or standing for a person, group, or thing. Also, the description or portrayal of someone or something in a particular way. In politics, representation arises when an actor speaks, acts, or stands for a group, so providing political presence for that group, to an audience. Democratic representation is a specific phenomenon of the general form, which arises when this activity occurs with the authorization of the represented, who can also demand accountability.
Reproduction
Authors: Repo Jemima 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe issue of reproduction is associated with state intervention and government policies in the twentieth century as much as it is with radical feminist calls for women to counter sexual exploitation by taking control of their bodies. Possessing an elusive status in political thought, it has been conceptualized by feminists, Marxists, poststructuralists, and queer theorists alternatively as a biological process, a mode or form of labor, an object of governance, and the basis of sexual oppression. In turn, the development of the sexual division of labor has been ascribed to the structures and practices of everyday life imposed by liberalism, capitalism, and patriarchy. Lacking a self‐explanatory meaning yet capable of producing critical insights into the relationship between politics and the body, motherhood, and political economy, it has also been a contentious yet crucial concept in feminist theory and politics. This entry proceeds by examining the place of reproduction in early liberal political thought and feminist politics, followed by a more careful examination of reproduction in theorizations of the sexual division of labor, and then by a reflection on reproductive biopolitics and the place of reproduction in the progress‐oriented narrative of human history.