bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Real Living Wage
Authors: Heery Edmund , Hann Deborah , Nash David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents an overview of the Living Wage, the voluntary wage standard promoted through the campaign. This analysis proceeds through four stages. First, the Living Wage is identified as a system of ‘payment for need’, and there is an account of the methods used to identify the income needs of low-paid workers that are used to calculate the Living Wage. Second, the Living Wage is shown to exemplify the characteristics of civil regulation: it is private, voluntary, and developed unilaterally by civil society. Third, a variety of tests of robustness are applied to the Living Wage to ascertain whether it is a weak or strong form of civil regulation, with the conclusion reached that it is a relatively weak form but nonetheless effective. Finally, the chapter describes the elaboration of the standard and the launch of supplementary standards, such as Living Wage Places, and additional standards, such as Living Hours, as the scheme has undergone a logic of evolution.
The Campaign for the Real Living Wage
Authors: Heery Edmund , Hann Deborah , Nash David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The chapter profiles the two linked organizations that have developed the Living Wage campaign: Citizens UK, the British arm of the community organizing movement, and the Living Wage Foundation, a dedicated organization set up to accredit Living Wage Employers. The chapter then describes the different methods these organizations have used to spread the Living Wage—community organizing in the case of Citizens UK, and attempts to encourage responsible business by the Foundation. The concluding parts of the chapter examine the relationships campaigners have developed with other institutional actors, including an array of civil society partners, trade unions, and public authorities. Although the Living Wage campaign is formally non-political, campaigners have intervened in the political process and this activity has been particularly notable during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Public Authorities and the Real Living Wage
Authors: Heery Edmund , Hann Deborah , Nash David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter describes the response of public authorities to the Living Wage. The first part of the chapter examines the extent of Living Wage accreditation amongst public sector organizations, demonstrates that the latter are particularly likely to adopt the Living Wage, and concludes that this is evidence of a continuing ‘good employer’ commitment. The chapter also identifies which types of public sector organizations are likely to adopt the Living Wage and shows that the latter is a characteristic of devolved governments and regional and local authorities, particularly where the latter are controlled by parties of the centre-left. The second part of the chapter reviews the steps that public authorities have taken to promote the Living Wage. Supporting authorities have no power to legislate for the Living Wage, but they have used non-legislative measures to promote the standard, including procurement, grant funding, wage subsidy, and funding the campaign itself.
John Gardner’s Continuity Theory of Corrective Justice
Authors: Chau Peter 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses John Gardner’s justification of wrongdoers’ duty to repair, which is based on what he labelled the ‘continuity thesis’. After noting that continuity thesis-based justifications of wrongdoers’ duty to repair come in different forms, it is suggested that Gardner can be read as offering either a version that is based on a loss-independent right to hold on to one’s existing life or a version that is based on a right against wrongful loss. It is argued that the former version cannot justify reparation generally, and that the latter version cannot work in circumstances of distributive injustice. Two passages by Gardner discussing distributive justice-based challenges to corrective justice are then considered, and it is argued that they provide no satisfactory reply to the concern just raised.
Virtuously Discriminating: John Gardner’s Contributions to Discrimination Theory
Authors: Moreau Sophia 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on Gardner’s most original contributions to the growing field of discrimination theory. Gardner defended a number of quite radical views about discrimination—for instance, that indirect discrimination is just another form of direct discrimination, and that discrimination is wrong because we prohibit it (a malum prohibitum) rather than wrong in itself (a malum in se). In this chapter, I explain his views and discuss the possibilities he has opened for future philosophical inquiry and productive legal reform. I argue that it is particularly important that we take seriously his suggestion that the divide between direct and indirect discrimination is not very wide. I then critique some features of his views. I argue that although direct and indirect discrimination are wrong for similar reasons, we should not treat indirect discrimination as just another form of direct discrimination on a different ground. I also argue that it is a mistake to think that discrimination is a malum prohibitum, and that in order to see why it is genuinely a malum in se, we need to move beyond Gardner’s concept of disadvantage and focus on the particular way of disadvantaging people that makes discrimination wrongful, which in my view involves subordination.
Indigenous Rights and Decolonized Legal Positivism
Authors: Newman Dwight 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The accelerating global development of legal doctrine on Indigenous rights poses important questions on the nature of law that analytical legal positivists have largely eschewed. Indigenous rights theorists have often attacked ‘positivism’ for its implications for Indigenous rights. However, the clarification of the concept can offer ways of reframing the engagement between Indigenous rights and positivism. While their arguments are not necessarily different from those of other human rights advocates, the choice by Indigenous rights theorists to attack positivism is nonetheless a strategic error. In parallel, the choice by positivist scholars to pay less attention to this area of law than they could has undermined possibilities of adding helpful nuances to positivism. To the extent that recognition of Indigenous rights might be described as entailing recognition of legal rights originating from a source preceding or otherwise outside the legal system that recognizes them, such recognition raises fundamental questions worthy of attention. This piece, wrestling with aspects of John Gardner’s account of positivism, engages with some of these questions, using Indigenous rights doctrine as a central example of norms that are legal—as opposed to conceptually outside law—while nonetheless having a more complex relation to the concept of a legal system than some versions of positivism seem to permit. Distinguishing this claim from functionalist accounts of ‘law’ not oriented to the concept of law, the chapter will argue that Gardner’s account of positivism can open space for a set of principled exceptions to standard positivist requirements while grounding these exceptions in underlying positivist principles.
Big-E Equity, Small-C Conservatism
Authors: Samet Irit 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter attempts to dig a little deeper into the relationship between the general theory advanced by Gardner and Big E Equity, namely, the body of law developed by the courts of Chancery in England. The chapter asks whether the central ideas Gardner explored in ‘From Personal Life to Private Law’ apply to the law of Equity. The question is interesting for scholars and students of Equity, even if Gardner himself never got around to discuss it in depth. The chapter suggests that the answer to this question is ‘yes, albeit in a unique way that reflects the unusual nature of this area of law’. It starts by looking briefly at Gardner’s explanation of why the law of obligations operates in the way that it does (mainly in Gardner’s chapter 5), and then explain why, at first glance, it does not seem to account for Equity. However, as the chapter argues next, correctly identifying if the unique role of Equity within the legal system can help reveal the way in which the themes Gardner suggests reverberate under its surface.
Human olfaction: A view from the top
Authors: Pierzchajlo Stephen , Olofsson Jonas K. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Although our understanding of human olfactory perception has increased dramatically, it remains less well understood how olfaction interacts with cognitive processes. This chapter reviews the claim that olfaction predominantly supports ‘novelty detection’, a framework that leaves little room for cognitive representations and processes. It is argued that this framework has several possible limitations. Instead, it is proposed that human olfaction is best understood in terms of its significant reliance on top-down processes; a fundamental role of olfaction is to evaluate predictions that are constructed based on the context, and these predictions may be explicit and cognitive in nature. Olfaction is, according to this view, not limited to passively responding to environmental changes, but actively interacts with cognitive systems to shape goal-directed behaviours. It is proposed that cue-target matching tasks provide useful and flexible experimental designs to study these effects.
The Skeptical Rule
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter puts forward the skeptical rule (Principal Base Sensitivity), a heuristic which produces our skeptical inclinations. The rule says that if the principal base for your belief that p is insensitive to p, then you don’t know p. An agent applying the rule checks to see if the principal base for the belief at issue would be the same (have the same truth value) if the belief in question were false. If it would be the same (insensitivity), then the agent becomes inclined to judge that the belief in question is not knowledge. The chapter argues that this rule can explain skeptical doubt in global, local, lottery, and statistical cases. In addition, something like this rule can account for why we find certain arguments for skeptical doubt appealing. In particular, it can help explain why the Cartesian and under-determination arguments seem plausible, as well as an argument from James Pryor.
Skepticism in Society
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the societal impact of skeptical thinking. It begins with an argument that efforts to adhere to certain knowledge norms of inquiry can inhibit fruitful creative inquiry. Knowledge skepticism, in certain instances, can provide a healthy antidote to that force. However, it’s also the case that skepticism can have a stultifying effect on decision-making, as it prevents the closing-off of idle possibilities. Finally, the chapter argues that skepticism can play an important role in the logic of conspiratorial thought. In particular, it can explain how those theories may be seen to be immune from refutation. Based on this perspective, the chapter proposes some ways to respond to conspiracy theorists.
Psychological Accounts
Authors: Pinillos N. Ángel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter reviews leading psychological accounts of our attraction to skepticism. It discusses approaches put forward by John Hawthorne, Timothy Williamson, Alexander Dinges, Jennifer Nagel, Mikkel Gerken, Alexander Jackson, John Turri, and others. These psychological theories appeal to well-known biases including those that arise from uses of the availability and the subadditivity heuristics as well as from stereotype and ego-centric thinking. They provide causal accounts of how our judgments or inclinations to judge in skeptical cases arise. They contrast with semantic or epistemic theories which were reviewed in the previous chapter (although we “psychologized” those approaches). The take-home message of this chapter is that the various accounts in the literature are either mistaken or incomplete. I recommend the approach I defend in this book.
Pay no attention to the model behind the curtain
Authors: Stark Philip B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Many widely used models amount to an elaborate means of making up numbers—but once a number has been produced, it tends to be taken seriously and its source (the model) is rarely examined carefully. Many widely used models have little connection to the real-world phenomena they purport to explain. Common steps in modelling to support policy decisions, such as putting disparate things on the same scale, may conflict with reality. Not all costs and benefits can be put on the same scale; not all uncertainties can be expressed as probabilities; and not all model parameters measure what they purport to measure. These ideas are illustrated with examples from seismology, wind turbine bird deaths, and climate policy.
In the twilight of probability
Authors: Vineis Paolo , Savarino Luca 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter analyses the use of scientific concepts, observations, and models in their intersection with values in policy-making, with examples. Though we refer mainly to the experience of COVID-19, the chapter goes beyond this by describing how policy-making uses scientific knowledge in different ways and in different contexts, but almost never explicitly referring to underlying uncertainties, implicit values, and assumptions. In addition to dissecting mathematical models to describe the evolution of the pandemic, we also refer to the historical evolution of the intertwining of science and values by referring to the pivotal theories of Max Weber, and how they need to change in the current Anthropocene context. We propose that politics or policy-making is the art of finding a balance between different values (and interests) on the basis of the scientific evidence available at the time. Much has changed since Weber’s times, and a radical separation between science and values is now contradicted by facts—that is, the increasing commitment of scientists on political grounds in the wake of the environmental crisis. The Anthropocene reality can only be described as an increasingly cultured nature that is constantly reshaped and destabilized by the action of human beings. This situation calls for a radical rethinking of the relationships between science and values in policy-making.
Epilogue: Those special models
Authors: Saltelli Andrea , Fiore Monica Di 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This chapter reflects on the ‘state of exception’ of mathematical models, which are to some extent shielded by their mathematical specialization from the gaze of other disciplines. It also tackles the political economy of mathematical modelling, and what role models play in the nexus between numbers and democratization. The authors mention the trade-off between quantity and quality, listing examples of modelling gone wrong, but also good practices which might be adopted to alleviate existing pathologies, keeping in mind the objective of reciprocal domestication between models and society. What is to be done? The chapter concludes with lessons from existing movements regarding responsible use of numbers, from the French statactivists to the US Algorithmic Justice League.
Atlantic slave trade
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
For centuries, European seafaring nations traded enslaved people across the Atlantic: Over ten million human beings were violently torn from their homes and surroundings in one part of the world, Africa, transported across the Atlantic, and sold in a second region of the world, the Americas—in a business operated by people from a third region, Europe. The permissive Atlantic slave-trading norm established the right of states to facilitate the capture, transport, and sale of African people. The slave trade is an important example of an international norm that completely eroded and has been replaced. This chapter compares developments in Portuguese and British slave trading from the sixteenth to the early nineteenth centuries and shows how applicatory contestation generally prevailed and helped stabilize the norm. Only after Great Britain began to distance itself from the trade and pressured other nations to follow suit did the norm start to erode.
International norm disputes
Authors: Zimmermann Lisbeth , Deitelhoff Nicole , Lesch Max , Arcudi Antonio , Peez Anton 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This final chapter in the book summarizes and compares the main findings in our six case studies of the link between contestation and norm robustness. We analyze the key factors of law, the relative power of norm challengers, and institutions in order to explain when contestation radicalizes and weakens international norms. Additionally, we discuss how this project relates to recent debates on issues such as norm complexity and change, practice, silence, and critique. We conclude by outlining how our findings and insights into the dynamics of international norms advance the current debate about the “crisis” of the liberal international order.
Introduction
Authors: Tabarrini Lorenzo 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The Introduction outlines the main themes and problems related to the study of medieval economic growth during the central Middle Ages. It then proceeds to provide an overview of the historiography on land management in medieval Tuscany; finally, it addresses the political history of Lucca and Florence by focusing on the development of the commune, the emergence of the Popolo, the surge in warfare, and the sharpening of increasingly complex fiscal systems. This is the background against which the analysis of land management and rural society needs to be set. The Introduction argues that the transformations in the forms of estate management, which accelerated over the decades bridging the twelfth and the thirteenth centuries, were largely caused by the socio-political context of that time, which furthered in turn overall economic change.
How International Institutions Transform
Authors: Graham Erin R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 develops a theoretical framework to understand and explain how gradual, subterranean transformation occurs in international institutions. The first section offers a review and critique of prominent theories of institutional change in IR, with an emphasis on rationalist approaches. Drawing especially on historical institutionalist approaches, the second section develops the framework’s foundations of genuine uncertainty, permissive rules, and creative agents. The third section integrates interpretive rules outlined in the Vienna Convention on the Law of the Treaties into layering and conversion processes developed by historical institutionalist scholars. The fourth section outlines the observable implications of the framework.
Vision over Visibility
Authors: Graham Erin R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 outlines the planning process and negotiations that culminated in the adoption of the United Nations Charter. It identifies the combination of one-country-one-vote in the General Assembly, the Assembly’s budgetary authority, and mandatory funding obligations for all UN member states, as jointly producing egalitarian multilateralism at the UN. This design outcome is puzzling in retrospect. The Soviet Union would regret the combination in just a few years’ time and the US would follow by 1960. Consistent with the framework outlined in Chapter 2, the chapter demonstrates that genuine uncertainty prevented the UK, the US, and the USSR from “seeing” the challenges of 1960 from 1945. Using archival evidence, it uncovers the working assumptions of UN negotiators in 1945 about how the UN and the world would develop and reveals how these assumptions were wrong in two respects. First, they misjudged decolonization in various ways. They failed to anticipate how quickly new states would gain independence, how many new states decolonization would produce, and the preferences of newly independent states. Second, and related, they did not anticipate the potential for UN costs to rise significantly because they did not foresee a substantial operational arm in either peacekeeping or economic and social development. The chapter argues that had negotiators foreseen these developments, UN Charter rules would look quite different.
Creative Cracks in Multilateralism
Authors: Graham Erin R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 5 considers the negotiations and establishment of the United Nations Development Program (UNDP). It demonstrates that earmarked funding was first accepted at UNDP to accommodate a pledge from the Netherlands that they wished to earmark for special industrial services. The UN Office of Legal Affairs determined the contribution would be illegal under UNDP rules but recommended a legal maneuver to allow UNDP to accept the contribution. Less than two years later, the UNDP Governing Council formally incorporated the recommendation from Legal Affairs in its financial rules, formally allowing earmarked funding. Consistent with the theoretical framework, evidence demonstrates that earmarks were not introduced to undermine multilateral governance. Rather, they came from states with a pro-UN orientation seeking to overcome political disagreement over the substance of UNDP activity, especially in the field of industrial development. It further demonstrates that the impetus for earmarked funding rules at UNDP and early earmarked contributions came not from the US, but from smaller donor states. Proposals from these states were less likely to provoke suspicion and opposition, facilitating the subterranean nature of institutional change.
Conclusion
Authors: Graham Erin R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Chapter 7 covers the culmination of the UN’s transformation as the use of earmarked funding increases from the 1990s onward, sidelining multilateralism within the United Nations. It documents the late-breaking realization across the UN system of the costs associated with an increased reliance on earmarked funding. These include a distortion of program priorities, and an inability to comply with need-based allocation, alongside concerns about governance. The chapter summarizes findings with regard to uncoordinated, subterranean transformations, and derives lessons for the study of international institutional development. In addition, it offers implications for how we think about UN agencies—and other international organizations that are heavily reliant on earmarked funding—as actors in world politics. Finally, it evaluates the prospects of efforts to roll back earmarked funding, including the UN Funding Compact.
Introduction
Authors: May Steven W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Introduction outlines the rationale for this book with examples of the kinds of new information that can be gleaned from the manuscript archives: the immediately literary (such as works by unknown women authors), along with biographical and more broadly historical discoveries. Renaissance manuscript culture did not evolve organically from its medieval counterpart. That professional, parchment-based scribal tradition continued to develop its own contours as paper grafted onto it a very different, amateur scribal culture. The new, paper-based tradition extended literacy, and with it opportunities for complex thought and transmission of knowledge of all sorts down the socio-economic scale to populations heretofore excluded from it by the high cost of the only extensive writing surface, parchment. The focus of this study is the circulation of poetry through the scribal communities that made up an informal national network for transmitting texts of all kinds.