bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Prerogative
Authors: Fatovic Clement 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Prerogative refers to the discretionary power of the executive to act outside the law, especially in times of emergency. Prior to Locke's formulation, it had referred to exclusive powers, privileges, and immunities that monarchs enjoyed under the English constitution. Royal prerogatives were used to dismiss parliament, establish monopolies, suspend the law, and carry out other controversial practices in both ordinary and extraordinary circumstances. Following Locke's redefinition, the term “prerogative” has generally been limited to the exercise of extra‐legal power by the executive in extraordinary circumstances.
Reproductive Technology
Authors: Parks Jennifer A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractReproductive technology is the application of current and future technology to human reproduction. It involves practices such as assisted reproductive technology (ART, which includes in vitro fertilization [IVF], commercial surrogacy, egg and sperm vending, embryo cryopreservation, and sex selection) as well as contraception, abortion, and assisted birthing technologies. As these technologies have surfaced, they have raised difficult social, political, and legal questions about who is (or what makes one) a parent, the rights of the embryo/fetus, women's reproductive freedom, concerns about the instrumentalization of women and children, the state's role in governing and legislating reproduction, reproductive tourism, and other reproductive‐related concerns. Reproductive technology has also raised more general questions about the privacy rights of individuals to form their families using whatever methods they see fit versus the impact those private choices have on society in general.
Republics
Authors: Cullen Daniel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Republic” denotes a political form, conceptually and historically distinct from democracy, as well as from aristocracy and monarchy, and also a normative ideal that continues to shape (and confound) contemporary notions of the good polity. While the historical record of republican politics has been unstable and brief, the republican vision has retained a powerful hold on the western political imagination. Republicanism conjures up, variously, ancient political practice (Greece and Rome), the Italian city‐states of the twelfth century, seventeenth‐century English commonwealth ideology, and the modern or natural rights orientation of the American Founders. Each element of this complex republican tradition remains the object of lively scholarly disagreement, and republican thought might be characterized as a series of dueling arguments over the primacy in political life of virtue and freedom, or duty and rights. At stake in the historiographical and ideological arguments over the meaning of republicanism is nothing less than the proper understanding of selfhood in its public and private dimensions. The republic has thus remained a contested concept, grounded here in the self‐forgetting virtue of the heroic citizen, and there in the cooler acquisitive spirit of self‐interest rightly understood.
Responsibility
Authors: Vázquez‐Arroyo Antonio Y. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Current theoretical discussions of responsibility are located in the intersection of attempts to rethink an ethics of difference, human agency, and accountability. In important ways, both analytical and Continental formulations of responsibility operate under the rubric of Kantian and post‐Kantian philosophy. These discussions of responsibility are, accordingly, also intertwined with notions of guilt and juridical accountability, and even in national rituals of apology for past atrocities. Large bodies of work exist about the different connotations of responsibility, its meanings ranging from questions of accountability, guilt, and the need to respond to alterity. In the early twenty‐first century there are proponents for its centrality coming from a vast array of theoretical camps that gained coherence in the previous century: analytical philosophy, existentialism, deconstruction, and advocates of “neo‐Roman” theories of liberty.
Roman Political Thought
Authors: Hammer Dean 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFor many Polybius (ca. 200–118 bce) serves as the entrée into Roman political thought: a Greek theorizing about a Roman political system that had already achieved empire. For Polybius, Rome's ability to attain power while also preserving liberty lay in large part in its political system, which contained aristocratic (the senate), democratic (the people), and monarchical (the consuls) elements. We know Rome politically through its institutions. But ultimately what held the system together was an abiding sense of tradition. It is in this historical and cultural context that we can locate the conceptual core of Roman political thought. For the Romans, the human artifacts that surrounded them provided a foundation by which they related not just to those things, but also to each other. What makes Roman political thought so interesting is that it does not seek refuge in an ideal state but attempts to make sense of and recognize again the political world the Romans inhabit.
Saint‐Simon, Claude‐Henri de Rouvroy, Comte de (1760–1825)
Authors: Andrews Naomi J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Nobleman, real‐estate speculator, “utopian” socialist, and predictor of the modern, bureaucratic state – all of these descriptors can apply to Claude‐Henri de Rouvroy de Saint‐Simon. Over his career he moved from support of the anticlerical spirit of 1789, to criticism of the resurgent Restoration Church, to proposing his own renewal of Christianity. In his economic beliefs he traversed the divide between the “rationalist” eighteenth century and the “romantic” nineteenth century, from liberal to “socialist,” describing a centralized economy aimed at satisfying the needs of the “poorest and most numerous.”
Sandel, Michael J. (1953–)
Authors: Gibbons Michael T. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Michael J. Sandel is an American political philosopher who teaches at Harvard University. He received his BA in 1975 from Brandeis University, where he was selected to Phi Beta Kappa, and he received his PhD from Balliol College, Oxford, where he was a Rhodes scholar and studied under Charles Taylor. A public intellectual who has served as an adviser to both Presidents Bill Clinton and George W. Bush, he was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 2002. In addition to his foundational scholarship on the theory and practice of justice, he is publicly recognized as a superb teacher, an extremely difficult accomplishment to achieve outside of one's own university or college in any discipline. His course on justice taught at Harvard University has become available online to an audience worldwide, something for which he has received considerable acclaim.
Sex
Authors: Boryczka Jocelyn M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSex refers to how societies establish social, political, and economic roles based on the biological differentiation of males from females, which translates into assumptions about moral character and value used to justify locating people in categories of domination and subordination. The range of sexual behaviors associated with whom and how a person engages in intimate relationships of love, care, lust, and/or desire, which may include intercourse, remain integral to this process. Throughout much of western political thought, sex, referring to procreation between a man and woman, has provided the foundation upon which people build political community since this act is necessary to reproducing and increasing the number of its members.
Sharia
Authors: Fadel Mohammad 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “Sharī‘a” literally means “path” or “way” in Arabic, but conventionally means revealed law in contrast to man‐made law, such asqānūn(from the Greekkanon). When used unqualifiedly, it refers to the law revealed to the Prophet Muḥammad (and thus is often translated as “Islamic law”), although the term can also be used to refer to the other revealed laws, for example, the Sharia of Jesus (Christian law) or the Sharia of Moses (Jewish law). The Sharia also includes matters of morality, theology, mysticism, and various normative but nonlegal Islamic practices (ādāb) as well as law in the conventional sense of rules enforceable, or potentially enforceable, via state coercion. Islamic law in this narrow sense was the hegemonic legal order in the Islamic world from the rise of Islam in the seventh century to the nineteenth century, when much of its content was displaced by European law. It continues to be influential, however, in the legal systems of many Muslim nation‐states as well as states with substantial Muslim minorities, such as India. This entry is concerned exclusively with Sharia in its narrow sense as Islamic law.
Skepticism
Authors: Laursen John Christian 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSkepticism is the term for a wide family of related concepts that begins in the ancient philosophical tradition and comes down to idiosyncratic meanings of the word assigned by many recent thinkers. The core meaning is suspension of judgment, doubt, denial of truth and knowledge, but the periphery includes critical thinking of any sort, irreligion, and political anti‐utopianism. Skeptics are the opposite of dogmatists, who claim to have truth and knowledge. The word has philosophical, everyday life, and political meanings. The political implications of skepticism are part of the implications of epistemology, or the theory of knowledge, for politics.
Slavery
Authors: Gordon Jane Anna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

It would be misleading to treat
slavery
as marginal to the canon of political theory. There is no doubt that it is a
negative
term – describing
failures
to be self‐mastering, the
non
political relations of command, and the situation of citizens subordinated to
illegitimate
rulers – but it has been a highly generative one, producing some of the most central metaphors for political reflection.
Space and Politics
Authors: Aslam Ali 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The study of space has focused primarily upon what Henri Lefebvre termed “the production of social space.” Social space refers to the forces, including economic processes, social and political institutions, and cultural discourses, that produce and reproduce identity, social relations, and social hierarchies. Methodologically, scholars emphasize the connection between the material and cultural aspects of space and consider the human body their central unit of analysis. Beginning with Aristotle's investigation of the developmental conditions of the polis in
The Politics
and extending through Dewey's study of the public, scholarship addressing space and politics has examined how the natural and built environments affect the construction of relationships among individuals and society.
Stalinism
Authors: Saltzman Ilai Z. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAn authoritarian political, social, cultural, diplomatic, and economic system that is associated with the rule of Soviet leader Joseph Stalin (1878–1953) based on a radical interpretation of Marxism–Leninism (Stalin 1932). While there are different explanations for the emergence of Stalinism and it had various expressions as of the late 1920s and until Stalin's death, it is widely agreed that this comprehensive arrangement of the Soviet Union in all aspects of its existence was founded on extreme oppression designed to achieve Soviet conversion into what Stalin saw as a strong socialist state under his despotic rule.
State of the Discipline in Political Science
Authors: Gibbons Michael T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDespite the amount of attention the issue of the foundations of political inquiry has received, the questions surrounding it seem unlikely to be resolved in the near future. There are numerous reasons for this. For those committed to a unified science of politics, the answers to some of those questions appear as a distraction from the consolidation of a science of politics. Hence, any resolution short of one that guarantees methodologically defined accumulated knowledge seems to jeopardize the scientific status of the enterprise. This perspective on political inquiry has its roots in a philosophical movement known as logical positivism, which will be discussed in greater detail. It developed in the post‐World War II period and came to dominate the discipline of political science by the 1950s.
Straussianism
Authors: Goren Lilly , Lane Joseph H. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe terms “Straussian” and “Straussianism” are derived from the last name of Leo Strauss, a German‐Jewish émigré to the United States who taught political philosophy at the University of Chicago from 1949 to 1968. Strauss developed an approach to the study of political philosophy that placed an emphasis on the careful reading of “great works” in order to tease out and better understand a finite series of long‐term debates about the great questions of political thought that are woven into the very texture of both philosophy and political action in the west.
Thomistic Political Thought
Authors: Arnhart Larry 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Thomas Aquinas (1225?–74) was the most important philosopher and theologian of the high Middle Ages. Thomistic political thought shows his enduring influence on the history of political thought, particularly in the philosophical interpretation and practical application of his teaching on natural law.

Thomas was an Italian priest who joined the new Dominican order of the Catholic church. He taught at the University of Paris and elsewhere. Of his many writings, the best known is his
Summa Theologica
(
Summary of Theology
), which he wrote as a textbook of theology for young students. After his death, he was canonized by the church as a saint; and eventually he was recognized by the church as an authoritative source of Christian philosophy and theology.
Thoreau, Henry David (1817–62)
Authors: Mariotti Shannon L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Henry David Thoreau was an American essayist, journal‐keeper, naturalist, and abolitionist who wrote on subjects ranging from the self, society, slavery, and the state to wilderness, walking, and wild apples. Thoreau was born, lived, and died – at an early age from tuberculosis – in Concord, Massachusetts and rarely left his hometown except for brief trips in New England, and to New York, Minnesota, and Canada. He is typically classified with Ralph Waldo Emerson as a significant thinker in the American transcendentalist school of thought and as an American Renaissance writer alongside Nathaniel Hawthorne, Edgar Allen Poe, Emily Dickinson, Herman Melville, and Walt Whitman. During his own life, Thoreau was often overshadowed by Emerson and his writings proved difficult to publish and only achieved very minimal market success. But his importance as a key American thinker has grown continually since his death and today he is well known for both his “reform writings” and his “nature writings.”
Weapons of Mass Destruction
Authors: Grove Jairus 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Weapons of mass destruction” (WMD) is, on the face of it, a straightforward designation. The term is generally accepted to mean munitions whose destructive attributes come from fission or fusion reactions, biological agents, or chemical weapons. Since the events of September 11, 2001, there has been substantial debate over whether the designation is one of scale – that is, massively destructive weapons – or is meant to denote the distinctive or exotic nature of its means of destruction. The former has prompted some to argue in favor of including economic sanctions, which were massively destructive in Iraq between the first and second Gulf Wars, killing more than 500,000 civilians by UN estimates. The latter has more successfully led to the inclusion of radiological weapons – those weapons that disperse radioactive waste or material but by conventional means, not as a result of a fusion or fission reaction. In either case, the category is meant to denote those weapons that are not conventional ones.
Webb, Sidney (1859–1947) and Beatrice (1858–1943)
Authors: Morgan Kevin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Sidney Webb (1859–1947) and his partner and collaborator Beatrice née Potter (1858–1943) were the most prolific and influential expositors of the variant of socialist thought known as Fabian socialism. Formed in 1884, the Fabian Society espoused the profoundly evolutionary conception of social change which Sidney Webb later encapsulated as “the inevitability of gradualness.” Intellectually Sidney owed a good deal to the utilitarians and once described the Fabians as latter‐day Benthamites. Beatrice's contribution to the partnership was a keen appreciation of the potential for democratic self‐government of voluntary social movements like the trade unions and cooperatives. The couple's early writings included pioneering historical studies of these movements, and, on a monumental scale, of the rise of English local government. The most ambitious exposition of their thought,
Industrial Democracy
(1897), combined these democratic themes with an elitist appreciation of the functional indispensability of the expert. Never entirely reconciled, this was to represent a continuing line of tension in their work. In this period, however, “Webbism” was becoming synonymous with big and intrusive government. Belief in the training of the disinterested expert was exemplified by the Webbs’ foundation in 1895 of the London School of Economics. Belief in the state as agent of social betterment was evident in their energetic campaign for the overhaul and rationalization of the poor law. Belief in an epoch of big government was exemplified by their support for empire and links with social imperialists in the Liberal and Conservative parties.
West, Cornel (1953–)
Authors: Burch Kerry T. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Cornel West is widely regarded as one of the premier public intellectuals in the United States. West's academic career began decades ago at Union Theological Seminary in New York City, an institution he recently returned to after having spent considerable time at Harvard and Princeton Universities, and brief time at the University of Paris. His interdisciplinary political and philosophical project weaves together an astonishing variety of theoretical perspectives, principally from black liberation theology and the Anglo‐American and continental philosophical traditions. Writing both as a Christian and as a philosopher, the sources of West's intellectual inspiration extend from Socrates and Jesus to Marx and Foucault, from the pragmatism of Dewey and Niebuhr, to such divergent European thinkers as Nietzsche and Gramsci. A defining feature of West's scholarly work is his explicit rejection of engaging in the types of depoliticized questions and concerns that occupy professionalized, “epistemology‐based” practitioners of academic philosophy. As a counterpoise to such professionalization, West describes himself as a “prophetic pragmatist,” a vocational identity that serves as a form of critical pedagogy – undertaken on behalf of the oppressed for the purpose of transforming structures of domination – that synthesizes his Afro‐American revolutionary Christianity with his pragmatic faith in the American democratic prospect.
Womanism
Authors: Leslie Isis I. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract“Womanism” is a term a number of scholars and activists use to refer to what they argue are the distinctive critical, cultural, and political strategies and experiences, spiritual and relational practices, attitudes and modes of expression that distinctively define the lives and liberation struggles of black women in colonial and postcolonial contexts. Interestingly, although the vast majority of African‐heritage women in diasporan contexts are Christians, scholarship that is written from a Christian perspective is significantly underrepresented in academic discourse about black women. Alice Walker coined the term “womanism” in her 1979 short fiction story, “Coming Apart.” In this and a series of subsequent essays, Walker defines “womanism” as a uniquely African American form of feminism that is attentive to the intersecting forces of racial, class, and gender oppression that impact the private and public lives of black women and the communities to which they belong.
Women‐Centered Polities
Authors: Stewart Pamela J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The concept of a women‐centered polity is an extension of the work on the history and meaning of citizenship by feminist theorists since the 1980s, in particular Kathleen B. Jones, who argue that the term “citizenship” is itself gendered male, meaning also that the basic definition of a citizen arises from qualities associated with the sex category
male
. Engaging with and going beyond the concept of “women‐centered values,” feminist theorists point out that the definition of citizenship derives from actions by a group with particular, not universal, race, gender, and class characteristics, which has nonetheless become the model for all individuals seeking status as citizens in a polity. The result is a false universalizing of what is actually a particular perspective of citizenship. The phrase “women‐centered polities” suggests an extension of those concepts, including the potential of universalizing the position of those occupying the assigned category of
women
in relation to citizenship (and otherwise) so as to create an inclusive concept and related institutions, which would then reflect the material needs, experiences, and perspectives of women, encompassing all humans as part of this broader view of humanity.
Zionism
Authors: Zwick Tamara M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractZionism is a nationalist movement of European Jews, which belongs to the explosion of ideologies for political and social change that emerged in the nineteenth century. As a movement and, arguably, an ideology, it is hotly contested both in terms of its political, cultural, and secular forms and related scholarship. More specifically, Zionists were influenced by a shared disappointment in unfulfilled promises of equality through emancipation and assimilation as against a background of intensifying modern anti‐Semitism in central Europe and Russia. Cultural, political, religious, socialist, Christian, and later, revisionist Zionism all developed nearly simultaneously and evolved in complex conversation with one another. A unifying belief across the enormously varied discussions included notions of a shared history and future collective Jewish existence. Moreover, a connection to the ancient concept of Zion (Jerusalem in the Hebrew Bible) was elemental to most discussions. Alternatives to a Middle Eastern state were also proposed, and included both Argentina and Uganda as possible alternatives. Zionism quickly spread to include followers in the United States (and elsewhere) for whom a shared Jewish identity was not necessarily essential.