bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Antigone (5th centurybce)
Authors: Honig Bonnie 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn Sophocles’ famous tragedy,Antigone, the heroine mourns the loss of her brother, Polynices, and buries him although this violates the edict of Creon, her uncle and new ruler of Thebes. Creon wants to leave the body unlamented and unburied as punishment for Polynices’ treason. Polynices attacked the city with a foreign army to claim his turn to rule from his brother Eteocles who would not share the throne. Antigone solicits the help of her sister, Ismene, who refuses, saying it is not for women to combat men, and Antigone acts alone. For her transgressive mourning, Antigone is condemned to death, immured in a cave outside the city where she is left to die, though instead – autonomous and resistant to the end – she hangs herself. Creon's efforts to control her in the name of public order lead to his own undoing. How to interpret her actions? Are they tragic, efficacious, sentimental, ethical, political, admirably, or destructively self‐indulgent? No matter the interpretation, this dramatic figure of resistance has captured the imagination of political theorists of all stripes. Those who have turned to her most recently are preceded by over 60 years of deployments of Sophocles’ play which serves as a veritable bellwether of political theory interests – from pluralism to antiwar activism and civil disobedience, to theorizing (especially by feminists) the possibility of agency or lamenting its impossibility.
Apathy
Authors: Somin Ilya 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Democracy requires at least some popular participation in politics in order to impose accountability on elected officials. And ever since the initial establishment of democracy in ancient Athens, critics have worried that that the public might be too apathetic or too ignorant to participate effectively. Decades of survey data show that most citizens have very low levels of political knowledge, and only a small minority actively participate in politics in any way other than voting. In the United States, voting rates are also relatively low, rarely rising much above 50 percent of eligible voters. Ignorance and apathy are not identical. In theory, a voter might have strong political commitments, yet be generally ignorant; a highly knowledgeable citizen might still be apathetic. In practice, however, survey data show that there is a strong correlation between knowledge and commitment. It is possible that apathy fosters ignorance and vice versa.
Appiah, Kwame Anthony (1954–)
Authors: Naranch Laurie E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractKwame Anthony Appiah was born in London and raised in Ghana. He is currently Laurence S. Rockefeller University Professor of Philosophy and a professor in the University Center for Human Values, Princeton University. He is a wide‐ranging thinker whose writings encompass philosophy of language debates in an analytic philosophical tradition; significant contributions to discussions of race, culture, and African philosophy; and essays about patriotism and cosmopolitanism, literature, social identity, honor, as well as several novels. An elegant and thoughtful writer, Appiah's contributions to political theory are in his defense of a democratic liberalism attuned to diversity. In the spirit of John Stuart Mill's ethical philosophy of liberalism he argues that respect for diversity is central to the liberal tradition in terms of identity, beliefs, ideas, aesthetics, and argument. This attunement is essential for individual thriving and our collective good as beings entitled to equal dignity within political communities. To have the chance to develop ethically (living a good life) and morally (in relation to others) for Appiah means that we ought not to be “too tightly scripted” by narratives about who we are or should be. Essential to Appiah's liberalism is a defense of autonomy for individuals who negotiate their identity in relation to family life, local communities, religious, national, and human rights aspirations.
Aristophanes (ca. 460/450–ca. 386 BCE)
Authors: Ambler Wayne 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Aristophanes was a prolific Athenian comic poet whose riotous plays span the half‐century during which classical Athens fell from her peak into her decline. His highly political plays take up such serious problems for the Athenians as the ongoing Peloponnesian War, the power of demagogic leaders like Cleon, and the questionable effects of such new and radical intellectual forces as Socrates and Euripides. He wrote about 40 plays (of which 11 have survived), and he was a powerful influence on satirists in ancient Rome and on authors of several genres in the Renaissance and beyond.
Authoritarianism
Authors: Marquez Xavier 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Authoritarianism” denotes a political regime where the rulers routinely use and assert their authority in illegitimate ways. It may also be defined as a political system in which the uses of authority by rulers are incompatible with the recognition of the freedom and autonomy of citizens, most obviously insofar as they involve unjustified coercion against them. While rulers in all political systems may in fact abuse their authority in this way, in practice the term has been mostly used to indicate the contrary of democracy.
Bacon, Francis (1561–1626)
Authors: DeSantis Anthony 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFrancis Bacon (1561–1626) was one of the more influential thinkers in the early modern period. He attacked the traditional system of knowledge of his time – many of the presuppositions, beliefs, and attitudes of classical antiquity, medieval Aristotelian Scholasticism, along with strains of Renaissance Christian Platonism, neo‐Platonism, and Hermetic teachings. He exposed many of the barriers to knowledge and to material and scientific progress that these teachings promulgated. He called for the overthrow of these “Idols of the mind,” which did so much to retard the advancement of factual learning, and to replace these with an improved epistemology and method of gaining truth. Moreover, he promoted a natural‐historical and more scientific approach to learning both for philosophy and the common good. His labors and writings made a significant impact on western culture.
Bentham, Jeremy (1748–1832)
Authors: Pellegrino Gianfranco 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBentham's significance spans many fields. In ethics, he is the founder of modern utilitarianism, one of the most influential moral theories of the last two centuries. In jurisprudence, his dichotomy between “law as it is” and “law as it ought to be” is at the root of legal positivism. He produced one of the most comprehensive theories of evidence in the Anglo‐American tradition. He developed a systematic view of preventive punishment. His educational theories, based on access to all regardless of religion and gender, were the inspiration for the establishment of the University College London. Bentham put forward a utilitarian approach to liberal democracy.
Bentley, Arthur Fisher (1870–1957)
Authors: Mathiowetz Dean 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Arthur Fisher Bentley (1870–1957) was an American social theorist. His book,
The Process of Government
(1908) enjoyed wide influence in the field of political science from the 1930s through the 1950s. It is still referenced as a key work of pluralist thought, and as the text that coined the term “interest group.”
Bhaskar, Roy (1944–)
Authors: Joseph Jonathan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Roy Bhaskar is a philosopher and social theorist whose chief contribution has been to develop the approach known as critical realism. This has proved an influential application of a philosophy of social science to issues in the social sciences. While the main focus is on general issues of ontology and epistemology, he makes more specific contributions to such issues as structure and agency, social transformation, emancipation, and even spirituality.
Bill of Rights
Authors: Esler Michael 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The Bill of Rights consists of the first 10 amendments to the US Constitution. Adopted in 1791, its original purpose was to impose limits on the power of the federal government. Subsequently, most of these limits have been applied to the states. Although the Bill did not play a significant role in constitutional history until the twentieth century, it is today the principal source for protecting civil liberties against the power of government. It has also served as a model for the development of bills of rights in other nations.
Bourdieu, Pierre (1930–2002)
Authors: Rubenstein Diane 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPierre Bourdieu, Professor of Sociology at the Collège de France, was peculiarly situated in relation to the forms of social distinction and symbolic domination he so rigorously studied. He was a postman's son, born in 1930 in a remote peasant village in the French southwest Pyrenees. Yet he nonetheless attended France's most stellar Parisian institutions (Lycée Louis le Grand, École Normale Supérieure). Shortly after passing hisaggrégationin philosophy in 1954, he was drafted into service in 1955 to fight in the Algerian War, where he remained after the war to teach and do fieldwork in resettlement camps. As he would later recount, he arrived in Algeria as a philosopher and returned a sociologist. All of these experiences would mark his career. His Béarn peasant background served as an entry point for his Kabylian ethnography, his study of rural bachelors and amateur photography clubs. As an “included outsider” to France's elite schools (grandes écoles), he established his reputation as a critic of higher education. The Algerian fieldwork generated two early books on Algeria, provided the basis for his theoretically importantOutline of a Theory of Practice, and established a lifelong political solidarity.
Bourgeois/Bourgeoisie
Authors: Minehan Philip 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

These terms derive etymologically from the Greek
pyrgos
, meaning tower or castle, and the later Latin terms
burgus
, a fortified town, and
burgenses
, those that live in towns. The latter was adopted in English directly from the modern French as
bourgeoisie
, along with the adjective
bourgeois
. They originally described the small but conspicuous populations of the growing towns of the overwhelmingly rural world of the early Middle Ages. Their more specific usage in historical literature first applied mainly to Europe. It posited the bourgeoisie as an urban social group that occupied a middle position between the nobility and the peasantry, but also as a dynamic force for historical change. That change from the Middle Ages to the modern era is laid out in three historical phases: emergent, revolutionary, and conservative.
British Political Thought
Authors: Coole Diana 
Published: August 2023

AbstractA separate entry on British political thought might appear redundant in that many of the theories it covers have been assimilated into or are the original source for modern political theory. Nor is the designation “British” clear cut, either geopolitically or regarding which thinkers and traditions it includes. There are, moreover, two rather different ways the topic could be addressed: either by identifying a particularly British contribution to the discipline or by narrating a history of British political thought. With these three caveats in mind, and while acknowledging that British ideas have not arisen in isolation but were often influenced by external traditions, the following survey broadly adopts the second approach but selects particular periods and authors in order to highlight some relatively distinctive characteristics.
Bureaucracy
Authors: Jordan Sara 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A bureaucracy is an organization whose claim to legitimacy is based in rational‐legal authority, which when functioning properly, fulfills externally determined goals through use of skills brought to the organization by regular, salaried, and task‐specialized administrative staff. Staff follow rules clearly outlined in a formal, hierarchical system that supports extensive record‐keeping, redundancy, and production stability. In general, when the term bureaucracy is employed in political theory, it should be viewed as a political‐economic concept, not merely a political or economic one.
Calvin, Jean (1509–64)
Authors: Höpfl Harro M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFounding theologian of the ‘reformed’ Protestant tradition, translator of the Bible into French, scriptural commentator, polemicist, organizer of the Genevan church, founder of the Academy (later University) of Geneva, Jean Calvin was well versed in legal and humanistic studies, as hisCommentary on Seneca's De Clementia(1532) makes clear. After his conversion to evangelical religion, he remained ready to appeal to secular (pagan) “philosophy,” natural equity, and expediency to support his political teachings, but for anything controversial it was scripture that was ultimately authoritative for politics, and in ecclesiology he normally argued as if nothing apart from scripture mattered. He repeatedly revised, translated and vastly extended his masterwork, theInstitution(orInstitutes)of Christian Religionfrom its first Latin edition, published in 1536 before he came to Geneva, to its final 1559 (Latin) and 1560 (French) editions. All editions, however, had only one chapter (bk. IV, ch. 20 in the final edition) on the topic ofadministratio politica, literally the “political ministry,” with rulers as God's “ministers.” The chapter was much revised subsequently, but retained the original focus on the vital significance of the civil polity, laws, and magistrates for Christians as well as for the rest of humankind.
Canon Law
Authors: Walsh David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The compilation of canon law that occurred in the twelfth century with Gratian's
Decretum
is the first assembly of a living body of laws in the west. Roman law, even when compiled by Justinian in the
Corpus Juris
(534) was a largely antiquarian exercise, since the decrees no longer applied to the kind of society over which he ruled. As a consequence Roman or civil law functioned both in the east and the west as a collection of legal principles from which selections could be made as judges and rulers found appropriate. In contrast, canon law remained the vital legal code of the ecclesiastical community. It was for this reason that the elimination of tensions within it has always remained a pressing requirement. That imperative is neatly reflected in the full title of Gratian's work:
Concordantia Discordantium Canonum
or
Concordance of Discordant Canons
(1150).
Carlyle, Thomas (1795–1881)
Authors: McManus Helen 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Thomas Carlyle was a Victorian thinker whose writings invigorated nineteenth‐century debates about work and politics. He rejected democracy and utilitarianism as mechanisms or systems that disregarded God's laws, the eternal laws of the universe. He did not offer a programmatic political vision; instead, he demanded that everyone – nobles, parliament, “captains of industry,” and the poor – recognize their task within the eternal order and begin to do their work.
Case Study
Authors: Campbell Rosie 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
There is no single definition of the term “case study” in political science, political scientists usually use it more narrowly than other social sciences. In the main social science methods texts refer to all small “n” (or small sample studies) as case studies. But, when political scientists use the term they are most often referring to one case or “thing” that is to be studied (when more than one case is used, in a small sample study, political scientists usually say they are conducting comparative research).
Chomsky, Noam (1928–)
Authors: Glover Robert W. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Noam Chomsky is the Institute Professor of Linguistics (Emeritus) at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in Cambridge, MA. Chomsky's work in linguistics, the idea that the faculty of language is born out of an innate human capacity rather than conditioning, paved the way for much of modern cognitive science. However, Chomsky's contributions to political thought and analysis are, by his own admission, virtually unrelated to such pioneering research. Rather, it is through his role as a leftist public intellectual, analyst of US foreign policy, and critic of corporate capitalism that Chomsky's influence has been most significant. Such contributions even led the
New York Times
to dub him in 1979 “arguably the most important intellectual alive” though, as Chomsky never hesitates to mention, the very same review chastised him for being “maddeningly simple‐minded”.
Civil Law
Authors: Hesselink Martijn W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe concept of civil law has two distinct meanings. that is, disputes between private parties (individuals, corporations), as opposed to other branches of the law, such as administrative law or criminal law, which relate to disputes between individuals and the state. Second, the term civil law is often employed to indicate a legal “tradition” or a “family” of legal systems, this time in contrast with other legal traditions or families, in particular the common law. This is the sense in which we say, for example, that France and Germany are civil law countries while the USA and Australia are common law countries. The present entry will be concerned exclusively with the civil law in the latter sense.
Clausewitz, Carl von (1780–1831)
Authors: Bousquet Antoine 
Published: August 2023

AbstractNearly two hundred years after his death, Carl von Clausewitz's standing as the pre‐eminent military theorist remains unchallenged and his reputation is as elevated today as it has ever been. This remarkable longevity has much to do with the singular approach that he took to the subject of war relative to most of his peers, many of whom were held in higher regard in both his own lifetime and the following decades. Indeed his particular focus on the political and moral aspects of war, his refusal to treat warfare as merely a technical problem to be solved rationally but rather as an object of philosophical contemplation, and his acute sense of the tensions and contradictions inherent to military conflict have all ensured that his ideas continue to appear relevant despite the wide‐ranging transformations that the conduct of war has traversed since.
Coase, Ronald H. (1910–)
Authors: Johnson James 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Ronald Coase is an English economist who has spent the bulk of his career teaching at the University of Chicago Law School. He received the Nobel Prize in Economics in 1991, recognizing two of his papers on the importance of “transaction costs” for the operation and analysis of political economic institutions. This work has been enormously influential, providing intellectual underpinnings for fields such as law and economics, industrial organization, and what is called the new institutional economics.
Paris Commune
Authors: Eichner Carolyn J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The Paris Commune of 1871 was a brief but deeply influential revolutionary civil war that arose in the wake of the Franco‐Prussian War. Often termed the “first socialist revolution,” the Commune emerged as working‐class and bourgeois socialist Parisians reacted against the conservative French government's ignominious surrender to Prussia and the repressive measures instituted in the aftermath.
Community
Authors: Etzioni Amitai 
Published: August 2023

Abstract“Community” refers to a group of people with two characteristics: (1) a web of affect‐laden relationships that often crisscross and reinforce one another (rather than merely one‐on‐one or chain‐like individual relationships) and (2) a commitment to a core of shared values, norms, and meanings, as well as a shared history and identity – in short, to a particularistic normative culture. Many communities are confessional, ethnic, or professional, but they are not necessarily residential. They tend to command a strong sense of loyalty and mutual responsibility – like families writ large. Critics often call them “tribal.” Moreover, rather large societal entities, including nations, can develop a fair measure of the two key attributes of community – what Benedict Anderson referred to as “imagined communities.”
Consequentialism
Authors: Peterson Martin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Consequentialism is a class of moral theories that evaluate acts and other entities solely according to their consequences. The most well‐known version of consequentialism is
utilitarianism
. Utilitarians believe that an act is morally right if and only if the act brings about at least as much well‐being as every alternative act. Other consequentialist theories make different claims about the correlation between consequences and moral properties. For instance, consequentialist
egalitarians
believe that an act is right if and only if the well‐being produced by the act is distributed equally in society. The key claim that all consequentialists endorse is that whether something has some moral property depends only on consequences.
Consociationalism
Authors: Caverly Matthew M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Consociationalism is a governmental arrangement that guarantees representation among a highly heterogeneous society's ethnic, racial, religious, social, cultural, and political groups through institutionalized shared power arrangements. Some forms of these arrangements are: the employment of representation quotas in the legislature, a sharing of executive and legislative powers through coalitional cabinets, parliamentary bicameralism with differentiated representation, an independent judiciary with judicial review capacity, and social proportionality in bureaucratic appointment as well as employment. Consociationalism has been employed in a number of countries as a means to end sociopolitical and ethno‐religious conflict.
Corpus Iuris Civilis
Authors: Lee Daniel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The
Corpus Iuris Civilis
(“body of civil law”) was the formal compilation of Roman law commissioned by the sixth‐century Roman emperor Justinian. Alongside Scripture and Greek philosophy, it ranks as one of the major classical authorities studied or cited by medieval and modern political theorists, such as Aquinas, Marsilius, Bodin, Grotius, Hobbes, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Kant, Hegel, Tocqueville, and Weber.
Crimes against Humanity
Authors: Canetti Daphna , Karpyuk Tetyana 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Crimes against humanity (CAH) are offensive
acts against human dignity
committed as
part of widespread or systemic attack
against
civilian populations
. They can be a series of events or a one‐time event, planned and committed by state or nonstate organized groups, banned by one policy or ideology.
Dallmayr, Fred R. (1928–)
Authors: Schneck Stephen F. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A German American academic known both for his critical exegeses of contemporary Continental philosophy for political theory and for his founding work in the field of comparative political theory, Dallmayr was born in Ulm, Germany, in 1928 and raised in the Bavarian city of Augsburg. After attending a classical gymnasium run by the Benedictines in Augsburg, he studied law at the University of Munich, completing his doctorate in 1955. He immigrated to the USA and received a doctorate in political science from Duke in 1960, where he had worked with Robert Rankin and John Hallowell. After stints at Purdue University and the University of Georgia, he was named Packey Dee Professor of Government at the University of Notre Dame in 1978. Dallmayr's contribution to political theory is twofold. He came to prominence exploring the question of theory itself, with special attention to issues of interpretation and critique deriving from Continental philosophy and social theory in the western tradition. Subsequently, Dallmayr turned to challenge the western‐centric orientation of political theory, endorsing a pluralist, “cosmopolitical” comparative political theory.