bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Le profit et la croissance planifiée en économie collective
Authors: Surányi-Unger Théo , Montuori M. 
Published: August 2023

Profits and collectivist planned growth.

Although, at first sight, the role of profits in collectivist economic growth would, seem to be non-exislanl, in fact socialist countries have retained both business profits and State taxes on them.
As regards unplanned profits, these tend to be directed towards consump¬ tion expenditure and may affect growth rather indirectly although the sti¬ mulus to create them makes for real cost reductions. Planned profits result mainly from price planning. The enterprise’s share of these is turned over directly to investment and part of the governments’s share also. In the People’s Democracies , it should be noted, the importance of private enterprise profits is by no means negligible. These statements are illustrated by a detailed examination of the Hungarian economy, the changes in state revenues from enterprises and budgetary policy.
It seems that, in planned economies, the functional link between profits and economic growth is still apparent even when the sui generis entrepre¬ neurial profit motive is eliminated. As regards private enterprise, even when profits are strictly controlled there have been occasions when they have been used consciously to promote economic growth. It may well be that their role will increase in the future ; whilst, in capitalist countries, partial government planning of the growth function of profits is now stressed.
Les zones de crise aux Etats-Unis. Problèmes de politique économique régionale
Authors: Fyot Jean-Louis 
Published: August 2023

Crisis areas in the U.S.A. : problems of regional economy
Despite the long period of prosperity enjoyed by the U. S. A. for years now , certain areas have participated less than others in this general prosperity. Many of these regions correspond to the old industrial centres and have suffered from technological change. The present article describes the measures taken in the United Stales to remedy this situation.
The decline of the coal basin at Scranton in Pensylvania and of the Lawrence , Mass., textile area are taken as practical examples. The author concludes that efforts to give new life to these regions have been essentially local. The Federal and State governments have played a relatively minor role. Nevertheless, it would seem desirable to deal with some aspects of this problem on the national level.
Préparons l'An 2000
Authors: Angoulvent Paul-Joseph 
Published: August 2023

Let us prepare for the year 2000.
The author envisages the prospects for the year 2000. He recalls the immense changes in the economic and social scene since 1914 such as the notion of property and the social classes. In part these changes may be attributed to the tremendous demographic expansion of the twentieth century, the food problem in the underdeveloped countries and the increase in wellbeing the rich countries. At the same time, a polarisation of basic economic activities around certain development poles may be observed. In such a situation a radical change of attitude towards world poverty is necessary.
As far as France is concerned, the future will set more store on the intellectual and cultural qualities of the youth of today than on material richesses. Unfortunately, the present organization of french university life is not adequately adapted to this task. This is, however, only part of the needed renovation of french institution and an indication of the urgency of an effort to raise the level of social and political consciousness in France.
La probabilité comme guide dans la recherche et la confirmation des lois universelles
Authors: Demaria Giovanni 
Published: August 2023

All deductive judgements are not strictly speaking necessarily either real or pragmatic judgements. They have to be accepted not only after verification of what they affirm but also after having solved, as it were, the problem of the degree to which a deductive truth (which is abstract and simplified ) is a truth in an absolute sense.
Confirmations of deductive judgements are always of limited validity and uncertain. This is the value of probability in the task of verification of universal laws.
Note sur l’emploi du calcul des probabilités en économie politique
Authors: Thionet P. 
Published: August 2023

A first section describes some applications of probabilities to Economics , the author (and Mr. Jean Dayre) encountered in the course of their work with the French Economic Ministry. These examples relate to large economic spaces, labour market, retail price indexes, business stocks. The mathematical apparatus is limited to the use of Normal, Bernoulli and Poisson distributions.
Various criticisms are reviewed in the second section. The author’s opinion is that these objections are only partly founded. It would perhaps favour clarity if the distinction between economic models and economic arbitrary schemes was accepted. At all events, for all Sciences is it not difficult to understand just how purely mathematical constructions are able to throw light on the causes of natural phenomena ?
Le marché des capitaux et la politique monétaire
Authors: Horowitz David 
Published: August 2023

Capital market and monetary policy
The post-war world is characterized by a strong demand for capital. Heavy competing demands for capital are likely to be unfavourable to underdeveloped countries with most need for outside capital. This leads to inflation and balance of payments disequilibrium in these countries — as their own savings are inadequate. The result is a distortion of the development process.
Government policy then tends to be directed to various systems of physical and price controls, of subsidies and of foreign exchange differentials. Internally, the government and the trade unions hold the key positions with a marked preference for inflation. Externally, the growth of consumption in developed countries faster than the growth of production deprives underdeveloped countries of needed capital.
Note sur la dynamique du déséquilibre des changes
Authors: Davin Louis E. 
Published: August 2023

Note on the dynamics of exchange disequilibrium
The notion of exchange disequilibrium is defined not only with regard to the balance of payments but also with regard to the inadequacy of exchange rate adjustments and with regard to specific international capital movements. It is then observed that exchange disequilibria can vary according to the period of time or the geographical area under examination. The author notes, finally, that each case of disequilibrium has its own specific characteristics.
The nature of the dynamics of exchange adjustment is studied in relation to a series of examples : underdeveloped countries practising either unbalanced or balanced growth, the older industrial economies of Western Europe, the dominant American economy. The ways in which disequilibria are created and diffused differ in each case.
The study of the reactions to an exchange disequilibrium deals in turn with : monetary policy, budgetary policy, international capital transfers. The undiscriminate application of an overall monetary policy is not likely to be effective. It must be adapted to circumstances and selective in ils aims. Fiscal policy is frequently an indispensable adjunct of monetary policy. Public expenditure is, however, often incompressible in underdeveloped countries. Even in developed countries it plays a role in the orientation of the necessary adaptation of the economy and, in this respect, the country with an export surplus is at a marked advantage. This leads to a consideration of the role of international credit movements between debitor and creditor countries. An adequate use of this latter instrument can be of great help in the task of promoting balanced economic growth.
La pensée monétaire en Italie depuis 1945
Authors: Gangemi Lello , Montuori M. 
Published: August 2023

Monetary writings in Italy since 1945
This is an exhaustive survey of recent publications on monetary subjects by Italian economists. A detailed, historical introduction enables the reader to situate post-war monetary writings in relation to earlier economic traditions in Italy.
The author considers first of all general monetary theories and then goes on to examine a number of specific problems dealt with by Italian economists : post-war reconstruction ; economic fluctuations and development ; monetary and financial policy ; international monetary problems.
In his opinion, the major characteristics of Italian writings on money since 1945 are, in the first place, that Italian economists refect the concepts of the «veil of money» and of «neutral money». They accept the idea that the introduction of monetary factors necessarily changes the situation of equilibrium which is supposed to exist in a non-monetary economy and also the nature of departures from that equilibrium. Secondly, a purely mechanical interpretation of the quantity theory has no adepts. Finally, economists in Italy tend to stress the importance of real economic factors and therefore, despite their rejection of monetary neutrality, have only a limited faith in the potency of monetary policy.
Le rôle de la protection douanière dans une politique de développement
Authors: Bertrand Raymond 
Published: August 2023

The role of protective tariffs in a policy of economic development
The article describes and discusses the conditions in which protective tariffs might be used to increase an underdeveloped country’s national income, in preference to alternative expedients such as subsidies or Free Trade.
Using as a starting point the traditional arguments for the protection of infant industries expounded by such writers as Haberler and Kindelberger, the author analyses the effects of the introduction of a tariff on one particular product.
He concludes that, since the effects in question are differential in nature, protection must be confined to a small group of products to be effective from a development (and particularly an investment) point of view. A uniformly high tariff will have less satisfactory investment or production effects and will bring about a general rise in production costs with adverse effects on exports industries.
The effects of isolated tariffs of the kind described on saving, it is argued, will depend upon the elasticity of supply of and demand for imports and upon the amounts of the good imported and produced at home respectively. A cumulative process of investment and saving may be engendered if the protected industry expands and decreasing costs result. The saving engendered in an underdeveloped country by a general tariff will, in contrast be principally Government saving, and will be productive only if invested in infant industries and not used to finance such things as armaments expenditure, etc.
In a conclusion dealing with the practical aspects of protection, the author emphasises the difficulties and risks involved in attempting to use a protectionist policy for development purposes alongside import restrictions, subsidies and multiple exchange rales. A selective policy of protection may bring about the desired results with regard to economic development : a generalised protectionism has no such stimulating effect on growth.
De l'impôt, propulseur de croissance
Authors: Davin Louis E. 
Published: August 2023

Taxation as a generator of growth
The author argues that taxation can be an instrument of economic growth, but that this would in many cases require a fundamental revision of national tax systems, in the light of the needs of technical progress and the phenomenon of polarisation.
The needs of a tax system conducive to balanced growth are examined , and reasons adduced why such a system may differ greatly from existing ones.
The fiscal system of many countries is profoundly influenced by strictly juridical conceptions, and this produces conflicts and checks economic progress. A narrow «legality» causes grave maladjustments and distortions. Tax administrations of this kind are oriented towards the past and are governed by purely accounting conceptions of taxation rather than by economic considerations. This inevitably conflicts with the requirements of economies undergoing rapid and intensive change. Tax legislation concerned with amortisation, with mergers and with turnover taxes illustrates this point.
Conflict also arises because the juridical basis of the fiscal system encourages concentration on short-term objectives (e. g. income redistribution). This can often lead to manifest error, as the short-term policies conceal the great economic benefits that might be obtained in the middle and long-term from fundamental fiscal adaptations.
The relation of public expenditures and particular taxes to harmonious growth is considered, it being argued inter alia that heavy taxes are not necessarily harmful to growth. The important mailer is the points of application which should be so chosen as to give the mechanisms of development the fullest possible effect.
Fiscal policies then, need to be considered in relation to a stream of macroeconomic decisions and in the context of a programmed economy, and this has somehow to be reconciled with short-term needs inspired by the Treasury. This latter may be the most important force making for inertia ; even the bravest Chancellor may be frightened away from satisfactory growth policies by the spectre of a temporary decline in receipts.
Monnaie et politique monétaire - Le rôle des prétendus "impondérables"
Authors: Schmölders Günter 
Published: August 2023

<i>Money and monetary policy :
the role of the alleged «imponderables» </i>
Neither the «purchasing power» nor the «balance of payments» theories of exchange rate determination constitutes a complete explanation. They both have to include consideration of other imponderable factors. These factors can be psychological, traditional, sociological, etc.
In the case of the debate, in 1957, concerning the reevaluation of the D. Mark several such factors were present. At that lime such imponderables as the respective «interests» of exporters and importers, of banking and financial organizations, of political parties were very important. Finally, the upsurge of rumours and speculation which had been unleashead subsided only with Mr. Jacobson’s declaration to the I.M.F. that neither the D. Mark nor the pound sterling required exchange rate adjustments.
This example shows the importance of defining the laws which govern the formation of public opinion in economic matters. In the author’s opinion three hypotheses may be advanced in this field : 1° The form of an event is more important than its substance as regards the evolution of public opinion ; 2° Emotional considerations are more important than rational arguments ; 3° Frequent repetition strengthens the force of an argument. At the present time, the behaviour postulates of economics are of no help for the solution of such problems.
Introduction
Authors: Massé P. , Boiteux M. 
Published: August 2023

The introduction describes the scope of the issue and gives short comments upon the texts. The publication follows upon the number for January-March 1957, which dealt with Economic Policy and the Calculus of Probabilities, but is at once broader and more limited. Broader, because it ranges beyond economic policy and because uncertainly is a more general notion than probability. Narrower, because the present number is oriented towards problems of action.
Summaries in English of the individual articles are given at the beginning of each text.
Marché «mondial» ?
Authors: Perroux François 
Published: August 2023

Classical and neo-classical economisls analysed the international market in terms of the transactions of firms and individuals of different countries with one another, and set out «perfect » conditions of competition, mobility and so on in which the trade between nations was explained in terms of comparative costs.
If such an approach was ever satisfactory Professor F , Perroux argues, it is certainly unsatisfactory as an approach to conditions as they are in the twentieth century. A nation is not simply composed of firms and individuals, but is «group of groups, oriented, coordinated, and arbitrated by the State, which has a monopoly of public constraint ». It is in terms of the behaviour of these groups and especially in terms of the nation conceived as a combination of growth points (pôles de croissance) , that international exchanges and the dynamic of comparative costs need to be explained.
Accordingly, analysis of the world economy and the world market needs to start from a point which accepts the existence and importance of nations so defined ; though we can still think in terms of an «ideal » world economic situation, in which a world without nation utilises world resources to produce an optimum product in optimum conditions of localisation. This «ideal » is the contemporary and progressive form of the univer-salism of the classical models ; we can measure actual conditions against it. Professor F. Perroux offers such an analysis, and uses it to illuminate the course of economic history and its earlier interpretation.
L’inégalité du développement économique
Authors: Brunet J. P. 
Published: August 2023

Industrial development has become the order of the day in many underdeveloped countries with a large potential home market (in terms of numbers). This has usually begun in consumer goods industries using simple techniques, but it has already spread to other industrial activities in some such countries. Development of this kind generates a need for the countries in question to open up world markets, since the products cannot be absorbed at home (given low income per head) and since it is normally desirable to increase export earnings.
There must in consequence arise a need for reconversion of industrial activity in developed countries. This need has already arisen in some European industries, and Britain alone has faced it without resort to protection. Clearly , policies of commercial liberalism towards the manufactured exports of less developed countries would help to solve the problem, if there were no widespread resort to «safeguards », whenever imports from such countries grow at all quickly, and the less developed countries have argued for such an approach in G.A.T.T. The author believes that suitable regulatory policies would be more satisfactory , and that these should be accompanied by private investment in the less developed countries by the developed economies. Policy measures should also take into account countries employing state trading as well as those with more liberal systems ; the growth in industrial production and desire for export markets is likely to be common to both.
Bilan et perspectives
Authors: Philip André 
Published: August 2023

Earlier articles have been concerned with the activities of G.A.T.T. in recent years , and with consideration of the problems it now faces. This final article attempts to bring the discussion together by drawing attention to the questions of fundamental importance that have been raised for decisions between alternative possible world economic policies.
The author approaches the problem through a survey of earlier history, leading to comment upon the problems that existed at the end of the second World War and the policies it gave rise to. This provides the basis for discussion of the emergence of the European Community, exposition of the present difficulties that have to be met if a world market is to be created, and suggestions for the future activities and organisation of G.A.T.T. with this in mind.
La commune populaire chinoise
Authors: Minc Bronislaw 
Published: August 2023

Started in Summer 1958, they constitute a new hold experience. They are not only a Union of ayricultural cooperatives and organise more than 500 millions people. Each commune groups from twenty to hundred thousand membres. It is divided in “ larges brigades " which organises production in agriculture and industry and divide the proceeds. The P.C. is a production unit which organises also social security, transport and distribution. They have a very high accumulation potential and have changed the production relations radically.
The People's Communes' Council establishes the draft plan in accordance with the directions of the district authorities. They have to distribute the labour force and the capital goods. The question of the properly of the means of production is not solved completely yet. The P.C. are grouped in district unions.
L’évolution du réseau ferroviaire chinois et le nouvel équilibre régional
Authors: Chesneaux Jean 
Published: August 2023

After an initial section describing the pre-1949 railway system in China, the author describes developments since that date. This is done in three stages, dealing successively with the creation of new international links and new main line systems, with developments of regional and interregional importance , and with the beginnings that have been made in the construction of lines to meet the needs of local areas.
The author concludes that the developments that he described need to be assessed as a part of a coherent policy of regional development, and suggests that they emphasise the need to study the economic growth of China in regional terms.
Le fonctionnement de deux oligopoles protégés au Canada
Authors: Eastman Harry C. , Stykolt Stefan 
Published: August 2023

The Performance of Two Protected Oligopolies in Canada
The usual explanation of the high costs of Canadian industry in comparison with U.S.A. is concerned with the smallness of the Canadian domestic market. The authors use an examination of two protected oligopolies (cement and petroleum refining) to develop an alternative hypothesis. Their study indicates that performance is adequate in industries whose markets can accommodate several firms of minimum optimum size, but in other industries the small size of the Canadian market does affect the efficiency of manufacturing industry. In particular, it is argued that the efficiency of firms is reduced in markets where attaining efficient scale by the firm would entail the elimination of rivals, because of a preference for collusion over competitive price reductions.
Sur une application particulière de la programmation linéaire au problème de la programmation régionale
Authors: Del Punta Veniero 
Published: August 2023

On a Specific Utilization of Linear Programming to Regional Programming Problem.
Planners are using methods that sometimes amount to mere «rules of thumb ». The author tells us how he has been given the idea of applying input-output matrices developed by W. Leontief as well as linear programming to the development problem of the southern part of Italy.
The author describes a «simplified model » based on physical units. The monetary aspects of development problems have been avoided. He shows how the model could be expanded in order to be applied to a given economic system, and to changing conditions in the development process. The author also considers that a profound knowledge of the economy as a whole is necessary before setting up a plan.
The author’s aim was to show a way to apply linear programming to development problems and in doing so, to set the planning business on a much steadie ground than before.
Applying econometrics to planning is not a miraculous way to solve difficult problems but it may help to reach chosen aims.
The mathematical and statistical obstacles will be very difficult to overcome but it pays to use the greater amount of effort available to solve problems, whose solutions amount to nothing less than raising the living standard of a whole nation.