Associations between socioeconomic status and white matter microstructure in children: indirect effects via obesity and cognition
Authors: Li Zhaolong Adrian , Cai Yuqi , Taylor Rita L. , Eisenstein Sarah A. , Barch Deanna M. , Marek Scott , Hershey Tamara 
Published: February 2023

AbstractImportanceBoth neighborhood and household socioeconomic disadvantage relate to negative health outcomes and altered brain structure in children. It is unclear whether such findings extend to white matter development, and via what mechanisms socioeconomic status (SES) influences the brain.ObjectiveTo test independent associations between neighborhood and household SES indicators and white matter microstructure in children, and examine whether body mass index and cognitive function (a proxy of environmental cognitive/sensory stimulation) may plausibly mediate these associations.DesignThis cross-sectional study used baseline data from the Adolescent Brain Cognitive Development (ABCD) Study, an ongoing 10-year cohort study tracking child health.SettingSchool-based recruitment at 21 U.S. sites.ParticipantsChildren aged 9 to 11 years and their parents/caregivers completed baseline assessments between October 1st, 2016 and October 31st, 2018. Data analysis was conducted from July to December 2022.ExposuresNeighborhood disadvantage was derived from area deprivation indices at primary residence. Household SES indicators were total income and the highest parental education attainment.Main Outcomes and MeasuresThirty-one major white matter tracts were segmented from diffusion-weighted images. The Restriction Spectrum Imaging (RSI) model was implemented to measure restricted normalized directional (RND; reflecting oriented myelin organization) and isotropic (RNI; reflecting glial/neuronal cell bodies) diffusion in each tract. Obesity-related measures were body mass index (BMI), BMIz-scores, and waist circumference, and cognitive performance was assessed using the NIH Toolbox Cognition Battery. Linear mixed-effects models tested the associations between SES indicators and scanner-harmonized RSI metrics. Structural equation models examined indirect effects of obesity and cognitive performance in the significant associations between SES and white mater microstructure summary principal components. Analyses were adjusted for age, sex, pubertal development stage, intracranial volume, and head motion.ResultsThe analytical sample included 8842 children (4299 [48.6%] girls; mean age [SD], 9.9 [0.7] years). Greater neighborhood disadvantage and lower parental education were independently associated with lower RSI-RND in forceps major and corticospinal/pyramidal tracts, and had overlapping associations in the superior longitudinal fasciculus. Lower cognition scores and greater obesity-related measures partially accounted for these SES associations with RSI-RND. Lower household income was related to higher RSI-RNI in almost every tract, and greater neighborhood disadvantage had similar effects in primarily frontolimbic tracts. Lower parental education was uniquely linked to higher RSI-RNI in forceps major. Greater obesity-related measures partially accounted for these SES associations with RSI-RNI. Findings were robust in sensitivity analyses and mostly corroborated using traditional diffusion tensor imaging (DTI).Conclusions and RelevanceThese cross-sectional results demonstrate that both neighborhood and household contexts are relevant to white matter development in children, and suggest cognitive performance and obesity as possible pathways of influence. Interventions targeting obesity reduction and improving cognition from multiple socioeconomic angles may ameliorate brain health in low-SES children.Key PointsQuestionAre neighborhood and household socioeconomic levels associated with children’s brain white matter microstructure, and if so, do obesity and cognitive performance (reflecting environmental stimulation) mediate the associations?FindingsIn a cohort of 8842 children, higher neighborhood disadvantage, lower household income, and lower parental education had independent and overlapping associations with lower restricted directional diffusion and greater restricted isotropic diffusion in white matter. Greater body mass index and poorer cognitive performance partially mediated these associations.MeaningBoth neighborhood and household poverty may contribute to altered white matter development in children. These effects may be partially explained by obesity incidence and poorer cognitive performance.