bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Goldman, Emma (1869–1940)
Authors: Ferguson Kathy E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractArriving in the United States from Russia in 1885, during the first great wave of Jewish immigration from eastern Europe, Emma Goldman soon became the best known anarchist in the United States. With her comrade Alexander Berkman, she worked for over 50 years toward the anarchist goal of a decentralized, self‐governing society voluntarily organized by free and creative individuals. Goldman spoke, wrote, and organized on behalf of labor, free speech, free love, free schools, birth control, radical drama, political prisoners, prostitutes, the general strike, antimilitarism, and revolutions in Russia, Spain, and Mexico. Her monthly journalMother Earthenjoyed substantial circulation from 1906 to its closure by the US government in 1918, reaching as many as 10,000 readers annually. She published four books:Anarchism and Other Essays(1910) compiled some of her best known speeches and articles;The Social Significance of the Modern Drama(1914) collected her summaries and interpretations of progressive European plays for American audiences;My Disillusionment in Russia(1923) voiced her early and unforgiving criticism of the Bolsheviks for strangling the nascent Russian Revolution; and her autobiography,Living My Life(1934), crafted her life as an exemplary rebel for a global audience. She also wrote many thousands of letters, creating the needed energy for sustained political struggle in the face of uneven achievements, persistent state persecution, and the loneliness of exile.
Governance
Authors: Sirianni Carmen 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWhile not a new term, “governance” has been increasingly used to capture a set of problems that have to do with the tendencies of state organizations to encompass less of the direct work of governing (regulation, service delivery, representation) and their increasing need to facilitate, catalyze, and collaborate with a broad range of nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and market actors to accomplish tasks valued by multiple publics that configure around diverse policy arenas. Governance is now seen as a challenge for formal state institutions at all levels (local, state/province, national), as well as for international collaboration among national and subnational governments, international NGOs, economic development agencies, and global corporations.
Hayek, Friedrich August von (1899–1992)
Authors: Spieker Jörg 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFriedrich August von Hayek was an Austrian‐born British economist, political theorist, and public intellectual who exerted profound influence on the revival of liberal theory and policy in the late twentieth century. Following the completion of two doctorates (in law and in political science) at the University of Vienna, he held professorships at the London School of Economics, the University of Chicago, and the University of Freiburg. In 1974 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Economics, and in 1991 he received the US Presidential Medal of Freedom. Hayek is best known for his critique of all forms of socialism and collectivism, which is most forcefully stated in his first major political work,The Road to Serfdom(1944). His later work – notablyThe Constitution of Liberty(1960) and the trilogyLaw, Legislation and Liberty(1973–9) – complements this critique by providing an elaborate and innovative, though not uncontroversial, account of liberal order.
Hegemony
Authors: Simons Jon 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In Marxist political theory hegemony is a concept according to which power operates not only as coercion and domination by a ruling class but also ideologically and culturally. Beyond the field of political thought, following the term's ancient usage in the context of Greek city‐states, hegemony has referred since the nineteenth century in history and international relations to the predominance of one state over other states, including imperialist domination of other countries. The Marxist concept of hegemony differs from this broader meaning of domination as it understands political rule to entail an accommodation with those ruled.
Hermeneutics
Authors: Loriaux Michael 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “hermeneutics” signifies interpretation, whether conceived as a method of understanding texts or as a more broadly philosophical portrayal of how humanity acquires understanding of the world. The term is derived from the Greekhermēneuō, meaning to “interpret” or to “translate from a foreign language.” Conventional periodizations of the development of hermeneutics describe a progression: from hermeneutics as a method of scriptural exegesis in antiquity and the Middle Ages, to the universal hermeneutics or historicism of the nineteenth century, and finally to its participation in the ontological turn of twentieth‐century phenomenology. This entry respects convention, but recalls where appropriate the dynamic tension that is forever present in hermeneutic scholarship. That tension was no more nor less present in antiquity than it has been in recent times.
Historicism
Authors: McPartland Thomas J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract“Historicism” is the English translation of the German “Historismus,” which first came into notable use in the late nineteenth century as a derogatory term for a kind of historical reductionism in debates over political economy. In the 1920s and 1930s the term gained a positive tone in the writings of Troeltsch, Mannheim, Meinecke, and Croce and applied well beyond the confines of political economy to all methods investigating the human world and indeed to the very idea of humanity itself. The ideas associated with it, however, had gained currency for at least a century or more in western thought. No matter how complicated or even contradictory the different claims of historicism might be, these claims almost universally undermined the legitimacy of political thought as an independent field of inquiry.
Homer (ca. 8th century BCE)
Authors: Dolgert Stefan 
Published: August 2023

AbstractHomer has long been considered a fountainhead of “western” civilization, though it is only more recently that the epic poems attributed to him, theIliadand theOdyssey, have been evaluated as important works of political theory. These epics depict the events surrounding the Trojan War between the Greeks and Trojans, a war caused by the abduction of Helen, wife of the Spartan king Menelaus. Homer's importance for political thought can be seen in three primary fields. (1) As the pedagogical source for classical (fifth‐centurybce) Greece, Homeric texts are considered exemplary of the warrior ethos and as educators of Pericles’ democratic, imperial Athens. (2) Homeric texts are also, and as such, treated as the key antagonists against whom Plato's political philosophy pivots, leading, indeed, to the “quarrel between poetry and philosophy.” (3) Finally, Homer is seen as one of the founding figures in “agonistic” and “tragic” democratic political theory, particularly as this has been articulated by Hannah Arendt, Friedrich Nietzsche, and Simone Weil.
Honig, Bonnie (1959–)
Authors: Maxwell Lida 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Bonnie Honig is a leading contemporary advocate of agonistic democracy, which she defends in a diverse set of writings on xenophobia, cosmopolitanism, emergency politics, genres of reading, and tragedy. Honig's continually growing corpus forms a relentless critique of justificatory modes of political theorizing and an affirmation of agonistic democracy. Her first book,
Political Theory and the Displacement of Politics
(1993) sounds a clarion call in both respects. The book criticizes theorists such as John Rawls and Michael Sandel for focusing on the justification of appropriate liberal or communitarian norms to govern politics.
Honneth, Axel (1949–)
Authors: Ingram James D. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAxel Honneth is a German social and political philosopher. Since 1996 he has worked at Johann Wolfgang Goethe University, Frankfurt, where, as director of the Institute for Social Research, he has presided over the legacy of the Frankfurt School of critical theory. Honneth's theory of recognition endeavors to renew this tradition by developing a comprehensive moral, psychological, and social‐theoretical framework for social criticism.
Independence
Authors: Walker Kathryn 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

In its most basic conceptual sense independence refers to a relation between two entities, which is defined by a lack of influence of each on the other. We say, for example, that
x
is independent of
y
if
y
does not bear on or affect
x
. Politically speaking, independence belongs to a family of terms –emancipation, freedom, liberty, liberation, self‐determination, sovereignty, and autonomy – which make normative and descriptive assertions about the way power operates on and through a given entity. For this reason, in its political use independence connotes a hierarchical ordering of entities, and, significantly, a challenge to the domination imposed by such an ordering. The identified terms – emancipation, freedom, liberty, liberation, self‐determination, sovereignty, and autonomy – can be mapped along a spectrum of relationality; at one end terms such as emancipation and liberation are highly relational speaking of a connection or a rejection of a connection between two entities. Hence, for example, in the American Civil War, blacks were emancipated from a relationship to slave owners. At the other end of this continuum, terms such as sovereignty and self‐determination are less relational, articulating the nature of the power that a given entity has in and of itself. Along this line, independence has a stronger relational significance than autonomy and self‐determination on the one hand, and on the other hand may be used in a way that involves less specified relationality than terms such as emancipation and liberation.
Indirect Democracy
Authors: Hoffman Aaron D. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Indirect democracy is the political concept used to denote the organization of a government based on a democratic foundation, but with the actual decisions about government being made by representatives of the people. Indirect democracy is in contrast to the practice of “direct democracy,” where the people not only form the basis of the government but also actually make, administer, and judge the laws, the typical example given of direct democracy being the practice of ancient Athens, although Swiss cantons and New England town hall meetings are often held up as examples of almost pure direct democracies. In contrast, “indirect democracy” is representative democracy or rule by the people through their representatives.
International Institutions
Authors: Isiksel Turkuler 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
International institutions are broadly defined as bodies of rules that have been designed or have evolved to facilitate cooperation among states. Typically, international institutions are called into being by interstate agreements that specify the aims of cooperation and the principles and rules that signatories must observe in order to achieve them. Newer international institutions often feature governance organs charged with further norm production and interpretation, compliance monitoring, and dispute resolution. Some international institutions focus on a particular policy area, while others provide a general framework for tackling a wide range of issues. Although most international institutions aim at looser forms of coordination or cooperation among states, a smaller number seek to realize partial transfers of sovereignty.
International Regimes
Authors: Vanderheiden Steven 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn international politics, regimes reflect cooperation among states and between states and other actors in an otherwise anarchic arena, and they have in some cases generated powerful institutions capable of influencing the behavior of states and their subjects. Regimes can originate through multilateral treaties, in which they are vested with power by the ratifying states and carry out their functions at the behest of states; but they can also form through the efforts of NGOs and other nonstate actors.
International Relations Theory
Authors: Spieker Jörg 
Published: August 2023

AbstractInternational relations emerged as a discipline in its own right toward the end of World War I as scholars and practitioners of international politics sought to study the causes of war and the prospects for peace in a systematic fashion. Early academic IR was dominated by a group of liberal thinkers who have been pejoratively known as “idealists” or “utopians.” While not nearly as naive in their assumptions or as uniform in their outlook as these labels suggest, these thinkers tended to believe that war is futile and that peaceful change is possible, given the right domestic and international institutional structures. When liberal hopes for a more peaceful and just world order faded in the face of the failure of the League of Nations and the looming prospect of a second world war, liberal internationalism came under attack by realists, such as the British historian E. H. Carr. In his influential bookThe Twenty Years’ Crisis(1939), Carr criticized liberal internationalism, or “utopianism” as he called it, for its failure to explain and predict international politics and its inability to provide effective practical measures for controlling them. Rather than concentrating on normative assumptions of how the world should be, as he accused liberals of doing, his realist approach takes the realities of power in international politics as a starting point for analysis. After World War II, realism became the dominant way of thinking about international relations among scholars and policy‐makers.
Invisible Hand
Authors: Hoffman Aaron D. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The Invisible Hand as a political and economic term is fundamental for understanding a modern economic society, specifically how such a society functions without a central political and economic authority controlling the allocation of resources among its inhabitants. More elemental is Edna Ullman‐Margalit's definition that “An invisible‐hand explanation explains a well‐structured social pattern or institution. It typically replaces an easily forthcoming and initially plausible explanation according to which the explanandum phenomenon is the product of intentional design with a rival account according to which it is brought about through a process involving the separate actions of many individuals who are supposed to be minding their own business unaware of and
a fortiori
not intending to produce the ultimate overall outcome.” The Scottish moral philosopher and political economist Adam Smith (1723–90) formulated the idea of the Invisible Hand in his book of moral philosophy
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
(1759), although the general idea can also be attributed to Adam Ferguson, David Hume, and Bernard Mandeville. Smith later and more famously used the term in his political economy text
An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations
(1776). The Invisible Hand is one of those terms that, besides being a basic concept in politics and economics, has also gained popular usage outside the specialized academic literature to describe how a market economy functions.
John of Salisbury (ca. 1115/20–80)
Authors: Lee Daniel 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

John of Salisbury was born in Old Sarum, England, some time between 1115 and 1120. He was educated in Paris at Mont‐Saint‐Geneviève, starting in 1136; there he studied with leading Scholastic masters of the High Middle Ages such as Peter of Abelard and Gilbert of Poitiers. John's works include the
Entheticus Major
, the
Metalogicon
, the
Historia Pontificalis
, as well as numerous letters composed throughout his career. But his most important work was the
Policraticus
.
Judgment
Authors: Zerilli Linda M. G. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractJudgment as a crucial issue for political theory is longstanding. What it means to have good political judgment is a topic debated by ancient to modern and contemporary thinkers as they attempt to answer that which most take to be the premier question of politics, namely, who should rule? If good judgment is equated with superior theoretical knowledge and the ability to reason based on the grasp of universals, then an argument for Plato's “philosopher‐kings” or their modern equivalents can be made. But if the power to judge is viewed more as the ability to know when concepts apply than to know the concepts themselves or, further, to create concepts where they are lacking altogether, then it is not clear that knowing and acting appropriately are connected in the way Plato assumed.
Kautsky, Karl (1854–1938)
Authors: Boggs Carl 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
An important political and intellectual figure in the history of the European left, Karl Kautsky dominated the early theoretical development of Marxism during the period between the late 1880s and World War I, when the Second International held sway. He was the chief architect of what came to be known as “orthodox Marxism,” which was associated with European social democratic parties from the 1890s on.
Kristeva, Julia (1942–)
Authors: Keltner S. K. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBulgarian‐born linguist, psychoanalyst, social and cultural theorist, and novelist, Julia Kristeva has lived and worked in France since 1966. She remains a leading figure of structuralist and poststructuralist thought and has inspired research across the humanities and social sciences. In 2004, she received the first Holberg International Memorial Prize.
Kropotkin, Peter Alekseevich (1842–1921)
Authors: Ferguson Kathy E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPeter Kropotkin was born into an aristocratic Russian family, received a military education, and became a respected geographer. Horrified by poverty and injustice, he became convinced that the government was unable as well as unwilling to make meaningful change in the lives of peasants and workers. Kropotkin turned toward anarchism to find a viable path to social change. He worked with the Jura workers’ federation in Switzerland, smuggled forbidden radical literature back to Russia, and joined a workers’ circle in Russia, leading eventually to two years’ imprisonment followed by a dramatic escape from the infamous Peter and Paul Fortress. Thereafter, he lived primarily in England and France, where he helped found the journalFreedom. Returning to Russia after the 1917 Revolution, he was honored by the new government but soon came to see the Bolsheviks as the murderers of the revolution. His funeral was the occasion of the last mass gathering of anarchists in Russia.
Kuhn, Thomas (1922–96)
Authors: Fuller Steve 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Thomas Kuhn (1922–96) was a US historian and philosopher of science; he was perhaps the most influential theorist of science in the second half of the twentieth century. Like many of his generation who were trained in physics but experienced first hand the role that its expertise played in World War II, Kuhn left the field shortly after receiving his PhD in 1946. He then joined the new “General Education in Science” program established by Harvard President James Bryant Conant. It was there that Kuhn developed the general theory of scientific change for which he is best known, according to which a science's theories and methods are dictated by a “paradigm,” which is replaced only once it accumulates too many unsolved problems. At that point, it enters a “crisis” phase that eventuates in a “revolution,” resulting in a successor paradigm.
Kulturkampf
Authors: Beede Benjamin R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Kulturkampf
, a German word meaning a struggle between cultures or civilizations, usually refers to a specific campaign by the German government, primarily between 1871 and 1887, to extend its control over the Catholic church in order to unify the newly established empire still further. This kind of conflict was hardly confined to Germany. The many European countries consisting largely of at least nominal Catholics or having significant Catholic minorities were roiled by church–state confrontations during the second half of the nineteenth century. Moreover, these struggles became internationalized as Catholics and their opponents looked abroad for ideas and encouragement.
Lucretius (Titus Lucretius Carus, ca. 94–ca. 55/51 BCE)
Authors: Nichols James H. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Lucretius, a Roman poet, set forth a complete account of the Epicurean philosophy in epic verse, in a poem entitled
De rerum natura
(
On the Nature of Things
). With the loss of Epicurus’ longer writings, Lucretius’ poem is the most comprehensive and extensive exposition of Epicurean philosophy available to us from antiquity. The Epicurean philosophy, and especially Lucretius’ poetic exposition of it, has been widely and continuously influential on later thinkers, perhaps most of all in the early modern period through the eighteenth century, as an alternative ancient view of the human being and the world, different from the more dominant Platonic, Aristotelian, and Ciceronian positions.
Luhmann, Niklas (1927–98)
Authors: Thornhill Christopher 
Published: August 2023

AbstractNiklas Luhmann (1927–98) was, with Jürgen Habermas, the leading sociologist of postwar Germany. Influenced by Edmund Husserl, Martin Heidegger, and Talcott Parsons, he proposed a theory of societal modernity based on a postontological understanding of social meaning.
Lukács, György/Georg (1885–1971)
Authors: Boggs Carl 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Georg Lukács was a Marxist philosopher, literary critic, a leading figure in the development of western Marxism, and for brief periods of his life a political activist. He was a prolific writer who, throughout most of his life, sought to connect the realms of politics and culture, grounding his work in philosophical discourses inherited from such figures as Kant, Hegel, and the Hungarian intellectual Ervin Szabo.
Marxism
Authors: Edwards Jason 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

There are a wide variety of thinkers, ideas, and texts that can be understood as constituting a Marxist tradition of political thought. No comprehensive agreement about which thinkers, ideas, and texts should be included in that tradition exists, though of course it is recognized that it originates in the work of Karl Marx and draws upon the body of work he authored. One very important aspect of Marx's writing is that it is intended to inform the revolutionary transformation of existing, capitalist societies. This is particularly the case in his “political” works. Yet these texts range in type from the more programmatic statements associated with Marx's involvement with the revolutionary movement, most famously
The Manifesto of the Communist Party
of 1848, to more analytical approaches to particular events of political importance, such as
The Civil War in France
of 1871. Insofar as there is a “political theory” in Marx's work, it has a twofold character. It is, first, a general theorization of the relationship between the economic organization of a society and its formal political institutions and practices (or “the state”), and secondly, an approach to the understanding of political events as the unfolding of struggles centered on class relations that attributes considerable significance to instances of political conflict in shaping the course of human history.