bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
International Political Economy
Authors: Solomon M. Scott 
Published: August 2023

AbstractInternational political economy (IPE) is a field of social science inquiry that investigates how states (or power) and economics (or wealth) condition and impact each other. The field is often described as the study of “states vs. markets,” “authority vs. exchange,” and/or “power vs. wealth.” These formulations all demonstrate that IPE, as a field of inquiry distinct from political economy, is largely informed by two disciplines – international relations (IR) and economics. IR, usually found within political science departments, has historically focused on questions of state interaction and power. Just as political science could be described as a discipline with “power” as its primary object of inquiry, IR could be described as a discipline with “state power” as its object of inquiry. Economics could be described as a discipline with “wealth” as its object of inquiry. The competing logic of politics, centered on conflict, and of (market) economics, centered on mutually beneficial exchange and cooperation, animates IPE and debates with the field.
Investiture Controversy
Authors: Goodwin Iris J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The Investiture Controversy (also known as “Investiture Contest”) was a 75‐year struggle that took place in Europe, largely within Germany, France, and northern Italy, in the Middle Ages (from the second half of the eleventh century into the beginning quarter of the twelfth). In its narrowest aspect, the controversy centered on an established practice whereby lay princes effectively chose clergy (including bishops) to minister in their domains, but the struggle focused in particular on the appropriateness of the ceremony by which the prince established these clergy in their ecclesiastical offices. Typically, the monarch handed over to the new bishop a ring and crozier, visible signs of episcopal authority, and in return received an act of homage (usually the swearing of an oath). Episcopal consecration by the diocesan bishop ordinarily followed investiture by the monarch. The driving question of the Investiture Controversy was whether this longstanding practice was consistent with the central tenets of Catholic Christianity. In the course of the controversy the practice was recast as a species of simony.
Irigaray, Luce (1932–)
Authors: Zakin Emily 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Luce Irigaray is a Paris‐based philosopher, psychoanalyst, and feminist. Much of her work develops through critical readings of key philosophical and psychoanalytic texts, readings in which she defiantly mimes and subtly undermines the reasoning and rhetoric of her interlocutors. Her work analyzes the formation and foundation of patriarchal culture and confronts the privileging of masculine subjectivity in lineages from fathers to sons and in exchanges between brothers.
Jeffersonian Democracy
Authors: Matthews Richard 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Historians tend to contrast Jeffersonian democracy with Jacksonian democracy by focusing on the presidency of each person; from the perspective of political theory, however, Jeffersonian democracy is best seen as a collection of ideas and ideals advocated by Thomas Jefferson (1743–1826) in his voluminous writings. This later Jefferson of political theory is far more radical and democratic than the one portrayed by presidential historians.
Jeremiad
Authors: Murphy Andrew R. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The jeremiad, a form of social and political critique, takes its name from the Hebrew prophetic tradition, in which critics regularly arose to chastise the community for violating God's commands (more specifically, for violating the covenant that the community had sworn with Yahweh at Sinai) and to call the community back to faithfulness and obedience. As an exemplar of that prophetic tradition, and as the prophet whose book gives its name to an entire genre, Jeremiah bitterly laments a wayward community that has betrayed its God and warns about divine wrath in store.
Key, Jr., Valdimir Orlando (1908–63)
Authors: Shafer Byron E. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Valdimir Orlando Key, Jr. – known to all and sundry as “V. O.” – was the leading student of American politics during the mid‐twentieth century. This reputation was due in part to the substantive breadth and descriptive richness of his writings. Yet Key also had a set of theoretically distinctive ways of thinking about American politics, some of which endure as analytic influences a half‐century later, others of which are diagnostic of a way of thinking that was destined to go out of fashion. On the one hand, then, he was an important figure in the “behavioral revolution” in postwar political science. On the other, his work was always consciously informed by central questions from political theory.
Laclau, Ernesto (1935–)
Authors: Simons Jon 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Ernesto Laclau is an Argentinian‐born political theorist whose main contributions are in the fields of discourse theory, radical democracy, and populism. His key insight is that social order is a discourse, meaning a symbolic system structured analogously to language, as understood in poststructuralist terms. Discourse refers to the practices and meanings that constitute social order as an effect of the differences between social elements (classes, groups) that have no positive meaning other than through the differential relations between them. “Society” is a structured totality formed by the discursive relations that articulate social elements, modifying them in the process. Society is never entirely closed or fixed as its discursive formation requires an excluded element, conceived in psychoanalytical terms as a “lack.” Laclau is anti‐essentialist, holding that the identities of social groups and meanings of political terms are all contingent on their articulation in discourse. Yet, there are certain elements of discourse, called empty or floating signifiers, that provisionally fix social meanings in hegemonic relations.
Lasswell, Harold Dwight (1902–78)
Authors: Blatt Jessica 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Harold D. Lasswell, American political scientist and one the most influential American social scientists of the mid‐twentieth century, was a progenitor of the behavioral movement in political science and a seminal scholar in the fields of political psychology, communications research, policy studies, legal education, and political sociology. His research primarily interrogated the interplay of symbols, language, personality, and culture, utilizing an approach he termed “configurative.” He introduced experimental techniques, statistical analysis, and clinical interviews to political science and, together with colleagues, he is credited with developing quantitative content analysis.
Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm (1646–1716)
Authors: Nelson Eric S. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Leibniz was born near the conclusion of the chaotic period of the Thirty Years War. He studied law and then spent much of his life in the service of nobility and royalty, particularly the House of Hanover that assumed the British Crown a few years before his death. Best known for his works on metaphysics, mathematics, and logic, Leibniz's extensive political correspondence and writings concerned the foundations of law, local and international political affairs and social problems, and moral and political philosophy.
Levellers
Authors: Patterson‐Tutschka Monicka 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe Levellers fought to protect freeborn Englishmen from arbitrary power. Their Presbyterian and Independent opponents called them “Levellers” because they aimed to “level” property distinctions. The Levellers, however, denied this accusation and claimed they supported private property rights. The “Diggers” who favored property redistribution some years later identified themselves as the “True Levellers.”
Liang Qichao (1873–1929)
Authors: Lee Theresa Man Ling 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Liang Qichao was easily the most popular, if not the most influential, Chinese intellectual of the twentieth century. As China's first‐generation modern thinker, Liang embodied the transformation of a traditional Confucian literati whose raison d’être could no longer be assumed under the pressure of mounting political crisis in late nineteenth‐century China. Along the way Liang proved himself to be a man of many intellectual and literary talents. In addition to classical Confucian scholarship, Liang's published works cover a wide range of subjects, including Chinese philosophy, Chinese and world history, historiography, Buddhism, and western thought. He was a journalist who was instrumental in introducing the modern press to China. As a prolific essayist and an occasional novelist, Liang wrote for a broad audience, thereby pioneering the modernization of the Chinese language.
Liberal Individualism
Authors: Dow Douglas C. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The terms “liberalism” and “individualism” were coined at roughly the same time, liberalism entering the languages of western Europe in the 1810s and individualism following approximately a decade later. The meanings of these two neologisms have since been inexorably tied together, each modifying and clarifying the other. Nevertheless, liberal individualism, understood as a single concept, has always been contested, with sharp disagreement over both the definition and value of the individual within liberal thought. Significantly, many of the most important characterizations of liberal individualism have been the product of liberalism's opponents as much as of its supporters. Whether regarded as its highest achievement or as a mark of its pathological impoverishment, the individual and personal liberty have been viewed as the
sine qua non
of liberalism.
Liberty
Authors: Filling John 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Liberty is a potent ideal. Rousseau called it the “most precious of all [God's] gifts.” But it is also an elusive ideal. MacCallum claims that all theories of liberty conform to a “triadic relation”: “x is (is not) free from y to do (not do, become, not become) z.” This entry examines five conceptions of liberty through the lens of MacCallum's formula: negative, positive, republican, Marxist, and feminist.
Limited Government
Authors: Peterson Paul C. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Limited government is a concept that is often linked to and sometimes used interchangeably with any of the following: constitutionalism, republicanism, limited monarchy, the rule of law, and the idea of natural rights. The term suggests that there are or should be limits on what government can do, and stands in contrast to arbitrary government. Depending on the theorist in question, these limits may or may not be derived from nature or God.
Luxury
Authors: Mathiowetz Dean 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Luxury is typically considered an object of consumption that exceeds what's necessary, usually to a high degree of refinement and/or in ways that signal status. The concept has analogues in cultures and languages around the world; particularly in Mediterranean and European cultures from antiquity to the early modern period, “luxury” (with its cognates) was a fundamental organizing term of political and theological discourse. In those contexts, the concept of luxury was connected to social change, and in particular to myths of historical decline or progress. While the concept retains these associations, it is a striking example of a concept whose importance declined dramatically throughout modernity and into the present day, when it is little more than a term of marketing or light moral reproach.
MacIntyre, Alasdair C. (1929–)
Authors: Young Daniel Edward 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAlasdair Chalmers MacIntyre is a philosopher best known for his 1981 bookAfter Virtue. That book and its sequels develop a critique of liberal modernity for its individualism and its inability to provide political and social structures that facilitate moral enquiry in the light of a common good. MacIntyre has been particularly influential in the development of contemporary virtue ethics. Most of his early career was spent in Marxist intellectual circles, but in the course of the 1960s he became increasingly critical of Marxism for its inability to provide a rational grounding for morality. He eventually arrived in the 1980s at a Thomistic Aristotelian perspective.
Madison, James (1751–1836)
Authors: Kleinerman Benjamin A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSince this is an encyclopedia of political thought, the first question that must be asked is: why include James Madison? After all, James Madison was, in the first place, a political statesman who never authored any work that would be typically called political theory insofar as all of his political writings were directly and intrinsically tied to the political situation in which he found himself. Although James Madison's writings are littered with more abstract reflections on the nature of politics as such, those abstractions are almost always then tied again to a specific political program or policy. In other words, although it is true that James Madison is one of the most theoretical politicians of all time, it is also true that he still remains a politician.
Maistre, Joseph de (1753–1821)
Authors: Armenteros Carolina 
Published: August 2023

AbstractSometimes referred to as the French Edmund Burke, Joseph de Maistre was a Savoyard counter‐revolutionary and a founder of conservatism. His status as a political thinker is paradoxical, since he was at once a key articulator of the early political right and a religious believer who aspired to minimize politics. Understanding his conservatism therefore necessitates recognizing the social, moral, historical, and religious considerations that preceded politics in his thought.
Mansbridge, Jane J. (1939–)
Authors: Scholz Bettina 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Jane J. Mansbridge is the Charles F. Adams Professor of Political Leadership and Democratic Values at the John F. Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University. She has served as president of the American Political Science Association and as vice president and president of the Caucus for Women in Political Science. In 1994 she was elected a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences. Her book
Why We Lost the ERA
was corecipient of the American Political Science Association's awards for the best publication in US national policy and the best book on women in politics.
Marxist Feminism
Authors: Stefano Christine Di 
Published: August 2023

AbstractMarxist feminism is a species of feminist theory and politics that takes its theoretical bearings from Marxism, notably the criticism of capitalism as a set of structures, practices, institutions, incentives, and sensibilities that promote the exploitation of labor, the alienation of human beings, and the debasement of freedom. For Marxist feminists, empowerment and equality for women cannot be achieved within the framework of capitalism. Marxist feminism is reluctant to treat “women” as a stand‐alone group with similar interests and aspirations. Marxist feminism thus distinguishes itself from other modes of feminist thought and politics by attending critically and systematically to the economic organization of societies, including stratification along the lines of class; by refusing to accord the category of “women” separate and special status, without regard to class; by its commitment to the overthrow of capitalism; and by its allegiance to working‐class and impoverished women.
Masculinity
Authors: Banerjee Sikata 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIn 2000 Christina Hoff Sommers lamented male suffering inThe War against Boyslocating its roots in the feminization process unfolding in public schools which disparaged the value of manhood and male roles in society. In the following year, Jane Fonda donated $12.5 million of her personal fortune toward the establishment of a Center for Gender and Education at Harvard University hoping to begin the academic process of helping America's boys to resist the cultural dissonance they were experiencing because they could not cope with or live up to the expectations of the traditional male role. Whether or not one agrees with the ideology underlying these examples, it is clear that these are popular expressions of what is known as “sex role” theory commonly used by sociologists and psychologists to explain gender differences between men and women. Furthermore, the focus on men implies that masculinity long conflated with the abstract individual is coming to the fore as a category needing analysis. Masculinity as a problem to be studied has energized a field of scholarship variously referred to as the critical studies and/or new sociology of masculinity.
Merleau‐Ponty, Maurice (1908–61)
Authors: Coole Diana 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBorn in provincial France, Merleau‐Ponty established his reputation as a philosopher during the 1940s and 50s. For the last decade or so of his life he held the prestigious chair in philosophy at the Collège de France. His interests were extremely broad, ranging from politics, sociology, and child psychology to aesthetics, religion, and postclassical physics. He was applauded as France's leading phenomenologist, and his participation in the existentialist movement alongside Jean‐Paul Sartre and Simone de Beauvoir also marked him as a leading light in the postwar construction of humanist Marxism.
Milton, John (1608–74)
Authors: Alvis John E. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Best known for his epic poems
Paradise Lost
and
Paradise Regained
, Milton was also a writer of polemical tracts upon political subjects. Despite their topicality and the polemical intent evident in these writings, Milton's breadth of learning and philosophical argumentation have continued to engage readers interested in the study of principles of republicanism, civil and religious liberty, censorship, education, and constitutional theory.
Montaigne, Michel de (1533–92)
Authors: Storey Benjamin 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Montaigne's
Essays
, though not a conventional book of political theory, nonetheless helped lay the foundations of modern political thought and of the modern outlook in general. The seminal moderns who came after him – Bacon, Montesquieu, Rousseau, Nietzsche, and many others – were all steeped in Montaigne's work; the
Essays
are thought to have been the most widely read book in Europe during the eighteenth century.
Natural Law
Authors: Gibbons Michael T. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThere are a variety of meanings attached to the concept of natural law. Natural law ethics, natural law jurisprudence, and natural law as it relates to politics are three such meanings. Not surprisingly, these terms often overlap or complement one another. Moreover, the exact meaning of each of these phrases will vary depending on what one means by the term “natural.” Here we will focus on natural law as it relates to politics.
Negri, Antonio (1933–)
Authors: Çıdam Çiğdem 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Antonio Negri is an Italian Marxist philosopher, political activist, and revolutionary theorist. His intellectual and political career dates back to the 1960s when he became one of the most prominent and productive thinkers of the Italian extra‐parliamentary left. He continued to be an influential figure in European neo‐Marxist circles in the following decades. He captured the attention of a worldwide audience in 2000 with the publication of
Empire
, which was cowritten with Michael Hardt. The innovative and groundbreaking analysis of globalization developed in
Empire
constitutes the framework for Negri's ongoing critical engagement with global capitalism today.
Neoclassical Economics
Authors: Amadae Sonja M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractNeoclassical economics was a school of economic thought actively practiced as a new research frontier between the 1880s and 1940s. Its leading theorists were William Stanley Jevons, Leon Walras, Alfred Marshall, Vilfredo Pareto, Francis Ysidro Edgeware, and Lionel Robbins. It followed the classical economic period dominated by Adam Smith, David Ricardo, Thomas Malthus, and Karl Marx. The neoclassical economists pioneered the marginalist approach to economic analysis, which gained popular attention by describingHomo economicus– the rational economic man, who calculates every purchase to gain the most satisfaction.
Nozick, Robert (1938–2002)
Authors: Schmidtz David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRobert Nozick was born in Brooklyn, graduated from Columbia in 1959, and received a PhD from Princeton in 1963. After stints at Princeton and Rockefeller, he went to Harvard in 1969, at age 30, as full professor. He was a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences, and served as president of the American Philosophical Association's Eastern Division.
Pareto, Vilfredo (1848–1923)
Authors: Femia Joseph V. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractPareto was one of the most versatile and influential thinkers of the twentieth century, leaving an imprint in the fields of microeconomics, political sociology, social psychology, and political theory. Born in Paris of a French mother and an aristocratic Italian father, he was educated in Italy, where he took a university degree in civil engineering. Initially, it seemed that he would follow the path of a typical Italian industrialist. After graduating, he worked in business for more than two decades. Throughout this period, however, Pareto was an outspoken advocate of democratic reform and free trade. His attachment to English radicalism, as expressed in speeches and pamphlets, earned him many enemies in Italy, where the free market was an alien concept. Through his political activities, he became acquainted with neoclassical economics and especially the ideas of Leon Walras, a pioneer of marginal analysis, which attacked the labor theory of value in all its forms. Neoclassical economics used mathematical equations to explain prices and quantities in terms of market transactions between self‐seeking individuals. Because of his quantitative skills, Pareto found that he could make serious technical contributions to this body of thought, publishing a number of articles in academic journals. Such was his growing reputation as a mathematical economist that in 1893, he was offered, and accepted, Walras's chair at the University of Lausanne. His main contribution to microeconomics was probably his idea of “Pareto optimality,” which posits that a society enjoys the optimum allocation of its resources at the equilibrium point where no one can be made better off (in the sense of want satisfaction) without making someone else worse off.