bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Dwight at Brook Farm
Authors: Faucett Bill F. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
With few professional prospects, Dwight settled at the socialist-utopian community of Brook Farm, located near Boston. The community attracted all sorts of personalities, and part of its lure was the arts, which were an important component of Brook Farm’s educational project. The arts were considered essential to the Farm’s success—for enjoyment, for moral uplift, and for simply keeping boredom at bay. Dwight was appointed as lead organizer of the Farm’s entertainments and designated “Chief of the Festal Series.” Given his own enthusiasms, many of the activities inevitably involved music; Dwight emphasized homegrown performances, classical repertoire, and guest artists. Dwight’s journalistic passions also emerged as he began to write essays about Beethoven’s symphonies, Handel’s Messiah, Mozart, and Haydn for James Russell Lowell’s literary periodical The Pioneer and New York’s U.S. Magazine and Democratic Review. All the while, Dwight was honing a new, personal literary style.
The Harbinger, Beethoven, and the End of Brook Farm
Authors: Faucett Bill F. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Dwight’s ascendant literary fortunes improved when Brook Farm launched The Harbinger, a weekly newspaper “devoted to social and political progress.” It addressed timely social issues, and its contents included a hefty section on music, including concert and book reviews, assessments of newly printed music, feature articles, and biographical sketches. Beethoven was a topic of special interest, and Dwight interpreted the composer by taking into account Carlyle’s Great Man Theory and the then-current phenomenon of reading a composer’s life from his works. Dwight was eager to share with curious Bostonians the personal odyssey of Beethoven, whose music, the critic believed, laid bare his inner self. Dwight also admired the teachings of the French utopian philosopher and social scientist Charles Fourier and wrote constantly about Fourierism. Brook Farm’s always rickety finances were worsened when fire ravaged a main building. Its collapse portended the end of Brook Farm and dreams of a better social organization.
Years in Days
Authors: Faucett Bill F. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Dwight regained a modicum of freedom when Ditson took over management of Dwight’s Journal, and he took the opportunity to make a Grand Tour of Europe. No sooner did he arrive than he learned of the death of his wife, who had remained in Boston. Dwight consoled himself with incessant travel but was paralyzed when it came to writing. Once back on track, he kept Journal readers abreast of his activities via letters that detailed his adventures. Dwight sought to hear plenty of music, but he was also determined to identify musical trends in European music education, tour conservatories, and inventory innovative undertakings. Along the way, he met and conversed with famous musical personalities. Dwight boarded the steamship Great Eastern—“the greatest ship ever built by man”—bound for home. Two days into the voyage, storm gales severely damaged the ship. Dwight recounted his personal harrowing tale of fear, anguish, and ultimately salvation.
Fiction
Authors: Cohen Edward E. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThrough the peculium (a fund that a slave held for use in his or her own commercial pursuits), some skilled Roman slaves were able to accumulate assets that even the law implicitly recognized as effectively their own, and were able to continue to hold these assets as they emerged after manumission as free and affluent business persons. This is an element of economic reality that Roman law, as a consequence of the existential centrality of its doctrinal commitment to the legal nullity of slaves, could not explicitly embrace. But because of the importance to the Roman economy of servile enterprise and servile wealth, a jurisprudential mechanism had to be found to accommodate this reality. Voilà: the Roman legal fiction (fictio), which reconciled legal dogma and commercial actuality by attributing to an enslaved individual practical ownership of his or her peculium while continuing to deny slaves’ capacity to “own” anything. The Roman “legal fiction” with which this chapter deals is the factual falsity of the juridical framework governing slaves’ business activity, and the casuistry through which Roman jurisprudents skillfully preserved a legal framework seemingly confirming a fictitious world in which slaves are absolute nullities, while simultaneously creating legal methodologies and rules facilitating a commercial reality utterly in conflict with the fundamental juridical precepts that should have governed servile business activity.
Opportunity
Authors: Cohen Edward E. 
Published: June 2023

AbstractThis chapter discusses the phenomenon of free persons entering voluntarily into slavery, in order toe pursue commercial opportunities unavailable to the non-enslaved—and who, after garnering economic success through the Roman institution of the peculium, regain their freedom through “self-purchase” with “their own funds” (suis nummis), emerging economically and socially enhanced as “freedmen.” The cycle is complete: from impoverished freedom to slavery—from slavery to a prosperous freedom. The chapter also considers protections against the wrongful sale into slavery of a free person or of a person of impaired capacity, including minors. Consideration is also given to contractual arrangements between slave and master, including those providing for the ultimate self-purchase of liberty by originally free individuals who had voluntarily entered into slavery pursuant to agreements governing the terms of their enslavement. Finally, the chapter evaluates the motivations, terms, and rates of manumission at Rome.
Investment Crowdfunding
Authors: Schwartz Andrew A. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Investment crowdfunding is one species of the broader genus known as “crowdfunding,” a word recently added to the dictionary and defined as “the practice of obtaining needed funding (as for a new business) by soliciting contributions from a large number of people especially from the online community.” Historical examples of crowdfunding include church collection plates and the March of Dimes, but the concept really took off when widespread internet access allowed groups of people to connect in ways previously thought impossible. Thus, multiple varieties of crowdfunding have developed since the turn of the millennium, including “reward” crowdfunding (as on Kickstarter), “donation” crowdfunding (as on GoFundMe), and “investment” crowdfunding (the present subject). This chapter defines investment crowdfunding as “the public offering of unregistered securities through an independent online platform.” It works like this: an entrepreneur seeking to raise funds for her business begins by applying to one or more investment crowdfunding platforms, which are websites available on the internet. If a platform accepts the application and agrees to list a company, the latter posts information on the platform, describing the business and the investment opportunity on offer. The offer is posted for a limited amount of time, and the company must meet or exceed its pre-announced target funding amount by the deadline to get the money. Vitally, an investment crowdfunding offering is specifically exempt from the usual legal obligation to “register” securities before offering them to the public, making the process much simpler and less expensive than a traditional IPO (initial public offering).
Challenges
Authors: Schwartz Andrew A. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Investment crowdfunding, like all systems of entrepreneurial finance, must confront three fundamental challenges in order to embolden investors to take a chance and invest in a startup company: (1) uncertainty: the future performance of any company is uncertain, but this is especially so for a startup company, making it hard for investors to evaluate its prospects and assign it a reasonable valuation; (2) information asymmetry: entrepreneurs necessarily know much more than investors about their business—causing investors to worry that they might unknowingly select a “lemon” of an investment; (3) agency costs: once they get the money, entrepreneurs will be tempted to shirk and enrich themselves at the investors’ expense, enjoying themselves while spending other people’s money. If these three challenges are not addressed effectively, investors will pick up their ball and go home, and the whole market will collapse.
Private Ordering
Authors: Schwartz Andrew A. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Private ordering—the actions of individuals and private organizations—provides a number of key methods for governing and policing the investment crowdfunding market. Platforms serve as “gatekeepers” that only allow legitimate and promising companies to list on their sites. Entrepreneurs voluntarily provide investors with information about their companies, have their reputation on the line, and everything they say and do is recorded in a “digital trail”—all of which keeps them honest. Investors work together via the “wisdom of the crowd,” employ their own expertise, share their views with one another on investment crowdfunding platforms, and follow large “lead” investors in a practice called “syndication.”
American Law and Practice
Authors: Schwartz Andrew A. 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The United States authorized investment crowdfunding in the federal JOBS Act of 2012 and associated regulations, known as Regulation Crowdfunding, by adding a new exemption to the registration requirement of the Securities Act of 1933. This chapter reviews and critiques the many components of this regulatory regime, including its provisions on mandatory disclosure, platform licensing, the issuer limit (a dollar-value cap on the amount a company may raise via crowdfunding), the investor cap (a limit on how much each individual may legally invest via crowdfunding), the all-or-nothing model (whereby the company must reach a self-selected funding target for the deal to go through), special purpose vehicles (which allow the crowdfunding investors to be grouped under a single name on a company’s “cap table”), gatekeeping, advertising, resale, and more.
Introduction
Authors: Heersink Boris 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the main theory of the book. It argues that political science research has thus far failed to acknowledge an important role of the Democratic and Republican National Committees (DNC and RNC): engaging in party branding activity on behalf of their parties. The chapter introduces the DNC and RNC as political institutions, existing literature on their role in American politics, and the importance of party brands to politicians. It then argues why the DNC and RNC are set up to engage in party branding, and under which conditions they are likely to engage in more or less branding activity. This is discussed specifically with regard to differing demands from incumbent presidents as party leaders.
Examining DNC and RNC Party Branding Quantitatively
Authors: Heersink Boris 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter uses a new quantitative data set measuring Democratic and Republican National Committee (DNC and RNC) branding and service activity across time to assess conditions under which national committees increase or decrease their activities. The chapter first introduces the data set and the coding mechanism. The data set is based on analysis of over 40,000 New York Times articles mentioning the DNC, RNC, or its chairs between 1913 and 2016. Subsequently, the data is used to test a core prediction of the branding theory of national committees: that national committees should engage in less branding activity when their party is in the White House. The results suggest this is true: New York Times coverage of DNC and RNC branding is considerably lower when the incumbent president is from their party.
National Committees and the New Deal, 1933–1952
Authors: Heersink Boris 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the activities of the Democratic and Republican National Committees (DNC and RNC) during the presidencies of Franklin Delano Roosevelt and Harry Truman. During this period, the DNC saw a clear institutional decline in large part because FDR did not believe that DNC branding would help him in his re-election efforts. Under Truman, the DNC became much more active in the run-up to the 1948 presidential election but declined again afterward. In contrast, the RNC throughout the New and Fair Deal years struggled to help the GOP find an alternative message. While RNC chairs were unable to produce a winning Republican argument in this period, they did push the party to embrace specific policy positions—including ending its isolationism during World War II.
Managing Mixed-Ideological Parties, 1969–1980
Authors: Heersink Boris 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses the activities of the Democratic and Republican National Committees (DNC and RNC) during the presidencies of Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford, and Jimmy Carter. The chapter shows that as the out-party in this period, the DNC faced major economic difficulties but nonetheless tried to use its limited resources to engage in party-branding activities. The image that the Democratic Party tried to promote in this period was mostly one of unity despite major ideological cleavages within the party. This strategy reached its zenith during the chairmanship of DNC chair Bob Strauss, who avoided policy debates and simply tried to promote conservative and liberal Democrats as being unified. The RNC while under Nixon and Ford promoted these presidents extensively. After the 1976 election, committee chair Bill Brock invested heavily in the party’s publicity division and prioritized outreach to Black voters. Meanwhile, the DNC saw a major decline in its branding role as Carter saw little use in the organization and largely ignored it during his time in office.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the Austrian Constitution
Authors: Wiederin Ewald 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The Austrian Constitution is the oldest constitution of a republic in Europe. It was adopted in 1920 after the lost First World War for the small remnant of the defunct monarchy and replaced already in 1934 by an authoritarian constitution. After the Second World War, however, the democratic constitution of 1920 was granted a second life: it was re-enacted and has since proven its worth as the legal foundation of Austrian statehood. The chapter describes how the constitution came into being, what influences shaped it, and how it has evolved; it traces the peculiarities of democracy, fundamental rights, the federal state, the rule of law, the separation of powers, and constitutional jurisdiction in Austria; it elaborates on what makes Austria’s constitutional identity.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the French Constitution
Authors: Tusseau Guillaume 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
France’s chaotic constitutional history may have ended with the Constitution of 1958. Because of the strong constitutional constructivism that emerged with the Revolution, every constitution was connected to a specific ideology. Political conflict could hardly be internalized, so that great instability resulted (high-energy constitutionalism). Constitutional rigidity only offered a parchment barrier to political movements, while the rejection of constitutional review of legislation contributed to the lack of a popular constitutional culture (low juridicity constitutionalism). As constitutions passed, legicentrism made ordinary statutes addressing the organization of private relations, as well as setting the administrative and judicial structure of the country, the building blocks of the French polity. Whatever kind of separation of powers was established, the principle of political representation dominated the rival principle of direct democracy (delegative constitutionalism). This went hand in hand with the constant proclamation of several generations of fundamental rights (human rights constitutionalism). Although it has borrowed from this heritage, the constitution of the Fifth Republic has transformed it considerably. It has replaced parliamentary sovereignty with a unique combination of semi-presidentialism and semi-direct democracy. The creation of the Constitutional Council led to an unforeseen judicialization of French constitutionalism. As a broad consensus has emerged regarding the Gestalt of the French constitution, one may wonder whether, precisely because it managed to avoid the pitfalls of French history, this text has not killed constitutional debate.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the Italian Constitution
Authors: Ragone Sabrina , D’Amico Giacomo 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter provides a syncretic analysis of the Italian ‘constitutional reality’, starting from the origins of the Constitution, which came into force in 1948. The first part addresses the debate that preceded the drafting of the text, with particular attention to both previous Italian and foreign experiences which inspired the founding fathers. The political consensus reached within the Constituent Assembly is explained as well, alongside the fundamental choices and the key figures of the constituent debate. Then, the evolution of the Italian Constitution is analysed with particular reference to those areas that, more than others, have undergone significant changes (form of government, regional arrangements, and constitutional adjudication). The following section examines the core concepts and structures of the constitutional order, such as the principle of the separation of powers, democracy, and the connected principle of popular sovereignty, rule of law and protection of fundamental rights. Finally, the chapter examines the Italian ‘constitutional identity’ through constitutional case law dealing with the so-called ‘counter-limits’ to European integration.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the Lithuanian Constitution
Authors: Jarukaitis Irmantas 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter addresses the main stages of evolution of the Lithuanian constitutionalism and the basic features of the 1992 Constitution currently in force. First, it describes the Middle Age origins of the Lithuanian Constitutionalism and its development between the two World Wars. Further, it describes the historic context of the re-establishment of Lithuania’s Independence on 11 March 1990 and adoption of the 1992 Constitution. Second, the chapter analyses the central role of the Constitutional Court of the Republic of Lithuania in ensuring the effectiveness of and developing the Constitution, the gradual shift of its approach to the interpretation of the Constitution. It addresses and describes the important horizontal impact of both the ECHR and EU law on the perception and further jurisprudential development of the 1992 Constitution. Third, it deals with the basic principles and structures of the 1992 Constitution. The basic constitutional principles, especially the rule of law and protection of fundamental rights, and their interaction is explained. Further, the constitutional organs of the Republic of Lithuania, their powers and mutual functioning are addressed. Finally, the Chapter deals with the question of constitutional identity. Both EU and national constitutional perspectives are analysed in the light of academic discourse and the jurisprudence of the Constitutional Court.
The Evolution and Gestalt of the Dutch Constitution
Authors: Besselink Leonard F M 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The constitutional system of the Netherlands and its Constitution (Grondwet) are, contrary to most continental European countries, not of the revolutionary type, but are typically evolutionary in character. They can be viewed as the product rather than merely the source of the political order. In combination with the geopolitical place of the Netherlands on the map, and the loss of its major colony (present-day Indonesia), opened up the constitutional system to internationalization and Europeanization in a manner that has made it possible to consider the international and European legal orders to be part of the national constitutional make-up. Its social system strongly characterized as a ‘pillarized’ society with neo-corporatist traits, based on permanent minorities that defined themselves in political and religious denomination until the last quarter of the twentieth century—which prevented viewing the constitutional order in overarching ideological terms—this chapter sketches the main developments of the constitutional order of the Netherlands, as well as its basic structures and concepts.
Ebenezer Howard
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
Ebenezer Howard (1850–1928) is famous worldwide for founding the Garden City movement, and interest in him remains strong. This is the first full-scale biography to be published since the 1980s. It explains the remarkable sequence of events that led from the publication of his ideas to the foundation of Letchworth as the world’s first Garden City, just five years later, and it explores other neglected aspects of Howard’s life, particularly his religious views. Shaped in the world of London Congregationalism, he became a keen seeker after unity and peace. He grafted new religious ideas, particularly from Spiritualism, and later from Theosophy, into his biblically informed, Protestant faith. Prone to spiritual epiphanies, he believed that he had been raised up to preach the ‘gospel of the garden city’ and to tackle the housing crisis by beginning to build the New Jerusalem in the Hertfordshire countryside. Although he sometimes appeared naïve, he was astute, and highly skilled at combining different, and sometimes conflicting, ideas in a way that built consensus and gained support from people across the social and political spectrum. Howard wanted his garden cities to be places of spiritual exploration, and as this book shows, early Letchworth certainly lived up to those expectations.
Laying the Foundations 1876–1889
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter explores Howard’s return to London, years in which he began work as a parliamentary stenographer, married his wife Lizzie, had a family and began his experiments with typewriter modifications. It discusses his deepening interest in Spiritualism, which he first encountered through the influence of Cora Richmond, and how this eventually brought him back from the Freethought positions that had influenced him in America, to a version of Christianity. The final section discusses the impact on Howard of various intellectual and religious influences, including the social gospel, older traditions of radical dissent, science fiction, and his membership of Rectory Road Congregational Church in Stoke Newington.
Howard in Letchworth 1905–1914
Authors: Knight Frances 
Published: June 2023

Abstract
The chapter discusses Howard’s private and public life in the years after he moved to Letchworth. He became increasingly well-known both nationally and internationally, reaching the height of his fame around 1912, but he was sometimes also a somewhat isolated figure, not always able to conceal his radical views. The chapter investigates the design and building of Letchworth in the Arts and Crafts style, and the influence of its principal architects Barry Parker and Raymond Unwin. The difficulties of the town’s early years are also discussed, particularly its inability to harness support from the co-operative movement, and the failure to build sufficient affordable working-class housing, and the critiques of some influential observers, including H.G. Wells. Letchworth’s experiments with cooperative housekeeping are discussed, particularly at Homesgarth, where Howard lived for about a decade. Howard’s internationalism and enthusiasm for learning Esperanto are discussed. The meaning of Letchworth’s annual May Day and Arbor Day festivals is also teased out.