bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
‘Civilized Nations’ and the Colour Line
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
International law was created by European States in part to govern their global activities of colonization, slavery, and the slave trade. Participation in international law making was reserved to ‘civilized nations’. Doctrines of racism and racial discrimination emerged to justify global inequality. In the twentieth century, because the Global South played an increasingly important role within international law, it became concerned with racism and racial discrimination. At the Paris Peace Conference Japan failed to insert a racial equality clause in the Covenant of the League of Nations. Within the United Nations, however, countries of the Global South were more successful. Apartheid in South Africa was the focus of United Nations human rights activity for several decades. The initiatives of the Global South have constituted the beating heart of the human rights movement although narratives of the subject often adopt a Eurocentric analysis and the scholarly community has tended to neglect the importance of racial discrimination.
Early Years of the United Nations
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Peoples of the Global South were terribly underrepresented in the United Nations in its early years but they lost no time in using it as a forum to advance their interests of which racism and racial discrimination were paramount. Although many accounts of the rise of human rights within the United Nations stress the role of European intellectuals, the first important human rights initiatives came from elsewhere, in particular Asian and African States with India very much in the lead. The first session of the General Assembly was marked by three important human rights initiatives dealing with the Indian diaspora in South Africa, genocide, and a general declaration against prejudice and discrimination. The first important human rights petitions at the United Nations came from African American organizations and addressed racial discrimination in the United States but also in African colonies. In 1951, a petition charged the United States with committing genocide against its African American population.
UNESCO
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The preamble of UNESCO’s constitution contains a denunciation of ‘the doctrine of the inequality of men and races’. In the late 1940s, the human rights organs of the United Nations requested that UNESCO undertake a study on race with the idea of undermining pseudo-scientific theories of racial inequality. An expert statement on ‘the race question’ issued by UNESCO in 1950 described race as ‘not so much a biological phenomenon as a social myth’, adding that had been responsible for much harm. The 1950 Statement provoked considerable controversy, mainly from English anthropologists, and in 1951 a second statement was issued clarifying certain formulations. UNESCO returned to the issue in the 1960s with two additional statements. The fourth, issued in 1967, focussed more on racism than on race as such. In 1978, UNESCO crowned the process by the drafting of its Declaration on Race and Race Prejudice which was adopted by the General Conference.
Colonialism and Neo-colonialism at the United Nations
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The United Nations took an immediate interest in monitoring the situation in so-called non-self-governing territories’, that is, essentially the colonial empires of European States. This was in addition to the monitoring of the Trust Territories, which were merely a new version of the League of Nations Mandates. The various reports that emerged, along with the files on petitions from residents in the colonies, provide rich evidence of racial discrimination as well as the resistance to it. The colonial powers regularly made insincere claims that there was no racial discrimination. At the same time, they attempted to justify inequalities in education, medical care, and criminal justice. The activities of the United Nations were concentrated in the 1950s and 1960s, constantly declining with the arrival of new independent States. Over time, the focus centred on the consortium of racist States in southern Africa. South Africa refused to reach an agreement on Trust Territory status for South West Africa, which it sought to annex. The International Court of Justice issued a series of important rulings concerning South West Africa, not all of them positive.
Apartheid
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The South African regime of white supremacy was central to United Nations activity on racial discrimination, and in the area of human rights more generally, for more than four decades. Initially, South Africa and its supporters argued that this was a domestic matter outside the authority of the United Nations. Quickly, such a conservative interpretation of the Charter was rejected. In 1952 the General Assembly authorized a commission of inquiry into the apartheid regime. Over time, United Nations organs adopted a range of measures directed at South Africa. These were promoted by countries of the Global South and, for many years, opposed by those of the North. The developed countries resisted imposition of mandatory sanctions. The Special Committee against Apartheid was at the centre of United Nations activities.
Racial Discrimination as a Crime against Humanity
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Nazi racists were convicted and punished at Nuremberg for the persecution of minorities under the charge of crimes against humanity. The definition was narrow in order to shelter those who created the Tribunal from liability for their own racist acts and policies. In the 1960s, under the impetus of African States, the General Assembly broadened the definition of crimes against humanity in order to encompass racial discrimination committed in peacetime. This progressive development of international criminal law was confirmed in the 1968 treaty on statutory limitation and the 1973 Convention against apartheid, despite opposition from States of the Global North. The 1973 Convention recognized universal jurisdiction and called for establishment of a permanent international criminal court. The Rome Statute, adopted in 1998, confirmed that racial discrimination and apartheid are crimes against humanity. United Nations organs also considered whether apartheid policies could fall within the scope of genocide.
The Colour Line’s Long Twentieth Century
Authors: Schabas William A. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The legacy of the Durban Conference has haunted twenty-first century initiatives dealing with racism and racial discrimination. States of the Global South take their bearings from it, while those of the Global North resist, confirming that the controversies in this area that have marked United Nations activity since 1946 have still not dissipated. One area of great controversy is reparations for historic injustice including slavery, the slave trade, and colonialism. There is a new focus on ‘people of African descent’. The murder of George Floyd by law enforcement personnel in the United States, in May 2020, sparked a global campaign as well as important initiatives within the United Nations, including an explicit condemnation of the president of the United States. Keeping racism and racial discrimination at the heart of the United Nations human rights agenda remains a constant struggle.
The Politics and Everyday Practice of International Humanitarianism
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Through a combination of eleven in-depth case studies of humanitarian emergencies and thematic chapters which cover key concepts, actors, and activities, this book explores the work of the largest international humanitarian agencies. Its central argument is that politics plays a fundamental role in determining humanitarian needs, practices, and outcomes. In making this argument, the book highlights the many challenges and dilemmas facing humanitarian agencies in the contemporary world. It covers significant ground—temporally, geographically, and thematically. The case study chapters range from the late 1960s to the present and include emergencies in Africa, Asia, the Caribbean, and Europe. The thematic chapters are divided into three sections: the first explains key concepts and trends in international humanitarianism; the second discusses how the work of international humanitarian agencies interacts with a range of other actors—including media, celebrities, donors, states, civil society, military forces, and armed groups—who have significant impacts on humanitarian response and outcomes; and the third turns to the operations and activities undertaken by aid agencies on a day-to-day basis.
Nigerian Civil War, 1967–1970
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 examines the international humanitarian response to the Nigerian Civil War, which cost up to two million lives, mainly as a result of famine-induced starvation and disease. In mid-1967, the military governor of Nigeria’s Eastern Region declared independence, naming the breakaway region the Republic of Biafra. The Nigerian government imposed a blockade with the aim of starving the secessionists into submission, and severe famine ensued. Within around a year, it was apparent that the secessionists would not win militarily, but by disseminating images of starving ‘Biafran babies’ and a discourse of genocide, they were able to attract public sympathy around the world, and the war continued until they surrendered in January 1970. Global public sympathy translated into funding for a large-scale humanitarian response, primarily through airlifts which operated without Nigerian consent. Relief agencies working in this context faced enormous challenges in terms of getting access to provide relief within Biafra and dilemmas in terms of whether to provide relief in the absence of permission from the Nigerian government, to take sides in the conflict, and to speak out about what they witnessed. Ultimately, the humanitarian effort had major unintended consequences—it strengthened the secessionists and likely lengthened the war by more than a year, during which time hundreds of thousands of lives were lost.
Nexus Concept
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 16 charts the main ways in which international actors have sought to coordinate or integrate humanitarian, development, and peace-building responses to crises over the past forty years. At the World Humanitarian Summit in 2016, a variety of donors, development, and humanitarian actors committed to reducing needs rather than simply meeting them, to addressing the causes of humanitarian crises rather than only their consequences, through a New Way of Working which, among other things, seeks to transcend the humanitarian–development divide by embracing the so-called triple nexus. The triple nexus is the latest in a line of concepts and initiatives since the 1980s that have sought to better connect humanitarian action, development programming, and peace-building efforts, and this chapter surveys the most prominent of its precursors before exploring the New Way of Working and the triple nexus. For each iteration, the chapter discusses who was driving the agenda, how successful they were in getting other actors involved, what the main lines of contention were, and who resisted its implementation.
Needs Assessment, Evaluation, and Response Decisions
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 21 examines the quality and use of evidence in humanitarian response. Evidence is important in identifying what kinds of interventions work and under what conditions they work. It is also important in assessing the level and types of need in any given humanitarian crisis and the capacity of local and national actors in that context to meet those needs. There are a number of obstacles to quality needs and capacity assessments and to quality evaluations, but there have been improvements in some areas in recent years. Donor decisions about what to fund and operational agency decisions about what programmes to implement should be based on quality evidence about needs and capacities and about what works and under what conditions. However, this chapter argues not only that the evidence is often inadequate but also that decisions tend not to be based on the evidence that is available. Instead, other factors—including organizational inertia, donor political interests, and aid agency marketing interests—play an outsized role in shaping response decisions.
Material Assistance and Direct Service Provision
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 22 focuses on the goods and services international humanitarian agencies provide directly to populations affected by crisis. When a humanitarian emergency leaves people hungry or homeless, mainstream humanitarian response has tended to focus on providing them with food or shelter—in other words, giving them the commodity they are lacking. Sometimes, the work of international humanitarian agencies extends to installing or repairing essential infrastructure, including water points or systems, clinics, and schools. Where people lack basic services, including medical and health-care services, international humanitarian agencies may provide them directly. While the provision of in-kind assistance in particular tends to be seen as benign and apolitical, this chapter shows that this is not the case. It begins with a general discussion of the provision of goods and services provided by international humanitarian agencies before discussing in greater depth the politics of camps and the politics of food aid. The chapter then turns to two significant areas of recent innovation in the delivery of humanitarian assistance: cash transfer programming and the so-called digital revolution. While cash offers advantages over in-kind assistance, many donors and international humanitarian agencies long resisted extensive cash programming, even in the face of compelling evidence as to the relative risks and benefits of cash and other kinds of programming. By contrast, digital technologies have been uncritically embraced by many humanitarian actors, despite the fact that they can increase the political complexity of humanitarian work and often carry significant risks to programming, ‘beneficiaries’, or both.
Unparalleled Challenge
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers the limitations of book censorship in the Dutch Golden Age and the reasons why the efforts to suppress Spinoza’s Ethics and general philosophy failed from the outset. It examines the immediate impact of Spinoza’s works in the Netherlands and internationally and discusses the main contours of the early reception of Spinoza’s ideas in the Netherlands, England, and France. The main cause of the sense of an unparalleled challenge was what were generally regarded as the irreligious implications of Spinoza’s philosophy and broadly considered to be his atheism, anti-Scripturalism, anti-Christianity, and removal of what were thought to be the basic pillars of morality.
Schooldays
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter focuses on the education provided by the Amsterdam Sephardic community during the period Spinoza was at school, the structure and character of the teaching he received, and the differing roles of Hebrew, Spanish, and Portuguese in the synagogue, community school, in his home, and in the community’s cultural life. It also considers the medieval Jewish intellectual influences that can be shown to have fed to a greater or lesser extent into his early background in philosophy, in particular the writings of Maimonides, Gersonides, and Yoseph Shlomo Delmedigo as well as Menasseh ben Israel and Saul Levi Mortera.
Twilight of the “True Freedom”
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter relates Spinoza’s move from Voorburg to the centre of The Hague, and describes cultural conditions in The Hague at the time of his move. It considers too how Spinoza reacted to the growing Calvinist and Orangist challenge to the “True Freedom” of the De Witt regime and the growing threat to Dutch freedom of expression and freedom of the press that it represented. It considers also developments in the Republic more generally including the growing threat from Louis XIV’s France and Spinoza’s evolving view of church authority, ecclesiastical privilege, and the relationship of church and state as expressed in the Tractatus Theologico-Politicus. This chapter focuses too on what Spinoza identified as the key structural weaknesses of the Dutch Republic and the failings resulting form its narrowly oligarchic character.
Entering (or Not Entering) Princely Court Culture (1672–1673)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts the deliberations over the moves to appoint Spinoza to a professorship at Heidelberg, in the Rhenish Palatinate, in 1673, how this fits with the policies of the Elector Karl Ludwig (1617–80) of the Palatinate, why Spinoza was pondering leaving the United Provinces during the French invasion and after the fall of De Witt, and the suggestion that he might move to the territory of Cosimo III, the penultimate Medici Grand Duke of Tuscany (reigned: 1670–1712). It details Spinoza’s connections with the Rhineland and Tuscany and, once again, the role of Steno. It considers why he declined the offer to go to Heidelberg and stayed after all at The Hague
Conclusion
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
From 1670 onwards all Spinoza’s major works were subject not just to prohibition regarding publication and sale, but a general ban on their being used in teaching, openly discussed, recommended or cited positively, or having the core ideas borrowed, cited or tacitly used in other publications. This comprehensive general ban, imposed by Dutch provincial states and city governments, the States General, the French crown, the papacy and all branches of its Inquisition both sides of the Atlantic, German princes, Swiss cantons, and by England’s blasphemy laws and more, in this way became a uniquely universal prohibition. Yet, within a few years, well under a decade, despite substantial obstacles which did much to confine, channel, thin out, and shape Spinoza’s early image and influence, his philosophy, penetrating widely often masked and disguised, became, to the great indignation of conservatives and churchmen of every description, an active force in Europe of uniquely penetrating impact and fundamentally transformative consequence, a major shaping force in the formation of the Early Enlightenment.
Surprise! A Social Meta-Epistemology for Process Reliabilism
Authors: Goldberg Sanford C. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
For proponents of Process Reliabilism (PR), the familiar cases of Truetemp and Norman the Clairvoyant raise a challenge: what, beyond being formed by a reliable process, renders a belief justified? After arguing that none of the leading answers to the problem of idiosyncratic reliability is adequate, this chapter offers an alternative answer in terms of the evolved human capacity for surprise. It appeals to this capacity as part of an etiological version of PR, and argues that embracing this proposal’s answer to the problem of idiosyncratic reliability pushes PR itself in a more thoroughly social direction.
Sensitivity, Discrimination, and Perspective
Authors: Becker Kelly 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The sensitivity condition in epistemology says that S knows that p only if, were p false, S would not believe that p. Sensitivity theorists typically espouse epistemological externalism, according to which not everything that contributes to the positive epistemic status of a belief must be cognitively accessible to the agent. Even so, sensitivity theorists typically hold that a belief’s basis, which largely determines its epistemic status, depends only on facts (involving states, processes, and events) about the individual independently of the external environment. But from a standpoint common to knowledge-first epistemology, naive realism, and epistemological disjunctivism, restricting the individuation of belief bases to facts about the individual seems curiously unmotivated. Responding on behalf of the original sensitivity theorists, this chapter suggests that their basis individualism aims to capture the idea that what one knows depends on one’s perspective—on resources available, or on how things appear from here.
Moderate Knowledge Externalism
Authors: Pritchard Duncan 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
It is argued that the general structure of knowledge is along the lines set out by anti-risk virtue epistemology. Since such a proposal makes no essential demand that one’s cognitive success be significantly supported by reflectively accessible rational support, epistemic externalism about knowledge results. Nonetheless, anti-risk virtue epistemology offers an account of knowledge that is entirely built around a conception of cognitive responsibility. This ensures that it is able to accommodate supposedly internalist intuitions about the relationship between knowledge and cognitive responsibility. Moreover, it is argued that this proposal is entirely consistent with the idea that the knowledge possessed by cognitively developed agents characteristically involves a significant level of reflectively accessible rational support. Indeed, it is claimed that not only does the knowledge possessed by cognitively developed agents enjoy such rational support but also, in line with epistemological disjunctivism, such reflectively accessible rational support will often include factive reasons.
The Safety Conception of Knowledge
Authors: Hawthorne John , Dietz Christina H. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The so-called safety conception of knowledge enjoys considerable popularity, but there are important choice points when it comes to its articulation and deployment. This chapter explores a number of them and also make vivid some important challenges to various versions of the safety approach. Since Williamson’s work on safety has heavily influenced our own thinking, section 1 presents some key facets of his presentation of safety; section 2 presents five important choice points for the safety theorist; section 3 discusses an important issue concerning methodological orientation that turns on the difference between analysis and model-building.
Cleaning Up Renaissance Italy
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
People and goods from across the globe filled the vibrant ports of Genoa and Venice during the Renaissance. This book takes us onto the streets, bridges, and waterways of these significant, sensuous cities to reveal the ambitious schemes undertaken to promote the cleanliness and health of their communities. Along the way, we encounter a broad and fascinating cross-section of Renaissance society—from courtesans to street-food sellers and architects to canal diggers—and, using new archival sources, uncover both the ideals and lived experiences of health and environmental management. An illuminating and original account of social policies, urban design, and environmental management between 1400 and 1600, Cleaning Up Renaissance Italy provides a new, multidisciplinary history of Renaissance Italy.