bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Identity and the Self
Authors: Lebow Richard Ned 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe search for identities and efforts to instantiate and preserve them have always been an important motivation for individual and collective behavior. In the postwar era, the question of identity has become much more prominent in popular as well as academic discourses. Despite some theoretical analogies and overlaps, theories of personal identity are nonetheless distinct from more recent concerns over group identity as this has played out in the politics of identity and recognition. Most westerners do appear to believe that they are unique selves and find fulfillment by discovering and developing their inner selves. Identity and its study have many facets that cut across disciplines and subfields within them.
Imperialism
Authors: Smits Katherine 
Published: August 2023

AbstractImperialism refers to the extension by states of their domination and control beyond their borders, over other societies and peoples. This has primarily been achieved in history by acquiring territory through military force, and forcibly maintaining control over subjugated populations. The term empire comes from the Latinimperium: supreme military and executive power. However imperial control has also been maintained by the inculcation in both ruling and subordinated peoples of beliefs about the legitimacy, justice, and value of that rule. Imperialism is related to, and is sometimes understood to be synonymous with, colonialism. This latter term, however, usually refers more specifically to the practice of establishing colonies or outposts in imperially acquired territories, composed of civilian settlers and military forces. In recent times the terms neo‐imperialism or neocolonialism are used to mean the exertion of political, economic, and cultural influence (“cultural imperialism”) beyond state borders, over other cultures and societies.
Indian Political Thought
Authors: Chakrabarty Bidyut 
Published: August 2023

AbstractEven before nationalism emerged as a decisive ideology in India, there was a long, rich, and diverse tradition of political thought. Broadly speaking, Kautilya, Barani, and Abul Fazal who respectively represent the ancient and medieval periods of Indian sociopolitical life, are recognized as major thinkers who not only expressed their views most systematically but also set the ideological tone for the period in which they articulated their lived experience. This entry focuses on their thinking, as exemplary of the premodern period, before commenting on some of the distinctive aspects of modern Indian political thought.
Indigenous Peoples' Rights
Authors: Ivison Duncan 
Published: August 2023

AbstractIndigenous peoples’ rights are those moral, legal, and political rights claimed by Indigenous peoples. But who counts as an Indigenous people? This is a complex and politically sensitive question. There are two basic approaches to the question of Indigeneity. First, one can link Indigeneity to actual first residency or occupation of a particular territory. Contemporary Indigenous peoples in this case would be descendants of the earliest populations living on that territory. Second, one can tie Indigeneity to those peoples who lived in the territory before settlers arrived and the process of colonization began. This relativizes the definition toprioroccupation rather than first occupation.
Institutionalism
Authors: Schmidt Vivien A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractInstitutionalism encompasses a range of methodological approaches in political science that have at their core an emphasis on institutions, understood as the rules, regularities, structures, and the context more generally which influence political outcomes and shape political conduct. Otherwise, such approaches differ greatly in terms of their definition of institutions, in their objects and logics of explanation, and in the ways in which they deal with change. The institutionalisms considered herein are all “new” institutionalisms, in contrast to the “old” institutionalism that had formed the core of early political science studies of the formal institutions of government. Among the many neo‐institutionalisms that have been identified by scholars, four stand out. Three of these were identified as of the early 1990s and include rational choice institutionalism, historical institutionalism, and sociological institutionalism. The fourth, discursive institutionalism, has only been given a name since the early 2000s, although many of the specific approaches that fit under this rubric developed earlier, as in the “ideational turn.”
International Human Rights
Authors: Rensmann Lars 
Published: August 2023

AbstractHuman rights claims are, by definition, universal in scope. They are rights supposed to be granted by virtue of the recipient's being human, and thus they extend to all of humanity. Insofar as they are grounded in one's “naked” human existence, they are often construed as categorical – that is, unconditional, non‐negotiable, and inalienable. Inherently universalistic human rights claims can be traced back to moral universalism in ancient thought and religious sources.
International Law
Authors: Gould Harry D. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBecause the ancient and classical worlds lacked an understanding of the state (or any other form of polity) as asui generisentity in possession of rights and subject to obligations, a fully developed system comprehensively regulating the behavior of polities was neither possible nor conceivable for them. There were a great number of treaties in the ancient world which addressed a wide range of political and economic issues, but they differed from modern international legal instruments in two important respects: they were viewed as personal pledges by one ruler to another, that perforce did not survive those rulers, and there were no system‐wide rules regulating treaties themselves other than the (unarticulated) principlepacta sunt servandainsisting that agreements are binding upon the parties.
Iqbal, Muhammad (1877–1938)
Authors: Majeed Javed 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Muhammad Iqbal was a pre‐eminent Urdu and Persian poet, a spokesman for Muslim separatism in India, and an advocate for the primacy of transnational Islam over nationalism. He gave the presidential addresses in 1930 and 1932 at the annual sessions of the All‐India Muslim League, the party which spearheaded the movement for Pakistan. He was one of the delegates at the Round Table Conferences of 1930 and 1932 convened by the British government to discuss India's constitutional future. Iqbal's influence is not confined to South Asia alone. In a speech in Tehran on the occasion of the First International Conference on Iqbal, March 10–12, 1986, the then president of Iran, Sayyid Ali Khamenei, argued that the Islamic Republic of Iran embodied Iqbal's ideas. By virtue of his earlier Indian nationalist poems, Iqbal has also been claimed by postindependent India as one of its own poets while in Pakistan today he is seen as one of its founders alongside Muhammad Ali Jinnah. These diverse appropriations of Iqbal point to the complexity of his work and its legacy.
Iron Law of Wages
Authors: Wolf Jeremy 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The iron law of wages is the idea that wages will always tend toward the lowest amount necessary to sustain the workers that is required by a given society. While the phrase “iron law of wages” is usually credited to the German socialist Ferdinand Lassalle, the idea itself may be found much earlier, in the work of David Ricardo and Thomas Malthus. Reference to consistent rules as “iron laws” can be found as early as 1783, in Goethe's “Das Göttliche”.
James, William (1842–1910)
Authors: Ferguson Kennan 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWilliam James was the most important American philosopher at the turn of the twentieth century. His contributions to epistemology, psychology, and political issues affected the course of each of these disciplines throughout the twentieth century and into the contemporary world. Acting both as a public figure and as an academic philosopher, he helped transform Harvard from a small college to a pre‐eminent university of the United States. Both in academia and in his enthusiastic public engagements with political activists, anarchists, mystics, paranormalists, and educators, he explored and transformed relationships between autonomy, science, probability, and truth.
Jaspers, Karl (1883–1969)
Authors: Thornhill Christopher 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Karl Jaspers (1883–1969) was an existentialist philosopher, deeply influenced by Kant, Kierkegaard, and Max Weber, whose philosophy formed a subjectivist counterpart, within the existentialist movement, to the fundamental ontology of Martin Heidegger. His works exercised great influence in a number of theoretical fields in Germany in the middle years of the twentieth century. He began his career as a psychiatrist, and published enduringly influential works in this field: notably his
General Psychopathology
(1913). The major philosophical publication of his philosophical career was the three‐volume work
Philosophy
(1932), which attempted to fuse Kantian and Hegelian ideas to provide an account of the experiential formation of human consciousness. In this work, he analyzed consciousness as proceeding from the level of immediate knowledge and progressing through a sequence of antinomies toward a level of truthfully unified reflection and self‐knowledge. Also of philosophical importance are Jaspers's interventions in religious debate. The central idea in Jaspers's philosophy of religion is the concept of
philosophical faith
, in which he promoted a critical‐recuperative attitude toward religious inquiry and attempted to convert elements of religious doctrine into a (secularist) account of human possibilities and freedoms. The ambition behind his work on religion and myth was to liberate transcendent knowledge from theology, and to permit an interpretive transformation of religiously conceived essences into aspects of human self‐interpretation.
Just War
Authors: Benbaji Yitzhak 
Published: August 2023

AbstractContrary to realists and pacifists, early jurists and contemporary theorists of justice answer the question “Can there be a just war?” positively. H. Grotius, E. de Vattel, F. de Vitoria, and F. Suárez on the one hand, and Michael Walzer and John Rawls on the other, insist that some wars are just while others are unjust. One task of a just war theory is to formulate the conditions which a war should meet in order to be just and to deduce these conditions from true moral principles. Another task is to formulate the moral rules that govern fighting and to relate them to general moral principles.
Kant, Immanuel (1724–1804)
Authors: Ellis Elisabeth 
Published: August 2023

AbstractImmanuel Kant founded modern philosophy, freed morality from religion, laid down principles of human rights recognized everywhere today, and contributed insights that are still important to the fields of physics, astronomy, geoscience, anthropology, and aesthetics. Political theory is considered one of Kant's minor areas of interest; though there is important material for political thought in each of the three greatCritiques, Kant's main political work, theMetaphysics of Morals, is central neither to Kant's oeuvre nor to the canon of political thought. Nevertheless, Kant achieves original insights in his political philosophy and in his philosophy's political implications; both prove vitally important for present‐day students of politics.
Kateb, George (1931–)
Authors: Dienstag Joshua Foa 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
George Kateb is an American political theorist whose great subject is democratic political culture. Born in New York City, he was educated at Columbia University, receiving his PhD in 1960. He was a member of the Society of Fellows at Harvard and then joined the faculty at Amherst College, where he became a full professor. In 1987 he moved to Princeton University, where he taught until his retirement in 2002. He is currently the William Nelson Cromwell Professor, Emeritus, and a member of the American Academy of Arts and Science.
Keynesianism
Authors: Waligorski Conrad P. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Keynesianism developed from John Maynard Keynes's (England, 1883–1946) analysis and theory. Keynes stressed macroeconomics and the impact and interrelation of economics with social and political reality. He developed the first, credible liberal‐based, economic theory to address instability and unemployment he considered endemic to capitalism, justifying a permanent government role in the economy. Keynes's theories and proposals evolved in the depressed conditions of 1920s Britain, the Great Depression, and international economic dislocation, seeking to explain economic failure and provide workable policies to ameliorate it. “Keynesianism” is not identical to Keynes's theories and policies: many Keynesians embrace classical economics and elide his emphasis on uncertainty, instability, and political, social, and moral concerns; there are several versions of “Keynesianism.”
Ibn Khaldun (1332–1406)
Authors: Swiney Chrystie 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

‘Abd al‐Rahman Ibn Khaldun (generally known as “Ibn Khaldun,” or son of Khaldun), born in North Africa in the fourteenth century, is renowned for being one of the leading political theorists and historians produced by Islam. His masterpiece,
Muqaddimah
(
Introduction
), which contains a theory of universal history that is still respected today, is thought to be the first work of historiography and a precursor to the modern disciplines of anthropology, sociology, economics, and political science. As a historian, scholar, lawyer, theologian, mathematician, military strategist, philosopher, and social scientist, Ibn Khaldun had a deep and enduring influence on the development of Islamic political ideology, and indeed on the development of historical and political thought more generally.
Kirchheimer, Otto (1905–65)
Authors: Mapes‐Martins Brad 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Otto Kirchheimer, born November 11, 1905 in Heilbronn, Germany, was a Jewish scholar of law and politics affiliated with the Institute for Social Research (ISR) during his emigration to the United States. Kirchheimer concluded his studies in 1928 with a dissertation conducted under the supervision of Carl Schmitt and later published in abbreviated form as “The Socialist and Bolshevik Theory of the State.” Until 1930, Kirchheimer published a series of articles in the Social Democratic Party's (SPD) journal synthesizing a Marxism informed by Schmitt's influential conception of “the political” and culminating in his criticism in “Weimar – and What Then?” of the Weimar constitution as susceptible to irreparable change that would codify bourgeois rule. His radical critique of Weimar waned after 1930, at which time he began challenging the views of Schmitt, claiming that legal norms may provide the equality requisite for democracy of which he had previously expressed suspicion.
Koselleck, Reinhart (1923–2006)
Authors: Ingram James D. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractReinhart Koselleck was a German intellectual historian. He studied with Karl Löwith, Hans‐Georg Gadamer, and Carl Schmitt, and then taught at the University of Bielefeld from 1968 to 1988. He made major contributions to the history of political ideas, the study of the Enlightenment, and our understanding of the modern experience of time.
Kymlicka, Will (1962–)
Authors: Jones Charles W. B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Will Kymlicka is a Canadian political philosopher and foremost proponent of liberal multiculturalism. Kymlicka's first book,
Liberalism, Community, and Culture
(Kymlicka 1989), carries out two principal tasks. First, against communitarian criticisms that liberals present a false conception of the person, or that liberalism's “atomism” renders it incapable of sustaining freedom‐promoting institutions, Kymlicka argues that liberals defend an attractive picture of individuals reasoning and acting within a shared social context. Second, addressing a missing element in the work of late twentieth‐century liberals like John Rawls and Ronald Dworkin, he claims to show that principles of liberal equality require rights for members of cultural minorities. Cultural membership is a specific kind of good, linked to individual freedom and therefore possessing significance within liberal theory.
Labor
Authors: Shippen Nichole M. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBeginning with the most general of definitions, labor refers to the physical, mental, and emotional effort geared toward the preservation of self and others through the production and reproduction of material necessity required for sustaining human life. Although labor derives its meaning from the specific historical context in which it is situated, labor is not always properly recognized as a historical concept within political theory. As a result, the concept of labor is often distorted through the lens of modernity and the use of economic concepts that did not exist in premodern times. Labor is shaped by the historical relationship between the production and the consumption of goods and services organized through the division of labor as situated within a given political‐economic context – be it a Greek city‐state, feudalism, or capitalism.
Labor Theory of Value
Authors: Hudis Peter 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The labor theory of value holds that the value of a commodity depends on the amount of labor needed to produce it. In contrast to neoclassical subjectivist theories of value, it identifies the objective and
intrinsic
value of a commodity, independent of contingent phenomena such as supply and demand or consumer preference. It has been adopted by a wide variety of thinkers, ranging from classical political economists who supported capitalism to socialists, communists, and anarchists who have opposed capitalism.
Laïcité
Authors: Hamati‐Ataya Inanna 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Laïcité
refers to the separation between the religious and political spheres. It is so intimately tied to the political history of France that the English term
secularism
does not fully convey its meaning. Indeed,
laïcité
results from a long, irregular process of secularization of the French political system that starts with the birth of the Republic (1789) as the expression of the sovereign “will” of the people, and the guarantor of its “general interest.” The republican ideal is at the origin of French
laïcité
, a form of secularism that denies religion any status in public affairs, and imposes the
neutrality
of the state toward religious institutions, doctrines, and practices, which guarantees all citizens’
freedom of conscience
. The word
laïcité
(from the Latin
laicus
and the Greek
laos
, meaning the layman) itself officially appears in the 1870 s under the Third Republic, which launched the two important processes leading to the
laïcisation
of France: the secularization of the public school, and the separation between the church and the state.
Latour, Bruno (1947–)
Authors: Brown Mark B. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBruno Latour is a philosopher, sociologist, and anthropologist who first rose to prominence in science and technology studies. He has since become widely influential across the humanities and social sciences, and his work offers a unique perspective on key questions of political theory. From 1982 to 2006 he taught at the Centre de Sociologie de l'Innovation of the École nationale supérieure des mines in Paris. In 2007 he became Professor and Vice President for Research at the Institut d’Études politiques de Paris (Sciences Po). A prolific author and engaging public speaker, Latour's brilliant analyses, playful rhetoric, and penchant for inventive diagrams and neologisms have provoked many stimulating controversies.
Law
Authors: West Robin L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In spite of strong countervailing forces, legal positivism has unquestionably been the dominant form of jurisprudence in Britain in the last centuries and an important force in the United States at various periods – including in the past couple of decades, during which a form of analytical legal positivism has also gained in strength. Aside from its checkered history, the clarity of its conception of the relation of law and politics makes legal positivism the best logical starting point for a survey of Anglo‐American theoretical perspectives on the relation of law to politics and on the relation between legal and political theory.
Legitimacy
Authors: Bagg Samuel , Knight Jack 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In its most general form, the question of political legitimacy is a question about why anyone is allowed to tell anyone else what to do. When is it right – or “legitimate” – for one person or social body to rule over another? This is a question that some have deemed the most fundamental in all of political philosophy. If I am an individual with rights over my life, liberty, and property, then why am I subject to the coercive authority of a powerful state? Why should I obey my government rather than rising up in revolt? Are there reasons for obeying the law other than those grounded in a self‐interested desire to avoid punishment? The term “legitimacy” has many meanings and uses, political and nonpolitical. This entry canvasses some of this diversity among the political uses of the term, and asks: How did the discourse of legitimacy arise? What have been its stakes? How should we define it? And how does the use to which it is put affect this process of definition? The entry emphasizes that these questions cannot be answered in isolation from one another, and that there are no “right” answers to questions about the definition of terms. However, analysis of the diversity of definitions is both politically and philosophically productive.
Legitimation
Authors: Modak‐Truran Mark C. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractQuestions of political and legal legitimation have been considerably complicated by the multitude of academic disciplines engaging these questions, by the very different understandings of the process of legitimation and the relevant criteria for measuring legitimacy, by fundamental disagreements about the nature of rationality, existence, and knowledge, and by claims that legitimation is nothing more than a form of ideology masking and perpetuating illegitimate hierarchies based on class, gender, and race. To avoid privileging the parochial assumptions of one of these approaches, three conceptions of legitimation – premodern, modern, and postsecular – are articulated in this entry to capture the depth and breadth of disagreement. Premodern conceptions of legitimation consider governments and rulers legitimate if they are ordained by God or if the political system is ordered in accordance with the normative cosmic order. By contrast, the prevailing modern conception of legitimation in constitutional democracies stems from the “consent of the governed,” which includes two principles of legitimation – the principle of democracy (or popular sovereignty) and the principle of constitutionalism (or the rule of law). Despite the predominance of the modern conception, the dramatic return of religion to public life and the surprising rise of political theology are two prominent developments supporting a shift to a postsecular conception of legitimation, which would transform the prevailing understanding of the principles of democracy and constitutionalism. Nevertheless, the competition among these conceptions continues within and across national boundaries for the coveted prize of informing the social imaginary.
LGBT (Lesbian, Gay, Bisexual, and Transgender) Politics
Authors: Schotten C. Heike 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

LGBT
is an acronym for “lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender”;
LGBT Politics
refers to the issues, practices, policies, goals, strategies, and tactics deemed relevant, useful, or important to LGBT people within a broader, often non‐LGBT, social and political context.