bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
The Ergonomics of Stone Tool Use and Production
Authors: Key Alastair , Lycett Stephen J. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The field of ergonomics studies how the human body interacts with its physical environment. Often there is a focus on hand-held tools. In the case of hominin artifacts, factors relating to ergonomics may influence their design and form, ultimately increasing effectiveness, safety, and ease of use. Although often alluded to in the literature, it is only recently that research has begun to investigate explicitly how ergonomic factors may have influenced the behavior of early humans and, in turn, the pattern of the Palaeolithic archaeological record. This chapter reviews the current understanding of how hominins (or more precisely, their anatomy) interacted with stone tools of different sizes, shapes, and types. Stone tool use and production are considered separately, because although both interact with the hominin upper limb, they invoke distinct durational and magnitudinal demands. It is demonstrated that different muscular and skeletal stresses likely influenced the design of stone tool artifacts throughout the Palaeolithic. Equally, the shape and size of stone tools can impact how the hand, and upper limb more widely, are recruited during use, and how this may have placed evolutionary demands on hominin anatomy. Accordingly, the final section of this chapter considers how over the long-term course of human evolution, lithic technology potentially interacted with both cultural evolutionary forces and biological evolutionary forces. Ultimately, the inception of stone tool technology may have played a particular role in the eventual pathway of human evolution through gene–culture co-evolution. Ergonomic issues are revealed to have likely influenced both hominin anatomy and patterns of stone tool technology through the Palaeolithic.
The Role of the “Social Investment” Concept for the Development of Family Policy
Authors: Saraceno Chiara 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The chapter has its main focus on the ways in which the welfare states have used the social investment concept to reframe the family and gender arrangements that are supported and expected by family policies, and of the role of family policies within the social policies package. The analytical framework of the paper relates to the approach of Béland (2009), according to which ideas are an important component in the identification and construction of social problems that enter the policy agenda. The author concludes from the analysis that the diversity of functions and policy instruments envisaged by the social investment approach offers policy advocacy and policymakers the possibility to adapt selectively the social investment discourse. The chapter also argues that the possible tensions between the expectations concerning good mothering and those concerning the “adult worker” model are likely to be strengthened.
Cohabitation through the Life Course
Authors: Thomson Elizabeth 
Published: February 2023

AbstractSince the middle of the 20th century, nonmarital cohabitation has steadily increased in many, if not most, affluent countries. This chapter traces temporal shifts and cross-national variation in cohabitation throughout the life course. It is divided into four sections: first unions (cohabitation or marriage and the transformation of cohabiting unions into marriage); the union context of first births, including mid-pregnancy cohabitation and marriage; union dissolution, including separation from cohabitation and divorce, both prior to and after a first child’s birth; and links between cohabitation and repartnering, including repeat cohabitation and the formation of stepfamilies, both during the childbearing years and in late life. The chapter focuses on cohabitation in Europe and Anglo-Saxon countries, but notes alternative forms of cohabitation and emerging trends in other societal contexts.
The Comparative Stability of Cohabitation versus Marriage
Authors: DeRose Laurie 
Published: February 2023

AbstractThis chapter examines the relative stability of cohabitation and marriage for both adults and children, using the 2017 World Family Map report and other research. Although cohabitations are, on average, less stable than marriages, the author highlights that a select subset of cohabitations are just as stable as marriages in some contexts. However, only a small share of cohabiting adults—and an even smaller share of children—experience the personal and societal conditions under which cohabitation has marriage-like stability. There is much variation between countries in the amount of family instability people experience, but few exceptions to the generalization that children born to marital unions have the best chance of stability across cultures, legal systems, welfare regimes, and levels of cohabitation.
Childcare by Fathers in the Context of Active Father-Oriented Policies
Authors: Eydal Guðný Björk , Rostgaard Tine 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Around the world there is increasing interest in men’s contribution to parenting and caregiving, both as a way to address the lack of equitable distribution in unpaid care work and in recognition of caregiving as a natural part of men’s lives. Men as fathers have been the focus in the last decades of much academic research and of new policy initiatives, including reforms of the parental leave systems which favor a more gender-equal division of leave. This chapter investigates how the development of leaves for fathers supports the involvement of fathers in childcare. The chapter first discusses the political and cultural factors that have contributed to the increasing interest in active fatherhood, before showing how the Nordic region has been the pioneer in introducing parental leave and the father’s quota. Outcomes of fathers’ leave rights are presented on the basis of two outcome indicators: fathers’ time use and their take-up of parental leave. The authors apply data from the OECD Family Database, supplemented with data from the International Network on Leave Policy and Research. The findings show that mothers still provide the lion’s share of parental care, but there are clear signs that fathers are carving out a larger space for caring for their children. The authors argue that the individual right to parental leave, a reasonable compensation level for the leave benefits, and, in particular, the father’s quota are all effective policy instruments that contribute to active fatherhood.
Changing Families in Europe
Authors: Naldini Manuela 
Published: February 2023

AbstractTracing the transformations in European family life from historical and comparative perspectives, Manuela Naldini distinguishes the patterns of change among five groups of countries: Scandinavian, English-speaking, Continental Europe, Mediterranean, and Central-Eastern Europe. These clusters represent not only different geographical regions, but alternative gender and welfare regimes as well. Naldini’s analysis of the trends and patterns from the 1960s to the present illustrates the lines of convergence and divergence among these regions in the changing dimensions of family life. These dimensions include rates of marriage, cohabitation, divorce and out-of-wedlock births, increasing labor force participation of women, norms governing sexual relations, “new family” forms, and revised timing of basic stages (marriage, childbirth, leaving home) in the family life cycle. She finds a number of common patterns among the countries, such as low fertility rates, increasing pluralization of family life, and later transitions from the parental home. At the same time, much diversity remains in family arrangements, such as the introduction of marriage equality.
Family Policies in Long-Term Perspective
Authors: Bahle Thomas 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Surveying the historical development of family policies from a cross-national perspective, Thomas Bahle distinguishes three main stages during which various measures emerged in response to family-related problems that arose in the process of modernization. Initially the main instrument of family policies involved family allowances supported by nationalist, pro-natalist movements. The second stage emerged as women entered the industrial labor force in large numbers. Measures such as childcare and family leave aimed to harmonize work and family life, as the dual-earner family model replaced the male breadwinner model. Bahle sees the third stage developing in response to the pluralization of family life and the changing patterns of the individual life course, which includes the timing of marriage, education, childbearing, and retirement. He suggests that as the third stage evolves, family policies will focus more on individuals in families than on specific types of families.
How to Deal with Values in Political Science?
Authors: Van Bouwel Jeroen 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, I review different ways of dealing with values in science that philosophers have developed. I also examine how these play out in practice in contemporary political science debates. In particular, I scrutinize transparency (analyzing the Data Access and Research Transparency [DA-RT] debate in political science), representativeness (using research on central banking as an example), and citizen engagement (considered in International Political Economy) as three conditions to make the influence of values in science justifiable. Doing so, I defend strategies of dealing with values that go beyond the individual researcher, rather focusing on the role social-epistemic processes play in improving our collective epistemic practices and outputs. Hopefully, this chapter will engage political scientists to reflect on their strategies of dealing with value influences in science as well as help philosophers further developing these strategies—which would benefit from more social and political analysis.
Rational Choice Explanations in Political Science
Authors: Herfeld Catherine , Marx Johannes 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In this chapter, it is described and assessed how political scientists use rational choice theories to offer causal explanations. We observe that the ways in which rational choice theories are considered to be successful in political science differs, depending on the explanandum in question. Political scientists use empirical variants of rational choice theories to explain the political behavior of individual agents and analytical variants to explain the behavior of collective actors. Both variants are used for distinct explananda, which ask for different modes of explanation that raise in turn different explanatory demands toward rational choice theories. We argue that when political scientists discuss the explanatory usefulness of rational choice theories, they should assess them in light of the demands they are supposed to meet. This would enable a more nuanced and problem-oriented appraisal of rational choice theories in political science.
Nineteen Kinds of Theories about Mechanisms that Every Social Science Graduate Student Should Know
Authors: Bennett Andrew , Mishkin Benjamin 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This article builds upon discussions among philosophers of science, methodologists, and practicing social scientists on explanation via causal mechanisms by asking a pragmatic question: What theories about mechanisms do social scientists and social actors find most useful? We focus on what Robert Merton called “theories of the middle range,” in contrast to both grand theoretical schools of thought and fine-grained theories on processes like brain chemistry. This includes a review of several key theories on within-agent mechanisms prominent in social science research: rational choice; cognitive heuristics and biases; information processing/cognitive styles; aging/life cycle effects; personality types; the role of emotions; and substantive beliefs. It then outlines a taxonomy of middle-range theories about social mechanisms that serves as a useful checklist to help researchers and social actors ensure that they do not leave out viable alternative explanations of the phenomena they are studying or trying to influence. The taxonomy includes within-agent, agent-agent, agent- structure, structure-agent, and structure-structure theories on ideas/identities, material power, and institutions.
Conceptualizing and Measuring Democracy
Authors: Crasnow Sharon 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Abstract: Research on democracy frequently depends on indices that can be understood as representing measures of democracy. Because democracy is an abstract, contested, and value-laden concept, as are many concepts in the social sciences, any project that seeks to provide its measure must face a number of challenges. This chapter explores the extent to which the Varieties of Democracy Project (V-Dem) is able to meet those challenges through the use of several key conceptual tools from the research on measurement in philosophy of science.
Hormonal Mechanisms of In-Pair Mating and Maintenance
Authors: Denes Amanda , Crowley John P. , Dhillon Anuraj 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The present chapter provides a review of research addressing the hormonal mechanisms of in-pair mating and maintenance. Using the integrative model of relationship maintenance as a guiding framework, the chapter explores relational maintenance processes at the interactive or relational level and their hormonal correlates. Specifically, the chapter explores interactive maintenance strategies aimed at mitigating relationship threat, which include conflict management, forgiveness, sacrifice, facilitation, and dyadic coping; and those aimed at relationship enhancement, which include communication, relationship talk, social support/responsiveness, humor, and joint leisure activities. Each of these strategies is then linked to research on three hormones of interest when exploring social relationships: testosterone, oxytocin, and cortisol. The chapter concludes with a summary of research on these three hormones and relationship maintenance, as well as by providing future directions for researchers interested in exploring the hormonal mechanisms of in-pair mating and maintenance.
Intimate Partner Violence and Relationship Maintenance
Authors: Gallup Gordon G. , Burch Rebecca L. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
In a recent study of spouse abuse in the context of human reproductive competition, Burch and Gallup found that male sexual jealousy accounted for far more variance in different parameters of spouse abuse than the use of alcohol, drugs, or lack of financial resources combined. Coupled with these findings, our model of intimate partner violence centers around four evolved, sequentially dependent strategies that men use to increase the likelihood of paternity and investing in children that are genetically their own. These strategies include preventing partner insemination by rival males, counter insemination tactics such as sperm competition and semen displacement, pregnancy termination strategies, and differential investment in children as a function of phenotypic evidence for shared genes. By focusing on variation in paternal resemblance which includes differences in the degree to which fathers and children look, act, or think alike, we provide novel research predictions and specific recommendations for steps that can be taken to minimize family violence and promote paternal investment.
Parenting and Relationship Maintenance
Authors: Westrupp Elizabeth M. , Marshall Emma M. , Bennett Clair , Benstead Michelle , King Gabriella , Karantzas Gery C. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The transition to parenthood represents one of the greatest potential stressors that the romantic couple relationship will experience. This chapter examines the role of individual vulnerability factors, environmental stressors, individual psychological responses, and couple relationship functioning in negatively impacting the maintenance and quality of the couple bond within the context of parenthood. We propose and then structure a summary of the current research evidence around a conceptual model of relationship maintenance that integrates an evolutionary psychology perspective—namely, attachment theory—to complement other relationship science and developmental perspectives. We show that individual differences in adult attachment are associated with relationship functioning (i.e., levels of support and conflict between partners), which, in turn, predict relationship outcomes related to the maintenance of romantic relationships (i.e., couple relationship quality and dissolution), and that the environmental stressors in and around parenthood can exacerbate these associations. Specifically, we highlight research showing that attachment insecurity (i.e., higher levels of attachment anxiety and avoidance) is associated with poorer relationship functioning and outcomes.
Cultural Variation in Relationship Maintenance
Authors: Adair Lora , Ferenczi Nelli 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Romantic love appears to be a part of the shared human experience—with nearly all studied cultures evidencing intimate and romantic pair-bonding. This work focuses on a growing area of research on romantic relationship maintenance, employing an evolutionary perspective and positioning the maintenance and longevity of romantic relationships as important for survival and reproduction throughout human history. This chapter explores which evolved psychological mechanisms help to preserve our relationships, how individuals from various cultures maintain relationship satisfaction and longevity, and how local environments interact with our evolved psychologies to produce unique relationship maintenance behaviors and cognitions. We use sociocultural and socioecological perspectives contextualize research findings on relationship maintenance behaviors and cognitions across cultures—investigating the relationships among ecology, culture, and romantic relationship behaviors and outcomes. Specifically, we use factors like historical subsistence type and residential mobility to explain sources of cultural variability in relationship maintenance mechanisms. For example, historical rice subsistence creates ecological demands for coordinated and collaborative efforts among social group members, which in turn favor the development of specific cultural practices and norms, such as the interdependent self. In these contexts, families become sources of romantic advice, and familial approval is situated as an essential criterion for relationship persistence. We acknowledge the dynamic relationship between ecologies, cultures, and romantic relationships as we review contemporary literature about motivational processes. We discuss future research directions with an emphasis on critically evaluating the Euro-American, heteronormative, and patriarchal biases present in relationship research and theory.
Affective Reactions to Divorce or Spousal Death
Authors: Brodbeck Jeannette , Znoj Hans Joerg 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores similarities and differences in emotional reactions, physical and mental health consequences, and coping after the breakup of a long-term romantic relationship and spousal death. We employ an attachment perspective and argue that the core of both events is the activation of the attachment system and a separation reaction that result in similar affective reactions including grief, anger, and anxiety. Even though the most frequent long-term adaptation to partner loss is resilience, both events increase the risk for mental and physical health problems and higher mortality. Separation/divorce and spousal death require an attachment reorganization and share adaptation tasks such as creating a new life and identity without the partner and transforming the bond with the lost person. Furthermore, the established dual process model of coping with bereavement is applicable for both events. This is supported by the results of an online self-help program for prolonged grief that indicate that separated and widowed individuals benefit from the same interventions. Despite these similarities, theory and research related to separation/divorce and spousal death have traditionally been separate. We argue that it is fruitful to integrate these research traditions into a broader conceptual framework of separation and loss. Future research should empirically test similarities and differences in affective reactions, challenges, and coping strategies and identify optimal ways of intervention and prevention. For this purpose, we discuss how social media or virtual reality offer new opportunities for coping but also how they may prolong the process of adaptation.
Affective Self-Regulation After Relationship Dissolution
Authors: LeFebvre Leah E. , Rasner Ryan D. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Breakups are among the most distressing occurrences in life. The affective responses to and recovery from relationship dissolution are multifaceted. Scholarship investigating relationship dissolution and the ensuing processes that follow has come a long way in facilitating a more holistic understanding of affect. These findings have driven empirical and theoretical research exploring important intersections around distress and adjustment, while illuminating the need to replicate and expand findings to more diverse populations. This chapter highlights common variables and questions in empirical relationship dissolution research including dissolution strategies (unilateral and bilateral), breakup roles (initiator and noninitiator), sex differences (reasons and roles), time (relationship length and adjustment), age (life span), and relationship redefinition (continuance or termination). These moderating variables have been studied to understand affective responses to relationship dissolution, yet they fail to fully delineate the complex structures that individuals and couples encounter. This chapter concludes by outlining and discussing gaps in prior scholarship and providing evolutionary extensions for relationship dissolution related to contemporary dating practices. The emergent lexicon of the dissolution process extends conventional metrics stability regarding development, intimacy, and commitment of interpersonal relationships. We discuss future areas for applying an evolutionary psychological perspective and offer a unifying narrative around distress, adjustment, and the moderating variables that call attention to the complex process of romantic relationship dissolution.
Relationship Initiation Among Older Adults
Authors: Koren Chaya , Ayalon Liat 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Relationships are desired at any age including later in life among older adults. This chapter provides a broad overview of relationship initiation (i.e., entering a new relationship) in the second half of life among older persons. The chapter reviews sociocultural and inter/intrapersonal factors that shape relationship initiation among older adults, including the influence of individualistic/collectivistic cultural values, the presence of children and grandchildren, the living arrangement, and the health conditions of the partners. We frame our discussion using a psychosocial ecological framework and several contemporary theories of aging, including successful aging theory and socioemotional selectivity. We conclude the chapter with suggestions for future research, which take into account the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender communities and explore the experiences of different older age groups (65–74; 75–84; and 85+). Moreover, although the use of technology for dating purposes among older adults has been studied extensively, what is still missing is information about the use of technology across different cultures and for purposes other than dating, such as sexual pleasure.