bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Deliberative Democracy
Authors: Michelbach Philip A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe deliberative ideal is now a central topic in democratic theory. Theories of deliberative democracy are a critical response to liberal democratic thought, and in particular to the liberal theories of democracy that dominated American political science in the mid‐twentieth century. As a research project, the “deliberative turn” is relatively recent, emerging as a coherent strand of theory over the last three decades. Despite its relative novelty, at this point deliberative theory is now a relatively mature field, and has moved far beyond an early theoretical stage and into many areas of democratic practice. Theorists of deliberative democracy attempt to elaborate definitions of democracy that are simultaneously normatively ideal and practical. They seek to provide a definition of democracy that supplants what it sees as the thin, liberal, and “aggregative” model of democracy with one based in participation, rational deliberation, and a politics centered on a strong conception of the public good. Deliberative theorists also aim to make practical contributions, by discovering and fostering deliberative opportunities within existing institutions.
Democratization
Authors: Mostov Julie 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Democratization refers to the process of developing democratic institutions and practices and the sustainability of these institutions. Theories of democratization have focused on causes, necessary and sufficient conditions, the fragility of democratic processes, mechanisms for promoting successful consolidation of democracy, and strategies for avoiding reversal or stagnation of democratic reform. Significant debates involve differences in core definitions of democracy; emphasis on economic development or on elite interactions; the impact of international (transnational) norms and interventions; the role of popular participation and civil society; exclusions based on gender, race, and ethnicity; universal criteria or regional differences; and historical patterns and preconditions. Recently, theorists have begun to use the notion of de‐democratization to note significant retrenchment in conditions that support equal citizenship, accountability in government, and civil and political liberties associated with democracy.
Demos
Authors: Saxonhouse Arlene W. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The Greek word
dêmos
, semantically tied to the word “democracy,” is generally translated as “people,” with democratic regimes commonly understood as those that grant political power or sovereignty (
kratos
) to the “people” rather than to those who claim superior status based on wealth, heritage, or distinctive virtues. In ancient Athenian democracy of the fifth and fourth centuries
bce
,
dêmos
played a double role. On one hand, it referred to the people as a whole, the sovereign power that assembled in order to make laws and policy decisions for the city. On the other, it referred pejoratively to the mass of people, the many (
hoi polloi
), who lacked the intellectual sophistication of the elite, or to the poor as opposed to the “well‐born” or wealthy citizens.
Dhimmi
Authors: Kopel David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDhimmiis the Arabic word for certain religious groups who, under Sharia law, are granted limited toleration if they accept inferior status. While primarily used for Jews, Christians, and Zoroastrians, dhimmi status was also accorded to conquered Hindus in India and to Buddhists in Uzbekistan and Kazakhstan. Since Islamic political theory is often contract theory, the dhimmi were seen as implicitly accepting a contract (aqd al‐dhimma), by which they receiveddhimma(“protection”) in exchange for submission to Muslim supremacy.
Dialogue
Authors: Kögler Hans‐Herbert 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDialogue plays an increasingly central role in modern and postmodern political thought. It holds a rich promise to articulate the value‐core of a participatory democracy via a basic principle that ties together an intersubjective understanding of truth and normativity with a practical conception of political decision‐making and public deliberation. Dialogue is thus both an empirical and normative mode of intersubjective exchange that entails a postmetaphysical grounding for democratic politics. It implies that agents commit themselves, via their own collectively realized capacity to yield rationally acceptable norms, to a political order of their own making without metaphysical or transcendental foundations.
Digital Democracy
Authors: Halbert Debora 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDigital democracy describes the use of computer technology to empower citizens and make government more accessible and transparent. Information and computer technology (ICT) is generally viewed as enhancing democracy, but scholars also express skepticism about its potential. Others critique digital democracy, raising concerns about its promise and the focus on the existence of a digital divide. Digital democracy describes a range of possible relationships between technology and politics from reform of existing political structures to revolution against them. Three of these relationships will be described in this entry.
Dignity, Human
Authors: Zuckert Michael 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Since World War II the idea of human dignity has been a prominent feature of political thought, and to a degree of political practice. The language of human dignity indelibly entered the world of practical politics in 1945 in the United Nations Charter, a document inspired by revulsion against the many affronts to humanity and human dignity experienced during and prior to that war: “We the people of the United Nations determined … to reaffirm faith in fundamental human rights, in the dignity and worth of the human person.” A link between human dignity and human rights and of both to justice, or, rather, the claim that human dignity and rights are the basis of justice, was explicitly made three years later in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights: “whereas recognition of the inherent dignity and of the equal and inalienable rights of all members of the human family is the foundation of freedom, justice and peace in the world …”
Environmentalism
Authors: Lane Joseph H. , Davis Edward 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Environmentalism is a broad term used to describe a wide range of philosophical stands, political commitments, and social movements. Although there is considerable diversity among the various streams of environmentalism, they are all characterized by a commitment to preserving the systems, species, and specializations of the “natural” world from human damage and even destruction. Environmentalism may be conceived as having two distinct but theoretically compatible roots. The first root may be found in the romantic reaction to the Enlightenment and Industrial Revolution. The second is grounded in ecology and its central tenet: the biosphere is an interdependent set of systems within which disturbances in one part of a system have unintended and generally adverse consequences throughout the system.
Eschatology
Authors: Hutchings Kimberly 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Eschatology is literally the study of last things. Within the Hebraic and Christian traditions it is that part of theology that is concerned with questions of death, judgment, and the final destiny of the soul of humankind, that is, heaven and hell. Both Judaism and Christianity are eschatological religions in the sense that they posit a messianic moment in which the world as we know it ends. Eschatology concerns both the apocalyptic (judgment and accounting) and the millenarian (the nature of the new kingdom of God) aspects of the end. Christianity, because of its identification of Christ with the Messiah prophesied in Judaic scriptures has, from the beginning, been particularly preoccupied with the meaning of the end of the world. Christianity contextualizes human history as part of a much bigger, divine story, which does not end happily for all. In the Book of Revelation, John of Patmos sets out this end in a series of apocalyptic visions that prophesy great suffering and violence presaging the ultimate coming of the kingdom of God.
Euben, J. Peter (1939–)
Authors: Brendese P. J. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
J. Peter Euben is Research Professor Emeritus of Political Science and Kenan Distinguished Faculty Fellow in Ethics at Duke University. Euben's scholarship and teaching span ancient, modern, and contemporary political theory, literature and politics, the politics of morality, and political education. Widely credited for the renewed interest in the relevance of ancient Greek drama for contemporary democratic thought and practice, Euben situates classical political theory in conversation with some of the most pressing cultural, ethical, and political questions of the present day.
European Socialism
Authors: Beyeler Michelle 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
European socialism broadly refers to socialist thinking and socialist political movements on the European Continent. In a narrower sense the term “European” in connection with socialism stands for more than a geographical area, implying the existence of a specific European model or a specific European type of socialism. Although no commonly acknowledged definition of this specific European model exists, in contemporary political debates the term often refers to the kind of mixed economy model with universal social rights promoted by social democratic parties.
Evil
Authors: Alford C. Fred 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFor many, evil is a useful concept in making sense of some of the terrible people and events in the world. Others find the concept of evil polarizing – dividing people and the world into two and rendering some people, groups, and nations so bad that they cannot be dealt with in a human way but must be destroyed. Such a concept of evil, some believe, is dangerous, and best not invoked. This suspicion of evil deserves to be taken seriously.
Expropriation
Authors: Heins Volker M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Expropriation is the taking of property or the coercive elimination of property rights held by private persons or businesses. The concept plays an important role in liberal as well as in Marxist political thought. Both the justice and the prudence of acts or processes of expropriation have been debated since the rise of modern capitalism, and continue to be controversial to this day.
Fairness
Authors: van Roermund Bert 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The meaning of “fairness” is distributed over various concepts in languages other than English, in particular equivalents of justice, equity, and honesty. Within English, it requires careful semantic priming to determine the nuances that distinguish “fair” from these and other related concepts. “fair” and “unfair” are used in contexts that amount to trade‐offs in welfare taking place between agents in a certain community, with others in that community holding certain beliefs about the limits these agents should respect regarding the costs they may cause for others in pursuing their own interests. This confirms a thesis, to the effect that, generally, “mutuality of restrictions” is the moral basis of any justifiable appeal to the principle of fairness, whether such an appeal is backed up by distributive or by commutative reasoning. Some theorists argue that detecting and respecting these restrictions is a matter of virtue others that they can be absorbed by welfare economics, properly understood (Posner 1981; Kaplow & Shavell 2002); still others that such mutually imposed limits require an account of justice as fairness independent of welfare. These are three modes that fairness as a normative concept can adopt.
Ferguson, Adam (1723–1816)
Authors: Elazar Yiftah 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
A professor of philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, and one of the leading lights of the Scottish Enlightenment, Adam Ferguson was a distinct voice in the eighteenth‐century debate on the effects of civilization on the social and political virtues. His call to restore the classical spirit of patriotism, while cautiously embracing progress, paved a middle course between the modern outlook of David Hume and Adam Smith, and the romantic primitivism of Jean‐Jacques Rousseau. Long admired by sociologists, Ferguson's writings have recently been rediscovered by intellectual historians and political theorists, who have been fascinated by the timeliness of his critical observations on the emerging liberal order.
Feuerbach, Ludwig (1804–72)
Authors: Shamis Asaf 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Ludwig Feuerbach was a German philosopher and theologian. Although Feuerbach started out as an ardent follower of Hegel, in the early 1840s his criticism of German Idealism and religion turned him into the leading voice of the Young Hegelians, who harnessed Hegelian dialectics to advocate for the expansion of political freedom and religious tolerance with a view to undermining Prussian political and religious orthodoxy.
Fortescue, Sir John (ca. 1385–ca. 1479)
Authors: Kelly M. R. L. L. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Sir John Fortescue, English jurist and constitutionalist, was a member of the House of Commons (1421–36) and a chief justice on the king's bench (1442). He supported Lancaster under Henry VI, being exiled with him in Scotland during the civil war (the War of the Roses) after Edward of York (Edward IV) designated him traitor; there Henry appointed him “chancellor of England.” In Scotland Fortescue wrote Lancastrian propaganda, including
De natura
(1461–3), on the law of nature that also challenged York's claim to the throne. He accompanied Henry's queen as tutor to the prince of Wales to France (1463), where he wrote
De laudibus legum Anglie
(1468–71),
In Praise of the Laws of England
. This dialogue between the chancellor and the prince is one of the first modern “mirrors of princes,” anticipating both Christopher St. German's
Doctor and Student
, and Machiavelli's
The Prince
. After Henry VI's defeat and murder in 1471, Edward IV granted Fortescue a general pardon, subject to retraction of his Lancastrian propaganda. This Fortescue did in
Declaration upon Certain Writings
(1471–3). From October 1471, he was a member of Edward's council and sat in the Star Chamber. In 1471 Fortescue wrote
The Governance of England
, the first constitutional treatise written in English; while probably first envisaged as a template for Henry VI's government, it is directed to Edward IV.
Fraternity
Authors: Bird Colin 
Published: August 2023

AbstractAs a political concept, fraternity evokes notions of universal fellowship, of mutual aid, of sympathy and perhaps benevolence toward others, and of shared, cooperative, effort. Although conservatives sometimes celebrate certain fraternal ideals (particularly when implied by organic forms of community, nationality, and tradition), fraternity owes its place in modern political discourse mainly to social critics on the left who mobilize the concept to draw attention to the competitiveness, class division, and self‐servingness characteristic of modern commercial societies. The concept of fraternity involved in such arguments is far from uniquely modern, however, as it evokes several ideas familiar in a variety of premodern intellectual traditions and social forms.
Freire, Paulo (1921–97)
Authors: Deardorff Michelle D. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Paulo Freire was one of the most significant educational theorists of the twentieth century and a founder of the critical pedagogy movement. His work derived from his adult literacy efforts among the impoverished of Brazil. Heavily influenced by anticolonialist revolutions in Latin America and the Caribbean, Freire combined a Marxist orientation with the liberation theology taught within the Catholic church. Freire's explicit rejection of a class‐based society influenced his perception of education as a political act in which the teacher either maintains the status quo, acting on behalf of the oppressor, or explicitly uses his authority to encourage students toward liberation.
French Revolution
Authors: Plassart Anna 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFew events have had as strong an impact on modern political thought, or indeed on modern history, as the French Revolution. Ushered in by decades of financial unrest, against a backdrop of European commercial and military competition, the collapse of the French absolutist monarchy in 1789 was immediately recognized by contemporaries as a transformative historical moment. The following decades saw not only successive mutations of France's internal political system, but also a reshaping of European international relations and intense debates about the concepts of nationalism, democracy, and natural rights. While the most intense phase of the Revolution concluded with the fall of Robespierre in 1794, the revolutionary process can be said to have continued until Napoleon's rise to power in 1799, and even until the end of the revolutionary wars and the re‐establishment of the monarchy in 1815. The Revolution of 1789–94 remains however the symbolic landmark separating the Enlightenment period from the long nineteenth century, and a watershed moment for many of the political attitudes and philosophical concerns that went on to define the modern era, and still resonate in the twenty‐first century.
Friedman, Milton (1912–2006)
Authors: C. Peterson Paul 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Friedman (PhD, Columbia University, 1946) was an American scholar in economics and a public intellectual greatly admired by libertarians and conservatives, although he rarely referred to himself as a conservative. Friedman taught at the University of Chicago (1946–77) and became the center of a highly influential department at Chicago that came to be known as “the Chicago School of Economics.” It was during this period that Friedman had considerable influence on the scholarly discipline of economics, which was ultimately acknowledged with the 1976 Nobel Prize in Economics.
Fromm, Erich (1900–80)
Authors: Cheliotis Leonidas K. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

After briefly studying law at the University of Frankfurt, Erich Fromm moved to the University of Heidelberg, where he studied sociology under Alfred Weber (Max Weber's brother), and in 1922 earned a PhD with a dissertation on the function of Jewish law in maintaining cohesion among three diasporic communities. Over the next few years, Fromm trained in psychoanalysis and set up a private practice in Berlin. In 1930, he was made the tenured director of the social psychology section of the Institute for Social Research in Frankfurt. In the intervening years, Fromm built upon his rare interdisciplinary background to combine Marxist and Freudian insights into human behavior, one of the products being his unduly underappreciated concept of the “authoritarian character.” He emigrated to the USA in 1934, where he practiced psychoanalysis, gave lectures and seminars at a number of institutions, and started publishing his work in English, including such classic books as
Escape from Freedom
and
The Sane Society
. His work became increasingly philosophical over time, with a strong humanist orientation that also engaged with various theological traditions.
Führerprinzip
Authors: King Martha A. , King Jonathan S. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The
Führerprinzip
, or “leader principle,” refers to a guiding principle of political organization particularly associated with the National Socialist regime of Germany (1933–1945). According to this principle, the task of forging a strong national unity requires leadership of a strong, charismatic individual to whom absolute or near‐absolute obedience is given by all members of society. Under these conditions such a leader, according to the
Führerprinzip
, can then represent the concrete embodiment of the state, of its laws, and of the will of the nation as a whole.
Giddens, Anthony (1938–)
Authors: Bryant Christopher G. A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The British sociologist Anthony Giddens has authored or edited more than 40 books and 200 articles. From the 1960s to the 1980s they were addressed solely to social scientists and their students. They were political only insofar as they engaged with issues of structure and agency both in theory and in the practices of alternative forms of modern society. Giddens acknowledges that his many (meta)theoretical writings that culminate in
The Constitution of Society
are an attempt to resolve the complex problems hidden in Marx's deceptively simple claim that “Men make history, but not in circumstances of their own choosing.” Giddens's own “structuration theory” seeks to supersede the dualisms of the individual and society, subjectivism and objectivism, and voluntarism and determinism. It has numerous interconnected components. They include the “duality of structure” (whereby structure, understood as rules and resources, is the medium and outcome of the conduct it recursively organizes) and the “reflexive monitoring of action” by the agent.
Global Constitutionalism
Authors: Peters Anne 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Global constitutionalism comprises different strands of thought most of which read (or reconstruct) some features of the status quo of global law and governance as “constitutional” and even “constitutionalist” (positive analysis), and which also seek to provide arguments for their further development in a specific direction (normative analysis). Constitutionalism claims that the principles of the rule of law, a separation of powers, fundamental rights protection, democracy, and solidarity, together with institutions and mechanisms securing and implementing these principles, are (comparatively) well suited to safeguard and promote as much as possible the well‐being of natural persons not only as atomized individuals but also in their group relationships. The claim of probably all types of global constitutionalism is that the respective principles, institutions, and mechanisms can and should be used as parameters to inspire strategies for the improvement of the legitimacy of an international legal order and institutions without asking for a world state.
Godwin, William (1756–1836)
Authors: Lamb Robert 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The moral and political theory articulated in the prolific writing of William Godwin defies easy classification. He can nevertheless be seen to have contributed to a number of different intellectual traditions, including anarchism, liberalism, and utilitarianism. The arguments for which he is most famous would seem to reveal him as the epitome of Enlightenment rationalism and underscore the radical social and political implications of that movement.
Habermas, Jürgen (1929–)
Authors: McIvor David W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractJürgen Habermas has a strong claim to be considered the most important and influential social theorist of the twentieth century. He is the inheritor of a German intellectual tradition reaching back to Immanuel Kant, yet Habermas's work ranges far beyond Continental philosophy, reaching into other traditions such as analytic philosophy and American pragmatism. There are multiple areas of academic inquiry to which Habermas has made a significant contribution, and the current debates within the disciplines of philosophy, linguistics, developmental psychology, philosophy of science, sociology, cultural studies, and political theory are all influenced by his work. In addition to his scholarly contributions, Habermas has been one of the more prominent public intellectuals over the past several decades. He has contributed to political debates surrounding immigration, German unification, the expansion of the European Union, the role of religion within liberal democracies, and the memory of the Holocaust within German public life. Few individuals have made a greater contribution to both intellectual understanding and public life.