bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Badiou, Alain (1937–)
Authors: Woodward Keith 
Published: August 2023

AbstractFrench radical philosopher, novelist, playwright, and activist, Badiou was born in Rabat, Morocco and studied under Jean Hyppolite and Georges Canguilhem at the École Normale Supérieure in the late 1950s. His philosophical project brings speculative thought – articulated by the decision that “mathematics = ontology” – to bear upon four “conditions” (art, science, love, and politics) that reveal situated‐yet‐universal truths for which philosophy must account. In the context of politics, Badiou employs philosophy as a form of “metapolitics” that can describe situated (rather than “historic”) processes of militant subjectivization and political change.
Balance of Power
Authors: Boucoyannis Deborah 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The balance of power is one of the oldest and most criticized concepts in international relations. Predicated as it is on power, it is considered a core principle of the realist tradition and has thus elicited theoretical and practical objections directed to the tradition as a whole. Critics thus view it as an alternative to liberalism, institutionalism and constructivism in international relations theory. The concept does not have a single canonical definition – a source of much confusion and critique – but most current meanings converge on the idea that the interaction between sovereign states/units interested in protecting their security prevents the hegemony of any single actor.
Benjamin, Walter (1892–1940)
Authors: Michelbach Philip A. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBenjamin's persistent refusal to commit more than his interest and his sympathies to any political stance spans his life – in this his adoption of the gentleman observer as literary totem is apt. Benjamin viewed his philosophical role as that of a critic who must pry out the esoteric truth from the murmurs of everyday historical existence. He combines this with a literal love of the word indebted to the German mode of textual investigation (philo‐logy).Despite the desire by critics to engage in periodization, Benjamin's work shows a consistent desire to uncover the truth hiding behind ordinary existence. For him the revelation of this truth functions as part of a redemptive critique. This critique remains both philosophical and theological throughout his writings.
Berlin, Isaiah (1909–98)
Authors: Ryan Alan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Isaiah Berlin was born in Riga in 1909. His parents, Mendel and Marie, were well‐to‐do Jews, his father being a prosperous timber merchant. They were a cultivated family, and not devout, although Polish relatives included followers of the Lubavitcher
rebbe
. World War I forced the family to move to Russia proper, and they experienced the two Russian Revolutions of February and October 1917 in St. Petersburg. In 1920, they were able to return to Latvia, and in 1921 to emigrate to England, where they remained. Mendel Berlin had supplied the British army with plywood during the war, and had ample resources for a new life.
Bioethics and Politics
Authors: Biser Ashley N. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “bioethics” denotes both a specialized, and increasingly professionalized, academic discipline as well as the more general study of the moral and ethical dilemmas posed by biotechnology. As an academic discipline, bioethics is an interdisciplinary field that emerged in the late 1960s and early 1970s as rapid advances in medicine challenged traditional assumptions about when life begins and ends. Originally an outgrowth of medical ethics and moral philosophy, contemporary bioethics brings the tools of philosophy, theology, jurisprudence, public policy, and a multitude of other disciplines to bear on the ethical dilemmas raised by recent advances in biological research and clinical medicine. In addition to questions about end‐of‐life care and reproductive medicine, bioethicists address dilemmas of distributive justice (i.e., the allocation of scarce medical resources), the treatment of those with disabilities, and the ethics of research on human subjects. More recently, concerns about genetic technologies have come to the fore, and questions about the ethics of human enhancement, cloning, prenatal testing, and genetic discrimination pervade the literature.
Body, The
Authors: Frost Samantha 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe body is one of those extraordinarily useful concepts for political theorists. It is so because what other political theorists think, say, and do with it in their theories reveals an awful lot about their understanding of the stakes, the purposes, and the ways and means of politics. In fact, more often than not, the body functions as a cipher drawn into the breach of theorists’ political dissatisfaction. It is often depicted as the source of the aspirations or anxieties that drive the projects of political life. And sometimes it is perceived as the model or the material for the kinds of self‐ and civil‐crafting that political life demands. Perhaps the body is such a fertile concept in political theory because the sovereigns, subjects, and citizens who are the actors and objects of politics are happily, miserably – ineluctably – embodied. Whether the body is figured as an albatross or an answer, in political theory it is also a harbinger of order and disorder, of hope and despair, of slavish subjection and sublime political freedom.
Buddhist Political Thought
Authors: Myint Tun 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
This entry discusses Buddhist teaching or the philosophy of Buddhism in practices found in mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia, and East Asia, as a political theory. Buddhist political thought dominates the daily lives of several Asian societies. The key difference between Buddhist political thought and Hobbesian political thought lies in how each school perceives the notion and the existence of the individual. Because the epistemic and ontological foundation of political thought in both schools is the existence of the individual, it is important that we properly understand how the individual is perceived to be existing in the world and how associational life emerges in both conceptions.
Cicero, Marcus Tullius (106–43 BCE)
Authors: Atkins Jed W. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractRoman advocate, statesman, and philosopher. Cicero, who lived during the tumultuous period that marked the end of republican government at Rome, was the most accomplished orator of his day, held Rome's highest office, and ranks among her most prolific philosophers. His 20 or so surviving philosophical and theoretical works, voluminous personal correspondence, and numerous extant speeches emphasize a number of concepts central to classical republican political thought: civic virtue, the mixed constitution, the rule of law, the dangers of corruption, history as a wellspring for moral exempla and political guidance, natural law, and rhetoric. His writings were of fundamental importance for education and political thought in the west for over 1500 years, from the time of the Latin church fathers to the American Enlightenment of the eighteenth century.
Clash of Civilizations
Authors: Glover Robert W. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The “clash of civilizations” is a conceptual construct advanced by late political scientist Samuel P. Huntington in the mid‐1990s. Perhaps Huntington's most influential contribution was the idea that the post‐Cold War era would witness a global “clash of civilizations.” In the 1990s, with the Cold War fading into history, scholars and practitioners of global politics sought a new paradigm to inform thinking and action. Virtually all agreed that ideological confrontations between democratic states with market economies and nondemocratic states with socialist economies had become a historical footnote. Yet uncertainty and trepidation existed regarding what would
replace
bipolar confrontation. Against this backdrop, Huntington articulated his “clash of civilizations” thesis. Huntington's stated aim was to offer a framework of similar simplicity (and equal utility) to the now defunct Cold War paradigm.
Coke, Edward (1552–1634)
Authors: Benjamin Seth B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Edward Coke is a seminal figure in the development of Anglo‐American law, particularly with regard both to the formulation of the role of the common law as a bulwark against royal prerogative and the essentials of constitutionalism. Born into a family of relatively modest means in East Anglia, England, his schooling and sharp mind, nevertheless, allowed him to excel in the Latin language and rhetoric that won him a place at Cambridge and became the hallmark of his clarity of thought.
Communism
Authors: Thomas Paul 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe idea of communism stretches back a long way in the history of western political theory: as far back as Plato, who forbade private property among the guardians in hisRepublic, hostility to private property being a – or, if we are later to follow Marx, the – sine qua non of communism. (“The theory of the communists,” in the words of Marx and Engels'sManifesto of the Communist Party(1848), “may be summed up in a single sentence: the abolition of private property.”)
Communitarianism
Authors: Etzioni Amitai 
Published: August 2023

AbstractCommunitarianism is a social philosophy that, in contrast to theories that emphasize the centrality of the individual, emphasizes the importance of society in articulating the good. Communitarianism is often contrasted with liberalism, a theory which holds that each individual should formulate the good on his or her own. Communitarians examine the ways shared conceptions of the good are formed, transmitted, justified, and enforced. Hence, their interest in communities (and moral dialogues within them), the historical transmission of values and mores, and the societal units that transmit and enforce values – such as the family, schools, and voluntary associations (including places of worship), which are all parts of communities.
Comte, Isidore Auguste Marie François Xavier (1798–1857)
Authors: Vernon Richard 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Auguste Comte (1798–1857) was a philosopher of science and social visionary, whose philosophical and ethical views had significant international influence during his lifetime. Although he is often acknowledged as the founder of sociology – a term that he was the first to use in its modern sense – his influence on political thought declined sharply beyond the later nineteenth century. Commentators on his ideas have generally distinguished between an earlier phase, in which his major work was the
Cours de philosophie positive
, and a later phase defined principally by his
Système de politique positive
.
Confucian Political Thought
Authors: Lee Theresa Man Ling 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Confucian political thought refers to elements of Confucianism as they pertain to politics, the latter being defined as a philosophical system, a scholastic tradition, a way of life, and – contestably – a religion. As an integrated body of ideas, principles, values, and practices, Confucianism can be traced back to the
ru
tradition, which some scholars believe to have predated Confucius himself. In Confucius’ time,
ru
refers to those who were masters of rituals and ceremonies and occupied a prominent place in society as a result of their skills and knowledge. Thus situated, the emergence of Confucianism marked a new turn in an evolving tradition that came under the influence of Confucius: he was to ground these rituals and ceremonies in ethics, thus giving them an all‐encompassing framework and raising their normative stake.
Connolly, William E. (1938–)
Authors: Howarth David 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
William E. Connolly is an American political philosopher, who has creatively reworked many of the major and minor styles of theorizing in political theory over the last 40 or so years. He attended a commuter college in his hometown of Flint, Michigan, receiving his PhD from the University of Michigan in 1965, and is currently the Krieger‐Eisenhower Professor of Political Science at Johns Hopkins University. He has published a series of classical books and articles in political theory, which continue to influence and provoke theorists and practitioners in numerous disciplines. Several edited volumes on his work by leading political theorists, and a spate of articles, papers, and symposia exploring his political philosophy, are testimony to its wide and growing influence.
Consent
Authors: Shanks Torrey 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Consent is both an abstract concept and an everyday practice that spans many realms of human society, including political, legal, economic, and sexual relations. In politics, modern liberal democratic governments profess to govern by the consent of the people. While few of us will ever personally express that consent to the government under which we live, we are likely to be asked to consent in many other areas of our lives. In matters of law and economics, we may sign a marriage certificate or an employment contract. We must give our consent before submitting to actions that pose a risk of bodily harm, whether it is necessary, like surgery, or purely voluntary, like skydiving. Questions of consent figure centrally in distinguishing sex from rape, employment from slavery, and tyrannies from legitimate polities. All of these uses of consent can have profound political significance in matters of equality and justice.
Constitutional Democracy
Authors: Bellamy Richard 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe conjunction of constitutionalism and democracy is relatively recent. It arose in European thought in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, appearing in different forms in the wake of the revolutionary moments in England post‐1640 and again in 1688, the USA following independence and the drafting of the constitution in 1787 and in France after 1789. During the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, especially after World War II, a democratic regime gradually came to be regarded as needing to be by definition a constitutional regime as well. Yet, democracy may be deemed constitutional in a variety of ways and contemporary constitutional democracies differ greatly in a number of respects. The USA, Germany, Italy, Australia, France, the United Kingdom, and Finland may all be constitutional democracies but their political and legal institutions, norms, and practices diverge in ways that reflect very different conceptions of constitutionalism, on the one hand, and democracy, on the other, and of the relationship between these two concepts.
Constructivism
Authors: Cureton Adam 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe term “constructivism” names a family of political, moral and metaethical views that, in general terms, regard some or all normative claims as validin virtue ofbeing outcomes of a “procedure of construction” in which actual or hypothetical agents react to, choose, or otherwise settle on principles of justice, moral rules, values, etc. Traditionally, moral validity or justifiability was thought to depend on God, the Forms, or some other independent moral order. Various procedures of a different, epistemological, sort were then proposed to help us gain access to the moral facts, which were thought to exist independently of us (e.g., we might need to undergo physical and mental training of the sort described in Plato'sRepublicor learn how to reflect in a “calm, cool hour”). Constructivists, by contrast, think that there are certain procedures that are not designed todiscoverwhich normative claims arealreadyvalid. For them, the validity of some or all reasons, principles, values or other normative claimsconsist inbeing the result of a procedure of construction. For example, Rousseau (1997) held that states are legitimatejust in caseandbecausethey would be agreed to by reasonable people who were concerned to advance their own basic interests in freedom, self‐improvement, and happiness, while Locke (1998) argued that governments are legitimatejust in caseandbecausefree and equal (male, property‐owning) people in a state of equal freedom actually agreed to them so long as those governments remain within the confines of natural law.
Corporativism
Authors: Harris Richard A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Corporativism
, or
corporatism
, as it is commonly termed, refers to a system of political representation in which government mediates among competing classes or interests, particularly capital and labor. It proposes a political economic model in which government plays this mediating role to ameliorate the economic injustice of unfettered capitalism without the convulsion of a socialist revolution. Corporatism may manifest itself as an authoritarian, state‐sponsored strategy under which elites seek to manage socioeconomic conflict. It may also emerge in a more liberal‐democratic mode, whereby stakeholders in national policy participate directly in government decision‐making rather than seeking representation indirectly through elections. In either guise, corporatism presents an alternative to
pluralist
systems of competitive interest representation.
Cosmopolitan Democracy
Authors: Benhabib Seyla , Álvarez David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractCosmopolitan democracy (CD) is a political ideal that aims at minimizing illegitimate exclusions from the decision‐making process. Its universalistic character contrasts with other ascriptive determinations of the potential scope of the demos, such as in national democracies based on ethno‐cultural lineage, territorial birthright membership, and naturalization processes.
Counter‐Publics
Authors: Gordy Katherine A. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
While the exact meaning of counter‐publics is contested, the term generally refers to the multiplicity of publics that cohere around shared discursive practices, rhetorical strategies, modes of being, ideologies, and/or rationalities that are denied access or recognition by dominant public sphere(s). Counter‐publics are often constituted by women, gays and lesbians, racial and religious minorities, workers, those living in the global South, and others who have been structurally and discursively excluded from the dominant (often bourgeois, masculinist, heterosexual, white, and/or “western”) public sphere(s). They tend to be viewed as localized spaces in which to withdraw from the dominant public sphere, although new technologies may inspire greater investigation into globalized counter‐publics.
Critical Realignment Theory
Authors: Caverly Matthew M. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Critical realignment theory is a synthesis of perspectives emanating out of political science and history that suggest the existence and impact of “critical elections” as major determinants in the practice of democratic politics. These elections are said to mobilize new voters, bring new issues to bear, promote a new class of political elites, and most profoundly, alter the distribution of voter alignments in a sudden and durable manner. Critical realignment theory is one of the most profound developments in empirical political thought and stands out as a cross‐disciplinary phenomenon between political science and political history. It also served as the initial theoretical contribution for an entire subfield within Americanist political science – now known as American political development. This subfield employs systematic historical analysis in theoretical and methodological ways in order to study American politics.
Cynics
Authors: Zerba Michelle 
Published: August 2023

AbstractWe use the term “cynic” today to describe a person who manifests a jaded pessimism toward life and a general distrust of the integrity or professed motives of others, but the “Cynics” as historical figures bear little resemblance to this description. The original Cynics were a loosely affiliated group of Greeks of the fourth and third centuriesbcewho pursued a radical version of the philosophical life. They rejected intellectual culture in favor of itinerant poverty, emphasized rigorous self‐training over principled beliefs, and cultivated often shocking forms of exhibitionism designed to call attention to the folly of human institutions.
Darwinism
Authors: Arnhart Larry 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe history of Darwinian political thought is best understood in the light of three ideas. The first is that Darwinian political thought belongs to the tradition of biological naturalism in political thought that began with Aristotle (384–322bce). The second is that if one takes Darwin'sDescent of Manas the definitive statement of Darwinian moral and political thought, then what has been called “Social Darwinism” is not really Darwinian at all. The third is that it is only in recent years that we have seen the full elaboration of Darwin's evolutionary social theory in the development of sociobiology, evolutionary psychology, and biopolitical theory.
Dialectic
Authors: Grant John 
Published: August 2023

Abstract“Dialectic,” or alternatively “dialectics” or “the dialectic,” designates a tradition of thought made up of a diverse and often incompatible group of thinkers. In general, dialectic offers a set of conceptual tools used to make sense of and criticize common political, social, or economic practices. Dialectical critique is devoted to exposing hidden or misrecognized aspects of social life. But far from being an interpretive option that one chooses to apply to a given situation, dialectic is a response to relations that are themselves dialectical. Dialectical relations are specified by having component parts that are mutually constitutive as well as contradictory or antagonistic; they are also productive insofar as they construct a terrain of political contestation and struggle. Thus every version of the dialectic has political aspirations and implications. In this way dialectical thought strives to achieve a moment of praxis in which theory and action are coproductive.
Diogenes of Sinope (ca. 412/403–324/321 BCE)
Authors: Navia Luis E. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDiogenes of Sinope is surely the most famous Cynic philosopher of ancient times. Emerging directly from the philosophical succession that originated from Socrates and Antisthenes, Diogenes gave rise to a long tradition of Cynics that survived until late Roman times and that became known, as Emperor Julian called it, “the Army of the Dog.” Despite the paucity of original sources, the literature that has kept his memory alive is among the richest of classical times. Information about him is abundant, mostly in the form of anecdotes of varying degrees of reliability that recount his life and death, and shed light on his ideas and mode of life.
Donation of Constantine
Authors: Bateman C. G. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

The
Donation of Constantine
is an interpreted excerpt from a document entitled the
Constitutum Constantini
, which was itself taken out of the ninth‐century
Pseudo‐Isidorian Decretals
. The
Decretals
are the first known incarnation of the
Constitutum
: but what source the Frankish clerics, anonymous authors of the pseudo‐Isidorian text, were using to reproduce the
Constitutum
is unknown. The basic import of the
Donation
is the same as the
Constitutum
: both documents allege to be a decree from Emperor Constantine (r. 306–37
ce
) giving to Pope Sylvester (bishop of Rome, 314–35) and his successors sovereignty over the entire western Roman Empire. The incongruent aspect of this “donation,” especially considering the nonpolitical teachings of early Christianity up to the time of Constantine, was that here was an emperor giving over half his empire to a religious leader. The historical record almost completely disproves this because we know Constantine appointed his three sons and a nephew to rule as caesars both under and after him, and specifically that Caesar Constantinus (316–40) and Caesar Constans (323–50) had sovereign control over the entire western empire even after their father's death.