bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Profit et expansion
Authors: Fanno Marco 
Published: August 2023

Profit and expansion
Net investment is a necessary condition for economic expansion and ils finance requires a flow of profit during the expansion period. Profit and expansion are therefore necessarily linked in a capitalist economy.
The expansion process in a capitalist economy may be studied with the help of three analytical types of expansion ; potential , secular, effective. The curve of potential expansion depends upon population growtk, technical change and saving. An upward movement of this curve creates opportunities for expansion in the economy.
The expansion process implies three types of investments : primary, secondary and tertiary. Primary investments depend directly on the expansion potential of the system. Secondary investments take place as a result of the execution of primary investments. Tertiary investments derive from the savings generated by primary and secondary investments. In a frictionless system without lags, total investment would then correspond to the curve of secular expansion, the latter following the potential expansion curve but remaining below it.
Introducing lags enables us to construct an effective expansion curve which oseillates around the secular expansion curve.
In this process of expansion, the relationships between profit and expansion are the fallowing. An upward movement of the potential expansion curve causes a wave of primary investments. The addition of secondary and tertiary investments pushes the system above the secular expansion curve. The rate of profit and primary investments then fall. For some time afterwards, however, secondary and tertiary investments, through the action of the multiplier and the accelerator, keep the system in expansion. But whereas, at first development profits, associated with primary investments, played an active role in expansion, now the conjundural profits which subsist result from the continued movement of expansion itself. In the long run, however, the real motor of expansion is development profits acting through primary investments.
This point of view makes it possible to avoid the ambiguities associated with the concept of autonomous investment and to see how the phenomena of economic expansion and economic fluctuations may be related to a common set of factors.
Marges bénéficiaires et formation des prix en A.O.F
Authors: Capet Marcel F. 
Published: August 2023

Profit margins and price formation in French West Africa.
Profit margins as well as prices and product qualities depend upon a number of factors in French West Africa.
I. — The nature of products classified according to sectors or origin and destination : imported goods, export products, agricultural and artisanal goods, industrial products and services. Price and selling structures, market organization and consequently the behaviour of prices and profit margins are different in each case.
II. — Commercial organization which may be classified according to the size of firms and the personality of their heads : large companies, medium small and micro-commerce. These factors influence price stability, the degree of discrimination and profit margins.
III. — Location : for example, in the case of imported products, prices are higher, more instable and discriminatory as selling points are further from the coast and urban centers.
Although each of these markets has its own characteristics there exist common factors :
— price and profit margin changes occuring sometimes in the same direction (parliculary in the short run) sometimes in opposite directions (particulary in the long run) ;
— price domination exercised by metropolitan prices ;
— character of local prices : discrimination, instability, dearness.
Note sur un essai d’approche probabiliste à la théorie économique
Authors: Fossati Eraldo 
Published: August 2023

A reformulation of the theory of marginal utility derined from the author’s inquiries twenty years ago is reproduced as a specimen of the dynamic theory advanced by him at that lime and as an introduction to the present essay. Dynamics was associated by the author with an individual’ s imperfect knowledge and not with variations. Statics was defined as the limiting case of dynamics. The bridge between the two, from the point of view of the logical apparatus of analysis, was the consideration of homogeneous doses, dated at different instants of time, of the same good as different goods. In this framework the author suggested a reformulation of the concepts of uncertainty and risk. The individual approaches them on the basis of the principle that his decisions regarding the future depend upon a judgement representing an application of statistical methods, albeit a rough one. Consequently he acknowledged a relation between subjective probabilities and statistical method.
The author regrets that a formal dynamic theory organized around anticipations has not yet been completly realized. The problem of individuals’ expectations still remains the basic point to define. In this framework the author suggests considering Shackle’s theory as a limiting case.
Finally the general problem of the measure of the degree of probability of every theory is dealt with.
La théorie de l’horizon économique et des longueurs d’anticipation dans la formation dynamique du plan de la firme
Authors: Bowman M. J. , Byé Maurice 
Published: August 2023

Although, as yet, we do not possess a dynamic micro-economics, its beginnings are already apparent. Two major theoretical approaches have been the probability and potential surprise approach, and one which gives more attention to processes through time. On the empirical side, there are the rapid spread of surveys of business expectations and empirical research on individual firms and industries.
The adaptive behaviour and programmed decision-making aspects of the study of firms also play a role, in so far as they take account of the need for simplification in business behaviour. This leads to the distinction between decisions according to programme and non-pro grammed decisions. In the process of simplification of decision-making an element is the selective time horizon, not only as regards investment planning, but inre sped of operational variables. Recent work in this field is sumarized.
As regards the structure of expectations and the nature of uncertainty, these have usually been perceived too narrowly. The concept of «mathematical expectation » is of little or no use in the analysis of business behaviour under conditions of uncertainty, particularly in view of the psychological demonstration of the non-additivity of subjective probabilities. This leaves the modal value adjusted by some coefficient of uncertainly or sureness and programmed forecasts for study, in so far as single-valued expectations are concerned. But no assumption of a single-valued forecast is adequate for a theory of the firm leading to aggregate analysis. This does not, however, deprive single-value expectations of all importance for a theory of short-term business behaviour in view of their value as practical devices. This leads to a consideration of the concepts of expectation bands and of bounded expectations.
Finally, the whole question of the formation and revision of expectations, as regards degrees of sureness and surprise, is examined.
It is concluded that micro-economics has recently taken on a new lease of life, due to contributions coming from many quarters, but that the work of developing a coherent body of theory has scarcely begun.
Le rôle du capital dans le développement économique
Authors: Byé Maurice 
Published: August 2023

The role of capital in economic development
Economic development must be distinguished from growth. The development of an economy implies its growth in conditions of structural change which bring about a change in productivity. Thus a poor country is not necessarily under-developed. It follows that capital must be defined as everything which increases the productivity of an economy. The definition of structure is that of a system of relationships between specific decision centres. It follows that structural mutations which characterize development can only be analysed as a result of the effect of the use, by each decision centre, of each unit of capital.
This can be demonstrated by the experience of under-developed countries where the application of overall growth models, implying stable coefficients, appears inapplicable. If, then, attention is directed to the various sectors of under-developed countries it is found that these are frequently autonomous in so far as they finance their own development and take account, in drawing up their development plans, of variables different from those retainèd by other sectors. The examples studied concern export crops in agriculture, export industries and industries producing for the home market. Finally, the problems of structural changes induced by capital formation are examined. Both the incompatibility of plans and the presence of unbalanced social structures can block the process of development. Examples of this may be found in the existence of self-sufficient sectorial finance which may, or may not, favour development. Again, the objectives of development change through time. A distinction should be made between the need to integrate a subsistance sector of the economy and that of integrating a number of commercial sectors. Finally, the role of the development of an integrated money economy and the choice of a foreign exchange policy are studied.
Variation du taux de profit et accroissement de la productivité du travail
Authors: Bettelheim Charles 
Published: August 2023

Changes in the bate of profit and increases in labour productivity
A simplified model of growth is presented in order to study the necessary relationships which exist between changes in the rale of profit and the organic composition of capital, in the one hand, and the overall growth process which results from the mutual reaction of the accumulation of surplus value, the distribution of surplus value between constant and variable capital, and labour productivity, on the other.
Labour productivity is analysed as a fonction of time and not as a fonction of the organic composition of capital. As a result, there is no strict link between increases in labour productivity and the rate of accumulation. In particular, it is not assumed that an increase in labour productivity requires a previous increase in the organic composition of capital.
It appears that the fundamental trend in a capitalist economy is towards a fall in the rate of profit. However, the limit is not zero but a positive figure which, moreover, is approached more and more slowly. But, unless the rate of increase of productivity can be increased indefinitely, it is only in special, and short-lived conditions that the rale of profit can rise.
La croissance économique des petites nations
Authors: Kuznets Simon 
Published: August 2023

The economic growth of small nations
The economic structure of small nations differs from that of larger ones. This gives rise to specific problems as regards the growth of the former. Their economic structure lends to be less diversified than that of the larger countries. As a result, their activities are more highly concentrated in a limited number of sectors. Consequently foreign trade is more important for small nations and lends to be centred on a few foreign countries only. As regards foreign capital the small nations may be able to attract funds from abroad more easily than the large country.
In discussing whether the situation of the small country limits its growth possibilities compared with other countries, the author distinguishes between technological and social factors. The small size of these nations prevents them obtaining the maximum advantage from large-scale production. Social factors — notably cultural and linguistic elements — impose a limit upon the development of foreign trade. The defense effort of small countries must also be taken into consideration.
If, then, there are certain disadvantages in being «small », how can we explain the growth of certain small nations ? Luck in possessing valuable natural resources or the aptitude to exploit them is not a sufficient explanation. More important is the fact that the social structure of some small nations is more homogeneous than in large nations and this facilitates the social adjustments made necessary by the process of growth. Their adaptability enables these small nations to profit from the changes which take place in the direction and composition of international trade.
Une théorie générale du développement économique est-elle concevable ?
Authors: Akerman Johan 
Published: August 2023

Is a general theory of economic development possible ?
Almost all studies of economic growth attempt to construct a general theory , applicable to all types of society. But it can be questioned whether such theories could be applied to any economy at all. On the other hand , there are studies of «under-developed» countries , but these are seldom concerned with theory ; there is a conflict between technological , political and economic fact and the causal relations postulated in theory. The development of Keynsian macro-dynamic models has unduly narrowed economists’ descriptions of the evolutionary process ; explanation of the technological acceleration which has been characteristic of industrialisation requires a much broader analysis. This modern approach is in contrast with theories of development during the period of industrialisation , when ideas evolved through a series of theses and counter-theses which the author describes.
Following upon this survey, it is argued that there are two sorts of difficulty that any theory of economic development (whether general or not) must meet. These are fundamental difficulties (concerned with the evolution of technology, political institutions, and social values), and special difficulties (concerned with the problems of aggregation, production and income distribution, productive capacity and depreciation).
The author concludes that a general theory of development is not conceivable, any more than a truly general theory of cyclical fluctuations. But specific theories can be developed, and should embody at least three principles : the theory should : 1) Be founded upon a causal analysis of the region, based upon empirical evidence ; 2) Be a theory of structural change ; 3) Be constructed within the limits set by the existing institutional framework.
La politique fiscale et le taux de croissance désiré
Authors: White Melwin I. , Montuori M. 
Published: August 2023

Fiscal policy and the target rate of growth
In recent years, economic growth has emerged as an important objective of policy, to be considered alongside the price stability and full employment objectives. The author argues that there is no logical obstacle to the use of the fiscal and monetary system to pursue all three objectives simultaneously. He presents a growth model after the character of those of Smithies and Smith, in which elements of the fiscal system appear explicitly as parameters, and the relationship between profits, investment and growth plays a crucial role. Discussion is oriented towards the problem of raising the growth rate to a higher level, and also to the control of inflation.
Certain general policy guides are derived from the analysis. First, a rise in the growth rale requires an increase in the savings ratio and (more important) a rise in factor productivity. The fiscal system can contribute to this rise by expanding government investment that lends to an increase in potential output, by specific adjustments in business lax provisions and by a relative increase in the taxation of consumption. Second, a high rate of growth is likely to produce an inflation-prone economy. Policy should aim at a specifically limited rise in the price level, demand-pull inflation being checked by relatively heavy taxation of consumption, and cost-pull inflation probably being best countered by modification of the full-employment target.
Note sur la politique du taux d'escompte
Authors: Thanos C. A. 
Published: August 2023

A note on bank rate policy
The purpose of the paper is to examine and assess the contradiction between the growing belief of monetary authorities in the workability of such monetary weapons as bank rale, and the attacks upon this belief currently being made by academicians.
It is argued that bank rale has special characteristics which make it wrong to consider the rate simply as a price. In particular, bank rate affects the supply and demand for funds , but does so indirectly and not in a way that can be analysed in terms of the cost of borrowing. Further, the supply of short-term funds depends upon the behaviour of the central bank, so lhal it cannot be assumed that supply is a function of price (bank rale).
The essential matter, then, is the way in which a bank rate change in fact works its way through the supply and demand components of the money market. It is suggested that bank rate changes in fact make themselves felt by creating a «period of anarchy» in the adjustment of rates. There may also be a considerable psychological effect, of which one can be sure only of the direction.
La psychologie de la récession
Authors: Katona George 
Published: August 2023

The psychology of the recession
Economic psychology has developed as a means of providing information about the future course of the economy. It has two basic propositions : that demand depends upon both ability and willingness to buy , and that changes in the latter are measurable.
The paper uses economic psychology in the examination of three related topics : a (psychological) analysis of recent (pre-September 1958) consumer behaviour in the United Slates of America, a study of the function of attitudes, and an assessment of the predictions some economists have made of an unfavourable economic climate in the United Stales during the next decade.
It is argued that three important sets of attitudes developed in the United States after World War II : optimism, a desire for children alongside a rising standard of living, and a belief that inflation is bad. The origins and nature of the recession are examined in terms of what happened to consumer altitudes, evidence being adduced from the history of the period and the findings of surveys conducted by the Survey Research Centre.
The function of economic attitudes is next discussed in terms of three inter-related aspects : attitudes and action, attitudes and prediction, and social learning. Finally, the author, looking ahead, finds inter alia that the majority of people in the United States did not expect a repetition of a depression like that of the’ thirties , and that recession had not markedly affected this belief. At the same time, an early return in consumers’ discretionary expenditures was not assured on the available evidence, and relatively optimistic attitudes were likely to be disappointed.
In the author’s view, the growing importance of the consumer might promote stability rather than instability : the need is to discover more about fluctuation in consumer demand by the development of economic psychology through the participation of economists and sociologists as well as psychologists.
L’action du G. A. T. T.
Authors: Wyndham-White Eric 
Published: August 2023

The article traces the history of the activities of G.A.T.T. from its origins in the tariff negotiations of 1947. These activities are examined in relation to two broad objectives : the reduction and stabilisation of tariffs («tariff disarmament r>), and the removal of quantitative restrictions («. quota disarmament » ).
The evolution of tariff reduction and of quota policies , from negotiations product-by-product and between pairs of countries to proposals for much wider general negotiations and to such concrete developments as the formation of the Six and the Seven free trade organisations is described in detail.
Intégrations régionales et organisations internationales
Authors: Lacharrière Guy De 
Published: August 2023

The attitude to regional integration of international organizations , themselves interested in breaking down or reducing the importance of national frontiers in the furtherance of communal solidarity, is inevitably equivocal. Such regional integrations also transcend certain frontiers, but they create new ones which may not be much wider and which are in any case different from those of the organization. At the same lime, the integrations might plausibly be argued to be a step towards the objectives of the organization itself, rather than as a breakdown in its global solidarity.
The interest and altitudes of the international organizations and of «third countries » in these questions has been quickened by the Treaty of Rome. and the author examines that Treaty with this in mind. The altitude of those outside groups, he argues, is one of aversion or dislike, and they endeavour to retaliate by control of the integration, by reprisals, or by absorption. These responses must condition the future possibilities of creating a true world market.
Aspects actuels du régionalisme et du mondialisme
Authors: Valéry F. 
Published: August 2023

Following upon the period of post-war reconstruction, world economic relations have entered upon a new phase. This phase of movement has two broad distinguishing characteristics.
First, countries have moved beyond the immediate difficulties that provided the reason for bilateral negotiations and for the regulation of multilateral exchange, and have begun to turn their attention to the question of tariffs.
Second, the character of international negotiations and economic relations has changed, to become concerned with the creation of customs unions and free trade areas, on the one hand, and with tendencies towards a wider «internationalism » (a mondialisme y>) on the other.
The article discusses some of the characteristics of this new situation in the context of existing international institutions and relations, and in the light of such problems as those created for a genuine «mondialisme » by the divisions that exist (e. g.) between industrial countries, less developed countries and industrialised communist countries.
Accumulation et développement économique de la Chine
Authors: Bettelheim Charles 
Published: August 2023

The article reports the author's impressions of the economic development of China, formed during a visit last summer as one of a group of French economists.
After providing background information, the author examines the factors influencing the rate of growth in two groups. First, he discusses the objective elements in the growth process, incorporating the aid provided by the U.S.S.R. and the popular democracies, population and agricultural production, supply of labour and the growth of industrial production, and the evolution of production techniques. Following this, subjective factors (the activities of the Chinese Communist Party, the importance of accumulated experience in the U.S.S.R. and the popular democracies, the special characteristics of the Chinese revolution and the natural character of the Chinese people) are examined, and some general conclusions are offered.