bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Factors in the Design of Commercial Airplanes
Authors: Porter Charles Talbot 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
A steady and profitable market may be expected for existing equipment in remote and inaccessible places, where other forms of transportation are not available, but the real problem is to make the air transport compete successfully with the extra-fare trains. The real commodity that is being sold is transportation, and the factors involved are speed, comfort, and cost, assuming of course that safety and reliability have been demonstrated. The combination of these three factors must equal that of the fast train. The cost of air travel is of necessity high; therefore the speed-comfort combination must exceed that of the railroads. In general, the comfort of the train at least equals that of the airplane, so the latter must be sold on the speed factor alone, without sacrifice of a certain minimum requirement for comfort and at a cost that is justified by the increase in speed.
Existing air transports have a high speed of 135 to 145 miles per hour, a capacity of ten to twelve passengers, and a power output of 100 hp. per passenger. The speed has been obtained by increasing the power per passenger to nearly double that formerly thought sufficient. High power means high fuel capacity and decrease in percentage of pay load.
The author advocates the development of a 30 to 40 passenger airplane that will equal present speed requirements with a reduction of power to 50 to 60 hp. per passenger. To obtain this result he advocates abandoning direct-drive air-cooled radial engines and replacing them by geared engines, air-cooled or liquid-cooled, placed preferably inside the wing, with a remote drive to the propellers. The airplane itself should approach the flying wing, the wing loading should be high, and the landing gear should be retractable. Due to increase in landing speed the brakes should be much larger, should be operated by mechanical power, and should be capable of utilizing the full friction between the wheels and ground. The material from which the airplane is made will depend largely on a depreciation factor which is not yet clearly defined and cannot be set up until large airplanes have been in operation for a longer period of time.
Seaplane Design
Authors: Wright T. P. , Luburg G. A. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The design of the seaplane is given in detail, and the advantages of its use are described. The seaplane can generally find a landing place nearer to the center of large cities than can the land airplane. The flying boat, it is predicted, will ultimately be the method of air travel across the oceans. The market for the flying boat and the amphibian is waiting for development by the manufacturer and operator.
The Construction and Operation of Gliders
Authors: Budwig Gilbert G. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The construction, operation, and maintenance of gliders present problems for which there is little precedent. From the regulatory standpoint, the rules of the Department of Commerce will permit licensing of those built prior to October 1, 1930, by passing a satisfactory visual inspection and test. After that time, the construction of gliders will come under more severe rules for licensing.
Aluminum Alloys for Aircraft-Engine Piston and Cylinder Heads
Authors: Lyon A. J. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The paper contains results of a great amount of valuable research on aluminum alloys for aircraft-engine piston and cylinder heads that has not heretofore been covered, and the findings should be valuable to all aircraft-engine designers. Two alloys have heretofore been recommended, but the Materiel Division at Wright Field has developed a series of new alloys, and the paper describes the method of manufacture, the effect of numerous alloying constituents on their properties, the strength at elevated temperature, their stability, and the methods of heat treatment, with comparison with the present standard alloys.
Engineering Computations for Air and Gases
Authors: Moss Sanford A. , Smith Chester W. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
In this paper the authors give methods of making the usual engineering computations for adiabatic compression, expansion, flow through measuring nozzles, and similar work concerned with the thermodynamic properties of air and gases, in the minimum amount of time and with the greatest accuracy possible with engineering methods. The theoretical formulas needed are included, together with extensive tables for use in computation.
Longitudinal Wave Transmission and Impact
Authors: Donnell L. H. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
When a force is applied to a body, waves of stress and velocity radiate through the body from the point of application of the force. When these waves strike the boundaries of the body they may be wholly or partially transmitted to surrounding bodies or reflected back into the body, where they may reverberate back and forth within its confines, like sound waves within the body of air in a closed room. By superposition of these radiated and reflected waves the stress and motion of all parts of the body are gradually, and in general discontinuously, brought up to the values ordinarily assumed.
In the case of a small body this whole process takes place so quickly that there is great difficulty in detecting it, and generally it is of little practical importance. But there are cases where it is desirable to study the process in detail, particularly when the dimensions to be dealt with are no longer very small compared to the velocities of such waves, and in consequence the time element is no longer negligible, or where the time of application or variation of applied forces is very small and hence of the same order of magnitude as the aforementioned time element, as in cases of impact or harmonic forces of considerable frequency. In the present paper an attempt is made to consider some of the more important phases of this subject in as simple a manner as possible.
Economics and Design of Water-Cooled Furnaces
Authors: Bennett J. S. , Oberholtzer P. N. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Experience of one manufacturer in designing and operating water-cooled furnaces is given in this paper. It deals particularly with water-cooled furnaces for underfeed stokers, and a study of results and conditions of several actual installations is presented. Determination of the proper amount of water cooling is an economic rather than a combustion problem. Ordinarily the most critical portion of the furnace is the rear wall, so that if but one wall is to be cooled, it should be the rear wall. Sometimes the sizes of stokers used in older-type plants are limited by the ability of the furnace to withstand temperatures resulting from higher combustion rates. In many such cases a moderate investment in water cooling will give a substantial increase in steam output.
Photo-Electric Smoke Recorder
Authors: Griffin V. P. , Breisky J. V. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The paper discusses the necessity of measuring smoke density in the stacks of power plants, so as to enable the operator to keep the smoke down to a minimum. Methods of smoke determination that have been available in the past are described. All of these methods depend on the human eye for judging the smoke density, and are influenced by weather conditions, being entirely inoperative at night. The necessity of a continuous and permanent record is brought out, a feature which has not been available in apparatus heretofore in use.
The photo-electric smoke recorder is then described. The scheme of operation is to project a beam of light through the stack or the breeching on a photo-electric cell. Depending on a lighter or heavier density of smoke in the stack, the photo-electric cell, popularly called the “electric eye,” receives more or less light, which causes a greater or smaller current to flow through the cell. This current is then amplified so as to be sufficiently large to operate a standard indicating and a recording meter. These meters can be located at any desired point.
This device gives a continuous indication as well as a permanent record of smoke density, and also sounds an alarm or lights a lamp whenever the smoke density approaches a predetermined value. It works equally well day or night and is independent of weather conditions.
Operating results, including chart records of several installations, also are given, showing that smoke can be reduced to a minimum in a well-designed and properly operated plant.
Use of Fuel in the Manufacture of Portland Cement
Authors: Reid H. P. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Heat is required in the manufacture of Portland cement for evaporating the water from the coal and from the raw materials used in making the cement; for preheating these materials to temperatures necessary for calcination; for breaking up the carbonates and oxidizing the undesirable elements, principally organic matter, from the raw materials; for further raising the temperature of the material to the point necessary to effect the desired chemical reactions; and for producing the power required for mechanical operation. All of these requirements except that of removing the moisture and the production of the power are met inside the cement kiln, and are commonly included in the term “burning.” Furthermore, with the wet process the moisture is evaporated in the kiln also.
Electrically Heated Hardening and Tempering Baths Compared With Fuel Methods of Heating
Authors: Scott Wirt S. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Necessity for uniform products and improved working conditions led the Warren Axe and Tool Company to replace its fuel-heated furnaces with electrically heated types. A reduction in costs of manufacture has also resulted, so that, based on actual book profit, the new equipment will pay for itself in 18 months. The new equipment, its control and operation, is described in this paper.
Heat Reaction in the Boiler Furnace
Authors: Wohlenberg W. J. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This paper attempts to point out only a few of the angles from which the modern art of boiler design may be viewed. Each important case must be specially investigated, for there are no hard-and-fast rules that may be applied, and many empirical data must still be relied upon in determining proportions that will result in satisfactory operation. The future will require that students become acquainted with certain broad underlying principles reached through such methods of analysis as are hinted at in this paper.
Effect of Large Boilers at High Capacities on Operating Characteristics and Investment in Boiler Plants
Authors: Clark Frank S. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This paper treats of the various factors that enter into the design of boiler plants, their effect on investment costs and on operating characteristics. It traces the development of the boiler plant from a number of small units operated at moderate capacities to the present plant of a few large units run at high rates of evaporation. It gives the conditions that limit the sizes and output and shows how, as the demand for larger units increases, these conditions have been overcome. The paper shows the effect of large units in reducing the sizes of buildings to house them, and the number of auxiliary equipment to serve them. It shows the effect of reliability of equipment on increased service factor, with consequent reduced necessity for spare equipment. It states that the governing factors in investment costs for a given condition are the size of the unit and the output obtainable, the former depending on the ability to manufacture, and the latter on the fuel that can be burned in the furnace and the ability of the unit to absorb the heat. Further, it discusses the proportioning of heat-absorbing surfaces between boiler, economizer, and air preheater to obtain the most economic result at minimum cost, and also the effect on operation of large units run at high capacity, and in turn their effect on labor and maintenance cost.
The Performance of Modern Steam-Generating Units
Authors: Hirshfeld C. F. , Moran G. U. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
There has been much speculation during the past as to those factors which seem to be most responsible for steam-generating-unit outage. This is a question which always arises when a plant is being designed for a certain capacity factor, where the reliability or availability of the boiler units must be accurately foreseen.
Some have held that the outage increases directly with the severity of use. Others contend that the method of burning the fuel has a definite bearing on reliability. Others still have set different values for unit reliability on different kinds of fuel.
As the probable availability of units operating under certain conditions is a matter of utmost importance to the power-station designer and owner, it was thought that a complete and thorough study of the facts obtaining in the power-generating industry would be of great value. With that idea in mind the authors were requested by the Central Stations Committee of the Power Division to prepare this paper.
The study was made along the same general lines as the steam-turbine investigation made by the Prime Movers Committee of the N.E.L.A. The methods used in collecting information were as nearly identical as circumstances and the character of the units studied would permit. Daily operation logs were filled out for the period of one year by the operators of some two hundred boilers scattered about the country in sixty-odd stations. The data resulting were compiled by one group of men in such a manner that the results might be readily compared.
The units have been arranged in groups or classes according to methods of fuel burning and the working steam pressures, and then numbered in order according to their average rates of evaporation. With the data arranged in such a manner it has been possible to arrive at some rather definite conclusions.
Increased Kilowatt Output of Adjustable-Blade Propeller Turbines
Authors: Martin C. R. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The commercial development of the adjustable-blade propeller-type hydraulic-turbine runner has been in a slow and careful manner, with the idea first of solving its mechanical difficulties and later of taking full advantage of the possibilities of high efficiency. The principal problem of the engineer in introducing a new design is to keep to a safe and reasonable program of development such as will not incur serious financial losses. In addition to the mechanical difficulties of the adjustable runner, there also have been many problems of regulation to be solved as well as the determination of a correct design of draft tube. This paper covers the gradual development and placing in service of the adjustable-blade runner in the United States to the time when the European design of automatic adjustable-blade runner was brought to this country.
The objectionable feature of the fixed-blade type of propeller runner is the peaked efficiency curve and the low efficiency at part-gate openings. By adjusting the runner blades one can operate at all the peak points of efficiency, reducing the disadvantage of part-gate operation. It is now possible to obtain a peak efficiency on a propeller-type runner that is within 1 to 2 per cent of the peak efficiency of Francis-turbine runners. The blades of a Francis runner are not adjustable, resulting in one-peak efficiency. The adjustable runner, therefore, with the possibility of adjusting its peak over a considerable range in load, makes it possible to obtain an average plant efficiency as high as that of the Francis runner.
Changing Requirements in Hydraulic Turbine Speed Regulation
Authors: Nagler Forrest 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Flyball control of units such as are now operated in the plants of large systems may be of secondary importance for normal conditions. It is a control for large or sudden changes, a shutdown device for emergency purposes, and it effects certain conveniences in operation. It is of real use only in emergency conditions, it is entirely ineffective when a unit is on the load limit, and it is entirely ineffective when the gate position is controlled by frequency under gradual load change conditions. It comes into play in case of line troubles or when load changes are faster than the frequency control can meet.
Practically complete governing equipment can be built without a large flyball, and with probable ultimate simplification of governing equipment. It would consist of frequency control operating the gate through regulating cylinders and distributing valve, a load limit positioning device for that valve, just as is done nowadays, except that no main-relay connections would be required, no dashpot necessary, and all question of flyball drive eliminated. Emergency stop and emergency start would be obtained simply by making secondary contact at an abnormally high or low frequency point that would take the unit off the line or at least close it to “speed-no-load” condition.
It is not suggested that governors be eliminated. Many of their elements are very satisfactory. The oil-pressure systems now in use are probably the best form of speed-reducing mechanism for the purpose, reducing 600- to 1200-r.p.m. motor speed to as low as 1 r.p.m. It is suggested that they no longer be governors from a normal speed-control standpoint with its possible wide range of gate movement. They should be control mechanisms designed for the duties that they are to accomplish. The design of such controls would rapidly modify governors as they are designed today, and would also begin to modify turbine structures themselves, simplifying and cheapening them, a large portion of their cost being due to details which are not necessary or even desirable for the production of the maximum number of kilowatt-hours for a given stream flow or for a given amount of storage water.
German and American Steel-Plant Practice
Authors: Estep F. L. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The United States leads the world in the production of steel and Germany has again become second. The greater percentage of the total amount of steel made in the United States is used domestically, whereas, on the other hand, a very large percentage made in Germany is exported. This in itself has had a certain influence upon the processes developed, methods pursued in the two countries, and the supply and cost of raw materials. Another factor which has affected the methods and the equipment used is the quantity and quality of labor available and the wages which must be paid.
In Germany today the greater percentage of ore used comes from foreign countries, while in the United States the great bulk of the ore is mined at home. Coal is plentiful and of good quality in Germany, but its price for metallurgical purposes is higher today than the coals commonly used in the United States for the same purpose. This paper shows to some extent where the processes differ.
Aeronautical and Automotive Service Mechanics
Authors: Althouse A. D. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This paper describes the training courses for airplane and automobile mechanics as taught at the Cass Technical High School, Detroit, Mich. They have more than doubled the minimum training requirements for airplane mechanics as set forth by the United States Department of Commerce. The course for airplane-engine mechanics includes specifications of various types and gives shop work in tuning, adjusting, and overhauling engines. The course gives skill in the use of various hand tools and also teaches technical details. Automotive training includes machine fitting, internal-combustion engines, chassis details, automotive electricity, welding and engine testing.
Suggestions for Encouraging Education and Training for Industry
Authors: Falk Harold S. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
Training of artisans and mechanics for American industry has been very much neglected in past years, and the movement for the revival of apprenticeship and industrial training can justly expect support. One of the great problems of apprenticeship and industrial training is to give the movement greater publicity, and to bring the subject before manufacturers and business men.
Local branches of the Society can effectively promote the movement by holding contests of various kinds related to industrial training. Because of the interest of engineers in drafting work, a contest in skill for drafting apprentices is suggested.
Such a contest may be conducted by a local committee, and if given extensive publicity will be very effective. Another possibility for the local branches is to give an award for the best paper written by an engineer on an assigned subject in the field of industrial training. The successful papers might be read before meetings of local branches of the Society. Also local branches might award a medal or cup every year to the corporations in their respective communities which have made the greatest advance in industrial training in a given year. Such a contest might be the most effective of all, but would need to be more carefully directed than the others.
Contests of this kind could be carried on without extensive study or research, and experience in similar contests conducted under other auspices has proved that they are very effective for purposes of publicity. Through contests the influence of the Society would force attention to the problems of industrial training on those who are most directly concerned.
The Training and Recruitment of Auto Mechanics Through Factory Sources
Authors: Rasche William F. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
This paper treats of the selection and training of automobile mechanics through factory sources and outlines what the evolution in development of service facilities and service workers has been, what the present-day requirements are, what type of individual should be selected for training, and how a factory training school must be set up with respect to places of instruction, the preparation of a curriculum, the organization of instructional material, and the training and supervision of instructors.
Measuring Office-Machine Output as a Basis for Wage Incentives
Authors: Mitchell John 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
The author describes the procedure to employ in installing sound standards for office-machine work. After elimination of the unnecessary operations which a study of process sheets reveals, the various jobs are analyzed and the units in which their elements are to be measured are determined. He then takes up the determination of the value of the unit, the basis of payment and method of its calculation, the maintenance of standards set up, etc. An extensive appendix gives time allowances, rates, methods of bonus determination, and other data derived from various sources and covering a wide range of office-machine operations—addressing, typing, tabulating, duplicating, calculating, bookkeeping, etc.
Recent Developments in Material Handling at the Western Electric Company’s Merchandise Buildings at Kearny, N. J.
Authors: Pevear C. K. 
Published: April 2023

Abstract
A description is given of the Western Electric Company’s merchandise buildings at Kearny, N. J., their purpose, and the methods used in material handling in these buildings. A thorough study was made of the purpose of these buildings, the type of the material to be handled, and the possible future changes that might be made in the amount of work to be done and the dimension of units handled. Then the warehouse activities were laid out, and a building was designed to enclose them. Approaching the problem in this manner provided unusual design opportunities not generally met, as in most cases equipment has to be fitted into an existing building.