bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Parole of Prisoners of War Under Article 21 of the Third Geneva Convention: The Past, Present, and Future
Authors: Crawford Emily 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Article 21 of the Third wGeneva Convention contains something of a historical anomaly—the possibility of granting parole to prisoners of war (POWs). An Article 21 parole is an agreement on the part of the captive soldier to refrain from participating in hostilities in return for limited or unrestricted release from POW captivity. Parole—from the French “word” or “promise,” as in “to give one’s word”—is a concept grounded in medieval notions of chivalry and honor, underpinned by both pragmatic and humanitarian objectives, traceable as far back as ancient Roman times. By the eighteenth century, it was a given that POWs could be paroled during their captivity, with parole agreements established during conflicts such as the Franco-Prussian War, the Boer War, and the American Civil War. However, by the time of the adoption of Article 21, the practice of parole was far less common, with exceptionally limited employment of parole during the First and Second World Wars. With this historical background in mind, this chapter will examine the history of parole of POWs—why it was adopted, and why it has fallen into desuetude. The chapter will also examine whether the tradition of parole remains a viable or useful option for States, in light of new technologies and new practices in the conduct of armed conflicts.
The Lieber Code and Prisoners of War: A Legacy of Practical Humanitarianism
Authors: Wallace David , Reeves Shane 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
The Lieber Code succinctly and comprehensively clarified and summarized the customary laws of armed conflict through a practical humanitarian lens. Of particular contemporary relevance is how the Lieber Code addresses prisoners of war (POWs). Though some of the thirty-eight articles in the Code on POWs are undoubtedly anachronistic, the provisions on categorization and treatment continue to inform the law of armed conflict. His contribution to the development of the law of armed conflict was particularly significant in this regard, as it was the first instrument to contain a clear articulation of which persons were entitled to protection as POWs and which were not. Additionally, he addressed not only the treatment of POWs, but also confronted the horrendous discrimination and maltreatment of Black soldiers by confirming the law of nations knows of no distinction of color. Finally, the Lieber Code confronted the thorny issues of paroles, prisoner exchanges, and reprisals under the law of armed conflict. Of course, some provisions of the Code did not survive the test of time. But, for those that did, commanders, legal advisers, policymakers, and scholars will continue to look to them as they shape the law of armed conflict into the twenty-first century.
Marx, Revolution, and Social Democracy
Authors: Kain Philip J. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Many people think Marx a totalitarian and Soviet Marxism the predictable outcome of his thought. How might one combat this completely mistaken image? What if one could demonstrate that Western European social democracy represents Marx’s thought far more than did Soviet Marxism? What if one shows that Marx and social democracy are quite compatible? What if one shows that Marx actually supported social democratic parties? If social democracy is closer to being the true face of Marxism after Marx, then all claims of totalitarianism evaporate. There is nothing remotely totalitarian about social democracy. And from the start, social democrats were highly critical of the undemocratic tactics of Soviet Marxism. To demonstrate the relationship between Marx and social democracy it will be necessary to show that, for Marx, socialist society is compatible with a market economy—as long as markets are controlled to eliminate alienation. It will also be necessary to show that markets can be controlled democratically, that Marx was very much a democrat, and that he and Engels worked quite actively with democratic parties. It will also be necessary to show that Marx developed a theory of revolution compatible with a democratic electoral movement engaged in by a social democratic party. It will also be necessary to show that Marx and Engels, from the late 1860s on, worked extensively with and supported the Social Democratic Party (SPD) of Germany—which eventually became the largest party in Germany and the largest socialist party in the world.
Introduction
Authors: Kain Philip J. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter sorts out ways the term “socialism” has been used. It proposes envisioning a spectrum. At one end would be a capitalist laissez-faire economy—with all means of production privately owned, unregulated markets, and no governmental planning. At the other end would be a full communist society—with no markets, no private ownership of means of production, and central planning. There would be no buying or selling—indeed, there would be no money. Between these ideal types we have social democratic and socialist societies. They replace private ownership to one degree or another with public ownership and planning. They keep a market but to varying degrees control it to prevent social ills. They are led by strong labor parties (backed by powerful labor unions) that decide democratically how far and how fast to move toward full socialism; that is, full public ownership of the means of production.
Abandoning Public Goods
Authors: Cate Sarah D. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Chapter 1 begins by laying out the relationship between juvenile justice policy and broader social policy. The overview of several major themes of post–New Deal policy developments—devolution, privatization, individualization of social problems, and punitiveness—provides the important context for understanding the effects of the community-based reform movement today. Each of these shifts in social policy marks a substantial departure from the idea of government for the public good. Leveraging this historical institutionalist approach helps to explain why the community-based reform movement mirrors these broader policy developments, and it also helps illuminate why the reforms are largely failing to improve the experiences of youth caught up in the justice system. Pursuing devolution, privatization, and individual solutions within the context of decades of austerity politics and the retrenchment of public goods makes the current community-based reform movement particularly inadequate and ineffective.
Devolution, Not Decarceration
Authors: Cate Sarah D. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Chapter 2 shows in detail what community-based reforms look like in practice and argues that these reforms lead to devolution, not decarceration. Shifting youth from large state-run facilitates to the “community” is entrenching punishment at the local level. This chapter relies on a careful tracing of grant funding and local-level policy changes associated with community-based reforms. The chapter demonstrates that reform efforts and funding get funneled into traditional punitive responses to youth offending, such as more incarceration and probation. The problems that occur in large state-run facilities are replicated at community-level facilities, but with even less oversight. These reform policies are part of a broader austerity politics that provides little room for proposals to expand public goods and address economic inequalities and therefore perpetuates the same punitive and damaging policies that have long plagued the juvenile justice system.
Privatizing Punishment
Authors: Cate Sarah D. 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 shows how the community-based reform movement contributes to increased privatization in the juvenile justice system. The MacArthur Foundation and Annie E. Casey Foundation are central leaders in juvenile justice policy today, controlling research, grants, and policy proposals that have coalesced around technocratic, pro-privatization approaches to reform under the mantle of the community-based reform movement. This chapter demonstrates how foundations have facilitated the antidemocratic privatization of the policymaking process, with little input from those most effected. These foundations have also encouraged substantial increases in the privatization of secure detention and other programs and services of the juvenile justice system. Privatization has introduced more juvenile justice stakeholders with interests that often run contrary to downsizing the reach of the carceral state or investing in public institutions and oversight necessary to ensure more equitable and safer outcomes for youth.
Strand 8
Authors: Goff James 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces Chile, beginning with its geography and its vast range of climate and topography adjacent to one of the most significant subduction zones in the world. Here, people have lived with the threat of earthquakes and tsunamis for thousands of years and the geology, archaeology, and anthropology provide a rich vein of information. While research in central and southern Chile provides textbook examples of historical and prehistoric tsunamis, the story is completely different in northern Chile along the coast of the Atacama Desert. Here, until very recently, scientists have tried and failed over the years to find any significant evidence for past events. The search starts with a reassessment of purported Eltanin Asteroid tsunami deposits, an event 2.5 million years ago that many think devastated the Chilean coast, and then comes forward in time.
Strand 9
Authors: Goff James 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the human history of the Atacama Desert coast over the past 12,000 years, highlighting an odd anomaly between 3500 and 4500 years ago. This information coupled with evidence for some ancient earthquakes was the catalyst for my invitation to search for tsunami deposits. The geomorphology of the coastline is described and the difficulties of finding useful sites is discussed in detail. The ensuing research points to a massive (Magnitude 9.5) earthquake equivalent to the largest known historical event, the extent of which rewrites the earthquake history of northern Chile—it is by far the biggest event ever reported from the region. The resultant tsunami was also huge along the Atacama Desert coastline, but by searching throughout the wider Pacific the link is made with the evidence found on the Chatham Islands (Chapter 5) and in other Pacific Island countries.
Cultural Studies, Literature, and Religion
Authors: Lederhendler Eli 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter assesses Fragile Spaces: Forays into Jewish Memory, European History, and Complex Identities (2018), a collection of 20 essays. Divided into four parts—“History, Memory and Genocide,” “Culture and Complex Identities,” “Politics,” and “Scholarly Dilemmas and Personal Confrontations”—the book’s most rewarding essays address issues of politics, philosophy, Holocaust memory, and the history of German-speaking Jewish intellectuals in relation to European culture and modernity. The essays of Fragile Spaces make for a compelling volume, precisely because of the way editor Steven E. Aschheim draws upon an extensive cast of characters in a highly charged historical drama or, rather, several dramas, whom he explores and confronts amidst the responses they offered to rupture and fragility in society, politics, and culture, Jewish and otherwise. Various personages, ideas, events, and concerns reappear in various essays, continually re-arranged to form a new and dynamic pattern so that the essays become mutually illuminating. Ultimately, Aschheim’s concerns and approach to issues show him to be a true heir to the German Jewish intellectual legacy he so often explores.
Respectful Deflationism
Authors: Hall Edward 
Published: February 2023

AbstractPhilosophical inquiry about metaphysically loaded expressions like “law of nature,” “essence,” and “ground” faces a choice point: Do we need the word, and the concept that goes with it, in order to facilitate thought and communication about some distinctive, explanatorily important metaphysical structure? Or does their value for us consist in the way they play some crucial epistemic role, a role that can itself be characterized without reference to any such metaphysical structure? Here I explore the latter option, in the form of “respectful deflationism”: roughly, the position that we can in good conscience take some putatively metaphysical expression to be of central philosophical importance, but for entirely non-metaphysical reasons. I use recent debates between Humeans and anti-Humeans about laws of nature as a case study.
‘The three principal manufactories at Paris are conducted by Englishmen’
Authors: Bensimon Fabrice 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the sectors that migrant workers joined because most migration flows were organised within individual industrial sectors. Four sectors were especially important and will be the focus of this chapter. The first was iron and steel. South Wales had developed a dynamic iron and then steel industry and several continental ironmasters set up ‘forges à l’anglaise’ for which they were willing to hire Welsh puddlers or rollers, despite the high costs of such labour. The second major sector that shaped continental labour migration was machinery. British expertise in steam-powered machinery was unrivalled. The third major sector was textiles. William Cockerill set up a thriving woollen industry in Belgium, while thousands of lace workers from the East Midlands, especially from Nottinghamshire, went to northern France, especially to the Calais area. This craft-based, hand-worked industry shifted to factory production in the 1850s, but British input persisted until the 1870s. The fourth and final sector considered in this chapter is railways. British engineers and investors were instrumental in the early stages of European railway construction, in France, Belgium, Italy, and Spain. In other sectors, such as mining, some smaller-scale recruitment was also organised. This chapter addresses the diversity and specificities of labour migration flows. Such migration brought together workers from different regions and prompted settlement in an array of different areas.
Introduction
Authors: Berman Ayelet , Büthe Tim , Maggetti Martino , Pauwelyn Joost 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
International institutions frequently make rules, standards, or policies that affect stakeholders who did not have a say in the process. The Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, for example, whose standards are set by a small group of states, have been adopted in more than a hundred jurisdictions. Historically, developing countries and representatives of non-commercial interests in civil society have been mostly marginalized or even entirely excluded. Scholars and practitioners alike have called for greater participation of such disregarded stakeholders. Against this background, in the past decade, many global governance bodies have undertaken institutional reforms with the declared purpose of boosting stakeholder participation. This book brings together scholars and practitioners to investigate the consequences of these stakeholder participation reforms: Have these reforms resulted in actual increases in participation? Have they improved the voice and influence of marginalized stakeholders? What effect have the reforms had on the legitimacy and effectiveness of rule-making? The book focuses on global finance governance and global health governance, covering treaty-based intergovernmental organizations alongside new forms of global governance, such as transgovernmental regulatory networks, multi-stakeholder partnerships, and private standard setting bodies. It compares the experiences of large emerging powers and smaller or lower-income developing countries (Brazil vs. Argentina, China vs. Vietnam, India vs. the Philippines) in a diverse set of organizations, including the World Bank; the World Health Organization; the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision; the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria; the International Accounting Standards Board; the Codex Alimentarius Commission; and more.
India and Bangladesh in Global Finance Governance
Authors: Mukherji Rahul , Jha Himanshu 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses India and Bangladesh’s emergence in the global economy in the area of climate politics. It examines two global institutions involved with climate finance: the Global Environment Facility (GEF) and the Green Climate Fund (GCF) from the standpoint of stakeholder participation in global governance. Results show that both the countries have embarked on a successful strategy of globalization. Both countries have made the transition from conflict towards an embedded liberal mode of cooperation. They are concerned about the ill-effects of climate change and both have also made the transition from structural conflict to embedded liberalism. They are actively participating in global negotiations, demanding resources as well as contributing substantially to domestically driven adjustment. Bangladesh and India are also actively contributing to global norms—India as an emerging power and Bangladesh as a leader among least developed nations.
Assessing Stakeholder Participation Reforms in Global Finance Governance
Authors: Maggetti Martino , Kovarzina Olga 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter provides a comparative discussion of the type and intensity of stakeholder reforms in global finance governance institutions. It then examines the media coverage of these reforms to gauge their perceived importance for the public, and it explores possible pre-conditions associated with a higher intensity of reforms. To conclude, it distils comparative lessons from the paired case studies presented in the previous chapters, concerning Brazil–Argentina, China–Vietnam, and India–Bangladesh. In this regard, we highlight country-level patterns of commonalities and variations in the representation of previously marginalized stakeholders. What is more, we look at the demand-side of participation to assess whether institutional reforms improved the participation of previously marginalized stakeholders. Finally, this chapter shows that there were non-negligible reforms concerning the participation of stakeholders, both from an organizational perspective and in terms of media salience. However, these reforms were uneven across institutions and selective with respect to stakeholders.
Comparing Formal and Informal Bodies in International Finance
Authors: Gindrat Ronald , Inderbinen Paul 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter discusses the differences in policy-making between formal and informal bodies in the arena of international finance. Alternative forms of global governance have emerged since the financial crises of 2008–2009. The limited memberships of the G20 and the Financial Stability Board, as well as the informality of the agreements upon which they are based, give rise to questions about their legitimacy. By analysing these forms of governance from the angles of stability, accountability, and efficiency, this chapter suggests that informal settings do not yield inferior outcomes when compared with traditional international bodies that have established formal statutes.
Stakeholder Participation Reforms in Global Health Governance
Authors: Berman Ayelet 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter surveys the main stakeholder participation reforms introduced in several global health institutions: the WHO, the Codex Alimentarius Commission, the International Council on Harmonization, the International Medical Devices Regulators Forum, the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria, the GAVI Alliance and the GlobalG.A.P. The chapter distinguishes between two types of reforms: reforms granting the opportunity to participate, and ‘good participation’ reforms, which seek to advance balanced and fair rule-making. It finds that the general trend in global health is one of increased participation opportunities for developing countries and non-state actors. That said, imbalances in participation between developing and developed countries and between business and civil society interests remain. Non-state actor participation also introduces risks of undue influence. Only few global bodies have introduced good participation reforms targeting such risks.
Brazil and Argentina in Global Health Governance
Authors: de Mello e Souza André , Aznar Facundo Pérez 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the consequences of institutional reforms in global health governance. Specifically, it investigates and compares changes in the voice and influence of Brazilian and Argentine stakeholders—and assesses whether and to what extent these changes are attributable to recent institutional reforms. Global health governance is highly salient for Brazil and Argentina. Brazil has increased its presence and voice in such governance and has been more engaged and influential than Argentina in the World Health Organization and its multi-stakeholder institutions, in the International Council for Harmonization of Technical Requirements for Pharmaceuticals for Human Use (ICH), and arguably also in the Codex Alimentarius Commission. At the same time, both countries’ participation in the Global Fund and GlobalG.A.P. is similarly low. The contrasting patterns of economic growth and foreign policy positions of Brazil and Argentina help to explain their variation in engagement and influence in global health institutions. The engagement and influence of Brazil and Argentina in these institutions are undermined by the insufficiency of institutional reforms, as well as the lack or shortage of human and material resources.
The Stakeholder Participation Triangle
Authors: Berman Ayelet 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Chapter 23 presents the stakeholder participation triangle, which visualizes the factors— trusteeship, functionality, and efficiency—that theoretically determine with whom global bodies engage in the decision-making process. Trusteeship asserts that global bodies should give a voice to those affected by the decision, whereas functionality asserts that global bodies should engage those stakeholders who contribute to the achievement of their mission. A rise in participants, however, results in a likely decrease in efficiency. Thus, while trusteeship or functionality justify engaging stakeholders, concerns over efficiency act as a counterforce, which curbs where, when, and how global bodies engage entitled stakeholders. To test these concepts in practice, I examine whether or how they explain participation in four global health organizations: the World Health Organization (WHO), Codex Alimentarius Commission (Codex), the Global Fund to Fight AIDS, Tuberculosis and Malaria (Global Fund), and the Global Vaccine Alliance (GAVI).
Axial spondyloarthritis
Authors: Khan Muhammad Asim 
Published: February 2023

Abstract
Spondyloarthritis (SpA) is a blanket term encompassing a family of chronic inflammatory joint diseases that commonly involve the SI joints, spine, and the limbs, and share many clinical features, including frequent association with inflammation affecting the eyes, the gut, and the skin. The patients whose arthritis primarily affects the spine are sub-classified as having “axial SpA” (axSpA), best represented by AS, whereas those with predominantly limb joints involvement are labeled as having “peripheral SpA,” that is best exemplified by psoriatic arthritis (PsA). Diagnosis at an early inflammatory stage of the disease is crucial because of increasingly effective treatment choices that markedly reduce the risk of long-term disability and deformity and enhance quality of life. Patients need appropriate counseling and education about their disease, self-management issues, and potential lifestyle modifications to achieve sustained health benefits. This facilitates compliance with the recommended treatment regimen.