bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Sri Lanka, 2008–2009
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 8 examines the international humanitarian response in Sri Lanka during the final months of the civil war and its immediate aftermath. After decades of sporadic fighting between the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam and the Sri Lankan state, in 2009 the government opted for an all-out military solution to the war. In the end stages of the conflict, both sides adopted harsh military strategies with little concern for the civilian population. They also sought to manipulate international humanitarian actors, and the government in particular was very successful at this, with severe consequences for civilians. One way in which the government manipulated humanitarian operations was through limiting access to affected populations and to information about what was going on in Sri Lanka—particularly about abuses perpetrated by the state. The humanitarian community responded passively to government efforts to restrict access and information. Both during the final stages of the war and in its immediate aftermath, the protection of the civilian population was of paramount importance and a resounding failure of the humanitarian response. The United Nations had incontrovertible evidence of government forces shelling and killing civilians but did very little with this evidence. Humanitarian actors faced a familiar dilemma: should they speak out and risk losing access or stay quiet in the hope of saving some lives through the delivery of relief? Most humanitarian agencies decided that access was more important than advocacy, despite the fact that they had little access to lose and their ability to delivery relief was anyway incredibly limited.
Haiti Earthquake, 2010
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 9 examines the international humanitarian response to the earthquake that hit Haiti in January 2010 and the subsequent cholera outbreak. It argues that this response was problematic in many respects. Humanitarian funding reached USD 3.5 billion in 2010 alone, making the international humanitarian response in Haiti the highest funded since the 2004 tsunami. However, the international response largely sidelined Haitian contextual knowledge and capacities, which significantly limited its impact. While the emergency response was generally considered a success, international aid agencies failed to fulfil the promise to ‘build back better’, either in terms of building better physical infrastructure or in terms of building better public institutions. Worse, UN peacekeepers who arrived as part of the international response inadvertently (but avoidably) brought cholera to Haiti, and both peacekeepers and international aid workers were involved in the sexual exploitation of Haitians. Overall, the chapter highlights not only the limitations of recovery and rehabilitation efforts by humanitarian agencies but also the power that international intervenors wield, the scope for them to abuse this, and the inadequacy of mechanisms through which affected populations can hold them to account.
Ebola in West Africa, 2014–2015
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 11 examines the international humanitarian response to the Ebola outbreak in West Africa in 2014 and 2015. The hardest-hit countries were Guinea, Liberia, and Sierra Leone, whose health systems lacked the capacity to mount an effective and timely response to contain the outbreak in its early stages. Apart from Médecins Sans Frontières, most international actors failed to recognize quickly enough the seriousness of the outbreak, and the World Health Organization was slow to declare a public health emergency of international concern. Key Western policymakers largely ignored it until public fears that Ebola would spread back home combined with electoral dynamics to prompt a significant response, including the deployment of military personnel. The international military response focused primarily on providing support, coordination, and logistics for local authorities and international aid agencies, and the troop-contributing countries were highly risk averse, so their logistical and medical capacities were not used to full effect. The chapter argues that mutual distrust between international and national responders, on the one hand, and local communities, on the other, served to limit the effectiveness of the response. Furthermore, international responders emphasized biomedical measures without properly taking into account local capacity and the political and social contexts in which those measures were being implemented. This narrow technical focus limited the effectiveness of those measures and was, in some ways, counterproductive in terms of bringing the outbreak under control.
Law and International Humanitarianism
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 14 explores the interactions between law and international humanitarianism. First, it outlines the main processes of international law-making. Second, it introduces the main bodies of international law with salience for humanitarian action and outcomes: international humanitarian law (IHL), international refugee law (IRL) and other laws relevant for displaced persons and migrants, international disaster response law (IDRL), and other relevant parts of international human rights law (IHRL). These bodies of law provide a legal foundation for the work of international humanitarian agencies and specify a number of rights and protections for the victims of humanitarian emergencies and the corresponding obligations of states and other actors. Third, the chapter argues that international law can be enforced through hard and soft measures, although enforcement is selective and many victims of humanitarian emergencies will have no effective recourse when the rights and protections to which they are entitled are violated. Finally, the chapter explains how humanitarian action has been criminalized in some contexts through counter-terror and anti-smuggling legislation.
Dialogue, Negotiation, and Advocacy
Authors: Bradley Miriam 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter 23 turns to the dialogue- and advocacy-based activities undertaken by international humanitarian agencies. Given that a wide range of actors have an impact on humanitarian needs, responses, and outcomes, operational agencies have an interest in influencing the conduct of those different actors with a view to reducing humanitarian needs, facilitating humanitarian responses, and improving humanitarian outcomes. This chapter discusses three distinct approaches: (i) private dialogue or negotiation with (de jure and de facto) authorities, (ii) strategic sharing of information with select third parties who may be able to influence authorities, and (ii) public statements and criticism of the conduct of authorities. Different humanitarian agencies favour different approaches, but most seem more cautious about negotiating directly with armed groups than with the governments of affected states and more cautious about publicly criticizing governments than armed groups. The effectiveness of all these approaches is context-specific and difficult to gauge, and public criticism of authorities in particular can expose humanitarian agencies to threats of expulsion or violence. The difficulty and the high stakes of dialogue- and advocacy-based activities suggest a need for greater investment in dedicated training and strategizing than appears common in most international humanitarian agencies.
Tracing Survival
Authors: Stone Dan 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter addresses the problem of ‘survivorship bias’, in terms of the files held by ITS (those not represented were also victims—just not documented in ITS) and in terms of the fact that survivors have the largest TD files. The chapter looks at three very different groups—surviving members of the Sonderkommando at Auschwitz, elderly Jewish Holocaust survivors, and members of Romania’s fascist Iron Guard. The existence of elderly survivors has generally been overlooked yet there were some present at the liberation of the camps, emerging from hiding, and in the DP camps in Germany and Austria. The postwar stories of the surviving members of the Auschwitz Sonderkommando have also been neglected, but what happened to them in the immediate postwar period fills an important gap in our knowledge of these vital witnesses to the gas chambers. More challenging, we also find in ITS the postwar trajectories of fascist collaborators, such as the members of Romania’s Iron Guard who were held—in some comfort, it needs to be emphasized—by the Nazi regime after they were ousted from the power-sharing arrangement into which they had initially entered with Ion Antonescu. Thanks to ITS we can account for these three groups of people and their very different postwar trajectories. Using these three case studies, the chapter illustrates the pros and cons of working with the ITS records.
Youthful Rebel
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Spinoza’s life was one of exceptional audacity tempered by his personal motto: “caute [caution].” His life story of rebellion, apostasy, and proposed reform culminated in the 1670s. Hence a key question is when did his extraordinary career as a declared adversary of practically everything commonly thought and believed begin? One might suppose the unparalleled project of what France’s then leading science impresario, Thévenot, called a “fanatic” would-be reformer of men’s errors, commenced with his expulsion from the Jewish community for defiance of rabbinic authority, in July 1656. But when we glance at the circumstances, it seems that this rabbinic ban of 1656 cannot have been the actual commencement of his revolt.
Teaching Skills
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter recounts Spinoza’s interaction with the Antwerp-born ex-Catholic Franciscus van den Enden (1602–74), whom many scholars studying Spinoza’s life and career have viewed as a decisive influence on his career as a philosopher. He was a religiously suspect but expert teacher, Latinist, and theatre lover who exerted a decisive influence on Spinoza’s Latin, involvement with the stage, and knowledge of international affairs. It also considers Spinoza’s turn from religious studies to exploring Cartesianism and involvement with philosophy but argues that Van den Enden was less important as an influence in this respect. It considers too to what extent Spinoza may have adopted Van den Enden’s view on educational techniques and teaching methods.
Collegiants, Millenarians, and Quakers
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter relates Spinoza’s close connection in the 1650s with several Collegiant Socinians and Millenarians such as Petrus Serrarius, Pieter Balling, Jan Rieuwertsz his future publisher, Jarig Jelles, and the connection some scholars believe he had with the recently established English Quaker community in Amsterdam during 1656–7 as well as other religious outcasts in the city. It describes the surreptitious meetings held in Rieuwertsz’s bookshop and the deep split that developed between the Quakers and Collegiants, the Trinitarian and Anti-Trinitarian Collegiants, and between the rationalist Cartesian Collegiants and the mystical Millenarians like Spinoza’s friend Serrarius.
Spinoza Subverts Hobbes
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter questions the validity of conventional treatments of the relationship between Hobbes and Spinoza, arguing that rather than following, or borrowing from Hobbes, what Spinoza is doing, essentially is consciously subverting Hobbes especially in political theory where he is hostile to Hobbes’ monarchism and unwillingness to secure a firm toleration and to Hobbes’ conception of the “common good ” and men’s exit from the state of nature. Especially outside the Netherlands, the names of Hobbes and Spinoza certainly soon came to be constantly paired together by contemporaries. Careful comparison, though, not only complicates the comparison but discloses a wide gap across a range of issues, so much so that Hobbes and Spinoza really represent more a battle of opposites than an aligned proximate pair.
Expanding the Spinozist “Sect”
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Spinozism is profoundly evil, morally devastating, held Steno, diverting men from faith and devotion to the Church and affording no consolation whatever to the poor, illiterate, ignorant, and wretched, those who know little or nothing making up the vast bulk of the world’s population. Especially pernicious in Spinoza’s philosophy, socially and morally, held Steno, is its investing excessive trust and hope in science and learning instead of faith and Church. Doing so, it divides humanity into two widely separated categories, the unknowing mass and an intellectual elite supposedly “with adequate ideas” grasping there is only “one substance in the universe infinite and eternal,” a group, he discovered in Leiden, with an overly high regard for themselves enjoying together with their intellectual effort sensual pleasures, like sipping wine and smoking tobacco. This chapter traces the evolution of Spinozism as an observed movement in 1670s Holland.
Encounter with Leibniz (1676)
Authors: Israel Jonathan I. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
During the early 1670s, the young German thinker Leibniz, as yet largely unknown but ambitious and aspiring, resolved to do his own research, and form his own assessment of developments in every key field of science and knowledge. Eager to assemble as reliable and up-to-date a picture of the current state of world philosophy, science, and religion as possible, he embarked on a vigorous campaign of international networking and correspondence, writing to Hobbes, Oldenburg, Spinoza, and Comenius among numerous others. The stir caused by the TTP convinced him that, emerging in Holland, was not just the subversive philosophy of Spinoza but a subversive movement he needed to learn about. He detected a whole circle, an underground philosophical movement already developing for over a decade, that greatly intrigued him. Finally, in November 1676 he had a series of conferences with Spinoza in The Hague.
Stemming the Tide
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter four highlights the system which developed in both ports for petitions and privileges associated with new machines or forms of technology intended to deal with the principal environmental challenges of the day. These challenges included siltation in the lagoon or port areas and stagnant water around wellheads. Although decision-making power remained in the hands of the few, there was a broad cast of those involved in this work. Requests for privileges were submitted by foreigners, who sometimes moved between ports and used their specialist technologies in order to find a place for themselves in new cities. The chapter also emphasizes the major environmental interventions undertaken in both cities, principally in the form of major dredging projects during the sixteenth century.
Working with Waste
Authors: Stevens Crawshaw Jane L. 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Chapter five explores cultures of waste disposal and reuse in Renaissance ports. Both governments regulated the repurposing of waste with material from building projects being used to construct environmental defences (particularly against floods) or for ballast in maritime vessels. By illuminating the cultures and structures to manage waste in both cities this chapter also establishes the significance of the individuals whose job it was to collect, remove, and reuse these materials. A variety of individuals were involved in such work, including those employed directly by the government, some who accessed work through corporations or guilds, and others whose work was irregular and informal. Occupational groups such as fishermen and sailors acted as environmental experts and provided reports on specific projects and proposals to government magistracies. Together these examples demonstrate the communal nature of both challenges and responses regarding waste.
Introduction
Authors: Davies Owen 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The Introduction provides the reader with a concise overview of the origins of modern psychiatry and the rise of the asylum movement during the nineteenth century, and explains the book’s timeline. The early psychiatrists liked to make sweeping judgements about the mental health of whole countries and sections of society in the past and the present. The influence of religion and the supernatural became a significant measure of insanity in any given population at any moment in time, and thereby a means of assessing collective and individual mental states. Beliefs and behaviour were divided up into the pathological and the healthy.
Dürer's Lost Masterpiece
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This book is about the celebrated German artist Albrecht Dürer (1471–1528), his time, and his legacy. It tracks the history of a crucial, and often overlooked, turning point in his career, when Dürer stopped painting altarpieces after falling out with the Frankfurt merchant Jakob Heller over a commission. The story of this painting, as Dürer’s lost masterpiece, functions as a lens through which to view the new relationship developing between art, collecting, and commerce in Europe up to the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48) when global trade and cultural exchanges were increasing. At the heart of the book is the argument that merchants, and their mentalities, were crucial for the making of Renaissance art and its legacy for modern art. The book draws on a decade of research, and uniquely draws the reader into the rich emotional worlds of three merchants each of whom typified the evolving relationship between art and commerce in that entrepreneurial and often ruthless age. It brings to life Dürer’s determined fight for creative makers to be adequately paid, and explores the big questions about how European societies came to value the arts and crafts that remain relevant to our time.
What Few Can Do
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The first part of the book is structured around the relationship between the artist and the merchant Jakob Heller and their unique correspondence. Nine of Dürer’s letters to Heller survive, more than from almost any other artist to their patron in the Renaissance. These famous letters reveal that Dürer fought a historical battle to assert the value of art. Heller proved stronger. Scarred and angry, Dürer moved on, abandoning altarpieces to create commercially viable works. After working for Heller, Dürer chose to solely mass-market exceptionally skilled work through reproductions in prints and produce quickly achieved paintings. His relationship with Heller thus legitimately points to one of the origins of modern art. This brief chapter introduces Heller’s commission and its meaning for Dürer.
Apelles AD
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter explores the value of paintings in the Italian and German Renaissance to underline how artists we now revere for their achievements often were paid a pittance. It looks at strategies Italian artists developed to increase their pay and argues that Dürer encountered these in Venice and aimed to apply them back in Germany. These strategies can be discerned from contracts as well as from letters, and they were likely subject to much conversation among aspiring artists. Key decisions about the design or execution might only be taken in the course of the process of working on a painting.
Colour
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
The meanings of materials for painting are further brought out through a focus on how colours were created to be brilliant and lasting. Albrecht Dürer had put in tremendous effort to master this knowledge, and to communicate his ideas through the ways in which he used colours. In subsequent letters he tried to communicate this to Heller in order to justify his demands for better pay. We tend to think of Dürer primarily as a creator of black-and-white prints; this chapter shows how important colours were for him and how they were linked to medicinal and religious ideas about healing.
Delivering
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
1 Over the course of 1508, the drama between Albrecht Dürer and Jakob Heller intensified. Dürer threatened not to complete the commission unless he was paid more and was ready to return his advance. He finally delivered the central panel for the altarpiece in 1509, and with a full set of instructions for Heller. This chapter maps out how Heller and his wife might have felt about their altarpiece, and argues that their relationship with the artist ended at this point. It analyses Dürer´s instructions and argues that these underline how important the artwork was for him. He continued to feel underpaid, and had reached the end of his struggles with the Frankfurt merchant.
Becoming Lutheran
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
This chapter shows that the new tastes for rare curiosities from around the globe became ever more relevant as the Reformation gained hold and questioned the value of many subjects of religious art and the role of art in churches. German painters faced declining opportunities. The chapter tells the story of how the Reformations gathered support in Nuremberg and in Frankfurt, both of which turned into Lutheran cities. Heller’s altar escaped the fury of iconoclast attacks. Dürer sided with some Lutheran ideas, but the chapter argues that he crucially did not share the movement’s broad hostility towards merchants. His confrontation with Heller turned Dürer more determinedly into a commercially minded artist himself.
The Court of Bavaria
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
We know much about the rise of Renaissance art as part of the rise of luxury consumption in Italy and the Netherlands. Yet German research has only recently begun to fully address the shape of the art market throughout the sixteenth century and into the age of the Thirty Years’ War (1618–48)—and it was during this latter part of the period that Dürer’s standing as an internationally recognized painter was confirmed. The history of German culture in this period has traditionally focused on the heights of humanism and on Luther’s breakthrough at the beginning—a dynamic culture of debate that ‘gradually faded away’ through confessional struggles and insular divisions among Germany’s many territorial states. It can appear like a cultural story ending with the literary revival of Goethe’s time, but nothing in the middle. This chapter shows how the history of material culture changes this account. Cultivated merchants turned into Europe’s tastemakers.
Networks for Success
Authors: Rublack Ulinka 
Published: July 2023

Abstract
Although master painting had become more important to some collectors, Hainhofer exemplifies how German crafts culture and art lovers continued to thrive on their excitement about exquisite natural rarities, such as shells; technically sophisticated mechanisms; or entertainments. This chapter offers an unparalleled study of how an art agent built the networks that would ensure an internationally successful career. It details the prices such rarities commanded and how they were acquired in the early phase of the Dutch expansion. Many of these rarities were labelled goods from “India” in collections. Evidence from Hainhofer’s correspondence points to some of the locales they originated from and provides evidence of how they were traded in Europe.