bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Estimating the Size of Illicit Tobacco Market in Lithuania: Results from the Discarded Pack Collection Method
Authors: Liutkutė-Gumarov Vaida , Galkus Lukas , Miščikienė Laura , Petkevičienė Janina , Štelemėkas Mindaugas , Telksnys Tadas , Vaitkevičiūtė Justina , Ross Hana 
Published: January 2023

Abstract

Introduction
For decades in Lithuania, the threat of illicit trade has been used to weaken evidence-based tobacco-control policies and to undermine efforts to reduce smoking prevalence and its attributable burden, while also depriving the government of much-needed tax revenue. The aim of this study is to estimate the size of the illicit cigarette market in Lithuania using data from a nationally representative discarded pack collection.

Aims and Methods
The study employed a two-stage cluster design by first randomly selecting 65 well-defined population settlements (30 cities and 35 townships), representing both urban and rural areas, in all 10 counties in Lithuania. Next, we randomly selected 358 polling districts within these settlements. Each polling district had one route along which discarded packs were collected between September 2019 and 2020.

Results
In total, 28.9% (95% CIs = 27.7 to 30.1) of discarded cigarette packs were classified as illicit. The vast majority (90.1%) of illicit packs originated from Belarus with most (86.9%) packs produced in the Grodno Tobacco Factory Neman. Tax stamps were present on 93.6% of legal packs and also on 76% of illegal packs.

Conclusions
Data from this study suggest that the illicit cigarette trade in Lithuania is more widespread than indicated by other methods and primarily supplied by the neighboring Belarus state-owned tobacco factory in Grodno. This signals the need to adopt Belarus-specific border control and security measures.

Implications
This study presents data from the first national industry-independent study on illicit tobacco trade in Lithuania using discarded cigarette pack collection method. As customs seizure data show, our results also indicate that the illicit cigarette market is primarily supplied by Belarus state-owned Grodno Tobacco Factory Neman known for filling Europe with cheap cigarettes. An estimate derived from this study is higher than both the industry-independent estimate obtained by the survey method and the estimates offered by the tobacco industry. This adds to the evidence that the difference in estimates obtained by different methods reflects the strengths and weaknesses of each. The study also demonstrates the impact of a rogue neighbor on the illicit market in an adjacent country and offers suggestions on how to address it.
American Drug Use Quietly Escalates, 1842–1867
Authors: Gray Elizabeth Kelly 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Americans’ use of opiates escalated between 1842 and 1867, and while public attention to the topic was sporadic, commentators typically sympathized with white, middle-class users while doubting that people who were black or poor needed drugs. The temperance movement caused some drinkers to switch to opiates. Some ill and injured Civil War soldiers who took opiates became habituated. Primarily, however, increased use resulted from doctors prescribing them to middle-class women. Some elite women used chloroform. Ill health became almost fashionable. And while many people believed that a person could end drug use by summoning willpower, those who knew habitués personally tended to sympathize with them. Views formed along lines of race and class. News stories implied that poor drug users schemed to acquire opiates, although many impoverished users were honest. And slave owners doubted enslaved people’s assertions that they were ill, thus rejecting the notion that they could need opiates.
The Global Context, 1774–1862
Authors: Gray Elizabeth Kelly 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Pleasure-seeking and habitual drug use was largely hidden in the United States until the 1860s, and many early Americans, including doctors, learned about it primarily from European travelers’ descriptions of such use in parts of Africa, Asia, and the Middle East. Some wrote of people using opium and cannabis to forget their troubles, enjoy the effects, or allay hunger, and others likened the use to that of tobacco or alcohol. Still others described drug dependency, tolerance, and withdrawal. The information enhanced medical knowledge, and American newspapers carried it because it intrigued readers. Some information was inaccurate, such as suggestions that opium habitués could be identified on sight and that all addicted users died young. Although some noted that drug use could enhance endurance, many associated widespread nonmedical drug use by these non-Western populations with an apparent lack of productivity and concluded that extensive nonmedical drug use prevented the societies’ progress.
The Drug Trade and Habitual Use in China, 1804–1881
Authors: Gray Elizabeth Kelly 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
China tried to end widespread opium smuggling in 1839, Great Britain declared war in response, and Americans who followed news of the First Opium War learned about the international drug trade and the consequences of widespread habituation. Great Britain was determined to continue the trade because the government depended on sales of opium, which was produced in India. Many Americans back home were disappointed that Great Britain, a predominantly Christian nation, would go to war to preserve the pernicious traffic, while the non-Christian Chinese adopted a moral stance. Most American merchants who were in China sold opium but, for the most part, prevented their involvement from becoming widely known back home. They justified their participation by suggesting that smoking opium was akin to drinking alcohol, pointing out that some Chinese officials participated in the commerce, and asserting that someone else would sell it if they did not.
Music for Prime Time
Authors: Burlingame Jon 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This meticulously researched and anecdote-filled chronicle is the first serious examination of the history of original music for television in America (and a number of programs that originated in England but became hits in the US). Drawing on hundreds of interviews with composers, producers, music editors, and music supervisors, it follows the history of this unique musical form—both themes and dramatic scores—from the earliest days of the medium until today. Each chapter focuses on a different TV genre (dramas, comedies, action-adventure, science-fiction and fantasy, animation, news and documentaries, TV-movies and miniseries, etc.) and, largely through the words of the songwriters and composers themselves, traces the evolution of television music, from the earliest days of the medium through today’s cable and streaming offerings. Rare and, in some cases, previously unseen photographs and illustrations, help to tell the story. Rare musical examples, in the original composer’s hands, from “Peter Gunn” to “Twilight Zone,” are also included. Interviews with every major composer (and many minor ones) in TV music history are included, from Henry Mancini and John Williams to Jerry Goldsmith and Lalo Schifrin; the contributions of such leading contemporary film composers as Thomas Newman, James Newton Howard, and Michael Giacchino are included.
English Vocabulary Elements
Authors: Leben William R. , Kessler Brett , Denning Keith 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This unique textbook is designed to help the student acquire an understanding of learned, specialized, and scientific vocabulary using the tools of modern linguistics. It builds familiarity with over 350 Latin and Greek word elements in English, which are the building blocks for thousands of different words. As background to building skills for word analysis, the book introduces and offers practice with many of the fundamental concepts of linguistics. Tracing the history of English words back to their origins, the book describes important changes in sound and meaning as the language evolved; it also comments on issues faced by speakers whose language is constantly changing. This book will be useful to upper level high school students, undergraduates in English, linguistics, and classics departments, ESL students, and anyone interested in building vocabulary skills.
Usage and Variation
Authors: Leben William R. , Kessler Brett , Denning Keith 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter examines issues that arise in speech communities in response to changes in the language. Some usages are more appropriate for formal contexts than for informal ones, while usages out of place in formal contexts may be perfectly fine in informal ones. Schooling tends to accord formal styles a privileged status over others, while a great deal of change comes from the language spoken more casually. While the singular noun English encourages us to view the language as a single, unified speech form, this has never been so. A standard language is a set of linguistic norms established by some generally accepted political or social authority. But different speech communities can have different standards, leading to greater variety across English dialects. Furthermore, each dialect by itself encompasses a variety of “standards,” depending on whether we are speaking or writing and to whom. Writing is generally more conservative, while oral language changes far more readily—to the dismay of those who prefer to leave things as they are.
Addressing Health Inequities in People with Serious Mental Illness
Authors: Cabassa Leopoldo J. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
People with serious mental illness (SMI, e.g., schizophrenia, bipolar disorder) die at a younger age than people in the general population largely due to preventable medical conditions like cardiovascular disease, cancer, and diabetes. This mortality gap has persisted for decades and continues to worsen despite advances in the access to and quality of medical care for the general population. A Call to Action focuses on answering two questions: Why do people with SMI die at an earlier age than those in the general population without these disorders? And what can be done to address these deadly health inequities? This book draws from existing research conducted by the author’s team and others who are trying to understand the factors that shape the physical health of people with SMI and describes interventions, programs, and policies aimed at improving the health of this underserved population. The book goes beyond the data and the numbers and presents stories of people who live, struggle, and cope with SMI and physical health problems. It also tells the stories of clinicians, researchers, and policymakers who work to address these health disparities. The book strives to balance the presentation of scientific data, case studies, and personal narrative to raise awareness and foster compassion for this overlooked public health crisis and discuss ways to solve it.
Turing’s question
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The reader is introduced to the problem of building artificial general intelligence (AGI). There is a discussion about how AGI research offers the promise of general theories for neuroscience and cognitive science. The chapter introduces the debate between optimists, who believe that AGI is possible soon, and the pessimists, who believe that it is unlikely or impossible. The chapter surveys recent progress in the field, starting from the rise of deep learning systems for image recognition and machine translation, and then discusses more recent advances in natural language processing (NLP) and reinforcement learning (RL).
The nature of intelligence
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces the question of how we might define an intelligent agent, and the overlooked centrality of this question for artificial general intelligence (AGI) research. It considers that whilst some human individuals may have superlative abilities in some domains, such as maths or reasoning, most people show remarkable versatility across a wide range of situations. It discusses the history of psychometric testing, and the difficulty of measuring intelligence in an unbiased fashion in the lab. Turning to artificial intelligence (AI) research, the lack of robustness of current AI systems is considered and counterpointed to human behaviour. Finally, the question of whether the nature of human intelligence is relevant to the project of building AGI is introduced and discussed.
The structure of knowledge
Authors: Summerfield Christopher 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
The chapter begins by considering the ways in which information is represented in memory, and how memories can be formed and represented in networks of neurons. It outlines the history of research into connectionist models, beginning with the perceptron. The chapter considers the success of neural networks, including deep convolutional neural networks, in explaining the representations in primate sensory systems. It discusses supervised and self-supervised approaches to concept learning. The chapter concludes by considering the relative roles of primate dorsal and ventral streams in visual perception, and the need to build artificial intelligence systems with a sense of space.
Zoom, Gloom, and the Workroom
Authors: Joshi Mahesh , Rastogi Gaurav , Klein J.R. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Business scholars and pundits have spent decades speculating how the workforce would change as technology’s disruptive influence continues to play out. One of the changes discussed in those conversations was the concept of working remotely. The emergence of cloud workers was the harbinger of the idea and, even in its infancy, was fast beginning to change thinking about working in place and the foundations of the workforce model. As repetitive tasks were increasingly the domain of automation, the future of work has been a topic of much debate. Then came COVID-19. This unplanned, unwanted, and unexpected pandemic event did much more than increase the level of the conversation; it forced workers and theorisers into the middle of the future.
Collective Preferences, Obligations, and Rational Choice
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Someone may say, “Our family prefers to take our holidays by the shore.” Such commonplace locutions raise the question: What is a collective preference? This chapter defends a joint commitment account of collective preferences as understood in everyday life, in response to doubts expressed by economist Robert Sugden. First, it argues that collective preferences entail obligations of the parties, discussing the kinds of reactions those with a collective preference are likely to evince when one of them acts in ways liable to prevent the satisfaction of that preference. These responses express an understanding that the person in question was obligated to the others to act in ways expressive of the collective preference, an understanding that person is likely to share. Second, it argues that one can validly argue from a premise about what we collectively prefer to a conclusion about what I ought to do, all else being equal, without reference to what I personally prefer. It is emphasized that neither the “oughts” nor the obligations to others associated with collective preferences need be the last word as to what a given person ought to do, all things considered. In concluding, the chapter connects the foregoing discussion with aspects of the theory of rational choice.
Can a Wise Society Be a Free One?
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter invokes the idea of a wise society, something that has received little attention in contemporary social and political philosophy, though it was of considerable interest to Plato, for example. It argues that given certain plausible interpretations of the relevant terms, the wiser a society is, the less free it is. Even if one prefers a different account of a wise society, the argument is significant, for on this account a wise society has a feature that is likely to be considered good in itself: it makes many true value judgments. But what is it for a society to make a true value judgment? An account is proposed, and it is argued that on this account there is an important sense in which the more true value judgments a society makes, the less free it is. A number of questions that may be prompted by this argument are then discussed.
Regarding A Theory of Political Obligation
Authors: Gilbert Margaret 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter begins with a brief overview of the author’s book A Theory of Political Obligation (2006) and goes on to address a number of questions about it from several commentators. Topics addressed include the reasonableness of thinking of political societies as constituted by one or more joint commitments, the content of any such constitutive commitments, the possibility of “signing on” to a joint commitment, the nature of the obligations of joint commitment and their relationship to moral requirements, the fact that the author’s theory of political obligation relates to the obligations of joint commitment as opposed to moral requirements, and the relationship of the theory to “actual contract” theories of political obligation.
A Virtuous Circle Beyond the State in Afghanistan
Authors: Stollenwerk Eric 
Published: January 2023

AbstractChapter 6 analyses the International Security Assistance Force’s (ISAF) involvement in Afghanistan as an external actor in the security sector. Afghanistan, as an empirical case, differs from Sub-Saharan Africa in numerous respects, and functions as a plausibility probe for the findings from Chapters to 5. Chapter 6 focuses on the interplay between security perceptions and ISAF’s legitimacy as an external actor. This part of the study analysed survey data for more than 3,800 Afghans in eighty villages from Northeast Afghanistan for the years 2009 to 2013. The results show that a virtuous circle of governance existed for ISAF in Afghanistan. Afghans who felt secure and attributed their security explicitly to ISAF were also more likely to view ISAF as legitimate. This underscores the relevance of effective governance as a source of legitimacy for external actors and supports arguments of output-based legitimacy. On the other hand, Afghans who viewed ISAF as legitimate were also more likely to feel safe, supporting arguments that anticipate a positive confirmation bias for people viewing governance actors as legitimate. Together with Chapter 5, Chapter 6 emphasizes that virtuous circles of governance can exist for external and non-state actors in areas of limited statehood. Chapter 6 also stresses the diversity of sources that contribute to the legitimacy of external actors like ISAF and to effective governance. Moreover, this chapter shows that virtuous circles of governance are possible even for governance tasks with high complexity such as security.
Theodor W. Adorno and the Negativist Paradigm of Critical Theory
Authors: Ibsen Malte Frøslee 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Chapter 3 offers a reconstruction of Theodor W. Adorno’s negativist paradigm of critical theory, which is methodologically grounded in his attempt to free dialectics from Hegel’s affirmative and system-building embrace and unleash negative dialectics as an open-ended remembrance of suppressed non-identity. This method is put to practice in his and Horkheimer’s dark masterpiece, the Dialektik der Aufklärung, which interprets human history and the enlightenment project as a long struggle to wrest power over human life from nature’s hands that ultimately reverts into blind human domination of not only external nature but also inner human nature as well as other human beings, culminating in the collapse of enlightened civilization into fascist barbarism, total war, and the gas chambers of Auschwitz. Moreover, Adorno also develops an exceedingly bleak sociological account of late-capitalist society, which sees individual subjects in thrall to all-powerful and pervasive forces of social heteronomy through the administered world and a universal system of delusion—maintained, in part, by the culture industry’s reduction of art to the manipulation of needs. The chapter argues that Adorno’s work is animated by a firm albeit dialectical normative commitment to a conception of freedom as autonomy and Mündigkeit, which calls for an individual ethics of resistance to social heteronomy and a mimetic reconciliation with nature that can only, however, be grasped at in our present, comprehensively reified form of life.
An accidental biblical archaeologist?
Authors: Dark Ken 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter tells the story of how the author became involved in the archaeology of Nazareth, and especially how he came to direct fieldwork from 2006 to 2010 on the famous ‘House of Jesus’ at the Sisters of Nazareth site. This is a more personal account of the project than any previously published extended description, discussing the background and initial establishment of the author’s archaeological research project on Nazareth and its immediate surroundings (the Nazareth Archaeological Project) in narrative form. It also corrects media and other misconceptions about the motivation and rationale for this project, and the sort of people involved in it.
Archaeology and first-century Nazareth
Authors: Dark Ken 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Exploring what the evidence considered in this book tells us about first-century Nazareth, this chapter discusses how little we know about Nazareth as a place from written sources. Archaeological research is shown to have produced much more information about the physical form of the first-century settlement at Nazareth, its everyday life, culture, and economy. The possible identification of the Sisters of Nazareth site with Jesus’ childhood home is then considered, including a brief consideration of the historical evidence for Jesus and the possible implications of such an identification. This concludes with the author’s view that it is currently impossible either to prove or refute the interpretation that this was the house where Jesus was brought up. Nevertheless, archaeological evidence and interpretation shed much new light on first-century Nazareth as a whole and in this way give a new understanding of Jesus’ Nazareth.
Projection and Information as Explanations for the Perceptual Bias
Authors: Walgrave Stefaan , Soontjens Karolin , Sevenans Julie 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter zooms in on a psychological explanation for the inaccuracy of politicians’ public opinion perceptions and right-wing bias, namely their tendency to “project”—that is: to let their perceptions of public opinion be influenced by their own opinions. The chapter finds that Belgian politicians’ own opinion indeed affects their public opinion estimation, and that this partially explains the perceptual inaccuracy of politicians whose preferences do not match those of the(ir) voters. Yet, projection cannot account for the general right-wing bias because even left-wing politicians estimate the public to be more right-wing than it actually is. Therefore, the chapter moves on to more general explanations: it argues that the success of right-wing parties and their leaders, the potential right-wing bias in the traditional press, combined with the right-wing representation of public opinion present on social media, may be driving politicians’ joint understanding of the public as being right-wing.
Balance laws of forces and moments for small deformations
Authors: Anand Lallit , Kamrin Ken , Govindjee Sanjay 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter covers special considerations that arise when deformation gradients are known to be very small, as occurs in many practical engineering situations. Simplifications of the differential equations that arise from the small deformation gradient assumption are carefully presented. These are then applied to the strain-displacement relations and the equations of motion.