bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Gandhi, Mohandas Karamchand (1869–1948)
Authors: Dalton Dennis 
Published: August 2023

AbstractGandhi was best known as “Mahatma,” an honorific title meaning “Great Soul,” bestowed on him by people of India because of his reputation for self‐sacrifice and saintly conduct. The term is not usually given to politicians, but Gandhi earned it even before 1919 when he assumed leadership of the Indian struggle for independence from British colonial rule. Born on October 2, 1869 in the city of Porbandar on the western coast of India, his family was relatively affluent but of the vaisya caste which ranks third in the hierarchical order of Hindu society. He graduated from an anglicized high school in 1887 at the nearby town of Rajkot, having married four years earlier to Kasturbai Makanji (1869–1944) when they were both only 13. They eventually had four sons: Harilal (1888), Manilal (1892), Ramdas (1897), and Devadas (1900). As Gandhi makes clear in his autobiography, his personal life remained intimately interwoven with his career as a social and political reformer. His immediate family not only joined in his causes, but went to jail with him.
Gender and Sex
Authors: Hancock Ange‐Marie 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The questions surrounding sex, gender, and their perceived or ideal roles in politics can be traced as far back as the origins of western political thought. Perceived differences between men and women have been attributed to a variety of origins as a justification for certain kinds of political relations between men, women, and their government. Moreover, the sphere of influence traditionally associated with men and the sphere of influence traditionally associated with women have been afforded differential material value based on two claims: first, the conventional contemporary wisdom regarding the origins of the differences, and, second, the extant role sex and later gender is expected to play in all aspects of human political life. This entry examines the evolution of conceptualizations of gender, explications of sex and gender differences and their origins, and the implications of both for classic questions of political theory, including conceptions of justice and equality, citizen–state relationship, and the “nature” of humanity and citizenship.
General Will
Authors: Williams David Lay 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
The general will is simultaneously one of the most celebrated and vilified concepts in modern political thought. As Patrick Riley has revealed, it had its origins as a theological concept in response to early modern questions surrounding soteriology, yet it was pregnant with political implications. Those political implications would have their greatest expression in the writings of Jean‐Jacques Rousseau. Through Rousseau's influence, the general will would find its way into the French Declaration of the Rights of Man, whereby it acquired infamous associations that made it the subject of spirited critiques in the nineteenth century, even as it remained in fashion in German political thought. Although it is less expressly the foundation of twentieth‐ and twenty‐first‐century political theories, its substantive values continue to inform and inspire both political criticism and political construction.
Genocide
Authors: Macleod Christopher 
Published: August 2023

AbstractGenocide is the “denial of the right of existence of entire human groups.” In its archetypal form, it is an act of mass murder, committed with the aim of destroying a population on the grounds of their nationality, ethnicity, race, or religion. Genocide is outlawed under Article 6 of the Rome Statute for the International Criminal Court, and “is generally taken to be amongst the most heinous of all acts, the “crime of crimes.”
Gleichschaltung
Authors: King Martha A. , King Jonathan S. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Gleichschaltung
, often rendered roughly as “coordination,” refers to an evolving legal, institutional, and cultural policy of the National Socialist regime of Germany (1933–1945) aimed at coordinating all aspects of German life with National Socialist ideology. Originally the term has a technical connotation (
Gleich
: same, equal;
Schaltung
: circuit, switch, wiring), as in the coordination of electrical devices to a uniform current or central switch. Like many terms adapted into the Nazi lexicon, it therefore had a euphemistic quality (the sense here being the coordination of subsidiary governments and German life in general to the ordering frequency of the regime).
Globalization
Authors: Steger Manfred B. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe English‐language origins of “globalization” can be traced back to the late 1920s but the term does not make its formal appearance until the 1951 edition of Webster's dictionary. Picked up by sociologist Roland Robertson in the early 1980s, “globalization” emerged in the early 1990s as a pivotal signifier in public debates relating to the expansion and intensification of social relations across world‐time and world‐space – the latest phase of a long historical process some thinkers like to characterize as “time–space compression.” “Globalization” surfaced as a buzzword because the tangibility and visibility of globally interrelated life called for a single word naming this interconnectedness. An analysis of some 8,000 newspapers, magazines, and reports worldwide attests to the tremendous acceleration of the frequency with which “globalization” was used. From a mere 2 in 1981, the number of items mentioning the term grew to 57,235 in 2001 and remained close to this level for the rest of the 2000s.
Government
Authors: Donald Moon J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBroadly speaking, to govern is to rule – to direct the actions of a body of people and to regulate their practices and forms of interaction– and the government is the institutions or system, through which a collectivity is ruled. In a broad sense, government is not political at least in a narrow sense of the term “political.” Thus, we speak of the government of a corporation (though nowadays a more common locution would be corporate governance) or ecclesiastical government. Often we use “government” to refer to the system of rule or type of regime, for example monarchical or republican government, and sometimes to refer to the individuals who occupy the most powerful decision‐making roles or offices. The idea of government is at the heart of political theory and the study of politics.
Governmentality
Authors: Sabadoz Cameron 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

Governmentality is a concept, developed by French theorist Michel Foucault, which refers to the “ensemble(s) formed by institutions, procedures, analyses and reflections, calculations, and tactics,” that shape and enable the practices of power in a given context. Governmentality highlights the ways in which power relations are influenced by our underlying expectations of what causes society's various problems, as well as by our understandings of how best to secure the ends of government. The neologism's linking of government (
gouvernement
) and mentalities (
mentalités
), serves to underline how studying practices of power demands an investigation of the rationalities supporting them. According to Foucault, his objective with governmentality was “to determine the way in which the domain of the practice of government, with its different objects, general roles, and overall objectives, was established so as to govern in the best possible way.” Drawing upon this approach, Foucault explored how a specific “art of government,” operating according to certain assumptions, has become standard since the eighteenth century in most of the west.
Gramsci, Antonio (1891–1937)
Authors: Howarth David 
Published: August 2023

AbstractBorn in Ales in the province of Cagliari in Sardinia in 1891, Antonio Gramsci was a Marxist theorist and militant, who made a lasting theoretical contribution to Marxist and non‐Marxist political thought. Having completed his education at Turin University in 1915, Gramsci joined the Italian Socialist Party (PSI) and turned his hand to journalism. In the spring of 1919, along with Palmiro Togliatti and others, Gramsci helped found the New Order (L'Ordine Nuovo), which gave expression to the Council Movement that had taken root in the industrial cities of northern Italy. Two years later he and others broke with the PSI to found the Italian Communist Party (PCI), with Gramsci becoming its general secretary in 1924. As a result of his continuing political activities, Gramsci was arrested in Rome in November 1926. In accordance with a series of “exceptional laws” enacted by the fascist‐dominated Italian legislature, he was committed to solitary confinement at the Regina Coeli prison. Suffering almost continuous physical pain and psychic torment, he endured a ten‐year term of imprisonment. He died in April 1937 from a cerebral hemorrhage, only a few days after he was released from prison.
Grote, John (1813–66)
Authors: Sweet William 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
John Grote was born in Beckenham, Kent, England, on 5 May 1813. He was the brother of the historian and “philosophical radical” George Grote. In 1831, he entered Trinity College, Cambridge, receiving a first‐class degree in mathematics and in classics (1835). A fellow of Trinity from 1837, he was ordained a priest (1844) in the Anglican church, and served as vicar at Trumpington, Cambridgeshire (1847–66). Grote succeeded William Whewell as Knightbridge Professor of Moral Philosophy at Cambridge (1855–66), influencing a generation of students including Henry Sidgwick and John Venn. His health, however, was fragile and he died at the age of 53 on 21 August 1866 at Trumpington, leaving a large number of manuscripts which were edited and published posthumously.
Guattari, Félix (1930–92)
Authors: MacKenzie Iain 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

French psychoanalyst, philosopher, and activist who came to international prominence through his collaborative work with Gilles Deleuze: L'
Anti‐Oedipe: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie
(1972),
Kafka: Pour une Littérature Mineure
(1975),
Mille Plateaux: Capitalisme et Schizophrénie 2
(1980), and
Qu'est‐ce que le Philosophie?
(1991). He also wrote several important sole‐authored texts including:
Psychanalyse et Transversalité
(1972),
L'Inconscient machinique
(1979),
Révolution Moléculaire
(1980),
Cartographies Schizoanalytiques
(1989),
Les trois écologies
(1989), and
Chaosmose
(1992). During his life he was central to the radical psychiatric clinic La Borde, numerous political associations of the French left, the Italian Autonomia group, and from the 1980s he was heavily involved in ecological politics.
Habit
Authors: Livingston Alexander 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
In his famous essay on laughter Henri Bergson describes habit as “something mechanical encrusted upon the living.” What this “something” is and how it relates to living, and to political living in particular, have been contested topics in the history of political thought. Defined in the broadest terms, habit is the acquired predisposition to act in certain ways as a result of past experience. The force of habit is the compulsion to repeat and re‐enact past behavior. It invokes both positive associations with memory, time, and custom, as well as negative connotations of determinism, conformity, and confinement. The latter are the result of a philosophical suspicion of habit invited by modern political theory's project of establishing a strictly rational moral and political order. And yet, as Bergson and many others have demonstrated, including prominent Enlightenment figures like John Locke and David Hume, while concepts like rationality, autonomy, and will seem to be opposed to the mechanical nature of habit, it is impossible to imagine a distinctively human example of them without giving a central role to habit.
Happiness
Authors: Soni Vivasvan 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Should happiness be an aim of public policy or legislation? Is it permissible for a state to take account of happiness when formulating its laws and policies? Is happiness the purpose or one of the purposes for constituting a polity? Indeed, is happiness even a political concept, or does it concern matters that are so private that they should remain beyond the reach of politics? This entry addresses these questions as simultaneously historical (on what principles has a state been constituted?) and normative (by what right can happiness be an aim of politics?).
Haraway, Donna J. (1944–)
Authors: Hsueh Vicki 
Published: August 2023

AbstractDonna J. Haraway is an influential feminist theorist and philosopher of politics, gender, science, and technology. Her works have challenged longstanding assumptions about the nature of power, gender, and knowledge in scientific and industrial development, and have provoked new thinking on the role of technology, genetics, and evolution in contemporary political and social life.
Harrington, James (1611–77)
Authors: Sullivan Vickie B. 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Born in Northamptonshire, England during the reign of King James I, James Harrington lived through the English civil wars to become a political thinker who wrote of both the desirability and the necessity of a republic to govern his homeland. In making his case, Harrington draws and comments on a large array of prior political thinkers, both ancient – such as Cicero, Aristotle, Livy, Polybius, and Plutarch – and modern – such as Niccolò Machiavelli, Thomas Hobbes, and Francis Bacon; as well as on republics, both ancient – such as the commonwealth of Israel, Sparta, Rome – and modern – such as Venice, Holland, and Switzerland. Harrington's republican thought exerted a wide influence in England, France, and America. It had long garnered scholarly attention because of Harrington's distinctive materialist interpretation of political history: he declares that the manner in which the possession of land is distributed within a state dictates the type of government that a state can support.
Hart, H. L. A. (1907–92)
Authors: Gardner John 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

H. L. A. Hart was Professor of Jurisprudence at Oxford from 1952 to 1969. Influenced in his early work by the “ordinary language” philosophy of J. L. Austin, Hart is widely credited with having revitalized Anglophone philosophy of law. In
The Concept of Law
(1961), he argues that a legal system is a system of rules which belong to that system because they meet conditions set by the system's “ultimate rule of recognition.” This rule is always customary, never legislated. It is made by the accumulated acts of officials (mainly judges) who think they are applying the rule of recognition but in the process gradually and accidentally develop it. This is sometimes said, not least by Hart himself, to be a “legal positivist” view. However, the label can mislead. “Legal positivism” is often associated with the idea that all law is legislated, that is, deliberately and explicitly made. Hart attacks this idea. Yet he agrees that all law is made. His point is that some law is made accidentally and/or implicitly.
Herodotus (5th century BCE)
Authors: Thompson Norma 
Published: August 2023

AbstractHerodotus (5th centurybce), known as the “father of history” in the western world, was born in Halicarnassus (modern‐day Bodrum, Turkey).The Historyis his account of the Greco‐Persian wars which occurred in 490 and 480–479bceand which saw the city‐states of Athens and Sparta defeat the imperial armies under great kings Darius and Xerxes of Persia. Herodotus demonstrates that it is the compelling stories that people tell about themselves that become the core of their political community. He attends to questions of political regimes through his patterning of life stories rather than through abstract analysis. He accepts hearsay – stories true and untrue, myths, opinions – as vital evidence for explaining what happened in the past. His narrative not only captures the cultures and personalities of those living around the Mediterranean and Black Sea, but also serves as a direct cautionary message to Athens about its own imperial longings.
Hobbes, Thomas (1588–1679)
Authors: Schulman Alex 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe English philosopher Thomas Hobbes was born into the middling sector of provincial Malmesbury, the son of a minor clergyman (an alcoholic who left his family) and a farmer's daughter. “My mother gave birth to twins: myself and fear,” he wrote, locating his birth pangs in the panic that gripped England in 1588 as the Spanish Armada approached. Indeed, the political experience of fear, its causes and consequences, would be a central concern of his masterpieceLeviathan(1651). Hobbes's basic project, as he outlines it in bothDe civeandLeviathan, is to make the study of collective human affairs more like a science – “science” not only in the sense of a coherent body of knowledge but in the (then) more contested sense of a methodical study that could produce infallibly demonstrable results.
Hobhouse, Leonard Trelawny (1864–1929)
Authors: Freeden Michael 
Published: August 2023

Abstract

L. T. Hobhouse was a social philosopher and journalist and one of the most important liberal theorists of the early twentieth century. He was the first professor of sociology at the London School of Economics as well as for many years a prodigious leader writer and book reviewer for the important liberal newspaper, the
Manchester Guardian
. This typified the ease with which Hobhouse moved between high theory and concrete involvement in the social and political issues of the day, reflecting his belief in the unity of thought and action and the interconnectedness of social phenomena.
Holism
Authors: Ralston Shane J. 
Published: August 2023

AbstractHolismis the notion that all of the elements in a system, whether physical, biological, social, or political, are interconnected and therefore should be appreciated as a whole. Consequently, the meaning or function of the total system is irreducible to the meaning or function of one or more of the system's constituent elements. The termholismwas coined by South African statesman and scholar Jan Smuts. Etymologically, it comes from a Greek root meaning “total,” “whole,” “entire,” or “everything.” In political thought, the idea is commonly associated with organicism, the view that the state is a living whole (the so‐called “body politic”) and therefore studies of its structure and functions should be treated systematically rather than piecemeal. While there are many varieties of holism, holists generally believe that the whole or system has priority to the parts or elements. As will be seen, holism has methodological, explanatory, multiculturalist, monist, antifoundationalist, and antirepresentationalist modes, and plays a prominent role in postmodernist, American pragmatist, modernization, and systems theories.
Holmes, Jr., Oliver Wendell (1841–1935)
Authors: Carrese Paul 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Oliver Wendell Holmes was an American jurist, justice of the US Supreme Court (1902–32), and a founder of “legal realism” – defining law as a strictly historical construct buffeted by politics, without grounding in natural law or impartial logic. Holmes led a transformation of both American common law and judicial power; his writings and judicial opinions thus inform contemporary debates in America (and beyond) about judicial activism and constitutional interpretation. Holmes and his supporters redefined common law, by the mid‐twentieth century, as “case law” and “judge‐made law,” thus as more relevant for social reform and progress.
Human Rights
Authors: James Stephen 
Published: August 2023

AbstractHuman rights – strong, universal moral claims for a dignified life, possessed by people simply on the basis that they are human beings – emerged, developed, and evolved in different ways, at different paces, and in different parts of the world through struggle, contemplation, and critique over the last eight centuries. Human rights have a significant place in political thought for a number of reasons: since the eighteenth century they have been models for bills of rights and for the limitation of government in the liberal constitutional tradition; they have been part of progressive social movements against racism and sexism, especially since the twentieth century; they have been pivotal to debates in political and moral philosophy (for example, over whether torture is objectively and universally wrong or simply relative to culture); and they have contributed to the development of international law's modest restraint – for example, through international humanitarian and criminal law – of state sovereignty. Human rights are also crucial matters for debate between international relations theorists such as realists (who tend to consider them disguises for national self‐interest), liberals (who seek to protect them through interstate agreements), and cosmopolitans (who use them to try to loosen the bonds of national sovereignty and humanize global politics).
Humanitarianism
Authors: James Stephen 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
“Humanitarianism,” a word that came into common use in England in the nineteenth century, describes a family of concepts, principles, convictions, beliefs, emotions, practices, and organizations associated with saving human lives and reducing human suffering in contexts as diverse as war, genocide, famine, and natural disaster. Classically, humanitarianism is about the provision of life‐saving relief to anyone in need regardless of politics, religion, and ideology. When assisting those in need – at home, or more often abroad – humanitarians have generally aimed to be non‐partisan (if not apolitical), as well as egalitarian and cosmopolitan.
Hutcheson, Francis (1694–1746)
Authors: Hill Lisa 
Published: August 2023

Abstract
Francis Hutcheson (1694–1746) was Professor of Moral Philosophy at the University of Glasgow from 1729 to 1746. He is generally acknowledged as the “father” of the Scottish Enlightenment but his influence was not limited to Scotland. His thought informed the political thinking of the American Revolution partly because he endorsed the radical argument that, should government abuse its entrusted power, the people have the right of resistance. Hutcheson was also an early critic of slavery: in the original state of nature all are equal and since the desire for “liberty … property and … safety” is universal, there is “no right to assume power over others, without their consent.” These ideas made their way into American abolitionist discourses and underline that Hutcheson's political philosophy was more radical than that of his Scottish “moral sense” successors.
Ideal Types
Authors: Marcelino Daniel 
Published: August 2023

AbstractThe ideal types constitute one of the most important methodological legacies from Max Weber (1864–1920). As Weber made clear, ideal types are essentially schemes of conceptualization that serve as methodological instruments for comparing, classifying, and measuring social and historical phenomena. The word itself (Idealtypus) was borrowed from Georg Jellinek – a historian and Weber's compatriot. Nonetheless, Weber equipped the term with further constraints in order to avoid its normative sense. Hence, the word “ideal” in Weber's writings has nothing to do with the contemporary usage of the adjective “ideal” itself; rather it refers to the idea, or an analytical construct that does not express evaluations of any sort about the reality.