bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
Marché du travail et analyse de la répartition
Authors: Sellier François 
Published: August 2023

The labour market and an analysis of income distribution.
Modern theory has rendered the concept of the market, an adaptation by pure price relationships, infinitely more complex and makes it possible to use the labour market concept in a study of income distribution.
The problem of wage differentials may be studied in relation to the labour market if the latter is defined as an organized set of related prices.
The functional relationship between all wages during a short period of six years (1948 to 1953) in various industries in the United States brings out the factors of stability of differentials and homogeneity of inter-industry relationships which characterize the labour market. The latter appears as a groups of distinct categories which are nevertheless relatively competitive and inter dependant.
A general characteristic of wage payments is their arbitrary character. Neither the employer nor the trade union try ot attribute to the worker a known share of the value of the final product.
The arbitrary character of wage determination also appears in the fixing of minimum, socially desirable wage levels.
But the total volume of wage payments is a “strategic” factor because of its importance for the level of consumption demand. The concept of a labour market is less useful for the study of the share of wages in the national income.
Étude concrète de l'effet de domination
Authors: Voss-Lytton Annie 
Published: August 2023

Factual study of the domination impact : Unilever
Unilever is studied here as a pole of attraction in both the geographical and economic sense, and as a dominant firm whose influence on its competitors is only partly irreversible. Unilever's sphere of influence is worldwide, the firm-holds a dominant position in the markets for several products and its turnover amounted in 1951, to 9% of the National Income of the United Kingdom.
In this article, only the two main products of the firm, soap and margarine, are studied : Unilever is responsible for 50% and 75% respectively of the United Kingdom's output of these two products.
The dominant firm is usually able to impose its own conditions on its suppliers, so that total vertical concentration, implying ownership of raw material supplies, etc., is not always desirable. This proved to be the case for Unilever, and the firm has grown by a process of horizontal expansion. Lever first enlarged his own business, and then proceeded to eliminate his competitors on the national market. The final stage of the process was the merger with the Dutch firm Margarine Unie N. V. in 1929.
Despite the tendency to price rigidity in an oligopolistic industry, the constant struggle for domination leads the oligopolist to bid for a larger proportion of the market, either by lowering his prices, which may be dangerous, or by intense publicity campaigns. The importance attached to the latter by Lever himself is still characteristic of Unilever today, but the lack of detailed figures makes it impossible to prove the existence of any price leadership in either the soap or the margarine industry.
Restrictions sur les échanges et les paiements internationaux
Authors: Reddaway William Brian 
Published: August 2023

Discussions on convertibility cannot avoid considering at one and the same time restrictions on international trade and payments. In particular , the concrete results of decisions taken in one of these two fields can only be perceived in the light of their effects on the other.
The role of international agreements on the abolition of trade and pay¬ ments restrictions is discussed in relation to the work of the O. E. E. C. It is concluded that a country should choose its trade and payments policy taking into account the possibilities-offered by international agreements rather than acting unilaterally.
In any case , errors of judgment often result from the failure to consider the concrete results of policy decisions for the different categories of individuals or organizations directly affected by those decisions. The concept of the general interest of the country is insufficient. It may be noted, also, that the results of decisions taken by one country can depend largely upon decisions taken by other countries. The example of commodity shunting illustrates this.
Although there is a need for wider international discussion of all aspects of trade and payments problems it is likely that results will be achieved more rapidly through existing international organizations once the dimensions of the problems posed are realized.
Évolution récente et tendances de la politique monétaire aux États-Unis
Authors: Chandler Lester Vernon 
Published: August 2023

Recent trends in U. S. monetary policy
Since the inauguration, in March 1951, of the new flexible monetary policy in the United States, the Federal Reserve System has been struggling with the difficult task of evolving new objectives and policy guides in its task of exercising monetary control.
The agreement, in March 1951, between the Treasury and the Federal Reserve System gave the latter more freedom in its policy of supporting the government securities market and allowed more attention to be given to problems of employment, the level of production, and prices. Notably, it then became possible to envisage the use of a restrictive monetary policy to control inflationary tendencies.
As a result, the Federal Reserve Open Market Committee has given up its policy of according direct support to the market for long-term government securities both as regards new and outstanding issues and, today, concentrates attention on the short end of the market.
However, refraining from dealing in long-term government securities, does not lessen the effectiveness of Federal Reserve policy as regards the loan market, due to the sensitive response of the latter to conditions on the market for short term money. The Federal Reserve System has thus become more independent of the Treasury and, as a result, pays more attention to general economic conditions. The objectives of the System, in this respect, have been sumarized by Federal Reserve officials as being concerned with «achieving and maintaining maximum employment, a maximum sustainable rate of economic growth, and stable price levels».
In assessing the results achieved by the Federal Reserve System, it should be born in mind that the system, although independent of the Treasury, is extremely sensitive to the state of opinion in Congress and, as a result, in the country as a whole. Given the reduced tolerence, in the United States, for unemployment and the insistence on rapid economic growth, Federal Reserve officials have not failed to point out that the maintenance of stable prices is rendered more difficult. Rut it is impossible to say in advance what would be the outcome of a serious conflict between these objectives.
In the technical sphere, the Federal Reserve System has had to revise the instruments at its comand for implementing a flexible monetary policy. One result of this policy has been a reduced reliance on changes in legal reserve requirements of member banks. On the other hand, open-market operations and discount policy have become more important and are rendered more effective by the increase in member bank borrowing from the System and the maintenance of the tradition against continued indebtedness towards Federal Reserve banks.
It may be concluded that, unless economic problems become graver than they have been since 1951, main reliance will continue to be put upon Federal Reserve use of monetary policy. But a severe shump or inflation would render necessary other broader policy measures.
L'évolution et les tendances de la politique monétaire canadienne
Authors: Neufeld Edward Peter 
Published: August 2023

Evolution and trends of canadian monetary policy
Since 1950, Canada has made increasing use of monetary policy for the maintenance of economic stability. Immediate post-war policy stressed particularly non-monelary controls such as fiscal policy, cyclical budgeting and other types of built-in stabilizers. However, the persistance of inflation and the need to deal quickly with the, fairly mild, changes in economic activity met with after 1945 led to a revision of policy and renewed emphasis on monetary controls. Although the principle of anti-cyclical budget policy has been maintained by the Canadian government, past experience in this field is not entirely satisfactory.
The control of the central bank over the volume and cost of credit, already adequate as regards longterm interest rates, has been reenforced, since 1954, by the creation of a market for Treasury bills. The control of the Central bank over money-rates has been increased by the end, in 1950, of the policy of supporting the level of the government debt on the market. At the same time, the influx of short-term capital from the United Slates was instrumental in the decision to adopt a floating rate for the Canadian dollar. In 1956, Central bank control of bank credit was further reenforced by the obligation for commercial banks to keep 15 % of their deposits in the form of Treasury bills.
Recent experience in Canada is examined in the light of the new trend towards the use of monetary, rather than direct, controls.
The statistical and other evidence available suggests that Canadian banking authorities have been able to deal with the problems raised by the maintenance of economic stability. This is due to the institutional framework and its adaptation to the nature of the problems met with. It should not be concluded that monetary policy can do everything but certainly, in the context of Canadian experience during the last few years, it has been very successful.
Sur les énergies nouvelles et la croissance. Le coût de l'énergie nucléaire et l'analyse théorique du coût
Authors: Mouly Jean 
Published: August 2023

On new energy sources and economic growth the cost of nuclear energy and theoretical cost analysis.
The function of costs of production in determining the distribution of factors of production is only very imperfectly fulfdled whenever large-scale indivisible investments, external economies, joint production and new products are concerned. These are precisely the characteristics of the atomic energy industry. It is suggested that cost calculations on a national level, based upon accounting principles of an enterprise economy, are «unintelligible» economically.
The study is divided into two parts : in the first, an external criticism based on statistical evidence of cost calculations is presented. It is concluded that the wide divergences between the component elements of these calculations do not seem to prevent a close grouping of all results around the present cost of electricity produced from traditional sources. In the second, a theoretical appreciation of the efforts to estimate costs in nuclear energy production is presented. These efforts have less significance in terms of economic rationality calculations than as aspects of struggles for export markets between countries and, finally, of struggles between rival economic systems.
La vitesse de circulation de la monnaie et l'équilibre monétaire
Authors: Jong Frits Jacob de 
Published: August 2023

Velocity of circulation of money and monetary equilibrium
The work of Wicksell led to two lines of research : the modern theory of interest and the concept of monetary equilibrium. This article is concerned with the latter aspect. The author first defines the velocity of circulation and then proceeds to analyse the factors which influence it. He examines, in particular, the time interval between payments, the degree to which receipts and expenditures coincide, the role of the average number of economic units in the circular flow, and, finally , liquidity preference.
The preceeding analysis enables the author to examine the concept of monetary equilibrium, notably as it has been developed by J. G. Koopmans. This leads to a comparison with the Post-Keynesian concept of income equilibrium and to an exposition of the ideas developed by the Dutch economist, J. Zijlsira. He concludes that the definition of monetary equilibrium as being synonymous with monetary neutrality is incorrect. As regards practical policy, it should not be concluded that monetary equilibrium is a normative concept.
The objectives of monetary policy should not be divorced from the targets of general economic policy.
Dépenses de consommation, épargne et avoirs liquides
Authors: Cohen Morriss 
Published: August 2023

Consumer spending, saving and liquid assets
Many, frequently divergent, theoretical explanations have been presented of the influence of liquid assets on consumer spending and saving habits. The author sets out to test some of these theories against empirical evidence drawn from American experience.
It is found that liquid assets are highly concentrated in all income groups and that this distribution does not change much over time. As a result, only a few persons compared with all consumer units, hold most liquid assets. This being the case, the effect on overall spending of liquid assets cannot be considerable.
Because they are distributed in roughly the same way, the same argument may be applied to holdings of other types of financial assets. Going even further, it may be said that, net worth itself being highly concentrated, the same conclusion holds.
The second empirical test concerns the cyclical influence of price changes, via liquid assets, on the consumption function. In the 1930's there does not appear to have been any marked shift in the consumption function. From 1947 to 1948 the change observed is best considered as a once-for-all effect. It would seem that the Korean years do not furnish much support for liquid asset theories either.
Prix, profit et développement économique. Problèmes de l'optimum global
Authors: Gruson Claude 
Published: August 2023

Prices, profit and economic growth prorlems of the gloral optimum
Optimisation problems are now studied either in a partial equilibrium setting, or in highly abstract general theories inapplicable to economic reality. The value of the partial studies is limited by the assumptions they have to make about such things as prices and the behaviour of interest rates. Even greater problems arise if our concern is with medium or long term forecasting for the economy as a whole. If we begin from technological and sociological conditions, a wide range of equally plausible assumptions might be made about the evolution of such matters as technical development, the structure of consumption, external trade, etc. It is therefore necessary to compare the quantitative results that different assumptions ivould give, not in order to derive absolute criteria for policy but to specific questions.
The author uses such a procedure to examine the optimisation problems arising, first in an economy with perfect foresight, and then in one with imperfect foresight. In neither case can a firm basis be found for choosing between the different options which any model must leave open. In particular, we are left with two general questions : what system of prices should be used to make volume comparisons ? What interest rate should be used in calculations of present value ? In addition, if forecasting is imperfect, the econometric models we can use must necessarily be very rough, and it becomes impossible adequately to restrict the range of possible assumptions about such matters as the evolution of consumption. The author concludes that it might be possible to provide a firmer basis for forecasting over say, a five-year period, by greater systematisation of technical information. For longer periods, many important decisions must involve a gamble : at best, these decisions, once taken, might themselves be treated as the basis for optimisation calculations.
Intérêt, profit et accumulation du capital
Authors: Keirstead Burton Seely 
Published: August 2023

Interest, profit and accumulation
Having defined the terms to be used, the author proceeds to construct a system to show the relations which exist between interest, profit and accumulation. He suggests that entrepreneurs’ decisions regarding investment are the most important elements determining the rale of accumulation. These decisions depend, on the one hand, upon the degree of uncertainty, and on the other, upon profit expectations.
Even wealthy societies meet limits to the rate of accumulation they can achieve. The public may impose general limits under the headings of resistance to taxation, to inflation and to avertising. Other factor suppliers also restrict entrepreneurial exuberance. The trade unions are particularly important in this respect. Finally, entrepreneurs may limit their investments for precautionary motives.
The author concludes that a dichotomy exists in the theory of capital as regards the nature of the forces determining the rate of interest. The keyne-sian attempt at a synthesis gave too much importance to liquidity preference. A new synthesis is needed and the approach to it has been indicated in this article.
Essai de classement des applications de la théorie
Authors: Lesourne Jacques 
Published: August 2023

The applications of the theories presented in earlier articles are numerous, but any attempt to give them systematic classification meets considerable difficulties. This is because a determinate economic model can correspond to quite various concrete problems, and because, reciprocally, a single type of concrete problem can give rise to a large number of different models. Thus, the merit of the proposed classification, says the author, is simply that it replaces more simpliste classifications by one related to the fundemenlal properties of the problems concerned.
The proposed classification of decisions has eight groups, distinguished by their characteristics in relation to lime, probability, strategies or tactical nature, and concern with information.
Les obstacles à l’établissement d’un marché mondial des produits agricoles et des produits industriels
Authors: Royer Jean 
Published: August 2023

A free world market did not exist from the crisis of 1929-32 up to the end of the Second World War. Steps to re-establish such a market have been taken since 1947. While much remains to be done, the author argues that these steps have met with much success in some directions, but that progress has been less rapid in others.
In particular, industrial countries still refuse to accept the discipline of a world market in respect of agricultural products. Progress in this quarter requires that governments be brought to understand that free markets could have material advantages here as elsewhere ; the article examines these possible advantages, and the prospects for a favourable evolution of policies in the future.
Marché mondial et pays d’économie planifiée
Authors: Lacharrière Guy De 
Published: August 2023

The establishment of a world market, which requires a system of international exchanges , has so far been inhibited by the geographical limitation of the exchange area to countries outside the «socialist camp » countries. This taller group have not participated in IMF, and have participated in GATT only to a limited extent. But how can an exchange system with the true characteristics of a «market » be extended to incorporate such «planned » economies ?
Two possible methods are examined by the author : creation of a new world «commercial » organisation, to do in this field what U.N.O. tries to do in the political field, and UNESCO in the educational, scientific and cultural fields, and the extension of existing international organisations, perhaps at the cost of some amendment of their present statutes. The possibilities are examined both at the technical level and in relation to the existing attitudes of particular countries and groups.
Les transformations agraires
Authors: Dumont René 
Published: August 2023

The author first gives some statistics of the «unprecedented » growth of Chinese agrarian output, and then comments on the factors that have influenced that growth. These incorporate progress in the «arlificialisalion » of the natural environment (and particularly the development of water resources for agriculture), double harvests, deep ploughing and the improvement and development of such things as plantation and horticultural techniques. Alongside this, there have been organisational changes and notably a shift of emphasis and authority from the rural «Popular Commune » to the «Community ».
A final section assesses the causes and consequences of the success of Chinese policies, in contrast with those pursued for example in India and Africa. The author emphasises the importance of internal effort ; external help is useful but alone inadequate.
La révolution démographique en Chine
Authors: Pressat Roland 
Published: August 2023

It is only in recent years that reasonable demographic information about China has begun to become available. The author points to the wide disagreement that existed in 1930 as to the size of the Chinese population, and then examines the information provided by the 1953 census and by the first enquiries into birth and death rates. Policy towards population growth is next examined, and particularly the shift in attitude in 1958 from concern over the birth-rate and propaganda for contraception to the view that «a socialist position has no need for birth control ».
In the author’s view, the present demographic situation in China is such that public policy can be regarded as finally settled : the present rale of population expansion could generate serious problems as economic growth continues. On the other hand, the problem could resolve itself through adjustments in individual behaviour towards a pattern compatible with the process of economic change. Such a development would call for a revision of existing notions about over-population and under-development.
L'expérience de la "Cassa per il Mezzogiorno"
Authors: Di Nardi Giuseppe 
Published: August 2023

Regional Development Policy Southern Italy : A Case Study
The Author studies the new economic policy for Southern Italy , analysing its aims and its means and describing how the «Cassa per it Mezzogiorno » works. Subsequently the author tries to work out the impacts of the plan on agriculture , transportation, tourism and on private enterprise.
In a second part the author describes the different stages of the plan, its influence on infrastructures and the way in which subventions to private enterprises are to be used.
In a third part the author assesses what the effects of this new policy could be on equipment in general, on the starling of a process of autonomous developments, on the relative position of Southern Italy versus more advanced regions.
La répartition des inventions dans l'industrie
Authors: Schmookler Jacob 
Published: August 2023

The Industrial Distribution of Invention
What influences invention ? To what extent are the inventive efforts of men allocated in accordance with the ripeness of knowledge of various fields, to what extent in accordance with economic opportunités and pressures, and to what extent are they affected by a thousand of fortuitous factors ?
The accumulated evidence of the author’s continuing research in this field suggests the general dominance of economical factors.
It is the fact that inventions are intended for economic use that assures that economic considerations play a large and probably a dominant role in directing inventive effort.
The author thinks that perhaps the best evidence on the course of inventive activity within individual industries consists of the author’s statistics, to be published later, of U.S. patents granted for many different industries.
In brief, leaving random elements aside, the direction and volume of inventive effort appears to be jointly determined by the slate of knowledge and economic circumstances.