bluuebunny/crossref_metadata_2025_split huggingface dataset:
A Typology of Reference Systems
Authors: Frajzyngier Zygmunt 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThe term ‘reference system’ designates all functions within the grammatical system of a given language that indicate whether the addressee(s) should identify the referents of participants in the proposition and, if so, how they should identify the referents. Reference systems are a part of the semantic structure encoded in the grammatical system, and the study of reference systems contributes to the description of the semantic structure of individual languages. The present book offers a non-aprioristic typology of reference systems of typologically or genetically distinct languages including English, Mandarin, non-literate Russian, Polish, six Chadic languages spoken in Cameroon, Nigeria, and Chad, and a dozen Sino-Russian idiolect spoken in the far east of Russia for which no genetic relationship can be established. The analyses identify major functional domains, subdomains, and individual functions which enable the identification of participants in a proposition in individual languages. The book identifies the most frequent and least frequent functions that instruct the speakers whether to identify the participants and if so how to identify the participants in the propositions. The book demonstrates that bare nouns, pronouns, demonstratives, and determiners, coding on the verb (‘agreement’), have different functions in different languages. The book offers explanations for these differences. The book draws some implications of the reference systems for the theory and methodology of semantic analysis, for linguistic typology, and for syntactic theories.
Unconventional Law for Unconventional Ships? The Role of Informal Law in the International Maritime Organization’s Quest to Regulate Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships
Authors: Petrig Anna 
Published: January 2023

AbstractNew technologies have regularly triggered the creation of new rules, or the amendment of existing rules, by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). Maritime Autonomous Surface Ships (MASS) are not novel in this respect. All the same, MASS stand out from previous technological innovations in various respects, and their regulation poses exceptional challenges both in terms of the content of rules and also as regards the regulatory techniques to be deployed. This chapter enquires into what role unconventional law could play in the IMO’s quest to regulate these unconventional ships. It contemplates the possible future regulation of MASS by examining the post-law function of informal law in interpreting treaties, as well as the pre- and para-law functions where informal law paves the way for, or even replaces, treaties.
Formal and Informal Lawmaking by the International Seabed Authority
Authors: Davenport Tara 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThe International Seabed Authority (ISA) was one of the three institutions established under the LOSC to administer the seabed, ocean floor, and minerals found beyond the limits of national jurisdiction (the Area). The ISA was given extensive lawmaking powers, and employs a variety of instruments to regulate activities in the Area. These consist, primarily, of regulations and recommendations, with the latest draft exploitation regulations envisaging the adoption of standards and guidelines, as well as regional environmental management plans. This chapter analyses the key instruments and mechanisms used by the ISA to develop a governance regime for the deep seabed, including its development process, the actors involved, the addressees of these lawmaking efforts, and its binding effects. It will attempt to answer the question of whether the ISA engages in informal lawmaking at all, and why it may be inclined to do so in the governance of the common heritage of humankind.
The Significance of Informal Lawmaking in International Fisheries Law
Authors: Scanlon Zoe 
Published: January 2023

AbstractAlthough a substantial body of formal international law exists within the international fisheries sector, many informal legal instruments have also been developed. These include various international plans of action, UN–FAO voluntary guidelines, and UN General Assembly resolutions. This chapter examines the development processes, and substance, of these informal instruments. It considers their function in a sector where formal law is regularly developed at the regional level; legal instruments are often technical, detailed, and regionally specific; technology, science, and circumstances change frequently; and the legal framework must be flexible enough to adapt rapidly. It examines their contribution to the development of international law in this area, including customary international law, and the development of globally agreed minimum standards that may be incorporated into instruments at regional or domestic levels. It considers whether, and how, these informal instruments influence the interpretation of well-established treaty law in this area.
The Role of Informal Lawmaking in Facilitating Marine Technology Transfer and Data Sharing
Authors: Techera Erika 
Published: January 2023

AbstractNew marine technologies are being developed at an increasingly rapid pace. While the use of these technologies for beneficial purposes should be maximized, any potential environmental risks that they pose must be managed to safeguard ocean health. To achieve this balance, the LOSC provides a solid foundation of obligations with respect to the use, development, and transfer of marine technologies, but it is does not provide all the detail needed to make those obligations operational. Informal law plays a critical role in supplementing hard law frameworks and broadening stakeholder engagement beyond state actors. Yet, it is not a panacea for legal gaps and challenges: informal law can lack legitimacy and be weakened by its unenforceability. This chapter explores and analyses the LOSC provisions and subsequent developments, with a focus on informal law that facilitates the transfer of marine technologies and cooperative sharing of data, particularly in the context of fisheries.
Informal Lawmaking and the Future of the Law of the Sea
Authors: Hey Ellen 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter identifies different ways in which informal instruments matter in the law of the sea. The analysis suggests that how informal and formal instruments interact, and how informal instruments matter, depends on context. The discussion distinguishes between the legal infrastructure (or jurisdictional framework) of the law of the sea, and the regulation of human activity. The former involves lawmaking processes in which decisions are taken regarding the competences of states and other actors to regulate human activities. The analysis illustrates that the inter relationship between the global South and global North plays an important role in this context. The latter concerns the regulation of human activity through inter-state cooperation, as well as private standard setting. The chapter suggests that lawmaking for the purposes of regulating human activities might best be conceptualized as the development of global administrative law. It also suggests that understanding how informal instruments matter is important for furthering good ocean governance.
Brightening the skies
Authors: Crawford Ian A. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
In his book, Dark Skies: Space Expansionism, Planetary Geopolitics, and the Ends of Humanity (Oxford University Press, 2020), Daniel Deudney argues that the expansion of humanity into space will pose unacceptable existential risks for our civilization and, perhaps, our species. Of particular concern are risks of civilization-destroying interplanetary conflict and the rise of totalitarian forms of government, both on Earth and in space. This chapter argues that these risks, although deserving to be taken seriously, may be mitigated by appropriate institutional developments. Near-term possibilities include strengthening the United Nations to give that body greater responsibility for human activities in outer space, and/or the creation of a dedicated World Space Agency. Ultimately, the logic points towards stronger forms of planetary and interplanetary governance organized according to federal principles.
Justice in space
Authors: Schwartz James S. J. 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter argues that the demanding nature of space environments (their hostility to human life; their lack of breathable air and consumable water) create a substantive obligation on the part of any space society to provide its citizens with guaranteed access to life support. Borrowing from Shue’s (1996) defence of subsistence rights, which calls for the protection of basic rights against ‘standard threats’, the chapter argues that space societies will be obliged to protect a right to life support (or to provide ‘life support security’). The ‘standard threats’ to life support security can be diminished significantly by refraining from pursuing space settlement projects that are likely to generate conditions of life support insecurity. It is within our power to determine the material conditions during the founding and early development of space societies. In response to the criticism that providing guaranteed access to life support in space would be hopelessly utopian or idealistic, the chapter argues that there are few known constraints on the developmental pathways of space societies. It is not known, and it cannot be assumed as an uncontroversial truth, that, whenever space societies are founded, it will not be feasible for them to provide guaranteed access to life support. Further, pessimism about human motivation also fails to provide a compelling objection to the requirement of guaranteed access to life support, because human motivation is subject to change on the timescales needed to plan and instigate space settlements.
Welcoming disability as necessary in space travel
Authors: Wells-Jensen Sheri 
Published: January 2023

AbstractAs more and more people venture into space, two very basic things have been demonstrated: space is a profoundly dangerous environment, and the work undertaken there is profoundly important. Humankind may, in fact, need space to save the species, and so a great deal of effort has been placed on protecting the health and safety of astronauts. Unfortunately, accidents and injuries are inevitable. Accepting this reality, space vessels and equipment must be designed so that astronauts who are disabled can not only survive but also successfully complete their mission. Once this is done, and space environments are made accessible, restrictions that prevent currently disabled people from being astronauts in the first place can be lifted. This will widen the pool of potential astronauts, permitting the recruitment of the best people for these jobs, regardless of their disability.
Nonideal Social Ontology
Authors: Burman Åsa 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter characterizes nonideal social ontology, including a special branch of nonideal social ontology called emancipatory social ontology, by showing what influential accounts of nonideal social ontology have in common and how these features differ from the standard model of ideal social ontology. Ásta’s conferralism, Johan Brännmark’s theory of nonideal institutions, Sally Haslanger’s analyses of gender and race, and Katharine Jenkins’ work on ontic oppression are discussed as examples of nonideal social ontology. More specifically, it is argued that nonideal social ontology can overcome some of the major limitations of ideal social ontology, such as an overemphasis of collective intentionality and too little attention to oppression. More generally, characterizing nonideal social ontology is vital for understanding the paradigm shift from ideal to nonideal social ontology that is currently underway in contemporary social ontology.
Critique of Nonideal Social Ontology
Authors: Burman Åsa 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter identifies two shortcomings of nonideal social ontology: first, that economic class, despite being a key nonideal social phenomenon, is hidden from view; and second, that the concept of social power is underdeveloped. More specifically, by drawing attention to economic class, it argues that a central claim of Ásta’s conferralist framework—that it can account for all social properties of individuals—is false. It then discusses a crucial implication of this objection; conferralism cannot meet its own conditions of adequacy, such as providing a theory that helps to understand oppression, thus making conferralism too narrow to fulfill its intended role. It is shown that the same objection applies to Brännmark’s theory of nonideal institutions. Although nonideal social ontologists have offered a clearer conception of deontic power that can be used in analyzing central social phenomena, definitions of other forms of social power remain lacking.
Telic Power
Authors: Burman Åsa 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter introduces a newly identified form of power: telic power. While deontic power is a key concept in social ontology, it is too narrow to capture a central dimension of the social world that is exemplified by certain aspects of gender and class. The chapter introduces and defines the previously overlooked concept of telic power, offering two justifications for this new concept. First, it captures a distinct and central dimension of the social world that has previously been neglected due to the one-sided use of examples and a consequent emphasis on deontic power. Second, it is theoretically useful because, among other things, telic power can both conflict with and reinforce our deontic powers. Consequently, this chapter offers a pluralistic account of social power—the power view—that consists of telic power and deontic power, among others.
Other People
Authors: Setiya Kieran 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter argues for the role of personal acquaintance in both love and concern for individuals as such. We cannot love those we know only by schematic description, and recent treatments of contractualism, aggregation, and the trolley problem, by Johann Frick and Caspar Hare, rely on forms of concern for others that personal acquaintance makes rational but mere description does not. The challenge is to say what personal acquaintance is and why it matters in the way it does. This challenge is addressed through the work of Emmanuel Levinas, who dwells on the moral significance of the face-to-face relation. It is because we relate to them in this way that other human beings make distinctive claims on us. An ethics of personal acquaintance adapted from Levinas sheds light not only on beneficence and love but on the basis of human values and the value of human life.
Method, Concepts, and Bottom-Up Research
Authors: Perez Nahshon 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
This chapter presents the strategies of inquiry and define the basic concepts used. It begins (section 1.1) by defining the “entanglement” of religion and government in the current study. In Worldly Politics and Divine Institutions, “entanglement” denotes cases in which the government is directly involved in religious affairs and institutions in their religious functions and capacities, that is, with religions as such. Next (section 1.2), the chapter presents data to demonstrate how widespread the entanglement of religion and state is in democratic countries. Then (section 1.3) it discusses the study’s casuistic methodology, typified by a careful description of single cases, which are then used to build categories, rules, and other theoretical constructs. Section 1.4 notes that case studies should be followed with an evaluation of both the cases and their concomitant categories, resulting in “layered contextualism.” Finally, section 1.5 discusses the logic of the case selection.
Entanglement of Faith and Government
Authors: Perez Nahshon 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
In the fourth chapter, the aim is to elucidate general lessons regarding the entanglement of religion and government. It begins (section 4.1) by considering the governmental task of choosing which religion(s) to support. This task is examined via two models of choice—“tradition” and “even-handed.” The chapter turns (section 4.2) to examine the kind of information assembling that a government must conduct in order to select and support religions, and the difficulties involved in the centralized provision of religious goods are noted. It continues (section 4.3) by examining the matrix of support that governments may enact for supporting multiple religions. Two versions of this support are discussed: the “end result” and the “procedural.” The chapter then (section 4.4) examines the policy of designing a hegemonic status for a religion in a democracy. Finally, it turns (section 4.5) to examine what is missed when entanglement policies are enacted—the benefits of the free markets of religions.
Conclusion
Authors: Perez Nahshon 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Five central observations encapsulate the most important findings of this research. Hence, the conclusion is divided into five subsections. In section C.1, the rationale for the casuistic method used in the current study is presented. Section C.2 discusses the complex, hybrid nature of many entangled religion-state institutions. Section C.3 examines the first category of entanglement discussed in this monograph—discrimination conducted by religious associations that are funded by the government—and explores the complexity of institutional solutions that attempt to avoid such discrimination while preserving freedom of religion and association. Section C.4 explores the second category of religion-state entanglement considered in this monograph, the governmental endorsement of religious symbols in public spaces (often the result of majoritarian support). Finally, section C.5 evaluates entangled religion-state systems vis-à-vis their main competitor, the separation model.
Offensive, 1955–1958
Authors: Zeiler Thomas W. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
By 1955, protectionism had roared back to life, despite the Randall Commission’s recommendations, a Republican president in the free-trade camp, the return of the low-tariff Democrats to the majority on Capitol Hill, and hope that the Cold War might end under new leadership in Moscow. The Soviets under their new premier, Nikita Khrushchev, issued a stiff economic and propaganda challenge to the West, and that made trade liberalization even more urgent for Dwight Eisenhower, including two difficult renewals of the Reciprocal Trade Agreements Act, a controversial fourth round of GATT negotiations, and a rocky try at formalizing a new international trade body, the Organization for Trade Cooperation. Hovering over these trade issues was the Soviet economic offensive across the globe, a communist response to American containment. Moscow tested capitalist peace internationalism and Washington responded, rebooting Cold War tensions and ideological rivalry.
Competition, 1959–1963
Authors: Zeiler Thomas W. 
Published: January 2023

Abstract
Anti-communism remained the context for trade policy, but ironically, capitalist peace strategy seemed secondary to tussles with friends. In this new era, competitive threats emerged from within the Free World alliance that rivaled those from outside of it. These challenges included the inherently discriminatory European Economic Community that threatened to shut out American exports, a fact displayed at the Dillon Round of GATT, when it was obvious that the United States lacked sufficient tariff bargaining authority. The Kennedy administration also dealt with a steadily worsening balance-of-payments deficit that might compel America to cut its defense expenditures in Europe and that might be partially remedied by trade expansion. As a result of these pressures, Kennedy guided a landmark trade bill, the Trade Expansion Act, through Congress, and its dynamic tariff-cutting authority promised large-scale liberalization at the next round of GATT.
Chance of a Lifetime: Giza
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter 
Published: January 2023

AbstractAt Naga ed-Deir four Middle Kingdom administrative papyri turned up in a tomb; these later became known as Papyrus Reisner I–IV, but sat in Berlin for many years with conservator Hugo Ibscher, before reaching the United States. Meanwhile, the Giza Pyramids site was opened for scientific excavation and divided among American (Reisner), German (Steindorff), and Italian (Schiaparelli) expeditions. The American Expedition later “inherited” the Italian concession, and eventually excavated two-thirds of the Giza Necropolis. The Reisners return to Göttingen, where Mary Reisner gives birth on September 8, 1903, to her only child, also named Mary. The “Hearst Camp” at the Pyramids becomes Reisner’s archaeological command center as his Giza excavation strategy develops in the Western Cemetery.
Virtual and Actual Homecomings
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter opens with the production of the world’s first live NBC radio broadcast from the Pyramids in February 1938. Next, MFA director Harold Edgell visited the expedition in early 1938, enjoying a trip upriver to Quft, the workmen’s hometown. Young University of Chicago PhD candidate Francis “Frank” Allen joined the staff officially, as Reisner tried unsuccessfully to rescue Ludwig Borchardt and his wife from the clutches of Nazism. He had better luck with Georg Steindorff’s emigration to America. Harold Edgell finally succeeded in convincing Harvard to grant Reisner an honorary degree, which now fell on his fiftieth anniversary at Harvard, June 1939. Reluctant to accept at first, he made the voyage home with his family to Boston for the ceremony, staying with MFA president Ned Holmes and his wife Mary, and commencing to write his memoir.
Endgame: Transforming The HU–MFA Expedition
Authors: Der Manuelian Peter 
Published: January 2023

AbstractThis chapter documents life at Harvard Camp during war time and after Reisner’s death. Evelyn Perkins, Frank Allen (often in absentia due to war work), Mohamed Said, and Mahmud Said kept the expedition running, although morale was often low and Rommel was threatening Egypt from the west. Uncertainty about the expedition, the resulting publication, and most importantly the future employment of the men loomed everywhere. Gradually, Perkins, with much assistance, found new jobs for most of the men, many of whom had known no other employment, Disappointment with Frank Allen’s inability to focus on the expedition led to tension. Reisner’s Giza Necropolis volume 1 finally appeared in 1946, after war’s end, the same year that Dows Dunham, William Stevenson Smith, and Jack Cooney from the Brooklyn Museum travelled to Egypt to decide the expedition’s fate. Facing a new spirit of Egyptian nationalism, they packed up, sent to the Cairo Museum or buried remaining finds, assessed the road to completing the Giza publication, and contacted the Egyptian antiquities authorities. Dunham, Cooney, and others made a reconnaissance trip through the Sudan. Crates were shipped to Boston, Harvard Camp was “sold” back to the Egyptian government, and the expedition officially shut down in 1947. However, talks over some kind of ongoing American archaeological presence resulted in the creation of the American Research Center in Egypt (May 14, 1948, in Boston), symbolically built on the foundations of Harvard Camp.